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Mire and Peat Macros 2315 PLANT MACROFOSSIL METHODS AND STUDIES/Mire and Peat Macros 2315 demography, and paleoenviromment on the colorado plateau. Methodologies commonly used to pretreat samples American Antiguity 50, 537–554. are described, in addition to the paleoecological indi- Douglass, A. E. (1935). Dating Pueblo Bonito and other ruins in cator value of a wide selection of botanical/zoologi- the southwest. National Geographic Society Contributed Technical Papers, Pueblo Bonito Series No. 1. Washington. cal macrofossils. Applications of mire and peat Douglass, A. E. (1941). Crossdating in dendrochronology. Journal macrofossil analyses in Holocene environmental of Forestry 39(10), 825–831. reconstructions are reviewed briefly. These include Fritts, H. C. (1976). Tree-Rings and Climate. Academic Press, paleoclimate reconstructions, peatland carbon accu- London. mulation rate studies, and the nature of successional Fritts, H. C. (1991). Reconstructing Large-Scale Climatic Patterns from Tree-Ring Data. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. processes in peatlands. Haury, E. W. (1935). Tree-rings–the archaeologist’s time piece. American Antiquity 1, 98–108. Nash, S. E. (1998). Time for collaboration: A.E. Douglass, archael- Introduction ogists, and the development of tree-ring dating in the American Southwest. Journal of the Southwest 40, 261–305. The potential scope of ‘mire and peat macrofossils’ is Nash, S. E. (1999). Time, Trees, and Prehistory: Tree-Ring Dating enormous given both the substantial range of plant and the Development of North American Archaeology. macrofossils preserved in peat sequences and the University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. ca. 400 million hectare global extent of peat deposits Parks, J. A., and Dean, J. S. (1990). Tree-ring dating of Balcony House: a chronological architectural, and social interpretation. (Barber and Charman, 2003). Peat is defined as accu- In Balcony House: A History of a cliff Dwelling, Mesa Verde mulated sediment which contains at least 30% dry National Park, Colorado (K. Fiero, Ed.), pp. 91–104. Mesa Verde mass of dead organic material, and mires as peat- Museum Association, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado. lands where peat is currently being formed. We there- Salzer, M. W. (2000). Dendroclimatology of the San Francisco fore restrict our attention in this chapter to Holocene Peaks Region of Northern Arizona. PhD Dissertation, Geosciences Department, University of Arizona, Tucson. northwest European raised peat bog (ombrotrophic) Stokes, M. A., and Smiley, T. L. (1968). An Introduction to Tree- and fen (minerotrophic peatland) deposits (see Ring Dating. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Wheeler and Proctor, 2000, for a detailed review of Stuiver, M. (1978). Radiocarbon timescale tested against magnetic peatland terminology), where we have our greatest and other dating methods. Nature 273, 271–274. expertise and experience. In this chapter we discuss Towner, R. H. (1997). The Dendrochronology of the Navajo Pueblitos of Dine´tah. PhD Dissertation, Department of how mire and peat macrofossil analyses have been Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson. University used to investigate Quaternary environmental Microfilms, Ann Arbor. change, and the methodologies used to prepare and Towner, R. H. (2003). Defending the Dine´tah. University of Utah analyze the samples. A review of the paleoecological Press, Salt Lake City. indicator value and identification notes of a represen- Towner, R. H., and Dean, J. S. (1992). LA 2298: The oldest Pueblito revisited. Kiva 59, 315–331. tative selection of mire and peat plant macrofossils Van West, C. R. (1994). Modeling prehistoric agricultural produc- forms a major part of this chapter. We include a tivity in southwestern Colorado: A GIS approach. Reports of series of photographic figures as an aid to macrofossil Investigations No. 67. Department of Anthropology. Pullman: identifications. It is certainly not a comprehensive Washington State University. selection, but serves to extend and complement the Webb, G. S. (1983). Tree-rings and Telescopes: The Scientific Career of A.E. Douglass. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. identification keys and photographs/illustrations cur- Windies, T. C., and Ford, D. (1996). The Chaco Wood Project: the rently available. The figures will not only be of value chronometric reappraisal of puoblo Bonito. American to paleoecological analyses of mire and peat macro- Antiquity 61(2), 295–310. fossils in northwest Europe. Some of the species we describe here have also been recovered from peat- lands in southern Que´bec, Canada (Pellerin and Lavoie, 2003); the Western Great Lakes Region, Mire and Peat Macros USA (Booth et al., 2004); Tierra del Fuego, D Mauquoy, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK Argentina (Mauquoy et al., 2004a); and the East- B Van Geel, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Amsterdam, European Russian Arctic (Va¨liranta et al., 2003). The Netherlands ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Applications Environmental change reconstructions based on mire A range of mire and peat macrofossils which can be and peat macrofossils analyses are limited, in that full found in northwest European peat bog (ombro- plant assemblages cannot be reconstructed and trophic) and fen (minerotrophic peatland) deposits directly compared with detailed neophytosociologi- are illustrated in an extensive series of figures. cal studies. This problem occurs due to the selective 2316 PLANT MACROFOSSIL METHODS AND STUDIES/Mire and Peat Macros nature of vegetation decomposition in peatlands, pinpoint the best samples possible (above-ground since even decay resistant Sphagnum mosses have macrofossils, preferably free of fungal contamina- different decomposition rates (Johnson and tion) for 14C-dating peat sequences in order to create Damman, 1991). Due to the potential for differential accurate and precise chronologies (Mauquoy et al., preservation and representation of the bog vegeta- 2004b). tion, successional and/or paleoclimate reconstruc- tions produced from subfossil assemblages need to be interpreted cautiously. Furthermore it is not Methods always possible to identify Sphagnum spp. to the lowest taxonomic level, particularly where their Analyses of plant macrofossils in peat deposits stem leaves are absent. Cyperaceous (sedge and requires samples of ca. 5 cm3, and these can be recov- allies) remains are also difficult to identify consis- ered using a 7 or 9 cm diameter ‘Russian’ pattern tently, since in many instances seeds and diagnostic corer, a Wardenaar peat sampler (to a maximum epidermal tissues are simply not present. depth of 1 m), or where peat sections are exposed, Subfossil plant macrofossils preserved in peat sam- 50 (100) Â 15 Â 10 cm metal boxes can be used. ples have been used to reconstruct Holocene raised Analyses of the field stratigraphy of the peat bog peat bog vegetation succession at microform scales (Barber et al., 1998) is highly desirable prior to tak- (analyses of a single borehole to reconstruct vegeta- ing the master core that will be subjected to detailed tion changes in hummock/hollow microform com- paleoecological analyses. This can be undertaken plexes see van Geel, 1978; van der Molen, 1988; using a 5 cm diameter ‘Russian’ pattern corer (either McMullen et al., 2004) and mesoform scales (trans- 50 or 100 cm length). When sampling a ‘living’ peat ects of boreholes analyzed across single raised peat bog, care should be taken to avoid compression of bogs see Svensson, 1988; Barber et al., 1998; Hughes the surface layers of the peat deposits. Before sub- et al., 2000). The aim of much of this research on sampling, 5 mm of peat from the core should be ombrotrophic (rain-fed) peat bog stratigraphy has trimmed to avoid contamination and only clean been paleoclimate reconstructions, since changes in instruments used to avoid the introduction of ‘mod- bog surface wetness recorded by plant macrofossils ern’ carbon and/or contamination with older or are highly likely to represent changes in precipitation younger macro/microfossils. and temperature (Barber and Charman, 2003; Barber Plant macrofossil samples should be gently boiled et al., 2004). The macrofossil data produced from with 5% KOH (deflocculation to dissolve humic and this research is equally valuable in peatland carbon fulvic acids) and disaggregated. When sieving (on a accumulation rate studies (Oldfield et al., 1997) and 125 or 150 mm sieve) the plant remains must be kept the identification of successional processes in peat- just under the water surface (to avoid too much lands, for example the nature and timing of the fen– damage of delicate subfossils, for example, bog transition (Hughes and Barber, 2004). Applied Sphagnum stems with their stem leaves still paleoecological research using plant macrofossil data attached). Stem leaves can be very important for has provided long-term baseline data for the origin Sphagnum identification, because they can help con- and nature of vegetation changes, which can be used siderably in identification to species level. to guide conservation management in environmen- Macrofossils retained on the sieve are then trans- tally sensitive areas (Chambers et al., 1999). The ferred to a petridish and only enough distilled water nature and timing of recent human disturbance to should be added to float the remains, which are ombrotrophic bogs, for example burning and drai- scanned using a low power (Â10–50) stereozoom nage, has also been assessed (Pellerin and Lavoie, microscope. Moss leaves, cyperaceous epidermal tis- 2003).
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