Penelope's Loyalty and Patience by Sumana Gupta

Why Wait for Twenty Years? Penelope’s Loyalty and Patience

By Sumana Gupta

Acknowledgements

To Penelope, the character who deserved the world, but got Odysseus

Thank you once again to Doctor Walsh for your endless guidance 2

Penelope’s Loyalty and Patience

When considering the journey of the Odyssey, one would be remiss if they did not discuss the role of Penelope within the epic. Penelope is unique, for her stalwart loyalty to her husband was her defining characteristic, a coveted trait for women in antiquity. Why, however, is she motivated to wait twenty years? Penelope’s motivations are intrinsically connected to her loyalty to Odysseus. Her loyalty is displayed by her capability to survive on her own in the absence of Odysseus, her complex motivations to protect Telemachus, and out of genuine love and loyalty to her husband. This paper will explore the possibility that Penelope benefits from waiting, and a part of her heroic arc is that she is able to remain loyal, not only for Odysseus and Telemachus but for the sake of her kleos. The word ‘heroic’ may seem out of place for Penelope, but the virtues that she exhibits throughout the Odyssey cast her in a similar light to Odysseus, where she is not his subordinate, but his equal, as we will demonstrate in Penelope’s analysis. Penelope in the Odyssey is a female character who was more than capable of surviving on her own. This is shown through a description of Penelope retrieving a key in 21.6: ‘She climbed the high stairway to her chamber, and took the bent key in her strong hand – a goodly key of bronze, and on it was a handle of ivory.’1 Homer often uses the phrase ‘strong hand’ to describe warriors, or scenes involving warfare, and Penelope’s description of having a ‘strong hand’ is the only instance that it is used to depict a mortal woman.2 Scholars have interpreted this unique description as Penelope unlocking a door like a Homeric warrior attacking an enemy.3 The key is her weapon, and in this metaphor, she has heroic virtues akin to her husband.4 Penelope further resembles Odysseus as the phrase that describes Penelope inserting the key is similar to an archer shooting a bow, foreshadowing the fruits of Penelope’s archery con- test: ‘hereon had he also fitted door-posts, and set on them bright doors—straightway she quickly loosed the thong from the handle and thrust in the key, and with sure aim shot back the bolts. And as a bull bellows when grazing in a meadow, even so bellowed the fair doors, smitten by the key…’5

1 Daniel Turkeltaub, "Penelope’s ‘Stout Hand’ and Odyssean Humour," The Journal of Hellenic Studies 134 (2014): 103; Penelope’s Fat Hand Reconsidered, 10, Homer describing Penelope as having a ‘strong hand’ is an anomaly among Homeric female descriptions

2 Duane W. Roller, Letitia K. Roller, “Penelope’s Thick Hand (“Odyssey” 21.6),” The Classical Journal 90, no. 1(1994): 11; Athanassios Vergados, "Penelope's Fat Hand Reconsidered (Odyssey 21, 6)," Wiener Studien 122 (2009): 13.

3 Turkeltaub, (2014): 109.

4 Turkeltaub, (2014): 109; Vergados (2009): 13.

5 Emily Katz Anhalt, "A Bull for Poseidon: The Bull′s Bellow in Odyssey 21.46–50," The Clas- sical Quarterly 47, no. 1 (1997): 18; Od. 21.42. 3

The bull simile described above is the next important indication of Penelope’s heroic virtue. Turkeltaub has interpreted this comparison to be a bull charging out of a locked room.6 The verb, ἀνέβραχε, ‘clashed’, used in this simile often describes instances of warfare in Homeric literature.7 Such instances include the clashing of armour, or a horse falling dead when it had been struck by a spear.8 Despite Penelope never involving herself in such a situation, the general fatal- ity that this simile communicates lends to the idea that Penelope herself is a bull.9 However, Turkeltaub emphasizes that this simile is a form of Odyssean humour that serves to elevate the mundane in supernatural situations.10 Descriptions of an ivory handle are mundane and superfi- cial embellishments that devalue the supernatural element in Penelope’s comparison to a bull.11 Unlike the river Scamander which roars ‘like a bull’12, Penelope expresses no such reaction, and thus reduces her comparison to a bull as one that does not display any glorious power, but one that simply grazes.13 A peaceful perception of Penelope matches how Odyssean humour is meant to elevate the mundane in any situation. The idea of Penelope being peaceful, but still a powerful entity in her own right reinforces the idea of Penelope exhibiting power in the domestic sphere, as it is where the contemporary gender-roles are prescribed that she exercised her power. This pronounces her as a model female character and emphasizes her capability as a wife without Odysseus. Even though the previous point was focused on a comparison of Penelope to a peaceful bull, we should not only understand her power as being isolated to the domestic sphere, for Homer does not restrict her to this, as can be seen through his comparison of Penelope to a lion, and the suitors to a bull. When she is with the suitors, she is as a lion being encircled by her enemies: ‘And even as a lion is seized with fear and broods amid a throng of men, when they draw their crafty ring about him, so was she pondering when sweet sleep came upon her.’14 The sub- dued and fearful nature of the lion shows the power of Penelope’s enemies, while also showing

6 Turkeltaub, (2014): 109; Vergados, (2009): 15.

7 Anhalt, (1997): 17; Vergados, (2009): 15; Od. 21.48.

8 Anhalt, (1997): 17.

9 Turkeltaub, (2014): 110.

10 Turkeltaub, (2014): 104.

11 Turkeltaub, (2014): 109 ! look at footnote 50

12 Il. 21.237.

13 Turkeltaub, (2014): 110.

14 Od. 4.787-94. 4 her own inherent power.15 Even a predator as fierce as the lion can feel closed in, and the suitors surrounding Penelope while she weaves perfectly illustrates this comparison. If Penelope is the predator, the fierce lion, then the suitors represent the prey, a bull about to be consumed by the lion. The sound of the doors creaking open resembles the roar of a bull: ‘as a bull bellows when grazing in a meadow, even so bellowed the fair doors.’16 The roar of the bull is the cry and protest of the suitors that are resisting their impending fate, being that of bulls killed by the lion for encroaching on its territory.17 Even though the Odyssey refers to Odysseus as the lion, it is Penelope’s equality to Odysseus that allows for the perception that she could be one as well.18 Through the use of the animal simile and language relating to a warfare setting, it is demonstrated that Penelope was capable of surviving in the absence of her husband. Penelope’s capability of survival is further seen through her most commendable skill: weaving. Weaving was a coveted skill in the domestic sphere, a skill that Penelope aptly wields. There are many theories as to what weaving means to Penelope, but I contend that she utilizes it as an metaphorical weapon to defend the household and furthermore the kingdom of Ithaca.19 Penelope tricks the suitors by telling them that she will decide which one to marry once she fin- ishes weaving a funeral shroud for her father-in-law, Laertes.20 The trick in delaying the suitors is how she unravels the shroud each night, allowing her to never complete the shroud and never having to marry any of the suitors.21 Penelope weaving and unweaving a shroud for her father in law is symbolic of her commitment to Odysseus, as each day and night when she weaves and

15 Michelle M. Kundmueller, "On the Importance of Penelope," Polity 50, no. 1 (2018): 51; Heitman interprets that that Homer is describing her power to be a protective nature over Telemachus (36). Richard Heitman, Taking her seriously: Penelope & the plot of Homer's Odyssey, (University of Michigan Press, 2005), 36.

16 Od. 21.42.

17 Anhalt, (1997): 19.

18 Anhalt, (1997): 19.

19 Kundmueller, (2018): 45; Maria C. Pantelia, "Spinning and Weaving: Ideas of Domestic Order in Homer," The American Journal of Philology 114, no. 4 (1993): 497; Mueller (2007) 348-9 theorizes that weaving is a ‘physical expression of remembering’, where the physical act of weaving enables her to keep Odysseus’ memory alive. This is another form where Penelope’s weapon of weaving is manifested, as her weaving while she thinks of Odysseus’ presence is a constant reminder to hold on to hope that her husband will return.

20 Od. 2.99-2.103.

21 Od. 19.137. 5 unravels, she is burying but then reviving her commitment to him.22 The weaving is what allows her to remain loyal to Odysseus despite the pressure to remarry from the suitors.23 This, however, brings forth the question of why she entertains the possibility of marrying the suitors in the first place. Her simultaneous encouragement and denial of the suitors is her cunning trick, and just one in the many ways that illustrate how she is a match to Odysseus.24 Penelope’s loyalty to Odysseus is unquestionable, but everyone else believed him to be dead, rendering her public commitment to Odysseus null, and increasing the social pressure for her to remarry with each year that Odysseus does not return.25 Thus, Penelope needed to entertain the suitors to protect Odysseus and his interests. The stasis of neither confirming nor denying any of the suitors allows Penelope to hold the position of his wife, and be in control of his properties.26 In other words, Penelope is stalling the suitors, but it allows her to hold her power and position as queen of Ithaca. It is important to emphasize that this control is not necessarily political, as Telemachus tells us that there has not been an assembly since Odysseus’ departure.27 Therefore, Penelope exercises her powers both in and out of the domestic sphere, albeit it is inside this domestic sphere that her powers are predominately used.28 Penelope’s trick of the loom and enter- taining the suitors is a form of physical defense, keeping her safe in Ithaca, and implicitly pro- moting Odysseus’ interests while he is abroad. Her lack of a concrete answer to the suitors, but her continual interest in each suitor ensures that they are kept busy, and distracted enough to not revolt and resort to violence.29 This all points to the intelligence of Penelope, and the thoughtful way she employs her skills to protect the interests of herself and her husband. The need to protect her son, Telemachus, is another reason why Penelope waits. The Odyssey opens with Telemachus and Penelope, and the relationship between the two of them is strained. To investigate the specifics of how and why Penelope protected her son, we must ex-

22 Pura Nieto Hernández, "PENELOPE'S ABSENT SONG," Phoenix 62, no. 1/2 (2008): 49.

23 Steven Lowenstam, "The Shroud of Laertes and Penelope's Guile," The Classical Journal 95, no. 4 (2000): 338; Rachel H. Lesser, "The Pandareids and Pandora: Defining Penelope's Subjec- tivity in the Odyssey," Helios 44, no. 2 (2017): 110.

24 Patricia Marquardt, "Penelope "Polutropos"." The American Journal of Philology 106, no. 1 (1985): 36.

25 Marquardt, (1985): 36.

26 Marquardt, (1985): 35; Helene P. Foley, "Reverse similes" and Sex Roles in the Odyssey," Arethusa 11, no. 1/2 (1978): 8; Luca Tateo, "The journey of learning," Mind, Culture, and Activi- ty 26, no. 4 (2019): 378-9.

27 Od. 2.26.

28 Kundmueller, (2018): 45.

29 Vlahos, John B. "Homer's "Odyssey": Penelope and The Case for Early Recognition." College Literature 38, no. 2 (2011): 14. 6 plore Telemachus in isolation. Telemachus needs something that Penelope cannot provide: a father. Telemachus at the beginning of the Odyssey is struggling with his identity, most evident when he remarks that he is unsure if he is the son of Odysseus to Athena: ‘My mother says that I am his child; but I know not …’30 Athena, in the disguise of an old friend of Odysseus, visits Telemachus to push him to claim authority and to banish the suitors from his father’s estate.31 Athena’s push inspired Telemachus to show his authority, which he did by yelling at Penelope when she lamented at Phemius’ song of the Trojan war: ‘My mother, why dost thou begrudges the good minstrel … Nay, go to thy chamber, and busy thyself with thine own tasks, the loom and the distaff, and bid thy handmaids ply their tasks; but speech shall be for men, for all, but most of all for me; since mine is the authority in the house.’32 Telemachus’ reproach of his mother is jarring, but his reasons for doing this can be found within the male gender roles of ancient Greek society.33 He is attempting to fulfill his role as the man of the house and claim his inheritance, as pointed out in the last line of the quote: ‘since mine is the authority in the house.’34 This interaction shows how tense the relationship between the two has become, and it derives from a place of misunderstanding: Telemachus does not understand why Penelope is pursuing the suitors, and Penelope is failing, or refusing, to grasp that her son is growing up.35 This friction between mother and son is shown by how Telemachus commanded her with the word, muthos which denotes the type of speech that men of power and authority used: ‘But go back into the house, and take up your own work, the loom and the distaff, and bid your handmaidens to ply their work also; but speech (muthos) will be a concern for...’36 Penelope cannot use this type of speech, and Telemachus being inspired and pushed by Athena is grasping for authority that he had never taken before, thus explaining the tension between the two.

30 Od. 1.215.

31 Odyssey 2.270-72; A. Gottesman. "The Authority of Telemachus." Classical Antiquity33, no. 1 (2014): 41;

32 Odyssey, 1.325; Matthew Clark, "Was Telemachus Rude to His Mother? "Odyssey" 1.356-59." Classical Philology 96, no. 4 (2001): 335; David E. Belmont, "Athena and Telemachus," The Classical Journal 65, no. 3 (1969): 110.

33 Clark, (2001): 335.

34 Scholars such as Clarke and West find Telemachus to be a brazen adolescent whose recklessly attempts to take charge after Athena’s guidance, see Clarke, (1963): 131 and West, (1990): 120; Clark, (2001): 338.

35 Mikhail, (1916): 10 theorizes that Penelope is purposefully refusing to acknowledge Telemachus’ growth, as that would lead to him replacing Odysseus; Marquardt, (1985): 39; C. M. H. Millar, and J. W. S. Carmichael. "The Growth of Telemachus." Greece & Rome 1, no. 2 (1954): 63.

36 Clark, (2001): 339. 7

He also struggles with claiming his authority in trying to be a leader, specifically in attempting to control the suitors. In book 2, he assembles the suitors for a meeting, and he is praised by Ithacan elder, Aegyptius, for convening a meeting, as they had not had one since Odysseus left Ithaca.37 In the meeting, Telemachus reproaches the suitors for taking over his father’s land and inappropriately courting his mother.38 The suitors note the change in Telemachus, as before he was passive, but now he is attempting to act as the man of the house and take control of what is his, but this does not stop the suitors from treating him as anything more than a boy.39 Scholars often contrast Penelope’s loyalties to Odysseus against protecting Telemachus, for it is due to the threat of the suitors murdering Telemachus that she gives in to marrying one of the suitors. This, however, can be seen as another way of being loyal to Odysseus, as Telemachus represents his father’s legacy. This is concretely represented by how Telemachus abstracts his glory, his kleos, from his father’s past deeds.40 Telemachus’ kleos is important to Penelope because it would consolidate Telemachus’ justification to assume the throne of Ithaca. Telemachus’ ascension shows Penelope’s success as a parent, but this cannot occur without Telemachus having proper kleos, which of course cannot occur without Odysseus’ return. No one except the gods can confirm whether Odysseus is alive or dead, and thus Telemachus cannot inherit kleos.41 This status was essential for Homeric heroes, and Telemachus not being able to grasp it explains his confused identity.42 Other than being his son, he does not have the final ingredient, kleos, to validate his authority and power. This is partly why the suitors do not take Telemachus’ orders seriously. They have no reason to listen to him, for he has nothing to validate having his father’s name and kleos. Under the disguise of an old friend from his father, Athena inspires him to live up to the legacy of Odysseus and encourages him to live up the great things that his father did.43 She then takes Telemachus around the Peloponnese where he gains adoration and the confirma- tion of his kleos, as this honour involves not only what you do, but what people say about you.44

37 Od. 2.26.

38 Od. 1.374, 2.139.

39 Millar and Carmichael, (1954): 60.

40 Peter V. Jones, "The Kleos of Telemachus: Odyssey 1.95." The American Journal of Philology 109, no. 4 (1988): 500; For more information about kleos, see Marilyn A. Katz, Pene- lope’s Renown: Meaning and Indeterminacy in the Odyssey, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Universi- ty Press, 1991).

41 Jones, (1988): 499.

42 Jones, (1988): 499.

43 Millar and Carmichael, (1954): 59; Belmont, (1969): 110; Clarke, (1963): 129.

44 Jones, (1988): 500; Charles Segal, "Kleos And Its Ironies in The Odyssey," L'Antiquité Clas- sique 52 (1983): 22. 8

On their journey, old comrades of Odysseus such as Nestor, Menelaus, and Helen comment on the similarity between father and son, confirming that Telemachus is the son of Odysseus and worthy of the kleos that Odysseus had obtained.45 With Athena’s aid, the recognition of Telemachus’ patrilineal identity is what he needed to build up his kleos. Wise Penelope understood this traditional inheritance of Telemachus’ kleos, and it is a reason for why she waits. A child is a parent’s legacy, and Penelope cares for Telemachus, as shown when she wails at his hypothetical death at the hand of the suitors.46 Penelope was unaware of why her son left, as she was not privy to Athena’s plan. She had also been protecting Telemachus for twenty years, so with the knowledge available to her, she knew that waiting for Odysseus to return so that her son could traditionally inherit kleos was her son’s best chance in life. Penelope’s desire to better Odysseus as the leader of Ithaca informs her desire to protect Telemachus. How would Odysseus reclaim his power in Ithaca, when other suitors have asserted their authority in his own estate? Power cannot return to a figure that the people of Ithaca, and further the suitors, are not familiar with but they are familiar to an extent with Telemachus.47 The suitors listen to Telemachus, but they are not enticed, nor do they respect his leadership.48 That is why the establishment of his kleos is essential to the suitors listening to Telemachus. Once the kleos has been established, Telemachus and Odysseus have to work together to expel the suitors.49 Odysseus would not be able to do this by himself, as he does not have the authority in the eyes of the suitors. He is not even recognized when he is washed up on the shores of Ithaca, as he had ceased to be the man that was worthy of ‘Odysseus’’ kleos.50 Telemachus, however, does, as it is only by working together can Telemachus, a recognized authority figure, transfer his power to Odysseus where he can properly dispense his authority in dealing with the suitors.51 This is a cornerstone for Penelope’s patience: Telemachus’ appraisal of kleos is indicative of his growth from boy to man, and his attainment of a leadership role ensures that the role of ruling Ithaca is still within the Odyssean family, allowing for the transfer of power to be given rightful- ly to Odysseus. The final reason for Penelope’s patience is the most obvious: out of loyalty to her husband. Penelope is hailed in antiquity for being a good wife, and it is a defining characteristic of her character. She waits for Odysseus for twenty years, and at every moment, his well-being is in

45 Jones, (1988): 500-01; Katz (1991), 65; Sheila Murnaghan, Disguise and Recognition in the Odyssey (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 35.

46 Od.4.715.

47 Gottesman, (2014): 37

48 Gottesman, (2014): 37.

49 Jones, (1988): 37; Murnaghan (1988), 36.

50 Jeffery Stern, "No Place Like Home," International Journal of Psychoanalytic Self Psycholo- gy 10, no. 4 (2015): 394.

51 Jones, (1988): 37. 9 her thoughts. Her first line in the epic is how she tells Phemius to stop singing his song, for it reminds her of Odysseus: ‘cease from this woeful song whichever harrows the heart in my breast.’52 Her intense devotion to Odysseus encapsulates how she can better him as a man and hero. To better him as a man, Penelope’s nurturing of the home informs us that Odysseus had a thriving private life, an uncommon occurrence for the Greek heroes, and was only enabled by Penelope’s virtues.53 A private life is commonly viewed as being a weakness for men, but Pene- lope’s nurturing of the home makes Odysseus’ life stronger, as the fulfilled life is not accomplished unless it is enjoyed and experienced fully in every aspect.54 While away, despite Odysseus’ multiple dalliances with other women, he was always motivated to return to his Pene- lope. When he was on Calypso’s island, he could have lived a blissful, immortal life with her, but the pleasure and happiness he felt with Penelope ensured his return.55 Their suitability for one another is displayed by their simultaneous exhibition of intelligence and cunning, which fashions them into an image of human excellence which encapsulates both male and female ideals.56 In other words, Penelope and Odysseus are the perfect match. Penelope’s loyalty and intelligence are her kleos, a kleos that identifies her as equal with Odysseus.57 This equality is best demonstrated by how the functionality of their kleos is co-dependent on one another.58 Penelope stated to the stranger disguised as Odysseus that her kleos would increase upon her husband’s return: “If he might but come, and watch over this life of mine, greater would be my fame and fairer.”59 One might think that this communicates Pene- lope’s feelings of love and longing for Odysseus, however, if you frame it in the context of Pene- lope’s kleos, it communicates that Odysseus’ return restores and elevates her kleos, meaning that Penelope needs Odysseus to socially better herself. Likewise, Odysseus needs Penelope. With Calypso, Odysseus could have lived forever, but it is not his body that needs to last forever, it is his name.60 With Odysseus’ heroics at Troy, he had gained a reputation, but it is his nostos, or his story of the Odyssey that cements his kleos. Just like Odysseus’ kleos is connected to his nostos,

52 Od. 1.325.

53 Kundmueller, (2018): 47.

54 A counter to this theory is how wives can distract heroes from their ambitions, as told by Athena when she warns Odysseus upon his return to Ithaca. (Od. 4.264-289), see Murnaghan (2011): 120; Kundmueller, (2018): 47; Hannah Ardent, The Human Condition, (University of Chicago Press, 2013), 49.

55 Stern, (2015): 393; Segal (1983): 30.

56 Kundmueller, (2018): 46; Murnaghan (2011): 121-22.

57 Katz, (1991), 21.

58 Kundmueller, (2018): 46.

59 Lowenstam, (2000): 336; Od. 19.129.

60 Stern, (2015): 393. 10 it is also connected to Penelope’s kleos. This interdependency of their kleos ensures that when Penelope gains her kleos, it is also in support of Odysseus, thus allowing his name to live on per- petually.61 Their very survival depends on Penelope’s active utilization of her individual strengths.62 If Penelope remarries, the estate would belong to Penelope’s current husband, and Odysseus would no longer have a home to return to. Thus, Penelope’s strengths are preserving and maintaining the home without which Odysseus cannot have a genuine nostos.63 Odysseus’ kleos is gained by a successful nostos, and Odysseus cannot claim this without Penelope preserving the home.64 The reason for Penelope’s patience is understood in how her preservation of the home preserves their mutual kleos. This preservation of the home can also be seen as Penelope’s power, which she wields to the benefit of Odysseus. In this context, Odysseus is a lucky man who did not have a wife who used her position and power to disenfranchise her husband, so he and Penelope act as a foil to the likes of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. Agamemnon praises Penelope in comparison to Clytemnestra, where her loyalty is com- pared to Clytemnestra’s brazenness.65 Despite the stark contrast between these two characters, they have more in common than meets the eye if we look at their power in the domestic sphere. Penelope’s loyalty to Odysseus is what keeps him in power, for the whole point of the suitor’s courtship of Penelope was their attainment of Odysseus’ estate. If Penelope were to marry one of the suitors, Odysseus’ property would transfer to them. This potential dynamic between wife and an absent husband is demonstrated by Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. Clytemnestra remarries Aegisthus after Agamemnon’s death, allowing her to retain her power as the matriarch of Agamemnon’s kingdom.66 Thus Penelope, as the wife of Odysseus has the power to doom him. Further, Agamemnon condemns Clytemnestra’s actions, saying that she has not only spoiled herself but all other women.67 While this seemingly devalues Agamemnon’s earlier praise of Pene- lope, it reinforces her position in which she can doom Odysseus. Agamemnon warns Odysseus of this potential situation, and that Penelope, as a woman, is capable of wielding this power against her husband.68 This is why Penelope should be commended as a wife because, without her, Odysseus’ name would have remained in Troy, his nostos never being completed. Odysseus’ survival is dependent on Penelope’s fidelity. It is because of her that Odysseus has a home to return

61 Stern, (2015): 393.

62 Kundmueller, (2018): 48.

63 Katz, (1991), 23; Pantelia, (1993): 497.

64 Katz, (1991), 22; Pantelia (497) interprets Penelope’s role in Odysseus’ as a transfer of power from wife to husband.

65 Od. 11.439; 11.446.

66 Marquardt, (1985): 37; El.1.9.

67 Katz, (1991), 51; Od. 11.457.

68 Katz, (1991), 52. 11 to, and this joint survival made possible by Penelope’s strength of will makes her equal with Odysseus.69 Penelope’s loyalty to Odysseus is her most well-known trait, and the importance of this is emphasized when we discover that Penelope had the potential to doom him. A reason for why she did not betray him could be how her kleos benefits her when he returns, based on the concept of their kleos’ being interrelated. The protection of Telemachus and his fulfilment of his kleos is also why she waits, for wise Penelope understands that Odysseus returning to assist Telemachus is her son’s best chance to thrive in the heroic world. None of this could have been accomplished without her trick to stall the suitors, which she employs to survive and to secure her position as wife to Odysseus. It is for these reasons that Penelope is such a revered and special woman in antiquity. Wives in antiquity rarely held such revere, and her being held in equal regard to Odysseus makes her an oddity in antiquity, and a treasure in modernity.

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