Further Frontier Work on the - Northern Boundary Author(s): Herbert A. Edwards Reviewed work(s): Source: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 45, No. 5 (May, 1915), pp. 384-402 Published by: Wiley on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1779727 . Accessed: 28/12/2012 14:34

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meant to be a great German outpost from which, when the time came, they might have approached and isolated India. In the next place, he showed on the map that the most direct line of attack on England lay through Calais, and that although some said it was absurd of the Germans after they had failed on Paris to make their next attack on Calais, the Germans were acting on a simple geographical principle?they were taking the shortest road to London. We are also much indebted to Prof. Lyde, who always adds interest and instruction, and I may add entertainment to our evenings. By this time wc all know his views on the racial origin of the Prussian people. I regret we have not been happy enough to have Major Darwiu here to discuss how, by a better system of Eugenics, the Prussian stock may be moditied. But beneath Prof. Lyde's theory there does undoubtedly lie a fact which may give us some hope for that future to which we would fain look forward?a future of peace and good-will among men; and this fact is that the Prussian race and the German are essentially different. We may hope, there? fore, that in the future we may succeed in liberating not only Europe but also Germany from the burden of a military autocracy.

FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE ROLIVIA-BRAZIL NORTHERN BOUNDARY.* By Commander HERBEBT A. EDWARDS, R.D., R.N.R. (Retd.), F.R.G.S. In a former paper (May, 1913) I had the honour of presenting to you an account of the work that had been accomplished by the Joint Commission of Bolivia and Brazil on the northern boundary between the two countries during 1911 and 1912, and on August 6, 1913, the two Commissions met again in Manaos (river Amazon), and preparations were at once pushed forward to continue the exploration and delimitation of the frontier line of the rivers Abuna, Rapirran, and Madeira. In order to obviate the unavoidable errors in longitude inseparable from chronometric determina- tion under eircumstanees so inimieal to careful and satisfactory transport as those which confronted us, it was decided to attempt to utilize wireless telegraphic time signals from the powerful wireless station at Porto Velho. But as the position of Porto Velho itself was indefinite, our first work was to determine its longitude. For this purpose a survey party under Mr. Atkinson and Lieut. Mascarenhaes was sent forward to Porto Velho, whilst the main body of the Joint Commission camped at Point Ismail, near Manaos. By the courtesy of the Brazilian Government the wireless stations at Porto Velho and Point Ismail were placed at our disposal, and, after initial difficulties had been overcome, the position of Porto Velho was determined to be in lat. 8? 45' 33" S., long. 63? 54' 40" W. of Greenwich.f At the same time experiments were carried out by Mr. 0. C. Ohapman with a rough field set of receiving apparatus designed and made up by himself for use in the field, and on September 20, the * Royal Geographical Society, December 14, 1914. Map, p. 456. f See Appendix.

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Commission proceeded with all stores and instruments, on board one of the river steamers en route for Porto Velho. Leaving Manaos and pro- ceeding down the Rio Negro, after some hours' steaming we entered the river Madeira, one of the mighty afRuents of the river Amazon on its right bank, and steamed for nine days up this noble stream, calling at various stations on our way and passing the mouth of the "River of Doubt" (river Duvida), the source and upper courses of which have since then been brought within geographical knowledge by Col. Roosevelt and his band of adventurous pioneers. I may say that the Duvida is one of the many large tributaries of the Madeira, which are still unmapped and unexplored to their sources, though some portion of each river, from its mouth upwards, is more or less known to the local settlers and seekers after rubber, whose search for new and virgin trees never ceases and is carried into regions of the forest remote from the main routes. Unfor? tunately for geographical science, these pioneers are not equipped with even simple mapping outfit, and seldom, if ever, do they return with any sort of intelligible map or sketch of the country they pass through, or of the rivers they navigate by canoe and raft. The navigation of the river Madeira itself is open to ocean steamers as far as Porto Yelho, some 1500 miles from the ocean, during high water, and to river steamers of light draught all the year round, though great caution is necessary in following the tortuous channels of its upper course during dead low water. Porto Velho, the base of that wonderful forest railway, the Madeira Mamore, stands 2 or 3 miles below the first of the series of magnificent rapids and falls which make the river unnavi- gable above here, and is, of course, quite a considerable little town, with bungalows, engine shops and sheds, warehouses, some stores and shops, an hotel, and a wireless station in daily communication with Manaos. Here we received every kindness and assistance from the genial Dr. Kesselring, the manager of the railway, and his assistants. Our stores, instruments, launches, and canoes, etc, were landed from the steamer and transported by rail to Abuna, a station on the frontier, to which place we followed, leaving behind us at Porto Velho an observation party, under the charge of Mr. Atkinson and Lieut. Rabello Leite, with instructions to send time signals by wireless to us nightly at a specified time. Arrived at Abuna, our motor launches and canoes, fitted with motor godilles or auxiliary engines, were soon put together, our stores loaded up, and early in October a base was established at the island and falls of Fortaleza, some few miles up the Abuna river. At this point there is a break in the level of the river, the upper waters standing some 40 feet above the lower, and joining them by means of a narrow rocky channel gorge some 200 yards long, through which the water rushes with terrific speed, dashing from level to level with tremendous force and a great roaring noise which is unceasing and can be heard some distance away. The rocks are of beautiful red granite, worn smooth as velvet by the friction of the waters,

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 386 FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE and in the watercourse are huge boulders, against which the water dashes, foaming and spraying the rocks on either side. No canoe or boat of any kind can live in the falls, even at high river, and we had to unload every? thing on the lower side, and carry it up the rocky portage across to the upper waters. Then by means of a winch and wire rope, which we had provided, we hauled our launches, canoes, etc, bodily out of the water on to special rollers, dragged them up the steep incline, across the level summit of the island, and then down again into the upper pool of the Abuna. Six days were occupied on the work of transportation from the lower to the upper level, and the nights were spent in testing and improving our field wireless receiving set, which we rigged up here for the first time under service conditions. The aerial wire was stretched across the upper level from a tree to a special pole, and we were delighted to find that we were able to hear the Porto Velho signals quite distinctly. By October 14 all stores, etc, were sorted out, the launches and canoes loaded and in the water above the falls, and we were able to start on our journey up-stream. Each commission had its own launch, 30 feet long, driven by a kerosene motor engine, and also a large native canoe, to which was fitted a petrol-driven motor godille. The Bolivian Commission had also a 30-foot steel lighter, which was towed alongside the launch; and both parties had several small specially built punts and canoes towing astern. From one of these punts, which was fitted with a special compass and distance-recording log, a running survey of the river was made and adjusted afterwards between the fixed observation points obtained nightly. The river Abuna above Fortaleza was about 100 yards wide and, out? side the pools, was 10 to 15 feet deep. Very soon we had our first excitement in getting our convoy through the dangerous rapids of Tam- baqui, where the water runs like a mill race between rocks and broken stone ; but our motor launches proved equal to the occasion. The convoy was dropped below the rapids, and the launch alone steamed into the current. Our first attempt was unsuccessful, for, after breasting the stream for some time, she was carried back by the force of the waters, turned broadside on and floated back into the pool below the rapid. It appeared as if we should have to unload again and use ropes to drag everything through by hand. But our engineer opened out his engines for a second attempt, and again the little launch was put into the rapid. Inch by inch she crept ahead, with the water dashing over her bows, and men stationed on each side with long poles to keep her off the rocks if the current swept her broadside on again. There were some anxious moments, but all at once she seemed to gather way, and, shooting ahead, was safely in the upper pool. Once over, a long rope was paid out from her to the convoy below, and the barge, punts, and canoes were pulled through?though two canoes were swamped and their steersmen got a ducking in the endeavour. That night " we camped at a barracao called Primor," and had the satisfaction of receiving our time signals successfully. Proceeding next day, we soon had

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BOLIVIA-BRAZIL NORTHERN BOUNDARY. 387 evidence of the lawlessness of the scanty population in the district, for on rounding a sharp turn of the river we came across a canoe, manned by three men, towing alongside a naked corpse, in the breast of which was a hole large enough to put one's hand. It was a case of local justice or revenge. The dead man had shot the owner of one of the seringals (rubber estates) and then taken to the river in flight. The retainers of the seringeiro had pursued, captured, and shot him, and, cutting out his heart, were tow.ing him down-river again when we came across them. Day after day we steamed up the beautiful river, passing many small rapids and meeting and overcoming the usual difficulties of river naviga? tion, but making good progress daily. At the Cachuela de Barro our passage was exciting enough for any one. The rapid is formed by a fall in level of the hard clayey river-bottom, and the channel follows a circuitous " course between the salaos," as the hard clay boulders are called, and the current is so strong that no man can stand up in it without being immediately swept off his feet. We steamed our launches in singly, and then, with engines going full speed and men pushing alongside and pulling and shouting, bit by bit we got them through. Several men were swept away, but luckily all were swimmers, and except for bruises they emerged in the deep water below the rapids none the worse for their journey through the Cachuela. The small canoes were able to pass through a straight but narrow and shallow channel, and the barge was hauled through by ropes. The insects at this place were very annoying, and everybody was severely bitten by "pium" and "mangrove" fly. Next night we arrived at Argelia, a large barracao belonging to Messrs. Suarez, but before arriving we had an anxious and exciting time, as, steaming in the dark for the first time, our launch and lighter ran high and dry on a huge snag, and two of our canoes were swamped as the launch swung round broadside on to the current. It was as dark as pitch, and we could see absolutely nothing, not even the river-banks. Yet the only thing to do was to swim ashore with ropes and heave the boats off. This we did, but swimming about in the dark in waters infested cannibal fish called with alligators, perania, sting rays, etc., is not very good for the nerves. Still, our Indian henchmen did not seem to mind much after the first plunge, and we all went in the water together so as to have the safety of numbers. It took us two and a half hours to <*et our convoy off that snag, and by that time the local mosquitoes had banquetted to their heart's content at our expense; we were all cold and wet and miserable when we arrived at Argelia, where, however, Mr. Stockman, an Englishman and representative of Messrs. Suarez turned out and gave us a royal feed. Next morning our Brazilian turned had at colleagues up ; they camped dusk, preferring not to attempt the unknown navigation in the dark. At Argelia we stayed four days, and Mr. Chapman was very success- ul our f in receiving wireless time signals. We were able to carry out

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the necessary repairs to our launch and canoes and recuperate our men, who had been worked very hard and were all more or less in need of medicine, cooked food, and rest. Above Argelia the river narrowed and navigation became increasingly diflicult; often we had to axe our way through falien trees, and in many places the overgrowth from the river-banks met across stream and we had to cut our way through. Progress was comparatively slow, and Mr. Wilson and Mr. Gibbs, whilst carrying out the traverse survey from the canoe astern of the launch, had many narrow escapes from capsizing, and were frequently dragged through overgrowth and wreckage to their great discomfort; but on the 23rd we arrived at our objective, the mouth of the river Rapirran, where we unloaded stores and established our base camp on the high ground, clearing away the undergrowth and pitching our tents on a hilly ridge about \ mile below the actual river mouth. Here we prepared to stay some weeks, as we proposed to carry out our explora? tion survey of the lower Rapirran from this point, as well as clear away the trees on both sides of the river mouth so as to be able to erect the permanent boundary marks. Malarial fever and rheumatism were already rife amongst us, and, the season being well advanced, rain-storms were frequent, and forest work and exploration were carried out under difficul? ties, which increased daily. Bridges had to be built across the Rapirran, mule transport had to be organized from one of the seringals, and we were forced to send one of our launches down-river again for more barrels of cement, as we found that the permanent marks would be almost submerged at high river, and it was therefore necessary to place them in a very heavy concrete foundation. Early in November, the Brazilian commissioner and I being ill and unable to leave our tents, Mr. Wilson, Mr. Gibbs, and a party were detached and sent off to attempt an explora? tion as far as Station A, 1911, the point at which we began our survey of the upper Rapirran. They were accompanied by Mr. Chapman and our wireless equipment and party. Five days later, Captain Braz and I, with our party, proceeded up the Abuna as far as Santa Rosa, and then cut across through the forest and met Mr. Wilson at Station A. After receiving very successfully wireless signals on three nights, we all returned to the Abuna River and to our camp on the Rapirran. By this time the boundary marks had been erected, and the necessary acts of inaugura- tion were read, after which we started on our down-river journey. This was facilitated considerably by our having plotted our surveys; we therefore knew exactly where the Cachuelas, snags, and dangers were, and we were able to prepare for the dangerous places and negotiate them com- fortably instead of blundering on them haphazard as on our upward journey. But even so the passage down was never tedious ; every ten minutes had its exciting moment, and many times our little craft was threatened with disaster. One does not mind one's canoes being swamped, as usually it simply means some little delay and a wetting, but as the river had

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BOLIVIA-BRAZIL NORTHERN BOUNDARY. 389 fallen some 3 or 4 feet since our ascent, we encountered several rapids, new to us, and the dangers of snags and jagged rocks had increased tremendously. In many places tree-trunks were right across the river at the surface, and these we took at full speed, the force of impact carrying the launch right over them. Still, it was always dangerous, but we ran our risks, and by the 23rd we were back at Fortaleza. Here, of course, the launches and canoes were unloaded, and everything was transported from the upper to the lower pool. The few miles of the Abuna between Fortaleza and the mouth were then traversed and camp pitched at Manoa, the Bolivian frontier station at the junction of the Abuna and Madeira Rivers. Boundary marks were erected, and sick men were sent down to Manaos, for we were again in touch with the railway. From here all the officers of the Brazilian Commission, with the exception of Captain Braz de Aguiar and Lieut. Mascarenhaes, returned to Manaos, as they con? sidered it was not desirable or possible to do any more work that year. We had, however, decided that we would attempt to do the 40 miles of the with a view of erecting the permanent marks at Villa Bella, and thus completing the survey on behalf of Bolivia, and Captain Braz decided to remain with us for this purpose. The river stretch of the Madeira between the mouth of the Abuna and the junction of the rivers Mamore and Beni, which form it, includes several very difficult rapids, and to Mr. Wilson and his party was entrusted the exploration of the river, whilst we fixed observation points to control his survey, and erected the boundary marks, etc. Mr. Wilson and party carried out this difficult work in a most able and satisfactory manner, and the marks having been erected, the commission returned to Porto Velho on December 19, and thence to Manaos and England. The river Abuna is formed by the confluence of the rivers Xipamanu and Karamanu, which have their sources on the 1000-feet-high plateau east of Cobija, and its valley lies between the rivers Iquiry or Ituxy on the north and the Orton, Beni and Madre de Dios on the south. Its course is approximately from west to east through a dense forest region, rich in rubber trees, and its stream is fed on both sides by numerous tributaries, which drain the higher slopes of the valley. The Rio Negro or Pachaquara, the region of which is inhabited by the Indian tribe of that name, is its largest tributary, and at the confluence the two rivers are approximately of the same size. The tributaries of the southern bank are by far the more important as regards the volume of water discharged into the Abuna, and there is reason to believe that the main river course is on the northern side of the valley-plain between the adjacent water- sheds. Its river-bed differs in character from the river-beds of the more northern rivers, the Acre, Purus, etc, inasmuch as the bed and banks of the Abuna are mostly of mud and clay, whereas those of the more northern rivers are decidedly sandy, with great stretches of sandbanks, called "playas," in nearly every reach. The absence of these "playas" No. V.?May, 1915.] 2 e

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 390 FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE in the Abuna above the falls of Fortaleza was most noticeable and.may be of some geological interest. The Rio Negro, already mentioned, is, of course, so named because of the dark colour of its waters, but I was unable to perceive any difference in colour between the waters of the two rivers at their confluence. The annual rise of the Abuna usually commences about the middle or end of November, and by the end of January the waters have risen some 30 feet above low-water mark, and in many places the river overflows its banks and inundates the surrounding forest region for some miles. In March the water begins to fall gradually, but the banks are usually covered until the middle or end of April, and the extreme low-water mark " is not reached until August or September. Ripoquettes," or temporary rises, of from 2 to 12 feet, occur after local rains, but are of short duration. The general level of the region through which the Abuna flows is from 300 to 500 feet above sea-level, and is, without exception, dense forest. Traces of ironstone are every where, but actual rocks were observed only at the cachuelas, or rapids, which were always, as far as we could see, composed of igneous rocks. The formation of the rapids of the Abuna, as those of the Acre, appears to be always similar, viz. that of an outcrop from which the softer strata have been washed away on the lower side. From our camp, when at the mouth of the Rapirran, we had to send our canoes down-river for 30 miles, in order to procure stones suitable to mix in with our cement for the foundation blocks of the permanent marks. The iron-bearing strata at the mouth of the Rapirran could be crumbled in one's hands, though in the mass it appeared to be solid rock. For a distance of some 25 miles above the rapids of Tambaqui, there are practically no civilized habitations on either side of the river. It is a low-lying region, flooded more or less during high river, and its climate is said to be extremely deadly. Besides which, on the right bank of the Abuna and the region of the Rio Negro are the hunting-grounds of the Pachaquara Indians, who resent every attempt at settlement. On our return to Fortaleza, we met a small party of pioneers, who had just been driven out from the Rio Negro district, with a loss of several men killed, by an organized raid of the Pachaquaras, after an occupation of only a few months. They told us weird tales of their experiences with these Indians, but it is not wise to believe all one is told, for highly coloured stories of Indian attack and atrocity are often only attempts to cover the misdeeds of the narrators, committed in the supposed interests of the rubber industry. Somewhat naturally, the Indians, living a free and unrestrained life in their ancient domain, resent the intrusion of men whose one object is to exploit the wild rubber-trees to their own gain, and whose incursion into the remote forests with this object drives away and alarms the ground game and

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Besides the spoils the tribal hunting. whioh, Indian, tame or wild, is treated with scant ceremony by the pioneer settler, despite the excellent laws that have been enacted by both Bolivia and Brazil for his security and well-being. It is difficult or well-nigh impossible to ensure the favourable execution of these beneficent legislations in the frontier region, " where life is lived under more or less feudal conditions, where might is right," and individual retaliation for wrongs received is the recognized order of the day. Armed strife between the retainers of rival rubber estates is common enough, and raids on their neighbours, carried out by men with rifles in their hands, are of constant occurrence. One such raid came under our notice during the short time we were on the Abuna. One of our launches was held up by a party of armed men, who were on their estate. way to attack the headquarters of a neighbouring They proposed to use her to transport their force to the attack, but the officer in charge was allowed to protested strongly, and, after consideration, she reluctantly attack was proceed to her destination. I may mention that the duly delivered, and, after considerable slaughter on both sides, the depot was in the I have captured, and the victors established fchemselves seringal. " out" heard by letter since that this band of robbers has been wiped by another and stronger organization from up-river. Now as these are the methods approved and adopted between the how little the lawless pioneers themselves, one can well imagine respect at their hands. And "legal rights" of barbarous Indians would receive the Governments appear to be powerless in the matter of enforcing obedience to their will. Of course they will gradually extend their enforce law and stations, organize a force of international police, and of order, but the difficulties in the way of effective organized occupation force at their behest the region of the frontier by officials, with sufficient to compel obedience, are enormous. The Madeira-Mamore Railway a territorial south Company, the officials of which administer huge grant of the rivers Madeira and Mamore, have issued very stringent regulations Indians. And I am for the protection of their indigenous and imported the time we were glad to be able to state publicly that, during working on the frontier line near this railway, no case of hardship or illtreabment of local Indians came under our notice, although we had free access to line. In this district the Indians every camp and settlement all along the and and much attached to appeared to be well treated, happy satisfied, " and under whom or their padrones," or people for whom they worked, of native manufacture for with whom they occasionally bartered articles tinned food, ornaments, clothes, etc. Abuna and Rio Above this low-lying region of the lower Negro rubber have been established at many places on the river-bank. depdts " rubber and a few " barraeas These depdts usually consist of a store, shed, the river. or huts, erected on some high ground immediately overlooking them The barraeas are built on piles driven into the ground, and around 2 E 2

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the forest is usually totally or partially cleared by axe and fire. In these clearings some sort of agriculture is sometimes, but by no means always, carried out, and beans, sugar-cane, macaxera, maize, yams, mandioca (from which is made flour and a spirit called cachacha, which tastes something like gin), coffee, pine-apples, limes, oranges, mamao, etc, are grown. In some of the clearings cattle are to be seen, but they are bought from the drivers of the huge herds which are yearly sent from the plains of Bolivia to the region of the river Acre, and which cross the upper Abuna on their journey. Very seldom are any green vegetables cultivated, but there are several native grasses that are edible, and many of the palm trees carry edible tops, which serve as excellent salad when raw, and are not unlike a sweet cabbage when cooked. Many of the Abuna depots are in communication with the river Acre " " by way of long straight varadors or mule tracks, which have been cut " through the forest; and old Indian paths and strada," or rubber paths, leading from one rubber tree to another, along which a man, but not a loaded mule or draught animal, may pass, form an interlacing net work between the main varadors without, however, directly communicating. " Links on the varadors are formed by the centros," as they are called, which are simply large huts used as collecting and distributing centres. " And far away from the centros," remote in the depths of the forest, live isolated rubber gatherers in barracas of a very simple type, sufficient only to give some small protection from sun and rain, and the posts of which afford supports on which the sleeping-hammocks are slung. These huts are, of course, erected on piles driven into the ground. A platform or floor, made of laths of the outer skin of a species of palm tree, is fastened to the piles generally about 3 feet above the ground, though in some districts the floorings are as much as 8 to 10 feet above the level of the ground. The sides and partitions, if any, of the hut are also made fibres of of split palm wood, and the whole is roofed with the leaves and another species of palm, which is sometimes woven into a very efiicient Nails are not sort of plaited mat, affording most durable protection. used, the fastenings being of fibre or thongs cut from the skins of wild animals. Near each barraca is the rubber hut, which is simply a palm- leaf shelter, under which is constructed an underground furnace and smoke chimney. The life of a working seringeiro is a particularly hard and comfort- less one. Living alone, or with one companion, in the depths of the forest, his own fire his day commences shortly after 4 a.m., when he rises, lights of with wood gathered the night before, boils and drinks a cup coffee, shoulders his rifle, and taking his small rubber hatchet and some little tin cups, he starts out on his morning round, visiting each rubber tree in his " strada" in turn, making little incisions in their bark, and fixing.a little tin cup to catch the white sap or rubber milk that flows therefrom. After all his trees have been tapped, he returns to his hut, cooks and eats his

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mid-day meal of xarque (dried meat) and beans, and at once, if he is alone, starts out to collect the milk from each little tin cup. For this purpose he carries across his shoulders a bag made of rubber, capable of holding from three to four gallons of milk. Returning home he lights the furnace in his little rubber hut, using a special kind of fuel, which, of course, he has to prepare beforehand, pours the milk into a large pan, and slowly heats it; when it is hot enough he proceeds to smoke-dry it on to his rubber ball, which is mounted on a long pole or stick, by pouring it over the ball, which is held in the smoke of the furnace, and must be kept revolving. As the chimney discharges its smoke inside the hut, and the fumes of the simmering milk are particularly pungent, the atmosphere in which he has to work is indescribably stifling and nauseating in the extreme. By the time he has dried all his milk it is dark; he eats his supper and goes to bed. Day in, day out, this is his life, varied, only too certainly, by attacks of fever and rheumatism, and by bouts of ptomaine poisoning caused by bad food. Sanitation is of the most elementary type, and the water supply is often most unsatisfactory, hence typhoid, dysen- tery, and kindred diseases levy their toll of life. Beri-beri, too, is rife, and the short hacking cough peculiar to phthisis is very frequently heard in the little communities, and malarial fever and ague, of course, are prevalent. Without exaggeration, I think it may be said that every man, woman, and child living in the forest is subject to periodic attacks of deadly malaria, with consequent spleen enlargement and liver complaints. Occasionally the seringeiro shoots some animal or bird of some sort, and, if he be near a stream, catches an occasional fish; but these are his only fresh food. Ill-nourished, hard worked in a fever-haunted country, improperly clothed, and often wet from morning until night, it is small wonder that the mor- tality amongst the rubber workers is very high, and every little isolated barraca has its own cemetery in which one nearly always sees a newly made grave. It is difficult to describe the people who live in and around the valley of the Abuna, the type being the reverse of homogeneous. First of all there are the Indians, native to the soil. Of these the Pachaquaras appear to be the largest and most important group, but, owing to their hostility and fear of the settler, one came across only individuals, who had left the tribe, having either been captured when young or driven out for some breach of tribal law. As far as my information goes, these Indians are spread over the region on both banks of the Rio Negro, living in groups of families during part of the year, when each group carries out some little husbandry, cultivating maize and macaxera. During high river fairly large parties of them roam the country on hunting expeditions. They wear little or no clothing, paint their faces and bodies with vegetable colours, and are very expert in the use of the bow, using very long arrows, fashioned and fitted differently according to the purpose for which they are to be used, The tips of these arrows are

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 394 FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE dipped in some kind of vegetable poison, which is deadly. The refugees from the Rio Negro had with them a young Pachaquara boy of about eleven years, who had been adopted by one of their number. He was most intelligent, but wild, and spent his time roaming among the rocks of the cachuela, practising shooting with his bow. The accuracy of his aim was extraordinary; from a distance of some forty yards he dropped a blunt arrow (which I had chosen) on my foot, thus winning a packet of cigarettes, which I had promised to give him if he performed this feat. The women of the Pachaquaras wear lip, nose, and ear ornaments of yellow vegetable gums, something like amber, and are by no means ill- looking, the colour of their skin being a light brown. But the habits of the tribe, from all accounts, are filthy and disgusting in the extreme, and the Peruvian Indians, who formed part of the party of refugees, said they were able to "smell" a party of Pachaquaras from some considerable distance. Their camps, for they cannot be said to have villages, are formed of dome-shaped palm huts, in which there is a small hole which serves as entrance and egress. " " Near the Marmelios river we met a small tribe of tame Indians, " " some twenty-five in number. They lived in a maloca or group of huts two days' march from the river Abuna. They were exceedingly interested in us, and repeated every word Captain Braz said to them. As we had no interpreter we were unable to obtain any information about them, except that they were harmless and occasionally visited the depot at the mouth of the Marmelios River for purposes of barter, and we had not " sufficient time at our disposal to pay a visit to their maloca." Higher up the river we met many types of Bolivian Indian, attached to the various estates, and heard plenty of stories of Indian bands wandering in the forest at the back of the rubber estates, but our work did not take us away from the main stream, and unfortunately we did not encounter them. The working seringeiros are very largely from Ceara, but we saw types of almost every possible admixture of blood. Some overflow from the large gangs of imported labour at work during the making of the Madeira- Mamore railway found its way up the Abuna, and there is no doubt that many fugitives from justice have fled thither and eke out a precarious existence among the more legitimate settlers. Full-blooded negros from Pernambuco, Peruvians from the region of the Napo and Putumayo, Germans in charge of rubber depots, Brazilians and Bolivians of every shade of colour and political opinions, a few Chinese and Japanese, some Barbadians, may be mentioned amongst the heterogeneous collection of men who have drifted up to the frontier line of the Abuna, where every man who is strong enough is a law unto himself and a menace to his immediate neighbour. Yet to the stranger passing through they are hospitable as hospitality is understood out there ; room is always given for a traveller to sling his hammock under some sort of cover, and a cup

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BOLIVIA-BRAZIL NORTHERN BOUNDARY. 395 of coffee is always offered the wayfarer when he enters a barraca by in- vitation, and the invitation is nearly always given at once. At the depdts in the clearings around which we often camped we redeived bountiful hospitality and such assistance and information as it lay in the power of the occupants to give, and the dwellers in the humbler barraeas in the remote forest welcomed us frankly enough and helped us always, though without evincing much curiosity as to our occupation. It is a region in which one quickly learns that the best policy is to mind one's own business. In the Abuna region the anta or tapir is frequently seen on the river between the clearings, and droves of cachada (peccaries) and wild hogs (porco espin) are encountered near the streams in the early morning and late afternoon. The caititu, another species of wild pig, roam the forest in pairs, while the capivara or capabara, a huge river rat, loves to browse in the rank vegetation which springs up on the steep slopes of the river- banks during low river. Two species of deer are fairly common?the " " " viado galtera and the viado eapuera," the first being a small animal with large branching antlers, and the latter a much larger species with straight short horns. Otters (lontra) are found in the smaller streams, as well as in the main river, which also swarms with the bloodbhirsty perania, the dangerous sting ray, and a multitude of wonderful fishes of all sizes, shapes, and description. Whilst camped at the Rapirran, it was our custom to send a party of men with a fishing-net down a lagoon in connection with the river, where an hour's work with the net would result in our having two or three hundred pounds' weight of beautiful fish of all sizes. We caught several alligators (jacare or cayman) in this manner, but the Abuna, above the falls, is not as infested with the jacare as are the larger rivers north and south of it. One of the small alligators had a peculiarly split or double tail, and our Indian followers said it was called "jacare tiriri." The electric eel is common enough, both in the rocky pools of the rapids and in the river streams, and from observations of my own, I have reason to believe that this fish, which sometimes grows to a large size and is dangerous to man, uses his electrical powers to stun such small fish as come within range and form his prey. In the forest the hunter will encounter armadillos, large and small (tatu canastro and pequenia), anteaters of two species (tamandua and tamandua bandera), the larger of which are very fierce and are much feared, foxes (raposa) black and red, agouti or cotia of three kinds (preta, vermilio, and cotiara), paca of two sorts (porkinio and pequenia), which are delicious to eat, coati or racoons, large and edible land tortoises, as well as the hideous mata-mata or forest devil. The jaguar or onqe is also a denizen of this region, and there are three distinct varieties, viz. the onqe preta or tigre, the once pintada or jaguar, and the onqe vermilio, which I take to be the puma, though its local name is the sucuarana. There is reported to be a fourth variety, viz. once pie de boi

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 396 FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE or tiger with the feet of a cow, but I never saw one, nor did I ever hear of one as having been actually killed. Tiger cats (gatos maraeaja) are very common and no doubt feed on the ground game, of which there is an abundance. There are innumerable monkeys of many species, amongst which may be mentioned the barrel monkey (macaco barrigudo), a large monkey, with a barrel-shaped body, which becomes very tame and companion- " " able in captivity, the macaco guariba" or old man with the beard," which is brownish-red in colour, lives in a company. At morning and evening these monkeys make the forest resound with their roaring, which is most fearsome and sounds exactly as if a party of lions were fighting over their prey. Of course, these are the well-known howler monkeys. Amongst sloth monkeys there are the macaco paraacu and the macaco prigisa, with beautiful coats and hairy ugly faces, while smaller types of the monkey tribe are the beautiful little lion monkey, the zogozog, the macaco soinhi, the macaco chairo, and the delicate macaco du noite, which moves only at night. Snakes are common enough both in the forest and the streams. The sucuruju or anaconda haunts the back waters and swamps and ranges in length from 10 to 25 feet. The jiboya or boa, a beautifully marked variety, becomes very tame when captured, but is harmless; while of poisonous species there are the cascaval, the jararaca or lazy snake, the curaboya, the coral, most splendidly coloured, the cobra cipo or whip snake, the papagaiu or parrot snake, the green capin, the yellow papauva or e<*g snake, the cobra da viado, and the cobra da duas cabee^as or ant snake, which apparently has a head at each end of its body. It is called " the and is to live in the by the natives the king of ants," supposed ant- hills. Scorpions, centipedes, and spiders add to the discomforts of camp life in the forest. Some of these spiders have bodies 6 inches long, and their bite is painful and dangerous. Of birds there is an abundance, and most of those we shot found their way into the cooking-pot. Mutum, jacumy, and inambu are as fine game as our pheasants and partridges. Toucans, some as large as a crow, others as small as a sparrow, but all with weirdly coloured beaks, out of all pro- the size of their portion in relation to bodies, gaily coloured araras or macaws, parrots of many kinds, screaming parraquets, jacu, hawks, and a multitude of small birds, are common in the forest. Wood pigeons and doves coo continually on the branches of the higher trees, and the tap, is to tap, tap of the carpentero or woodpecker always be heard. On the rivers kingfishers, some as large as a pigeon, others as small as a wren, but all most beautifully plumaged, fiit from tree to tree; ducks, tern, and waders of many kinds, spur-winged plovers, marabou, and maquary storks " are plentiful; and the urubu," a kind of turkey buzzard, which is the " " scavenger of the forest land and rivers, is seen every where on the hunt for the carrion which is its food.

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BOLIVIA-BRAZIL NORTHERN BOUNDARY. 397

Life on the Abuna, as in all this forest region, is made miserable by insect pests. There is no getting away from them, and one is scratching or slapping one's body always, except when under cover of one's mosquito net, and even then, when not asleep. In camp ants are a continual nuisance; they eat one's clothes and gnaw the softer parts of one's boots; they ravage amongst the food, and many kinds bite savagely. One kind, called by the natives Itashi, live in trees named palosantos, or holy posts, hollowed out by themselves ; their bite is like a touch with a red-hot iron, and if a person inadvertently touches or leans up against one of these palosantos these little red devils swarm out upon him instantly, and for an hour afterwards his life is almost unbearable. But most dreaded of all are the tucanderas, black ants with bodies 1J inches long; they live in the forks of trees, but often invade one's tent; they bite very hard, and must inject some sort of poison, for swelling and excruciating pain are suffered in the part of the body bitten by one of them. The sauba, or leaf-carrying ants; black ants which make broad straight roads of their own, and move about in armies, with scouts and flanking parties; grey ants, living in mounds of red earth 6 feet high ; yellow ants, whose dwelling-place is in rotten wood,?all make the traveller unwelcome, and do damage to, or inflict pain upon, his person and belongings. Mosquitoes, of course, whose operations are not only painful and irritating, but who sow the seeds of malarial and yellow fever, phle- botomous flies of many kinds which inject germs of what is called three- day fever, wasps of all kinds, bees of all sizes, hornets as large as the smaller humming-birds, the matoucha and tabana, a sort of mangrove fly of bloodsucking propensities?-each and every one of them does its share towards making the life of the explorer in these regions almost unbearable. There are flies which lay their eggs in one's flesh or in one's clothes, which, after washing, have been laid out on the grass or bushes to dry. Later on maggots hatch out and most horrible ulcers appear. Where there is any sort of grass it is impossible to guard against the attack of the muquim, a microscopic tick, whose sojourn on one's body causes a most tantalizing itch, alleviated only by sponging one's body night and morning with alcohol of some sort. And in many places the pium, a small black fly which has the appearance of a speck of dust, drives one half crazy by its bite, which raises a small red vesicle, that afterwards turns black and putrid. Ohiggers attack the underpart of one's toes, but careful watching enables one to guard against the sores which result from these pests if unattended to. In a short paper one can but mention the magnificent wealth of fernery, lianas, cipos, and all kinds of creepers of the forest; itsflowering trees, glowing with colour ; its patches of odorous plants perf uming the air with intoxicating scents. One may draw attention to its stores of ironwood, cedar, bacury, itambu or stonewood, which is reputed to resist decay for ever; its evergreen laurels, the red-wooded sabucaia and

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 398 FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE the sabauma; to its magnificent palms of many kinds, from one of which the delectable purple drink called assai is made; from another the biriti or miriti tea ; while yet another bears a most delicately flavoured and delicious nut, shaped and fleshed like a coconut, yet no bigger than a large walnut. Giants of the forest are the silk cotton wood and castaneira trees, the latter bearing the Brazil nut. These often reach a height of over 200 feet, and are from 30 to 40 feet in circumference. The buttresses of the cottonwood trees are often 20 feet high, and stretch 100 feet above ground from the trunk, with space enough between them for a house to be built between buttress and buttress. On the Abuna we encountered the souveira tree, which yielded milk, equal in taste to that of the cow. We used it in our coffee, and one of our Brazilian colleagues from Matto Grosso assured me that in his country the yield from this tree took the place of ordinary milk, which was never used. This tree is distinct from the Massaranduba or cow-tree, mentioned in my former paper, which is a species of seringa. The region of the Abuna, of course, is wonderfully rich in rubber trees, and it is the buro- prets, or black gold, that has attracted the attention of the Manaos investors and offered inducement to the pioneer sojourners, for they cannot in any sense be termed settlers, who are gradually exploiting this most pestilential though wonderfully interesting valley. The wireless party, under the direct superintendence of Mr. C. C. Chapman, did excellent work; of course we had but a rough and simple light receiving set, and carried with us no poles or special masts of any sort. Our aerial wire was always stretched across, as high as possible, between two or three convenient trees. The special knowledge, unremit- ting zeal, energy and self-sacrifice displayed by the officer in charge merits high praise. Personally he swarmed up the trees, assisted by climbing irons, bound on to his legs by thongs of raw hide, and attached his own aerial, thus making sure of proper insulation, etc, and I have nohesitation in saying that the dangers, difiiculties and personal inconveniences encountered in climbing some of the forest trees cannot be overestimated. In some of his ascents he had to pass over nests of ants, wasps and hornets, and his face and hands were often swollen almost out of recogni- tion, his clothes torn to rags, and the exposed parts of his body scratched and cut by rough bark and jagged spikes, while his ankles, under the strain, would swell up most painfully. Yet he never failed to erect his station at every camp, and time signals were received from Porto Velho nightly, thus enabling us to establish most successfully the longitudes of our camping-places, which we used as controlling points, between which our river traverses were adjusted. I believe our wireless work to be the pioneer in the regions of dense forest, and we have proved the utility and feasibility of wireless determination of longitudes over comparatively long distances under most unf avour able climatic conditions. In conclusion, I may say that during our three years' survey of the

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions BOLIVIA-BRAZIL NORTHERN BOUNDARY. 399 northern boundary from the river Javerija (Tacna) to the Beni and Mamore rivers (Villa Bella) which is now completed, the officers of my commission did excellent service and displayed qualities of energy, fortitude, and determination of no mean order. Messrs. Wilson, Atkinson, and Gibbs, of the technical staff, each one of whom received his training under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society and holds its diploma, did splendid work ; Dr. F. Walker, our genial medical officer, kept us all in trim when he could, nursed us then we were sick, and yet found time to carry out some independent studies and medical investigations with regard to the fever-carrying flies of the district; Mr. Cameron, in charge of our motor craft and canoes, did wonders as regards repairs and kept our craft always in fine state of practical efficiency, and I take this opportunity of recording my debt of gratitude to them all for their loyalty and good comradeship under the trying conditions under which our work was accomplishecl. APPENDIX. Notes on Determination of Longitude by Wireless Telegraphic Signals.

Mr. Atkinson and party arrived at Porto Velho on August 20, and, despite the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory observations owing to the cloudy nights general at this season of the year, a series of time-signals, comprising at least twenty-five stops nightly, from west to east and vice versd, was exchanged on eight nights. During the time that we were determining the difference of longitude between Point Ismail and Porto Velho, the longitude of Point Ismail was determined by the Brazil- Boundary Commission by an exchange of telegraphic time-signals from Para, and found to be in long. 4 hrs. 0' 13"*0 or 60? 3' 15"'l W. of Greenwich. The result of our determination of the longitude of Porto Velho is as follows:? Difference of Longitude between Observation Pillar, Point Ismail, Manaos, and Observation Pillar, Porto Velho.

The weighted mean difference of longitude is thus 3? 51' 25"-2 W. of Point Ismail; and the position of the observation pillar erected near the wireless

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station at Porto Velho was fixed in lat. 8? 45' 33" S., long. 63? 54' 40"*3 W. of Greenwich. On October 27, when the Joint Commission had proceeded up the river Abuna, Mr. Atkinson was able to hear the time-signals sent out nightly from the wireless station at Arlington (Washington), which series ends at 10 p.m. (M.T. long. 75? W.), and was thus able to establish a very valuable independent check on the longitude of Porto Velho, deter? mined from Point Ismail, as follows:? H. M. S. of Porto determined 4 15 38*7 W. of Green- Longitude Velho, fromj Point Ismail ) wich. H- M- s- Longitude of Port Velho, determined bycom-) 4 15 38"5 W' of Green" parisonof L.M.T. Porto Velho and L.M.T. wlcn- Arlington (one night only) j

Early in October the Joint Commission arrived at Port Velho and pro? ceeded to the Abuna river, leaving Mr. Atkinson, Lieut. Babello Leite, and party at Porto Velho in order to send a nightly series of wireless telegraphic time-signals at a pre-arranged time. The Commission carried with them a hastiiy arranged receiving set in charge of a wireless expert, Mr. C. C. Chapman. This set consisted of? (a) A seven-stranded aerial wire of phosphor-bronze, 1200 feet in length. (b) A 190-turn box inductance, rolled in square form, with bottom attached. This was used as a carrier for the outfit. (e) An ordinary type loose-coupled Martini jigger; oscillation trans- former. (d) Two dry cells. (e) Several crystal detectors of carborundum. (/) One pair ordinary Schmidt-Wilkes telephones. (g) Several hastiiy made small inductance coils for use as necessary according to length of aerial erected. At Fortaleza (river Abuna) no difficulty was experienced in receiving time-signals, although the height of our aerial wire was less than 20 feet. Proceeding up the river Abuna to the river Rapirran, time-signals from Point Velho were received nightly, and on November 10, 11,12 we tied up with our 1911 work at Station A. R. Rapirran, fixing its longitude as follows:? November 10, long. Station A, 67? 34' 56"'4 W. of Gr., weight 2. 11, ? ? ? ? 2. 55^9 ,, 12, ,, ,, 55 '5 ,, ? o. Weighted mean long. 67? 34' 55"*7 W. of Greenwich. It is instructive to compare with this, the longitude of Station A obtained in 1911 from the occultations of A Ophiuchi (July 8) and t. Sagittarii (July 10). Having obtained from Greenwich Observatory the corrections to be applied to the Moon's Right Ascension and Declination given in the 1911 Nautical Almanac, the

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Longitude of Station A by occultation A) n v ,. /T N . >67? 36' 28"'02 W. of Gr. uphiuchi (Imm.) is ) Longitude of Station A by occultation r)an0 0?, ^n? nc oagittarn (Imm.) is )_ , Mean longitude by occultation 67? 36? 27"'99 W. of Gri which differs from that determined by wireless telegraphy by only 1' 32*''55 or 1| miles. As the longitude by occultation, using uncorrected Nautical Almanac elements, was? * A Ophiuchi (Imm.) 67? 39' 30"-6 W, * r Sagittarii (Imm.) 67? 39f 31T55 Mean 67? 39'31"-58 W. (which difiers from that determined by wireless telegraphy by 5 miles), the necessity for explorers, who have observed occultations in the field, to obtain from Greenwich the corrections to the Nautical Almanac elements is made very plain. Our aerial wire was stretched across open spaces in the forest from tree to tree at the greatest height possible. Mr. Chapman, using climbing irons on his legs, ascended the trees for the purpose of attaching the wires. As our experience increased we found that the best results were obtained under the following conditions:? 1. The aerial wire should be in line with the transmitting station. Thus, if Porto Velho bore from us N. 70 E., the aerial wire was stretched between trees bearing N. 70 E., S. 70 W. from each other. 2. The wire should be erected so as to obtain an open space at the end nearest to the transmitting station. Thus the aerial was erected in clearings at the end remote from Porto Velho. 3. A much longer aerial was necessary when only a low altitude was possible. A continuous zigzag wire stretched from tree to tree was used to obtain length when necessary. Important points to be observed are: (1) The complete insulation of the aerial wire. We used ordinary glass bottles for this and found them answer the purpose much better than rubber insulation. (2) Good earth connections. We were fortunately always able to use a long lead of wire, with an earth plate attached, which earth plate was immersed in the river or nearest stream. During our traverse up the rivers Abuna and Bapirran, Mr. Chapman heard distinctly every night the signals sent out from the wireless stations at (1) Lima; (2) Senna Madureira; (3) Empreza, as well as, of course, Porto Velho. A mean-time box chronometer was used at Porto Velho, and the signals were received in the field on sidereal chronometers. The following system of signals was sent from Porto Velho nightly. At 8 h. 29 m. 20 s. (P. Velho L.M.T.) a series of short signals was sent 20 during seconds. At 8 h. 30 m. the first group of six time-signals, with one-second intervals, commenced, ending at 3 h. 30 m. 5 s., which waa

This content downloaded on Fri, 28 Dec 2012 14:34:13 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 402 FURTHER FRONTIER WORK ON THE the signal noted in the field. At 8 h. 30 m. 10 s. the second group com- menced, ending at 8 h. 30 m. 15s., and so on until 8 h. 30 m. 45 s. At 8 h. 30 m. 50 s. one long signal was sent to denote that the preceding signals belonged to the first minute. At 8 h. 31 m. the second minute began, and the same procedure followed, but at 8 h. 31 m. 50 s. two long signals were sent to denote the second minute. The first series of signals lasted for four minutes, and after an interval of five minutes a second and similar series was sent lasting four minutes. The Joint Commission returned to Porto Velho on December 20, when the rainy season had well commenced and further work was impossible. Position points on the rivers Abuna, Rapirran, and Abuna are tabulated in the following table :? Position Points, Rivers Abuna, Rapirran, and Madeira, 1913.

All latitudes by observations of balanced pairs of north and south stars. All longitudes by wireless telegraphic time-signals sent out from Porto Velho in lat. 8? 45' 33" S., long. 63? 54' 40"-3 W. of Greenwich.

The President (before the paper): Last week we had a discursive debate on the principles upon which frontiers?ideal frontiers?ought to be delimitated, in which our eminent geographical professors somewhat disagreed. To-night we

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All latitude positions are the means obtained from balanced North and South Stars observed with a 5-inch transit theodolite. The longitudes of the western half of the map depend unon that of Cobija which was fixed by the mean of three occultations independently observed by the Bolivian and the Brazilian Com? missions in 68? 44' 33" W. and checked by the mean of five occultations independently observed by the Bolivian and Brazilian Commissions at the Nasciente Arroyo Bahia. The difference of longitude between the mean of the three occultations at Cobija and the five at the Nasciente Arroyo Bahia agreed with the chronometric difference of longitude within 27"*6. The section of the map between the Arroyo Bahia and the source of the R. Rapirran has been adjuUed to the confluence of the rivers Ina and Xipamann 10 by the means of chronometric differences of longitude depending on (1) Longitude ot Station A. (R. Rapirran), (2) Longitude of Cobija. The longitude of Station A. (R. Rappirran) was finally fixed by wireless telegraphic time signals from Porto Velho. The longitude of Porto Velho. Lat. 8? 45' 33" S. Long. 63* 54' 40" W.. was deter? mined by the Bolivia Brazil Commission by an exchange of wireless telegraphic time signals between Porto Velho and Pt. Ismail (Manaos). The longitude of Ft. Ismail RIV was taken to be 60?03' 15"09 which was determined by the Brazil-Peru Boundary Commission by an exchange of telegraphic signals from Para. Seven chronometer watches were carried by the Bolivian Commission, and the same number by the Brazilian Commission. River surveys are by compass, based on astronomical observation points. Heights from Boiling Point Thermometer readings . zsg ? ? Aneroid readings. #,?*? All heights are in feet above sea level, referred to Manaos (reduced to sea level) as a base. Where possible the heights have been checked by those obtained, on previous expeditions.and the agreement has been found to be good. W.L. = Waterline. The Northern boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil follows the course of the R. Acre from Tacna to Cobija, thence by way of the Arroyo Bahia to its principal source. From this point it is to pass to the principal source of the River Rapirran (a) by a direct line, or (b) by the most pronounced natural features of the country, or (c) as the Commissioners shall clecide or recommend. From the Latitude ? principal source of the R. Rapirran the boundary follows the course of that river by to its junction with the R. Abuna, thence down that river to its junction with the Positions whe Madeira, thence by that river to the confluence of the rivers Beni and Mamore\ Longitudes dt Routes mappt List of Positions. Dett Routes traver R. MADEIRA. Routes not trc Rivers follow Approximate

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