PoS(NIC XI)066 http://pos.sissa.it/ ess, the nature of this system, the ome of the thermonuclear explosion narios that were rejected at a given llenging the classical scenario forces ion continue to be a mystery despite ons, have experienced during the last e Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Licence. ∗ [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Speaker. years. Furthermore, the discovery of new eventsthe that exploration are of cha new issuesmoment. or, at least, to reconsider sce process of ignition itself and thethe development important of improvements that the both, explos theory and observati There is a wide consensus that Type Ia supernovaeof are a the outc carbon–oxygen white dwarf in a binary system. Neverthel ∗ Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creativ c

11th Symposium on Nuclei in the19-23 Cosmos July 2010 Heidelberg, Germany. Jordi Isern Eduardo Bravo Department of Nuclear Physics (UPC)/IEEC E-mail: Alina Hirschmann Institute for Space Sciences (CSIC-IEEC) E-mail: Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory Institute for Space Sciences (CSIC-IEEC) E-mail: PoS(NIC XI)066 Jordi Isern caused by avitational nes, the 66%, erg, while the by a very low Ia occur in all f energy causes ct these are the nces appear. On n the other hand 49 teep decline after at can last several lates with the star ompt and delayed cessary. This is a m, and iron. Their 10 xperience a sudden eneity displayed by f all the events. To istic secondary peak ∼ –hole [1] or from the mass in a close binary sity and on the velocity at they collapse [5] and ibits Fe III lines before cterized by the absence ments can produce very r in galaxies with recent rnovae are characterized e the following different and the flame is laminar 70 days. From the point peculiar supernovae. The rgy. 000 km/s, and turns out to 3 , o not have a definite length ∼ 10 se of the extreme flammability g/cm − 9 10 000 , × 5 5 . ∼ 5 . The kinetic energy of supernovae can be ∼ exp ⊙ v L 10 2 10 , in 20 days or less, followed by a sudden decline of ∼ mag 19 ∼− > B M < erg. Such amount of energy can only be obtained in two ways, from the gr 51 in 30 days and an exponential tail with a characteristic time 10 Despite their remarkable homogeneity, when observed in detail some differe From the spectroscopic point of view, Type Ia supernovae are chara In both cases, the presence of a relativistic degenerate stellar core is ne Supernovae are characterized by a sudden rise of their luminosity, by a s mag ∼ 3 one hand there is athe maximum. group with The very prototype bright isthere and SN1991T is and very a represent broad group 9% peakin with of that the all very exh the dim infrared. events. andthese O narrow The categories peaks prototype it has that is been lack SN1991bg recentlyprototype of added is and a SN2002cx the they and new character one they represent represent thatby the the contains a 4% 21% very high of o the ionization total. spectralluminosity These and features supe the in lack the of secondary premaximum, maximum, like like the the 91bg 91T class. class, The remaining and o of view of thegalaxy galaxies types hosting in contrast supernovae, with it allstar the was formation other immediately activity. supernova types realized that It thatformation only is appea rate SN interesting [6], to indicating noticeexplosions. that here that the All the progenitors these SNIa mustthe rate arguments be thermonuclear corre immediately explosion able of led to a produce tosystem, CO an pr the white idea dwarf conclusion that near was that thethis strongly SNIa Chandrasekhar kind supported of were by supernovae the [7, spectrophotometric 8]. homog of hydrogen and thecharacteristics presence that of define a the prominent class).rise Si to From II maximum the line of photometric light, at point maximum view light they (in e fa ∼ they can collapse to a neutronFe star cores [4]. always ONe collapse cores because ignite of at their such inability densities to th release nuclear ene consequence of the fact thatscale, such which cores means are that only thelarge weakly injection variations or bound of the and the removal d radius of ofmain relatively the small compositions: star. amounts helium, Stellar o degenerate carbon coresthermonuclear plus may explosion oxygen, hav or oxygen, gravitational neon collapse and withindifferent astronomical different magnesiu environ phenomena. He-cores alwaysof explode the becau fuel. CO cores canof explode the or collapse burning depending front on [3]. the ignition den If the density is larger than collapse of an electronthermonuclear degenerate incineration of core a to carbon–oxygen degenerate form core a [2]. neutron star or a black be estimated from the expansion velocity of the ejecta, luminosity at maximum can be as high as maximum light that lasts severalyears. weeks, followed The by total an electromagnetic exponential output, decline obtained th from the light curve, is Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory 1. Introduction PoS(NIC XI)066 6 tar 10 × 2 ourselves Jordi Isern ∼ c ρ t curves with utcome of the O white dwarf detonation of a te mass elements graphy of super- –luminosity rela- size, position and entified [16]. The , the burning front the thermonuclear erties of the white formed by a white n and oxygen). ase the spectrum is the cobalt lines [10] ich systems explode, ly. In one dimension density, ese models have been (normal or degenerate in which the front starts rameters, it is necessary be limited to layers with ered yet. Since the prob- Co [11, 12]. These obser- variables, classical novae, : pure deflagration [13] in 56 le degenerate scenarios) and d on the detonation of a CO . However, even the normal ones are 3 Branch–normal . Consequently, several models combining subsonic and super- 8,000–30,000 km/s) indicating that thermonuclear burning was ]. The main difference with the one dimensional models is that 3 ? ∼ g/cm 7 10 ]. ? ∼ ; pulsating delayed detonation [15] in which the flame starts subsonically, the s 3 g/cm 7 10 The first systems identified as potential supernova progenitor were those There is a wide consensus that the progenitors have to be composed by a C Despite the substantial advances of the last years, basic questions like wh The spectroscopic observations at different epochs allow to obtain a tomo × dwarf that accretes hydrogen [17]. Thererecurrent are novae, many symbiotic of stars them: and cataclysmic supersoft X–ray sources. plus a close enough companioninstability, and able several to evolutionary provide paths leading thesystems to able mass to the necessary explode instability can to be have classified trigger beenstars, according id also to known the as nature SD of or the single donor the degenerate composition secnarios of and the DD or accreted doub matter (hydrogen, helium or a mixture of carbo why they explode and how theylem explode have of not the been explosion satisfactorily itself answ isto analyzed the in questions detail of by which F. Röpke aretionship. in the this progenitors volume, and we which will is limit the origin of the width 2. Progenitors expands, contracts and detonates.white Finally, dwarf a with different a category massfreshly base accreted smaller He than layer. the With the Chandrasekhar’sgeneralized increase mass to of three induced the dimensions by computation [ power, the all th novae. At maximum light, the spectrum isthat characterized move by at the high lines of velocities intermedia ( v the number of parameters describingthe the initial initial conditions parameters increases are noticeab dwarf. the radius In at three which dimensionsvelocity the it distribution runaway is of starts the also spots and necessary thatexplosions the to will strongly include prop depends induce on the the the ignition number initial ofto and conditions the carefully described the star. compute by the these Since evolution pa the of o the white dwarf prior the explosion. not complete in thedominated outer by layers iron [8]. peak elements Ongave [9]. support the This to the contrary, fact idea together during that with the the the tail nebular is decrease powered ph of by the disintegration of not completely homogeneous and showdifferent different decline luminosities rates [ at maximum and ligh to 5 Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory have a normal behavior and are known as sonic burning fronts have appearedwhich in the the front literature. propagates The subsonically all basicsubsonically time; ones and delayed are turns detonation out [14], into a detonation when the flame reaches a critical vations indicated that, in order toshould propagate avoid subsonically the as total a incineration deflagration, ofdensities while the smaller detonations outer than should layers PoS(NIC XI)066 osed by Jordi Isern ution of the 24, 25]. The dwarf. If the pe stages and ction between hite dwarf [29] two episodes of inds able to hide ing of two white nt favors the DD ]. The impact is from reaching the C/O white dwarfs. s white dwarfs hot is high enough, the iods after filling the the companion by the wever, such events not ome from supersoft X– , but white dwarfs with SNIa. Thus, only white flashes or steady burning it and if the separation of stems able to merge in a ⊙ rates able to produce suc- ccretion rate is roughly in t events in the Milky Way ovae in M31 or the Milky hydrogen burns steadily or m lies on the observational h the Chandrasekhar’s mass ite dwarf is massive enough, 7 [19]. In the case of elliptical − 35 M 2 . n advanced [21]. Minor possible 1 10 10 > × /yr and the entropy of the infalling − 5 ⊙ WD 10 ≤ M /yr, the accreted matter becomes degen- M ) ⊙ ∼ 6 yr, as symbiotic stars with a white dwarf − yr M 6 / 9 10 ⊙ 10 − × M > ( 7 4 . , 10 H 2 8 ˙ M − ≥ ≤ 10 , the helium layer explodes under degenerate conditions ˙ 8 9 M ∼ − − 10 × 5 ≤ ) yr / ⊙ M ( H ˙ M ≤ while current surveys have only detected 9 3 − 10 ∼ If the accretion rate is smaller than During the merging process the secondary is destroyed in few orbital per One of the problems posed by the SD scenario is that to avoid the constraint imp Close enough binaries formed by two intermediate mass stars can experience A possible way out of this problem could consist on the formation of heavy w matter is neglected, the white dwarf ignites off center and becomes an ONeMg w Roche lobe and formsnot a able thick to and inducethe hot a disk accretion prompt and disk ignition the [28] around whiteaccretion and the dwarf rate and the primary is the outcome spherically [27 rate depends symmetric, at on which the mass intera is transfered to the white Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory erate and experiences a strongonly flash expel that all can be the identifiedcritical accreted with mass. mass a but The nova. also accreted Ho mass erode can the only white be dwarf retained preventing if it common envelope evolution and form aThe double emission degenerate of system gravitational made waves of induces two aboth further white reduction dwarfs of is the orb notmain too large advantages they of eventually the merge DD inshort scenario time, less although are than their that a mass Hubble there is smallerpersistent time are than component [ several the of critical known SNIa mass, sy in and that galaxydwarfs the clusters [26] time is distrib only compatible with the merg such initial masses are made ofdwarfs oxygen that and have neon and experienced cannotat a explode such previous as rates. a accretion For episode intermediate can rates reac 10 and can trigger the explosion of all the star [18]. through mild flashes producing heliumfreshly that formed accumulates. helium is If converted the into carbon accretionand and the rate oxygen white through dwarf can weak approach tothe the range Chandrasekhar 10 mass. But if the a the nuclear burning white dwarf, as wellcessively as symbiotic to stars, consider supersoft variable accretion X–rayrecurrent sources novae. and, In when any case, the plausible wh evolutionaryobjections paths could have come bee from the nonexplosion detection and of the the non–detection hydrogen of stripped the from [22, surviving 23] star in the case of recen burning hydrogen at theproperties surface. of these It high is rate accreting therefore sources clear [20]. that the proble galaxies the problem seems worst.scenario but, At to the become first athis glance DD means it the that seems system that they must will this evolve through argume appear two for common some envelo time, novae, the accretion rates haveand initially potentially to detectable proceed as at X–ray a sources.ray high If sources, rate it the and is number assumed this necessary that make toWay all sustain is SNIa the c estimated rate of supern PoS(NIC XI)066 ly, ccreted Jordi Isern He that is pe induces 4 ature is not ss accretion provided by is relatively e off–center haracteristics ne is a double the process of and the ejected the average. If r He–layer [37]. under degenerate ⊙ sional models in- maintain the indi- ies, the process of Ni and onor, in such a way velope, opening the 56 volves a mass of the har’s mass [18]. a natural outcome of nalysis of SN2003fg 3M rmonuclear explosion f . time scale for neutrino lk of supernovae. The 1 ce of the case. of the emission of gravi- dary is a non–degenerate xtremely simple as show ly way known to push the n of the outer layer, these ∼ tations are possible. ions with a single parameter, 5 that produces a dim SN Ia [38]. Possible counterparts of such ⊙ /yr [30]. It is obvious that the coupling between the disk and the ⊙ M 5 − 10 , 6 − in order to account for the spectrum at maximum, which implies that the exploding , or even smaller if the sample is restricted to the "Branch–normals". Fortunate 10 ⊙ mag × 5 . 5 1M 1 . 2 ≤ ∼ ∼ Type Ia are approximate standard candles since their dispersion at maximum There are two scenarios in which a white dwarf can directly accrete helium. O Sub–Chandrasekhar models are not the favorites to account for the bu A possible issue to the problem posed by the explosion/collapse dilemma could be small, events are SN2002Bk [39] and SN2005E [40], although other interpre 3. The width–luminosity relationship not observed [35]. However, ifexplosions it could was nearly possible reproduce to the neglect grossthe the features initial contributio of mass SN of Ia the explos formation white of dwarf the [36]. mantle In iswith this spherical quite sense symmetry, it complex at is a and constant important farpossibility rate to from to and realize trigger with the the that the detonation simple same of description entropy theAnother as white of fact dwarf the matter without to en incinerating a be the taken oute intomerging is account not is catastrophic that and in the accretion realthat rate systems helium evolves like is with AM the burned mass CVn in of binar order a the or series d slightly of smaller than flashes 0.1 that M end with a "last–flash" that in degenerate with a secondary made oftational helium waves, that the merge other as is a a consequence singlehelium degenerate star scenario in and which the the mass secon dicate transfer that is powered helium by can the igniteconditions. helium just The burning. above high One the flammability dimen of base heliumthe of together formation the of with a the freshly detonation low accreted that density incinerates mantle of of the all the envelope and the envelo triggers accretor the despite the the fact that its mass isreason smaller than is the that Chandrasek they predict the existence of a very fast moving layer made o rotating white dwarf is[33] a suggests critical that issue this [31, typethe 32]. standard Ia analysis supernova is Furthermore, is valid, the about the recent 2.2 mass of times a nickel more synthesized luminous should than be the case of merging of twoviduality white of dwarf their of cores the for same some mass.of time subluminous In and this SNIa the case [34]. final both outcome Of stars is course, an the explosion problem with is the the c statistical relevan Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory that eventually collapses to a neutronthe star [5]. 3D Probably models. this approachignition is Calculations can e indicate be avoided that if areached the at following rotating the conditions interface hot are when the corona fulfilled:cooling quasi–static forms is i) equilibrium shorter is the and than reached, ignition the ii) that time temper the scalerate th for is angular momentum dissipation, and iii) the ma mass object should have a mass larger than the Chandrasekhar mass and the on mass of a degenerate structurethe beyond merging the of two critical white mass dwarfs is [31]. through rotation, PoS(NIC XI)066 Ni mag M 1 7000 . ∼ , synthe- roded by precision e density, Jordi Isern fusion ap- ship. This Ni , as well as distribution f the atomic evolution of M Ni [50], however uite tight way elements [46]. ring the explo- M rors only [43]. um component . Differences in ce to disentangle erent photometric nd distribution of dows to the use of the light curve just mall values of Fe is width-luminosity ] and the dispersion nickel, lue of ences in the diffusion nd produces a steeper irements of ed to less than 0 57 es larger than hape the WLR depend istribution of stable iron → d increase the emissivity ly than bright supernovae. s like a blackbody and the Arnett’s law [51]. In the SNIa case the Co Ne abundance, on the initial NIa, that are very bright and Ni 57 22 M → , this parameter alone cannot ac- Ni Ni M 57 and Fe , converting SN Ia in true standard candles. It 56 mag 6 → 15 . 0 7000 K, Fe III recombine, the FeII/CoII lines become Co ∼ ∼ 56 → Ni 56 demand a higher precision as well as the certitude that the accuracy is not e Certainly, the most important quantity is the amount of nickel synthesized and its It has been shown [44, 45] that the WLR is not primarily caused by differ The detection of the gamma–ray emission of radioactive elements produced du Although the Phillips relationship is closely related to metallicity of the white dwarfthe [47, role 48, of 49]. these parametersis Therefore, to specially it understand urgent is the since of limits theapparently critical of discovery do of validity importan not the of follow super–Chandrasekhar the the S WLR. Phillips relation the amount of radioactive material,velocity in and the chemical distribution composition within profilesthe the translate radioactive ejecta into lines as the as well intensity as well and in as temporal th into the importance and extension of the continu K, the FeII/CoII lines are absentbehavior or of weak, the the color optical and continuum the behave spectrum is almost independent of the mass of count for the WLRstable and iron, other radioactive factors nickel like andto the intermediate produce mass total this elements mass must relationship burned, combine [45,on the in 46]. the amount a evolution q of a However, some the whiteSNIa of as dwarf the as prior factors high to precision that the distance s explosiondepend indicators. and on For project the instance, some density the sha mass at and which d the ignition starts and, through the time of photons but by evolutionarybands. changes in They the have opacity/emissivity shown at thatat the longer the diff wavelengths, FeII/CoII thus lines reducing blanket the the flux B–band in an the B–band. At temperatur dominant radioactive chains are cosmology sion provides an independent and effective method to determine evolutionary effects at large distances. sized. When the temperature goes below stronger and modify the behavior of the photometric bands. Since models with s have smaller luminosities and temperatures, this effectB–band appears light more curve. rapidly a The result is that dim supernovae decline more rapid the mass of inert iron,The by problems accurately come modelling from the the emissionparameters. complexity lines of of the the NLTE models iron and peak the uncertainties o within the explosion debris. A first estimation can be obtained from the its precision is limited byproximation. the The assumption nebular phase of also spherical provides the symmetry opportunity and to obtain the the use va of the dif but it is nowThis clear relationship that has proved it to is be larger extremely than useful up the to value now, expected but the from requ photometric er was believed that the dispersion of the calibrated magnitudes could be reduc Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory there is a correlation between the brightnessafter at this maximum maximum and [41] the that decline rate allowsrelationship of to (WLR) reduce was the definitively dispersion established of fromof brightness. CCD the measurements Th light [42 curves was reduced to values PoS(NIC XI)066 e 1 MeV. Jordi Isern ∼ one. At this nce of events tive elements se of the 847 n of the spectrum. ans that current e hypothesis in- of explosions in topes [54]. f the detector by aightforward and lly determined by tar formation rate derstanding of the to achieve this goal Co–line reaches its sible scenarios, like malous events and a es are broad, of the e process of ignition simulations in three e ejecta are optically 53, 54, 55, 56]. The 56 ined for a statistically of strongly interacting 8 Mpc, which reduces Taking the W7 models ∼ of new concepts as could ere unable to fit the obser- , value that is far form the 1 − asic questions: which systems keV 1 − s 2 in the extremely underluminous cases − ⊙ cm 7 Co. An early detection of these lines could − 56 10 7 ∼ Ni in the debris. The 847 keV 56 Ni–lines peak very early, near the maximum of light, and because of depends on the supernova subtype. Roughly speaking it goes from mor 56 Ni M in the overluminous cases to a mere 0.08 M ⊙ Co line. As a consequence of the noise, this fact reduces the sensitivity o 56 Concerning the progenitors, two important points are the discovery of ano During the last years there has been a substantial advancement in our un The content of The 158, 812 keV The main difficulty lies in the lack of sensitivity of current detectors in the regio preliminary determination of the delay timethat distribution in deviate galaxy from clusters. the The astonishing existe the homogeneity Sub–Chandrasekhar of ones, SNIa that allows were to initiallyvations. recover rejected This plau because fact they provides w the opportunitybinary to systems obtain insight that on contain the one behavior the or clusters two of white galaxies, together dwarfs.strongly with The the suggests temporal correlation that distribution of the thedimensions SNIa SDs of rate and the with DDs behavior the of s scenariostroduced the in can merged one coexist. dimensional white models dwarfs could Numerical indicatesand be should that critical be in some revised. order of to th understand th origin and properties of Type Ia supernovae.explode, Nevertheless, the why most they b explode and how they explode still remain unanswered. [46]. Therefore, this measurementrelevant will sample. be A useful simple examination only of init the the supernova is catalogs case necessary indicates to it that be isas able obta to representative, detect this supernovae implies up a to a sensitivity distance of of 50 Mpc. Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory of the spectrum. This informationfreshly allows synthesized to but obtain also not somemost only insight important the advantage on mass of the of this explosion method thethat mechanism is radioac the [52, that opacities the are calculations better are known in relatively the str gamma–ray domain than in other parts of than 1 M performance of the current daybe detectors the and case demands of the the development Laue lens. 4. Conclusions a factor 3 to 4detectors as only compared allow with the the measurement sensitivity of of Ni/Co the lines narrow up lines to [54]. a distance This of me provide information about the location of the possibility of observing SNIa to a few fortuitous cases. maximum intensity roughly two months after the explosionmoment, and the it debris is have the expanded so most prominent much thatthe the total intensity mass of of the line the is radioactivethin essentia isotopes. and the Four intensity months of after the the lines explosion, is th proportional to theThis total mass lack of of the parent sensitivity iso isorder of worsened 3 by to the 5 factkeV %. that the For instance SNIa the radioactive W7 lin model predicts a width of 35 keV in the ca absorption, they are much weaker than those of PoS(NIC XI)066 245 (L19) Jordi Isern Can. J. , 367 istical . Probably the (183) 1990 28 arxiV 1006.461 PhD Thesis ApJ ss and star d during the explo- , , by the ESF EURO- , in Spernovae as ernovae A&A (114) 1991 ARAA , Search rnovae 245 y the 2009SGR315 of the center detonation (565) 1960 (623) 1969 132 157 (309) 1997 Evidence for Ni-56 yields Co-56 yields s and the accretion induced collapse of , ApJ 35 ApJ , Berlin Springer Verlag (151) 1985 , , ARAA Co would be the best issue. 8 , (522) 1938 Nucleosynthesis in supernova shock waves 56 (L89) 1994 88 Type I supernovae as standard candles 426 ApJ , Ni and ApJ (868) 2006 56 , Carbon deflagration supernovae, an alternative to carbon 648 Lecture Notes in Physics The origin of neutron stars in binary systatems (984) 1999 Coulomb corrections to the equation of state of nuclear stat Early supernova luminosity Nucleosynthesis in Supernovae Conditions for accretion–induced collapse of white dwarfs 307 , (L37) 1976 (780) 1982 39 Rates and properties of Type Ia supernovae as a function of ma Nucleosynthesis in delayed detonation models of Type Ia sup Optical spectra of supernovae Delayed detonation models for Tye Ia supernovae A&A 257 MNRAS –ray emission from , Nearby supernova rates from the LickObservatory Supernova γ Late time optical spectra from the Ni-56 model for Type I supe Accreting white dwarf models for Type I supernovae. II–Off– On collapsed neutron stars (2315) 1967 45 equilibrium matter: implications for SNIa nucleosynthesi white dwarfs formation in host galaxies ApJ 1991 Phys. 2010 detonation Ap&SS distance indicators, vol. 24 of University of California Santa Cruz 1980 Fe-56 decay in Type Ia supernovae (L25) 1991b supernovae ApJ This work has been supported by the MICINN grant AYA08-1839/ESP, Finally, given the prominent role played by the amount of nickel synthesize [1] F. Zwicky, [4] E. Bravo, D. García–Senz, [5] K. Nomoto, Y. Kondo, [7] R. Cadonau, G.A. Tamman, A. Sandage, [2] F. Hoyle, W.A. Fowler, [6] M. Sullivan et al., [3] R. Canal, J. Isern, J. Labay, [9] W. Li et al., [8] A.V. Filippenko, sion, this quantity should bedetection independently of determined the with a more robust method Acknowledgments Type Ia Supernova: Observations and Theory CORES Program EuroGENESIS (MICINNGeneralitat grant de EUI2009-04170), Catalunya and b EU-FEDER funds. References [13] S. A. Colgate, C. 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