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'Timber Export Development Board (TEDB), Takoradi 'Ministry of Lands and Forestry (MLF), ACcra 'Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), KonTasi Forestry Consultant Table of Content

Page Chapter One

I .O Introduction I . I Objectives, Scope and Methodology 2 I .2 Forest Resources of Brazil 3 I .3 Forest Resources of Peru 4 I .4 The General Structure of Timber Industry in both Brazil and Peru 6

Chapter Two

2.0 Ecological Impacts if Logging and Harvesting 8 2. I Logging Experience and Studies 8 2.1. , Impacts of Harvesting on the Forest Ecology 10 2.1.2 Logging Damages 12 2.1.2.1 Effects on Canopy Cover 13 2.1.2.2 Logging Yields and Associated Harvesting Damage 14 2.1.3 Regeneration in Logged forest 15 2.14 Vine Abundance and Density 17 2.1.5 Micro Habitat Changes Following Logging 18 2.1.6 Effects on Other Biodiversity 22 2.2 Ecological Impacts of Increased Commercial Logging 22 2.21 Brazilian Situation 23 22.1. I Canopy Opening 23 2.2.1.2 Logging Disturbance to Trees 24 2.21.3 Ground Area Disturbance 25 2.2.1.4 Flora and Fauna 26 2.2. I .5 Biodiversity 27 2.2. I .6 Fire 28 2,217 Forest Health 29 2.22 Peruvian Situation 31 222.1 Impacts 31 22.3 Other Studies on Mitigating Ecological Impacts of Increased Harvesting Timber 33

Chapter Three

3.0 Social Perspectives of Increased Utilisation of Lesser Used Special(LUS) 36 3. I Experiences from Brazil 37 31.1 household Economy and Income Distribution 39 3.1.2 The role of Logging in The household Economy 40 3.2 Experiences From Peru 42 32.1 The Alexander Von Humboldt National Forest Activities 42 3.3 SOCio-Cultural Charateristics of some Forest Dependent Communities 44 3.4 Common Rights of Traditional Forest-Based Communities 45 3.4 Some factors Affecting the Harvesting and Use of Non-wood Forest Product(NWFP)/Non Timber Forest Products (N'TFP) 49 3.6 Other Social Perspectives of the utilisation of New Species 51 3.6. I An Examples from Peru 51 3.6.2 Examples from Brazil 53

Chapter Four

4.0 Economic and Trade Related Aspects of Increased Utilisation of Lesser Known (LUS) or Lesser Used Species (LUS) 55 4.1 The Timber Industry in Brazil 55 4.1. I Logging Investments 57 4.1.2 Investment for Transport of Logs from Forest to Mill Mechanisms for Transporting 61 4.1.2.1 Terra Firme Transportation 61 4.1.3 Processing of Timber: Choice of Technology and Productivity 63 4. I .3. I Wood Processing in Small Mills 62 4.1.3.2 Wood Processing in Medium-sized Mills 64 4.1.3.3 Wood Processing in Veneer and Plywood Factories 68 4.1.4 Productivity and Resources Transfer to Various Stakeholders 71 4. I .4. I Timber Raw Material Costs 71 4.1.4.2 Cost of Capital 74 4.1.4.3 Cost of Labour 74 4.1.4.4 Cost of Transportation 75 4.1.4.5 Cost of Energy 75 4.1.4.6 Prices of Products 75 4.1.4.7 Changes in Technology 76 4.1.4.8 Marketing Channels 76 4.2 Timber Processing in Peru 76 42.1 A General Industrial Outlook 78 4.22 Lessons From ITTO Project PD 37188 Rev 3 (1)- Industrial Utilisation of New Tropical Forest Species (phase I and 11) 80 4.3.3 Economic Impacts of Increased Utilisation of LUS/LKS 84

Acknowledgements

Pages of Appendix List of Tables Page

I .2 Area under Forest, Cleared of Forest and Disturbed by Forest Clearing in the Brazilian Amazon, 1988 in square kilometres 4 2.0 Charateristics of Timber harvest in three Logging Operations in the Paragiminas region of Eastern Amazonia 11 2.1 Damage caused in wood extraction in three Logging Operations in the Paragominas region of Eastern Amazonia 12 2.2 The Parameters used to evaluate the ability of Timber species in the Brazilian Amazon to persist in the fact of Logging 19 3.4 Extractive Reserves in Brazil 46 3.5 NWFP Production from "Extrativism" in Brazil in 1992 47 3.6. I Abundance of species in Residual 52 3.62 Assessment and Ranking of some selected primary Forest Species according to social needs and indigenous Knowledge 51 3.6.3 Assessment and Ranking of selected secondary Forest Species according to social needs and indigenous Knowledge 52 36.4 54 41.1 Cost of Production in Varzea and Terra Firme Operations 58 4.1 .2 Estimates of Logging and transport costs during one LoggingL Ithh season involving t' the f9200'f harvesting of 9200m of round logs in the Paregominas region of eastern Amazonia 60 4.13 The Comparative cost (Us$) of log transport using rafts, barges and trucks forthe requirements of a typical bandsaw type milllocated lookm from the timber source and requiring 10200m' of rounding year' (lower Amazon River and Estuary)' 62 4.14 Cost Structure and profitability in small sized, family Operated circular saw in the lower Amazon River and Estuary 65 4.15 The effects of timber source (terra firme vrs Varzea), transport mode, and market destination on production costs and profitability for a bandsaw milllocated in the lower Amazon River and Estuary 69 41.6 Annual Costs and profits for a large veneer/plywood mill In the Amazon estuary 70 4.17 Timber Species, Extraction Technology, Costs and yields By price class, 1995 72 42.2 List of New Species tested industrialIy under project PD 37188 Rev (1) 83 4.31 Likely Economic inputs of increased utilisation of Lesser Known/Lesser Used Species. (BRAZIL) 87 4.3.2 Likely Economic Impacts of increased utilisation of Lesser Known/Lesser Used Species (PERU) 88 List of Figures

Map of the Vegetation Zones of Peru 5

Schematic presentation of vegetation types where timber harvested in Brazil 9

Pages of Appendices

Appendix I. .. Madeiras Tropicals Brasileiras (Classified List of Timber Speices of Brazil) (i)

Appendix 2 ... New species of Peru (x)

Appendix 3 ... Estimates of Transportation Cost, Para Brazil (xi)

Appendix 4 ... Wood Processing Mills Classified Based on Technology, type and Size In three Municipal Location of Brazil (XIIi)

Appendix 5 ... ITTO Project No. P033195 Impacts Of Increased Utilization of Lesser Known Species (LKS)(Letter of Enquiry on impacts of increased utilization of LUS) (xv) ,, Wood-based panel products do represent one way of utilising the right secondary (;,. 05;L, !<. 5; newly commerciali5'ed etc) species, because primarily they offer a way of turning attention from the individual identit of the s Is In favour of presenting the consumer with another kind of_I^. r^ meetin a market err rinanc s ecification. Greater market intelligence and competition are pointing more toward specialist boards overlaid or otherwise treated and again this offers ways of using secondary species, (LUS) "

*

Preydell, G. J. (1972) " Increasing the utilization of secondary species through the manufacture of wood-based panels"(A Paper submitted to The seventh World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires Argentina, 4- 18 October 1972) 7.0 Introduction

While it is widely acknowledged that the harvesting of timber in general

has some potential ecological, social, environmental as well as trade/economic impacts, it is also believed that such impacts can be reduced to a large extent by the implementation of environmentally sound harvesting practices. As in many areas of the world, species initially regarded as weeds have become valuable sources of raw material. The increased utilisation of these previously disregarded species is seen by many as a way to make the management of forest more valuable economicalIy, since increasing the volume removed generates more revenue per hectare (Sarre 1995)'. According to the annual review and assessment report on the world tropical timber situation of 1996 (ITT0 1997)', as analysed by (Pulkki 1997)', out of a total of 19 country summaries in this report, 11 make reference to initiatives to improve utilisation of currently under utilised or lessenknown species for veneer logs and sawlogs. Indeed, where logging intensities are low, under utilised species may be a good source of additional log volume (Yeom, 1984)'. However, for most forest, increased logging intensity can lead to greater disturbance (Wagner and Cobbinah, 1993)' and thus lead to reduced yields in subsequent cutting cycles and unsustainable forest management (FAO, 1989)'. In the view of Jonsson and Lindgren (1990)', any re-entry to a piece offorestland prior to the full rotation in order to harvest a species which becomes commercially attractive in the meantime ought to be prohibited. These and other issue such as the existence of only a thin line of differentiation between the categorisation of most naturally growing timber trees species as primary, preferred or choiced timber on one hand and others

' Sarre, A (1995) Opening the door to Lesser Used Species. (ITFO) Tropical Forest Update 5(2):I ' ITF0 (1997) Annual review and assessment of the world tropical timber situation 1996. Yokohama, Japan 125 pp. ' Pulkki R. E (1997) Literature review and summaries on logging impacts in non-coniferous tropical forests; with concentration on logging intensity, cycles and waste and residual stand and site darne. GFSS Working Paper for FAO. Rome. ' Yeom, F. B. C. (1984) Lesser-known tropical wood species, how brightis theirfuture? Uriasylva 36:3-16 ' Wagner, M. R. & Cobbinah, J. R. (1993) Deforestation and sustainability in Ghana. J. For, 91 (6): 35-39 ' FAO (1989) Review of forest management systems of tropical Asia. FAO Forestry Paper No. 89 Rome, 228 pp 7 Jonsson, J. & Lindgre, P. (1990) Logging technology for tropical forests - for or against? ; (Forskningsstiftelsen Skogsarbelen) Report for ITT0 126 00 identified as lesser used, lesser known, or newly commercialised timber species, have prompted studies such as this which attempts to draw on various experiences to throw more light on such impacts and their effects. Hence, within the frame work of this approved and sponsored ITFO project, PD 33195~ Impacts of Increased Utilisation of Lesser Used Species (LUS) or Lesser Known Species (LKS); country field visits were undertaken to Brazil and Peru, to serve as representative countries in the Latin American Tropical forest region, preferably referred to here as the Amazon forests.

I. I Objectives, Scope andMethodology In line with the objectives of this study, information relevant to the assessment of the ecological, economic/marketing as well as the social impacts of increased utilisation of LUS, was sought based on field surveys, interviews and questionnaires. The questionnaires and methodology for deriving the required information were developed and improved upon following an initial pilot study which was conducted in Ghana, as one of the countries chosen in addition to Gamero0n to be studied forthe African region, under this subject. The questionnaire and letters of enquiry developed were widely circulated to professionals and identified contact persons with experience and knowledge in the subject in the two Latin American countries prior to the visits. In a well programmed twenty-three days of animated discussions, data collection and interviews, the team of experts shared experiences and findings of relevant primary and secondary information from public and private organisations as well as bibliographic research sources, and also explored and related local experiences to global knowledge and examined the implications for improved networking of policies which will lead to the development of guidelines for the harvesting of lesser used or lesser known

species. In Brazil, visits were scheduled and made to Rio de Janeiro, Belem and Mariaus. Also in Peru, scheduled visits were made to Lima, Iquitos and Pucallpa. In each of these two countries, advantage was taken of the presence of ITTO sponsored projects and programmes and their contact persons/experts, who provided the required assistance and linkages for contacting and consulting with relevant private and public sector institutions.

2 This report distils some of the most important lessons learned and also provides the background information which would serves as a framework for developing guidelines for the harvesting this group of newly commercialised timber species or lesser used species.

1.2 Forest Resources of Brazil According to a proposed classification by 'EITEN (1978, 1983) as adopted in an '1TTO project report entitled "Development work to phase out trade on unsustainably produced timber - an assessment of future mahogany supply and alternative industrial operations for the sustainable production" prepared by FUNDACAO PRO-NATUREZA (FUNATURA)in 1993;!3razil with a surface area of 8,5 million kin' has an Amazon province of 4,2 million kin' and an Atlantic province of I million km' forming a major part of the total I phytogegraphical province of the Amazonia vegetation. These phytogegraphical provinces contain most of the amazon forests of Brazil which can be divided into tropical forest of firm land (terra firme or non-flooded lands) and hygrophilous forest which are more often than not referred to as varzea areas (flooded forest on low and flat lands along the banks of watercourses). The firm land tropical forest which represent about 90 per cent of the Amazon forest occupy high lands which are not floodable and can be further subdivided into firm land tropical dense forest which is described as the most exuberant in the Amazon and the firm land open forest whose tree distribution is more spaced outthan that of the dense forest type. The hygrophilous forest is estimated to be about 2.6 per cent of the Amazon region and is characterised by less diversity of species, of greater size, irispite of the existence of major sized trees like sumauma (Ceiba p^. ot^ra) and rubber trees (^!{^^). The varzeas, areas also comprise of two types of zones: "Matas de varzea" ("varzeas" forests) which may be waterlogged periodically and "Matas de 19ap6s (19apo forests) which are waterlogged permanently.

' EITEN, George. "Classificacao da Vegetasao do Brazil" - DF: CNFPQ/ Coordenacao Editorial 1983, 303 PP ' PRE-PROJECT REPORT FOR ITFO - Development work to phase outtrade on unsustainably produced timber: An assessment of future mahogany supply and alternative industrial operations for sustainable production, Fundacao Pro-Naturezea (FUNTURA). Sept 1993 3 As shown in Table 1.0, the extent offorest in the various states in Brazil and the extent of disturbances as recorded by Skole and Tucker (1993), provide a general picture of the forest estate and disturbances which are attributable principalIy to infrastructral development such as ranches and roads, one hand and agriculture and logging on the other.

Table 1.2 Area under Forest, Cleared of Forest and Disturbed by Forest Clearing in the Brazilian Amazon, 1988 in square kilometres

State Total Forest Total Cleared %Forest Disturbed %Total Area Area Forest 1988 Cleared 'Disturbed'

Acre 152,787 152,394 3.7% 6,369 4.2% 30,460 5.2% Amapa 139,610 137,444 3.4% 210 0.2% 900 0.2% Amazonas 1,575,343 1,531,122 37.4% 11,813 0.8% 48,679 8.3% Marenhao 261,785 145,766 3.6% 31,952 21.9% 62,222 10.6% Mato Grosso 900,440 527,570 12.9% 47,568 9.0% 121,238 20.6% Pan 1,261,730 1,183,571 28.9% 95,075 8.0% 218,581 37.2% Rondonia 238,280 212,214 5.2% 23,998 11.3% 78,751 13.47. Tocantins 277,244 30,325 0.7% 11,431 37.7% 19,628 3.3%

Total 5,032,925 4,092,831 100.09, " 230,324 5.6% 587,604 100.0%

Source: Skole and Tucker(, 993) Note: Inncludes "edge effects" of I kin around cut areas; and isolated patches less than 100 sq. kin

1.3 Forest Resources of Peru

Peru, with a land area of 128.5 million hectares (in ha) has a forest estate covering an area of 75.7 in ha representing 60.3 per cent of the total national area '(MOA 1995). The 'FA0 (1993) estimated that in 1990, there were 67.9 in ha of natural forest in Peru, of which 40.3 in ha (59%) was classified as tropical rain forest. These forest resources are categorised into free forests (36.8 in ha), national forest (3.1 in ha), conservation forests (6.2 in ha), secondary forests (8.6 in ha) indigenous community forests (6.2 in ha), and forests without defined status (14.8 inha). The permanent production forest area is contributed by the free forests and national forests components which are essentially provided by the Amazonia jungle. In relation to the topography of the land, these permanent production areas are classified into wet forests of low hills, wet forests of high terraces, wet forests of middle terraces and wet forest of low terraces. Most of the wet forest

of the low terraces are prone to seasonal flooding. Also, the Andes mountain

MOA. 1995, Informe del Peru Sobre Progreso Aleanzado para el Logrodel Obietivo del Ano. Ministry of Agriculture, Lima, Peru

4 MINISTRYOFAGRICULTURE GENERALBUREAU FORFAUNAAND FLORA

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. \ @ @ @ @ @ areas (Sierra) which comprise of some 2,092,000 ha of land are deemed appropriate for continued forest growth and therefore where appropriate these utilised for plantation development. EcologicalIy, the plant formations show a clear predominance of tropical moist forests and sub-tropical forest. It is not uncommon to identify tropical moist forest formations following the courses of rivers and consisting of evergreen, dense and high forests. The other ecological formations identified are tropical dry forest and very moist subtropical forests covering relatively small areas. (Vide figure 1.0: Map of the vegetation zones of Peru) loverlean

010TES ON FIGURE 1.0) PERUVIANFORESTS

N* National Protected Forests Department Area (ha) Area by Department % C Biavo-Cordillera Azul Sari Marlin 2,084,500 66.44 D Alexander Von Humbold Hunauco-Ucayali 469,740 14.97 A Pastaza-Morona-Marenon Loreto 375,000 375,000 11.95 B Manscal Caceres Sari Martin-Ucayali 133,390 133,390 4.25 D Turnbes Turnbes 75,000 75,000 2.39

S U B To T A L 3,137,630 3,137,630 100.00 N Open Forests Department(s) Area (ha) Area by Department VC

Jaen-Sari 19nacio Cajamarca 809,000 809,000 2.20 2 Sarinago Amazonas 755,000 757,000 3 Utcubamba Amazonas 130,000 335,000 33 Nieva-Marenon Amazonas 130,000 1,222,000 3.33 It Abujao-Sheshea Ucayali 2,870,000 4 Alto Ucayali Ucayali 2,330,000 12 Aguaytia Ucayali 240,000 5,440,000 14.81 13 Tapiche Loreto 3,035,000 7 Nanny Loreto 2,590,000 8 Napo Loreto 1,835,000 6 Amazonas Loreto 1,645,000 10 Yavari Loreto 1,628,000 5 Containana Loreto 1,538,000 9 Tigrillo Loreto 1,415,000 17 Pastaza Loreto 1,320,000 16 Morona Loreto 1,210,000 35 Yurimaguas Loreto 980,000 29 Cureray Loreto 968,000 30 Putumayo Loreto 770,000 18 Aipena Loreta 767,000 32 Atacurai Loreto 750,000 31 Juanache Loreto 745,000 34 Cahuaoana Loreto 519,000 21,715,000 59.10 38 Pachitea Huanuco 720,000 14 TQCache-Aucayacu Huanuco 623,370 1,343,370 3.66 15 Saposoa Sari Martin 523,070 37 Baio Mayo-Alto Shanusi Sari Martin 495,000 36 Moyobamba Sari Martin 240,000 1,258,070 3.42 21 Pichis Pasco 446,000 20 Palcazu Pasco 363,000 19 Huancabamba Pasco , 328,000 I. 136,000 3.10 23 Sailpo Junin 399,120 22 Perene Junin 388,170 787,300 2.14 27 Urubamba Cusco 328,000 24 Paucartambo Cusco 72,000 25 Pilocopata Cusco 273,000 673,000 1.84 26 Inambari Madre de Dios 1,798,000 1,798,000 4.89 28 Tambopata Puno 558,000 558,000 1.52 S U B TOTAL 36,739,7508 3,137,630 100.00 TOTAL 39,158,100 39,158,100 'Number of location in the map Source: INRENA (1994) Prepared by: CNM

' FAO. 1993, Forest Resources Assessment 1990; Tropical Countries; FAO Forestry Paper 1/2, FAO Rome 5 7.4 The Generalstructure of the Timber industry in both BrazilandPeru From allndications, there are many more registered mills in the Brazilian state of Para than any of the other states. At least more than about 1,500 sawmills, veneer mills and plywood factories are registered and operating in the state of Para alone, with sufficiently high numbers also distributed in the other states which abound in Amazon forest resources. Each of these mills produces on the average 5,000 in' of sawn timber each year, with an estimated productive capacity of 7.5 million in' yr~'. This estimate raises a very important point about the consumption patterns, which characterise this production. While most exports originate in Pare, they are still quite small(about 10 -14%) relative to the total volume of production. It is a general fact that, most of the timber extracted and processed in the Amazon is for domestic consumption. Historically, Brazil has consumed an average of 90 - 95% of its total hardwood production by volume, and the domestic market demand has risen from under I million in' in the early 1950's to over IO million in' in the 1990's The rapid growth of the wood industry in Brazil seems to have been occasioned by several factors. The most obvious reason is the construction of roads. The Brazilian government provided access to its broad Amazon region in the 1960's and 1970's via an ambitious colonisation and road construction program. The roads (e. g. Belem-Brasilia, Trans-Amazon and Cuiaba-Santarem Highways) are focal points and areas for logging activities and represent a large subsidy to the timber industry. A second reason seems to be reduction of hardwood stocks in south of Brazil, which together with rapidly growing economies in the South and Northeast has created a large domestic demand for Amazonian timber (Verissimo at a1 1992). The third reason is that much of the land on which logging has occurred has been uriclaimed and as a resulttimber had been abundant and available at low cost in most of the Amazon Region. The Government of Brazil in 1973 suspended roundlog exports of all traditionally well known species of timber and placed a total ban on log exports in 1989. On record, there is only one tropical tree species which is allowed for export in the round form, (with naturally occurring holes), Minquartia guianensis normally used as poles. On the other hand, although Peru can boast of over 2,500 forest tree species varieties there are indications that only

6 about 250 have been studied for industrial use. Of these species which have been studied, trade in timber and its wood products covers only some 120 species, with only about some 20 species well studied and categorised for processing for both domestic and export trade. The annual roundwood production in Peru is about 8.0 million in', although 80% of this is fuelwood. In its annual review and assessment of world tropical timber situation, for 1995, the ITTO estimated that Peru produced 1.39 million in of industrial tropical hardwood logs for that year which represented an increase of nearly 509", from 1991. More than 500, mostly small, logging companies are at work in Peru's forest. Their major products are logs, sawntimber, veneer and plywood, but they are widely scattered through out its Amazon region, particularly along the rivers and often in quite remote areas. The geographicalIy diverse distribution of these logging areas has affected the extent to which the application of management controls can be brought to bear on the logging industry of Peru. This not withstanding, the Peruvian government introduced a temporary ban on logging in various regions of the country while reviewing compliance with management plans. It also prohibited the transport of logs along, three major rivers bordering Brazil, Bolivia and Colombia, in an attempt to control excessive tendencies relating to logging.

7 Chapter Two

2.0 Ecological Impacts of Logging andHarvesting According to the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), more than 4000 tree species have been identified in the Amazon forest of Brazil with the potential to be used as timber. However, with reference to a list of Brazilian timber species which IBAMA has classified in 'Madeiras Tropicais Brasileiras (1997), into species very well commercialised; species less commercialised; species riot commercialised; species forbidden to be commercialised, a total of 374 species of trees appear to have been well studied in this document, (Appendix I). Similarly, the situation of tree species in the Peruvian rain forest is not very different. While authorities of the National Forestry Chamber of Peru and the National Institute for Natural Resources (INRENA) confirm that several thousands of timber tree species exist in the Peruvian amazon, with over 308 different timber species identified in the Alexander von Humboldt National Forest alone, only a few of these species in the range of 25 - 50 are being utilised. With such a rich diversity of tree resources and the potential to stretch its utilisation to include a wider scope of these identified species, there is a general concern about the future status of these forests with particular reference to their increased harvesting and hence a growing need to assess such impacts. Using the initial study conducted in Ghana, as the guide, the following qualitative criteria were considered as a basis for determining the significance of ecological impacts, namely extent, duration and reversibility. These characteristics were further identified and described according to four ranks or levels. Depending on the situation and research data and information available, these qualitative criteria were reviewed to provide a more extensive basis for assessing these ecological impacts.

2.1 Logging Experience and Studies The timber industry of the Brazilian Amazon has slowly evolved from selective logging and harvesting of some few species in the estuary area of the Amazon and expanded along an extensive road network, which penetrates upland areas of the terra firme forests.

8 In a study conducted by Barros and Uhlin 1990-1991, three distinct patterns of logging in the terra firme and flood plain forests of Para State were identified.

One pattern as occurs in the old frontiers, or logging areas such as Paregominas county located along the Belem-Brasilia Highway involves field crews that do the logging where more than a hundred tree species are harvested. Another pattern is seen in areas designated as new frontier areas, such as around Tailandia along PA Highway. 150, ('Uhl at 1991). Here, since most mills are small, logging is done by small contractors on small forest tracts owned by farmers and only about a dozen species are harvested and extracted manually. The third pattern of terra firme logging occurs in incipient frontier areas where no infrastructure is present. This model of harvesting is only undertaken where the forest species or timber is of extremely high value and this is seen in the South of Para where well capitalised wood industries go as far as 500 kin into the forest in search of highly prized timber such as Mahogany ('Verissimo at a11995). With the influence of the Amazon river and its tributaries serving as a reference point, no single logging pattern seems to characterise this region as small, medium and large companies make decisions based on the proximity and efficiency of existing fluvial or road transportation network or infrastructure which will enable harvested timber to reach the mill. As conditions existing in the Varzea or flood plain forests make such vegetation subjected to daily flooding (estuary) or seasonal flooding (beyond about 800 kin up river) logging and harvesting of timber has been done manually, although the use of chainsaws are now making very significant in- roads into this form of timber harvesting. After felling, trees were usually extracted manually from the forest. Generally, most extraction teams relied on tides or wet season floods to buoy the felled logs and then guide these logs from the forest to the banks of the rivers. Otherwise, harvested logs were literally pushed to the water's edge on top of poles laid cross-wise along a skid

' Uhl, C; Verissimo, A Mattos, M, Brandino, Z and Vieira, ICG, 1991. Social, economic and ecological consequence of logging in an Amazon frontier: The case of Tailandia. Forest Ecology Management, 46: 243-273 ' Verissimo, A Barrelo, P; Tarifa, R and Uhl, C; 1995, Extraction of a high-value natural resource in Amazonia: The case of mahogany. Forest Ecology Management. 72: 39-60 9 Schematic presentation of vegetation types where timber harvested in Brazil

VARZEA TERRAFIRME FLO D PLAIN FORE TS LANDFOREST Extraction of many Extraction offew Extraction of many Extraction of a few . species species species species

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, *;^ ^;* ^^," # I^^g ^,^,, ,3:1~ <'1^**, \;^, "*"-! I ". ;Ij^, Characteristics of the extractions 40-60 I-2 I-15 >100 No. of species extracted 50-100 2-5 Volume extracted (in3111a) 10.20 30.60 40.60 5.10 Opening of the canopy (%) 5-10 40-60

Fig. 2: The characteristic of havesting of timber in the Amason forests and their inpacts on the structure of the forest(after TMAZON)

,-^ 11. ^ 1.1. ^ ^ ^ trail. Also in a few cases, winches were employed to drag the boles from the forest. ('Barros at a1 1995). Logging teams in the varzea were typically composed of three men. In one day a team cut and extracted on the average 4.85 in' of roundwood. On the other hand, in many parts of the lower Amazon River basin, dry land or "terra fume" forest occur in close proximity too the main stern of the river and its tributaries. The timber harvested from terra fume forest species is generally, valued more than that from varzea species. Most terra firme logging teams were composed of five men generally. In contrast to varzea logging, chainsaws were always used to felltrees in terra fume operations and trucks were necessary to move the logs from the forest interior to the banks of

. the river or to the landings constructed along the edge of a public road.

2.7. I Impacts of Harvesting on the Forest Ecology In a schematic presentation as shown in Figure 2, an over view . of the characteristic vegetation types where timber is generally harvested in Brazilis shown. The general view is that harvesting in flood plain forests or varzea appears to be more intensive than what happens in dry land forests or tera fume forests. As a result of such variation in the intensity of harvesting operations, the structure of the resulting forest types as well as their species-mix are affected to varying degrees. In both dry land and floodplain forests the extent of

canopy opening effected vary with the number of trees that are

harvested. According to a study by 'A. Verissimo at a1 (1992) which assessed logging yields, logging damages and vegetation characteristics of logged forest in three logging sites along the Belem- Brasilia Highway, species stocks remaining after logging were classified with three quality groupings, namely, species with present value (accepted by the regions 238 sawmills); species with future value (wood used for rough construction but generally not sawn at present);

' Barros, AC; Uhl, C; 1995, Logging along the Amazon River estuary: Patterns, problems and potential; Forest Ecology Management 77: 87 -105 ' Verissimo, A; Barreto, P; Maltos, M; Tanfa, R and Uhl, C; 1992, Logging impacts and prospects for sustainable forest management in the old Amazonian frontier: The case of Paragominas; Forest Ecology Management 55 (1992) 169 - 199 10 species with wood (having no known present construction use and little prospect for future use). The study also went further to consider the physical condition of all trees in the first two classifications by considering bole form, length and defects, completeness of crown and vine loading. With the average number of trees harvested per hectare in the three study sites in the Paregominas region ranging from 2.9 (site I) to

, 9.3 (site 3) (the mean of three sites, 6.4) and the volume yields ranging from 18 to 62m'ha' (mean 38; SD=18) as shown in the table 3.0, the study established that within individual sites, the number of trees and volume harvested per hectare where extremely variable. This observation of extraction yields varying greatly was concurred by logging crews interviewed who indicated that typical extraction yields forthe region generally ranged from 20 to 50 in' ha'. Most harvested trees were large; with the average stump diameter ranging from 73 to 75 cm, with average bole length between 16 and 20 in; and average volume pertree ranged from 5.2 in' to 6.4 in' (Table 2.0) TABLE 2.0

Characteristics of timber harvest in three logging operations in the Paregominas region of Eastern Amazonia

Area I Area 2 Area 3 Average nrl hr triti Size of studyarea (ha) I 1/5 37 16 56 No of trees harvested ha' 3 7 9 6.4 Volume (in')harvested ha' 18 35 62 38 No of species harvested 57 55 43 52

iz fharve t tr e Diameter (onI dbh) of harvested trees (SD) 75(20) 73(18) 73(20) 74 Bole length (in) (SD) 18.4(5.0) 16.5 (39) 205(4.3) 18 Volume (in') per harvested tree (So) 6. I (39) 5.2(3.5) 6.4(4.7) 5.9 Largest tree harvested (cm dbh) 161 170 150 160 Smallest tree harvested am dbh 40 39 40 40 After Verissimo, A at a1(1992)

The number of species harvested per study site ranged from 43 to 57 and the total number of species extracted, considering allthree sites together, was 84. Of the 84 species harvested, 23 occurred in allthree study sites, 20 occurred in two sites and 41 occurred in just one site. The 23 species occurring in allthree sites comprised 524 individual trees or 71% of the total trees harvested. The most harvested species in each of the three study areas was Manjikara huberi('macaranduba'). Considering

11 allthe three sites together, 28% of all harvested trees were macaranduba , while together four other top species accounted for 359"0 of the total volume harvested.

2.7.2 Logging Damages

As reported in various texts, a considerable amount of damage occurs in the opening up of logging roads and the felling and extraction of trees in tropical forests. dBurges 1971; 'Jonkers, 1988; 'Hendrison 1990). A study by 'Verissimo at a1(1992) found that an average of 6.4 trees were extracted ha' in the three study sites and almost 150 trees ha' greater than or equal to 10 cm dbh were severely damaged during logging. (Table 2.1) in the Paragominas region of Eastern Amazonia (Brazil) TABLE 2.1 Damage caused in wood extraction in three logging operations in the Paregominas region of Eastern Amazonia

Area I Area 2 Area 3 Average

Number of trees harvested ha' 29 6.9 9.3 64

Din in I In Trees > 10 cm dbh damaged (no, ha") 121 130 193 148 Basal area z 10 cm dbh damaged (in'ha") 5.0 6.6 7.6 6.4 Volume z 10 ori dbh damaged (in'ha" 47 63 77 62 Canopy opening' (in'ha") 2500 4500 4400 3800

^; Trees damaged pertree extracted 41 19 20 27 M damaged in- extracted 2.6 I. 8 I. 2 1.9 M logging road opened pertree extracted 37 38 43 39 M'road and patio opened pertree extracted 186 219 249 218 M canopy opening pertree extracted 862 652 473 663

' Considering only canopy openings caused by logging activities AfterVerissimo, A at a1(1992)

This represented an estimated 279",, 359", and 43% of alltrees greater than or equal to 10 cm dbh present in Areas I, 2 and 3 respectively. Almost half (mean, 489",; SD = 5; n = 3) of the damaged trees were uprooted, 4/9". had broken stems and the remaining 11% suffered severe bark damage. The average size of damaged trees was 20 cm dbh (range 10 - 93). Tree damaged was not proportional to the volume felled. For example, the harvesting of 18 in damaged 5

' Burgess, P. F. , 1971. The effects of logging on hill dipterocarp forests. Malay. Nat. J. , 24: 231 -137 ' Jonkers, W. B. J, 1988. Vegetation structure, logging damage and silviculture in the tropical rain forest in Suriname. Agricultural University Wageningen. The Netherlands. 172 pp. ' Heridrison, J, 1990. Damage-controlled logging in managed tropical rainforest in Suriname Agricultural University, Wageningen. The Netherlands 204 pp. ' Verissimo, A, Barreto, P, Mattos, M. Tanfa, R, Uhl, C. (1992) Logging impacts and prospects for sustainable forest management in an old frontier: The case of paragominas. Forest Ecology and Management. 55 (1992) 169 rig9 12 in of basal area in Area I, but in Area 3 where more than three times this volume was extracted, basal area damage increased by only 509^".. Higher yields it would appear, caused substantially less damage in" extracted (see also Jonkers, 1988 for a similarfinding). Many of the damaged trees were of potential economic interest. For example, 329", of the damaged individuals were of species being sawn in Paragoninas mills. Additionally 44% of the damaged individuals were species used in rural construction, although not generally sawn at present. The remaining 24% of the damaged trees

. belonged to species having no present or potential wood related importance. In terms of volume, 85% of the total damaged volume has some wood use (49% as sawn timber and 36% in other related applications).

2.7.2.7 Effects on Canopy Cover In the three logged sites canopy cover ranged from 40 to 47% (mean, 45; SD = 8; n=3). By contrast, average canopy cover in the three control(non-logged) areas, associated with each logged site, averaged 829^", (SD = 11). It was found in this study that logging decreased canopy cover by an average of 37% in the three study sites. These large canopy openings associated with logging favourthe growth of vines or climbers. According to the logging damage indices developed in Table 2.0, there is a substantial trade-off involved in forest extraction. Almost 2 in' of wood are destroyed for each in' harvested. This damage occurs in the opening of approximately 40 in of logging road pertree harvested resulting in 218 in' of scraped ground surface per harvested tree and 663 in' of open canopy per harvested tree. By contrast, natural tree falls in this region usually result in canopy openings less than half this size (between 150 and 300 in2)

13 2.7.2.2 Logging Yields andAssociatedHarvestingDamage 'uhi at a1 (1990) studied ecological consequences of selective logging at Tailanddia where fewer than 20 species were being harvested and found that an average of two trees of 16 in' were harvested per hectare. Also, in addition, to the harvested trees 0.37 trees ha' were felled but not extracted as a result of defects (usually heart rot). The loss of canopy cover as a result of logging averaged 8.1% (n = 3 areas). Furthermore, an average of 56 in of access road were opened for each harvested tree. The area cleared to establish the logging roads and log loading zones was 5.5% (Area I), 5.39", (Area 2) and 6.7 (Area 3) of the total area logged. When expressed in terms of real volume, 9.3 in' of wood are lost for every tree extracted (8 in'). By aggregating, the volume of timber harvested (16 in' ha'), to the timber felled but riot extracted (3 in' ha') and the wood damaged (19 in' ha'), the total bole-wood volume loss is almost 40 in ha~ Expressed in terms of density, the extraction of one tree damaged on average, 26 other trees of 10 cm dbh or greater. Half of the damage was concentrated in the clearings and loading zones around the vicinity of the felled trees, and the other half associated with the logging roads. Approximately half of the damaged trees were of no known economic value and the rest belonged to species with present or anticipated future value. In interpreting the results, the researchers established that on the average the Tailandia forest contained 495 trees of 10 cm or more dbh ha' (average of the three study sites). After logging, the three areas had lost an average, 58 trees ha', (52 trees were damaged in the harvest operations, and an average of 6

Uhr, C, Verissimo, A; Maltos, M, M; Brandino, Z; Vieira I, C; 1990. Social, economic and ecological consequences of selective logging in an Amazon frontier: The case of Tailandia. Forest Ecology and Managemcnt, 46 (1991) 243 - 273 14 trees ha' were damaged in the felling of trees that were ultimately found to have heart rot. Hence, stand density fortrees of to cm dbh or more was reduced by 11% as a result of logging.

2.7.3 Regeneration in Logged Forest There was an abundance of seedlings and saplings greater than or equal to 10 cm tall present in the ten 5 in x 5 in regeneration study plots established by Verissimo at a1 (1992) in each of the three logged forest sites, but most of these plants (86%; SD ^ 5; n ^ 3) had 00 potential wood value. It was observed that regeneration was vigorous in both roads and in the gaps where trees had been felled in the portions of Area I, subjected to logging 2 years previously. There were an average of 4.5 plants in~' greater than or equal to I in tallin plots established on the abandoned logging roads, 2.4 plants in~' in the gaps resulting from tree harvest and 1.6 plants in~' in unlogged forest patches. Plant density was almosttwo times greater in abandoned logging roads than in logging gaps (see Jonkers (1988) for a similar finding(s) such colonising plants in the roads had established from seed (82%) or via sprouting (18%). Most of the plants tallied in the study, irrespective of the microhabitat, were of no economic value (i. e. 92% in roads, 91% in gaps and 919', in forest), based given list of timber species being utilised (1992). Nonetheless, owing to the high density of plants there were still 0.3 individuals of economic species greater than or equal to I in tall in~' in the roads and 0.2 in~' in the gaps. The number of economic species per plot (6 in x 15 in) was similar among the three microhabitats ranging from 7.3 (SD = 2.8, n = 10) in gaps to 8.7 (SD = 3.7; n = 10)in the forest. Species dominance was most pronounced in the road and gap sites which were created during the logging operation. Height growth was good in both road and gap plots. In their assessment of the potential timber producing power of the post-logged over forest, after surveying all trees greater than or equal to 30 cm dbh in two 20 in x 1000 in transects in each of the three

15 * sites, a total of 55 trees ha' was recorded. Of this, 60% had present or potential future uses. In terms of volume, it was found that an average of 27 in' ha' of timber were in the sawable category with 33 in ha' of wood in the future-use category and 40 in' ha' with no known potential wood related uses. In another research conducted by 'silva at a1(1995), in a 64 ha experimental site located in the Tapajos National Forest, 67 kin south of Santarem city, which is a typical terra fume rain forest, with a standing volume of about 150 - 200 in' ha' in trees larger than 45 cm dbh, logging activity in 1979 on the average removed 75 in' ha' or 16 trees ha', all overthe felling limit of 45 cm dbh. Two years after logging in 1981, 22 species comprised about 60% of the stand basal area over 5 cm dbh. Of these species, 14 were shade tolerant and eight were light demanding, with ten species or 45% being commercial. In 1992, the same species still comprised 60% of the stand basal area butthe ranking of species had changed. Periodic annual diameter increment (PAl dbh) was calculated for all 195 species as well as 32 commercial species over three periods, 1981 - 1987, 1987 - 1992 and 1981 - 1992. Increment in both groups declined considerably following canopy closure. The average PAldbh for all species decreased by about 50% while the commercial PAl dbh declined by about 40%. During the 11 year observation period, PAldbh of all species and of the commercial group averaged 0.3 cm and 0.4 cm year' respectively. The total volume of all species increased by 38% between 1981 and 1992, and a similarincrease 37% was observed forthe commercial species. In 1992, however, there were only six trees and 18 in ha~ larger than 45 cm dbh (the commercial size according to the Brazilian forestry regulations) represented on the 1979 commercial species list and a few others appeared to be candidates for the next harvest. However, since the forest was logged, many additional species have been accepted by the timber trade and industry and thus a revision of

' Silva JNM; de Carvalho, JOP; Lopes J. do CA; de A1meida, BF; Costa D. H. M; de Oliveira LD Growth and yield of a tropical rain forest in the Brazilian Amazon 13 years after logging (1995) Forest Ecology and Management 71(1995) 267 - 274 16 the species list revealed a further 29 species that were designated commercial. These additional 29 species boostthe commercial volume in 1992 to 54 in' ha' in 15 trees per hectare. The study concluded that logging and the resulting changes in canopy structure altered the composition of the stand, reducing the number of shade tolerant species and stimulating light-demanding species. The stand basal area 13 years after logging was about 75% of that in a compareble unlogged primary forest. Although, logging stimulated growih, this effect was short-lived, lasting only about 3 years, and current growth rates are similar to those in unlogged primary forest. ,

2.7.4 Vine abundance anddensity The presence of vines or climbers inter-connecting the canopies of forest trees can result in damage to neighbouring trees and the creation of large canopy gaps during logging operations. According to 'Fisher and Ewers (1989), many species of vines have evolved mechanisms to survive serious stern injury with the result that when vine-laden trees are felled, the vines in the downed tree crowns frequently resprout and rapidly recolonise the surrounding forest. In a study conducted in a 210 ha patch of old-growth forest at Fazenda Sele, 30 kin Southeast of Paregominas, Pare, Brazil, by 'vidal, et al (1997), they estimated a vine density of 3577 individuals (over 0.5 in height ha'). With a total vine density nearly three times greater in the low regrowth phase of forests after logging activity than in the high mature forests. Additionally, they established that the number of vine connections between a tree targeted for cutting and the crowns of surrounding trees affects the amount of damage that will be incurred in felling. On the average, the canopy gaps created when trees with many vine connections (over seven connections) or no connections were felled, were twice as large as the gaps created when trees with few (three to five connections) were felled. Also, the zone of debris

' Fisher JB, Ewers FW, 1989. Wound healing in stems of lianas after twisting and girdling injuries. Botanical Gazette 150, 251 - 265

17 impact (i. e. the distance, extending from the edge of the felled tree out into the surrounding forest that was covered by fallen branches, trunks and other debris) increased with increasing number of vine connections. The width of this zone of impact averaged 1.8 in for treefalls with no vine connections while the width was 3.3 in fortreefalls

with some vine connections and 6.3 in when there were many vine connections. This increased area of forest floor covered by debris is likely to slow within-gap regeneration due to the crushing of any form of regeneration that was present prior to gap formation created by logging, etc.

2.7.5 MicrohabitatChanges Following Logging By evaluating seven qualitative ecological parameters in relation to the level of harvesting/extraction pressure, 'Martini at a1 (1994) attempted to predict the ability of 305 Amazonian tree species distributed among 167 genera and 41 families to persist within their microhabitats. The seven ecological characteristics which were considered in relation to various disturbances that could be associated with logging included: Seed dispersal range; abundance of saplings in the regeneration count; rapidity of growth; sprouting capacity; thickness of bark; geographical/distribution range and abundance of adults. These were evaluated by adopting a linear scale which assigned a point value of "3" to ecological characteristics that might allow a species to resist logging impacts, a score of "I" for characteristics that might hinder the species survival and a value of "2" for intermediate characteristics (cf Table 2.2).

' Vidal E, Johns J, Genning JJ, Barreto P, Uhl C, Vine Management for reduced - Impactlogging in Eastern Amazonia. Forest Ecology and Management. 98 (1997) 105 - 114 Martini AMZ; Rosa, Nelson de A; Uhl, C; An attempt to predict which Amazonian Tree Species maybe threatened by logging activities. Environmental Conservation, V01 21. Nr 2. Summer 1994. The Foundation for Environmental Conservation. Switzerland 18 Table 22 The parameters used to evaluate the ability of timber species in the Brazilian Amazon to persist in the fact of logging

Qualitative Parameters Categories Point Valoe Percentage of Species

Ecological Characteristics:

. DispersalRange: Dispersal generally restricted to area of crown. 10 Dispersal generally resincted to within 100 in from Crown. 2 20 Dispersal frequently beyond too in from crown 3 70

. Abundance of Low abundance in both understanding and gaps 43 Saplings in the Medium abundance 2 24 Regeneration:'High abundance, espedally in gaps 3 33

. Rapidity of Growth:5 Slow 29 Medium 2 54 Fast 3 17

. Sprouting Capadty:' Sproutswith difficulty ornotatall 13 sprouts readily 3 87

. ThicknessofBark:' Thin(generally<0.5m) 24 Medium 2 58 Thick (usually >I on) 3 18

. GeographicRange:' Mainly in EasternAmazonia 4 Mainly in Western/Central Amazonia 2 7 All of Amazonia 3 89

. Abundance of Adults:'Rare 19 Intermediate 2 71 Common orequently >3 indiv. /ha) 3

Weighting Factor

. Extraction Pressure: High (always harvested when present) 69 Low (frequently not harvested. even when abundant) 6 31

After Martini at al In addition, all species, were also scored for "extraction pressure"; a value of 'I' was assigned to species that are under high pressure and a value "6" was assigned to species that experience low pressure (i. e. are frequently ignored by harvesters, even when

Qualitative parameters are based on field experiences rather than on actual field measurements ' For the ecological characteristics, a point value of 'I' signifies an unfavourable ecological characteristics forthe species (i. e. the characteristic might cause population numbers to decline in the face of logging pressure); a value of '3' signifies a favourable characteristic; and a value of '2' signifies an intermediate characteristics. Species subjected to low logging pressure receives twice the 'favourable point score' (6 points instead of 3) forthis parameter, because extraction pressure is considered more important than any other parameter in determining the degree to which logging might affect population numbers. ' The greater the distance a species can disperse its seeds. the greater the area that it can colonise - which in turn, reduces the chance of local extinction ' An abundance of regenerating saplings is desirable, as it provides a stock of juveniles after logging ceases. Logging creates many openings in the canopy: species that grow rapidly in high light conditions should thrive ' The ability to sprout allows individuals that are damaged during logging to recover. ' Thick bark insulates a tree's cambium from heat. Species with thick back can survive the ground fires that sometimes occur in logged stands, whereas species with thin back cannot survive such fires. ' A widespread species will persist in non-logged areas, whereas a species that has a limited distribution. and in particular, a distribution that coincides with logging activities. might experience a population decline. ' The greater the number of adult individuals, the more difficult it might be to eliminate a species, although this need not always be so. '' Species with wood having a low market demand are less at risk than species with high market demand 19 abundant). The researchers hypothesised that the timber species with the lowest scores are predisposed to experience population reduction and possible ultimate extinction as a result of logging pressure. While, the timber species with the highest scores might experience population increase as a result of logging. Of this sample of 305 species, 89% of the timber species occur throughout the Brazilian Amazon, with 49', occurring mainly in the Eastern Amazon, 19", principalIy in the Central Amazon and 6% principalIy in Brazil's Western Amazon region. Within these regions, most (64%) of the timber flora occur on terra fume (non-flooded land) while 10% occur in flooded forest (varzea), and 24% occur in both habitanttypes. The reproduction-related characteristics of these timber trees also vary greatly. One-third of the species have "large seeds" (>2cm in length), while only 9% of allthe species have 'small seeds' (<0.5 cm in length). Most of the species (70%) are effective at dispersing their seeds to distances greater than 100 in. One-hundred and sixty-two of 305 timber species are dispersed by mammals, 165 are dispersed by passive agents such as wind and 125 are dispersed by birds. As the preceding numbers indicate, some 409". of these species have their seeds transported by two or more dispersal agents. An abundance of saplings in the forest is a sign that a specie is reproducing well. About 33% of allthe timber species sampled were well represented by saplings in the forest regeneration count, whereas 43% were rare in the sapling phase. Many of the timber species were found to be able to resist forest disturbances. About 879^". of saplings of these timber flora investigated can produce sprouts following the breaking and crushing injuries associated with logging, while 76% of the total sample have medium to thick bark (when fully grown), which provide protection against the fires that are sometimes associated with logging. Based on the point system awarded to each of the 305 species under evaluation, three groups were identified. Species in Group I (10 15 points), which were identified as potentially susceptible to population reduction in the face of intensive logging had 41 species

20 (13% of the total) in this group. The species in Group 2 (16 - 21 points) were regarded as able to withstand logging pressure (217 species), while those in Group 3 (22 - 26 points) may actually be favoured by logging (47 species) Group I, contains species of significant commercial importance in the Eastern Amazon, such as EUxylophora paraensis ('Pau Amare10') and Swietemia macrophy//a (American Mahogany). 'Pau Amare10', serves as a good example of how a species' ecological characteristics might lead to population reduction in the face of increased or repetitive logging activity. Seeds of this species are generally not dispersed much beyond the perimeter of the parent tree, and this ,species are generally not dispersed much beyond the perimeter of the parenttree, and tliis species is not likely to sprout after cutting or crushing. In addition, 'Pau Amare10' occurs primarily in the Eastern Amazon where logging pressure is intense. Furthermore, it maintains few saplings in the regeneration layer, and is not likely to benefit much from high-light, open-canopy environments that are created during logging. As it represents one of the species which is highly sought after it is aggressiveIy harvested. Representing the other extreme (Group 3) are species that are thought to be favoured by the changes induced by logging. For example Ormosia Goutinhoican be cited as a true representative of this group. Its seed are dispersed long distances and, it occurs throughout the Brazilian Amazon ; it sprouts readily after felling or damage; its population structure features many saplings and pole-sized individuals; and it benefited by the many canopy openings that logging creates because it is fast-growing, light-loving species. Group 2, has the greatest number of species among which are many of the economic important timbers such as Tabebuia serfatifo/Ia ('IPe'), Cedre/a odorata ('Cedro'), Hymenaea coucharil('Jatoba') and Viro/a sunnamensis ('Ucuuba'); also Carepa guianensis ('Andiroba'), Cordia goeldiana ('Freijo'), Mani/kara huberi ('Macaranduba'), Peltogyne paradoxa ('Pau Roxo') and Platymiscium trimtatis ('Macacauba'). Each of these species has its own mix of ecological characteristics, with no one case being typical. As a whole, these

21 species are able to withstand logging pressure without threat of significant population reduction. This simple classification of species that might experience population expansions or, alternatively contraction in a forest landscape

^ subjected to regular episodes of logging as above could be considered as an example of human-induced disturbance, which could be used in defining further research priorities.

2.7.6 Effects on other Biodiversity Logging, of course affects more than just plant species. The habitat modifications associated with logging produce more open, drier conditions that are likely to affect the distribution and abundance of amphibians and reptiles. Animal species that depend directly on timber species for food such as birds, bats and insects might also be affected by logging. The study by Martini at a1(1994) found outthat more than half of the 305 species investigated have fruits that are consumed by birds. To the degree that these animals, at times depend almost exclusively on timber species, which might be undergoing significant population reductions, local extinction's of animal populations are possible. On the other hand, animal species that are common in second-growih forests and such disturbed habitats might colonise such heavily-logged forests. Thus, in so far as more Amazon tree species become rare on a local scale, logging particularly in its more aggressive form, could contribute to regional declines in biological diversity since animal life which depend on such species of trees and vice versa will become significantly altered.

2.2 EcologicalImpacts offncreased Commercial Logging The ecological impacts of increased harvesting of trees which are potentially considered suitable for commercial logging, according to experts consulted in the course of the visit, is strongly influenced by the scale, sophistication and the extent of mechanisation of the operation; mode and method of transportation of harvested timber; product types and market alternatives available.

22 With reference to the scale, sophistication and extent of mechanisation of operation, it has been observed that logging patterns vary from manual application of axe and power chainsaw machines for felling while extraction method varied from those depending on tidal characteristics of rivers, skidders and crawler tractors to hand-operated winches to drag boles from the forest. These operations above could further be qualified as either planned or unplanned from the point of view of the management style of logging firms. The mode and method of transportation influences the building of log landings as well as road networks and whether or not dense or floating species should be harvested. The final product and choice of market where the products are to be sold strongly influence the range of initial tree species which may be felled for processing. In the light of the above, the assessment of the ecological impacts of increased harvesting of commercial species especially designated as lesser used or known, is based on a mixture of qualitative judgement and experiences which best describe the factors outlined above. These impacts as they relate to both the forest in most of the Brazil and Peru may best be appreciated from the point of view of the following identified logging disturbance or intervention phases: tree felling, machine manoeuvring in the bole zone, skidding to log landings, construction of log landings and construction of roads.

2.2. I BrazilianSituation 2.2.7.7 Canopy Opening Impacts: Depending on the scale of operation the original canopy cover of the forest is reduced to varying extents in relation to the identified five phases of logging disturbance. It could be as low as 5 to 10% in certain cases of varzea as well as for a terra firma logging to as high as 40 to 60% for both terrains. In relative terms since the methods employed for skidding and stacking of bole sized timber for the small scaled operations which more or less characterises the varzea logging phases are less extensive, their duration and reversibility may be described as medium term as compared to the medium to long term for a large scale

23 mechanised operations which occur in the terra firme forests whose duration and reversibility can be described as long term. This situation will definitely be compounded as more LUS are identified and included in any type of logging operation. Hence, the condition of the forest may not be reversible in the short to medium term. Mitigation: Logging intensity requires to be drastically reduced perhaps below the average extraction intensity found for example in the Paregominas region (30 - 40 in'/ha), while also extending felling cycles, which would enable near complete or total recovery offorest stand. These remedies require long term observance.

2.2.7.2 Logging Disturbance to Trees Impacts: The various logging phases inflict varying degrees of damage to the crowns and boles of other trees, which seriously affects their ability to recover. These range from minor or moderate crown or bole damage through severe damage to complete uprooting of trees. The number of trees in the bole zone that are damaged or smashed to the ground as a result of machine movement is significantly very high and this also applies to the number experiencing crown damage. The duration and extent of damage are long term. This can be further compounded by the presence or absence of vines/climbers and their density. Their presence was linked to higher damage levels during road building phase of logging as compared to the tree felling phase, although together, these two phases seem to influence the negative impacts associated with this type of disturbance. Mitigation: The adoption of planning measures and suitable logging technique could reduce such logging damages. Where a cluster of trees are to be felled, as in a scenario which identifies more

24 trees as potentially suitable for commercial logging, directional felling and type and choice of machine and accessories (e. g. winches) could greatly reduce damage associated with machine manoeuvring. Also pre-harvesting vine cutting operations may reduce damage to trees. One such measure recommends vine cutting to be done one to two years prior to logging. Such remedial activities need a medium to long term duration, to reverse a forest condition, and would strongly depend on the extent of damage inflicted.

2.2.7.3 GroundArea Disturbance , In terms of ground area impacted by the five identified phases of logging above, activities relating to tree felling and skidding to log landings, respectively contribute the most to the extent of ground area disturbance. The least appears to be the construction of log landings. While in the case of small scale operations which characterise most varzen logging rather low impacts-are observed, most medium to large scale operations have long term impacts. One can observe: relatively low impacts are observed, most medium to large scale operations have long term impacts. This situation is further worsened, the more sparely distributed the harvestable trees are per hectare, as more and longer roads and skid trails would have to be accessed. Although, soil compaction and effects due to erosion are very low due to the flat and very low gradient nature of most of the terrain, (i. e. varzea to terra firme), their extent in terms of magnitude is bound to increase as more and more LUS are included in the harvesting list and more crawler tractor/bulldozer are used. However, since the soil seedbank for various species are known to experience less competition within large gaps and skid trails so created, the duration and extent of this disturbance require intervention periods well beyond medium to long term

range.

25 Mitigation Season-specific logging which allows mills to continue to float logs out of the varzea forests during the rainy seasons ought to be promoted and carefully planned to augment

extraction activities which occur in terra fume forests requiring heavy machinery. But this is extremely vulnerable to any increases in harvesting intensity and expansion of species-mix in any such activity. The natural advantages associated with seasonal flooding which generally enables more rapid growth of seedling and sapling due to refurbishment of nutrients and the more improved fertility of such varzea soils than most terra firme areas from the rivers could be exploited. Equipment and machinery use (crawler tractor vrs skidder) need to be efficiently applied and carefully balanced in the various logging phases because of the predominance of terra firme forests.

2.2.7.4 Flora andFauna

Impacts: The creation of gaps associated with increased logging and harvesting activities proportionateIy increase gap size beyond natural conditions. This is likely to favour regeneration of light demanding species (especially pioneer trees and vines) and could conceivably alter forest composition for many years to come. Its been noted that the scraping of the ground that accompanies the creation of a skid trail provides a good F1::r, , bed for illo!, CGc s PCcie!: 10/1, ,.,*'inc I*'-," rim. 'The habitat niodifications associated with increased logging produce more open drier conditions that are likely to affectthe distribution and abundance of amphibians and reptiles. Animal species that depend directly on timber species for food might be affected by logging. Some timber tree have reproduction related characteristic which depend on birds and mammals. To the extent and degree that these fauna, depend almost exclusively on timber species which might be undergoing significant population reduction, local extinction of animal

26 populations are possible. On the other hand, certain animal species that are common in second-growih forest and disturbed habitats may tend to colonise such heavily-logged forests.

* Other significant changes involves such timber species which are valued for food, medicinal properties and/or gums and resins. Depending on the size of the logging gap created, vines/climbers may colonise the trees to varying degrees. The fruits of some vines species are important components of primates diets ('Peres. 1993) and any relative reductions in species with such desirable fruits could negatively impact primate populations. The effects on plants and animt^I may lead to some significant modification in the long term. Mitigation Ensuring that essential biological interrelationship which are important for forest regeneration processes are maintained maybe a better option. In this regard, animal seed-dispersers that are influenced by the size of clearing resulting from tree harvestings and the maintenance and creation of corridors of forest to link up such identified animal habitats are desirable and ought to be pursued.

2.2.7.5 Biodiversity Impacts: An increased logging active directed at more LUS may exert selective pressure on plant and animal species that are differentialIy tolerant to stresses associated with increased harvesting. The extent of any impact will be experienced by abundant species on one hand, and also other rare and endangered species. As a result, a subset of a rather stress tolerant species, together with a group of opportunistic exotic species might emerge to coexist and eventually dominate the future funa and flora, which are so threatened.

' Peres, C. A 1993. Diet and feeding ecology of saddle-back (Saguinus Fuscicollis) and moustached (S. Mystax)tamarius in an Amazonian terra fume forest. Journal of Zoology 230, 567 - 592 27

I In the case of plants, this future flora maybe composed substantially of those species that persist in the cleared areas and/orthose that are able to establish themselves in such areas. Hence, species that sprout readily, resist fire, have seeds and foliage that are unattractive to predators and can withstand or avoid drought may dominate in these altered landscapes. In the case of animals, it is the species with extremely flexible feeding and habitat requirement that may thrive. Such a future overall biota, composed of hardy generalist-type species of plants and animals, would encompass only a very small component of the biodiversity that is now present in the Brasilian Amazonia. There is a need to establish protected area systems covering: representative areas of all forest types; examples of those forests having high species diversity or high levels of endemism and forest habitats of rare and endangered species or species associations. Such protected areas should be as extensive as possible, ('IUCN/ITT0. 1992) and should be linked by corridors of natural forest and surrounded by buffer zones of neapnatural forests.

2.2.7.6 Fire Impacts: Fire represents one of the important destructive phenomenon which reduces the potential value of the forest. Logging gaps present readily created areas of rapid dry-down of vegetation and biomass in the logged forest and hence the focal points for fire susceptibility. 'A. M Gill(1975) considers fire to be a unique environmental variable because, it depends on the vegetation for fuel; it is self-propagating; it occurs for extremely limited periods and it may be very devastating. The immediate effects on the vegetation depends on the intensity and the longer

' IUCN/ITF0, (1992). Conserving Biological Diversity in Managed Tropical Forest, The IUCN Forest Conservation Programme. Proceedings of a workshop held in Perth, Australia. 1990, pp 6-7 ' Grill, A. M. (1975), Fire and the Australian Flora: a review. Australian Forestry 38, 4-25 28 term effects depend on the frequency of fires. The resultant effect is the death or scaring of parts of various degrees of the fire-contacted or burnt trees and other non tree components of the forest and also a reduced seed source forthe replacement of lost timber regeneration. Mitigation: In a study conducted by Johns at al(in press), it was shown that by reducing the size of logging gaps using low- impact logging, a reduction in the risk of fire can be achieved. After observing, the low-impact logging at Fazenda Sete (Brazil) which recorded a reduced mean gap size by 53% rel^Itive to the high impact logging, it reported that the decreased solar irisolation reaching the forest floor greatly reduced the probability of fire. Additionally, low impactlogging creates reduced logging waste which enhances forest regrowth. Although to some degree some plants may resist, fire, most of them may recover from fire by regrowth or other life- cycle responses. Depending on the damage caused this recovery as far as timber trees are concerned may be medium to long term orthe effect may not be reversible at all.

2.2.7.7 Forest Health: Impacts: As so many variables contribute to influencing the health of a forest the sequences of change may be expected to be complex. Therefore isolating modifications such as those which are attributable to the increased logging of lesser known species comes with a great deal of difficulty. This is because there is a need to reconcile issues relating to: constancy and distribution of such species; special scale of any form of impacts; and type, degree and frequency of disturbance. Thus only broad generalisation is possible, given such variability of likely influences on health, productivity and the growth of all other species which would be affected or left after any such action.

29 Using the evidence from studies conducted by 'Uhl at al (1996) the Para state of Brazil produces approximately 8 million in of round wood per year using conventional, unplanned logging methods. These methods, with high levels of damage, (200 trees/ha) leave a lot of waste after a first cut. Moreover, repeated entry into the forest every few years to harvest smaller individuals of the same commercially cherished species or species that are just gaining commercial value further degrades the forest. Repeated entry also increases damage to remaining trees, which continue to die after the initial years following logging. Also greater area of gaps created following increased harvesting of these species allow increased solar radiation to dry the dead trees, thereby creating high levels of potential fuel on the forest floor. This acts as a ready recipe for any fire that , escapes from nearby pastures, and this becomes a realthreat to the health and survival of these tropical wet forest ('Uhl and Buschbacher, 1985). The result, may be at best, a forest that is easily overcome by smothering vines/climbers and early successionaltree species, or at worse a newly created pasture. Such effects can be described as quite extensive and may not be easily reversed if allowed to occur. Mitigation: It is however, also possible to carefully create a healthy stand out of Amazonia's forest lands. According to 'John at al (1996), the first step is to log lightly. This means notjust logging selectively (3 -6 trees/ha) but also logging carefully. Careful logging means taking an inventory of the commercial trees 30 cm dbh prior to logging so that the logging crew knows the location of not only the trees for this harvesting but also the

' Uhl, C; Amare I, P; Barreto P; Barros, A. C; Genning, J; Johns. J; Souza, C; Verissimo, A and Vidal, E. 1996. An integrated research approach for addressing natural resource management problems in the Brazilian Amazon. Bioscience in press.

' Uhl. C; and Buschbacher, R, 1985. A disturbing synergism between cattle ranch burning practices and selective tree harvesting in Eastern Amazon. Biotropica, 17 (4) 265 - 268 pp

30

I potential trees forthe next harvest. It means cutting vines well in advance of logging, so that their connections between trees are weak when preferred commercial trees are felled, and therefore cause less damage when they fall. It means employing a planning crew to decide in which direction each tree should be felled (within the limits of what is possible) so that an efficient network of roads long landing and skid trails can be laid out prior to logging. It means training all work crews in the methods of reduced impact logging, so that they may effectiveIy

, implement the planning crew's instructions. Finally, logging carefully also means assuring that populations of commercial species are not driven to local extinction and therefore means leaving some of the "best" quality trees behind as seed trees.

2.2.2 Peruvian Situation: While several similarities appear to be common to the Brazilian situation, some related issues are further highlighted here.

2.2.2.7 Impacts: : While the associated opening with reference to the basal area of the tree felled is relatively small for small scale operations involving about 3 persons, the extent of opening is much wider for medium to large scale operators as they harvest 5-8 in' ha' 8-20 in' ha~' and 8-29 in' ha' respectively. Such operations are generally concentrated on about 25 species. With this scope of species choice which also keeps on increasing as more and more species gain commercial acceptance, the extent of the impacts on the microhabitats of these trees and the associated microclimates of such created gaps is bound to increase and eventually modify the condition on the forest floortowards a much drier condition. Although, such impacts have a relatively short to medium term effect with a medium to long term duration as the scale of operation gets

' Johns, S. Jemmoifer; Barrelo, P; Uhl C; 1996. Logging damage during planned and unplanned logging operations in the Eastern Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management 89 (1996) 59-77 pp 31 larger and more intensive, they could impact negatively on the general forest health as more species are logged. Machine manoeuvring in the bole area causes tree damage which is not proportional to the volume of timber being felled, and this has a high rated impact on both the vegetation and the forest environment. Other logging disturbance phases involving construction of landings and roads as well as skidding to log landings have medium to high impact on the forest vegetation as vegetation is destroyed in the process. The duration of the impacts associated with such activity is predicted to increase as more and more species are harvested. This is likely to cause irreversible damage to the forest environment in the medium to long term since experiences in Peru have shown that the damage is roughly greater in proportional to the number of tree

, sterns extracted. It is not uncommon to find a mass of branches cut from logged trees, vines and other forms of debris covering up much of the gaps created at the ground level, and therefore affecting the regenerative ability of saplings. However, the resulting canopy gaps which seem to improve or cause an increase in light penetration to the forest floor and the associated reduction in root competition due largely to increased mechanical activities of machinery, tend to impact less positively but more negatively on the general biodiversity of the forest. In one way or the other, they seem to allow the establishment and growih of seedlings and juveniles which include a wider variety of plant species other than the canopy dominants. While, usually small gaps (<150 in') are often filled partly by branch

. growth and vine formations from adjacent adult trees and plants, the situation is entirely different in wider gaps. Here the species-by-species regenerative ability appears to be rather unpredictable, because the timing of their occurrences may favourthe life cycles of some plants more than others and this is further modified by the other various!y occurring independent biological and abiotic events which are either advantaged or

32 2.2.3 Other Studies on Mitigating Ecological Impacts of Increased Harvesting of Timber Minimising the damage to the residual stand during logging is ecologicalIy essential for the success of all forms of polycyclic silvicultural systems, although in practice, very little consideration is given to this, CPUlkki in FAO, 1997, ). This situation where very little consideration is given to minimising damage is very pictureque in most logging experiences involving the harvesting of both primary species of timber or species designated as lesser used or known. Representing a resultthe levels of damage in actual harvesting and skidding normally accepted in conventional logging practice are uriacceptably high. As a central issue in this study, a careful assessment of the potential ecological impacts of increased logging of lesser used species (LUS/LKS) appears to impact negatively on the entire forest ecosystem, with the intensity of this depending on the extent of planning and gravity of the action which is brought to bear on the forest stand. It has been observed that the percentage of residual tree or stern damaged ranges from 33 to 70 percent in areas with a higher logging intensity (e. g. >30 in' ha') ('Uhl and Viera 1989; 'Pinard at a1 1995; 40ykstra et a1 1996). In relative terms, however such as in most African tropical forests where lower logging intensities are recorded (e. g. in African countries with the removal of one to two trees/ha), residual stand damage generally have been found to range from 10 to 20 per cent('White 1994; Scharpenberg, 'in FAO 1997b). 'Verissimo at a1 1992, also established that tree damage does not increase in direct proportion to felling intensity, and thus suggesting

' FAO, 1997, Literature review and summaries on logging impacts in non-coniferous tropical forests; with concentration on logging intensity, cycles and waste, and residual stand and site damage. By R. Pulkki GFSS Working Paper, Rome. ' Uhl, C & Viera, L. C. G. 1989. Ecological impacts of selective logging in the Brazilian Amazon; a case study from the Paregominas Region of the state of Pare. Blotropica 21 (1): 98-106 pp ' Pinard, M. A, Putz F. E, Tay, J. & SUIlivan T. E. 1995, Creating timber harvest guidelines for a reduced- impact logging project in Malaysia. J. For. , 93 (10): 41-45pp ' Dykstra, D. P. , Kowero, G. S, Of OSu-Asiedu A & Kio, P. , eds. 1996. See bibliography. ' White, L. J. T 1994. The effects of commercial mechanised selective logging a transect in lowland rainforest in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. J. Tropical Ecology 10 (3): 313-322 00 ' FAO, 1997b. Forest harvesting in the natural forest of the Congo; case study. B. R. Scharpenberg. 68 PP ' Verissimo, A Barreto, P. , Mattos, M. , Tarifa, R. & Uhl, C. 1992. Logging impacts and prospects for sustainable forest management in an old Amazonian Frontier: the case of Paregominas, Forest Ecology and Management, 55 (I-4): 169-199. 33 Verissimo at a1 1992, also established that tree damage does not increase in direct proportion to felling intensity, and thus suggesting that perhaps some mitigational factors may be contributing to this. It has also been observed that implementation of reduced-impact logging can permit an increase of logging intensity with a significant reduction of residual tree damage. For example Benaflor('in FAO, 1989d)found 67 percent of residuals damaged in uncontrolled logging with 23 in' ha' removed, while in a controlled logging area, 22 percent of residuals were damaged with 32 in' ha~' removed.

: Naturally, as long as logging and harvesting of timber is allowed to take place, some damage to the residual stand will occur, but, then, there is a maximum logging intensity threshold beyond which the maintenance of stand integrity is difficult in selective felling. Whiles, 'Watanable (1992) gives this threshold as 30 percent of stand basal area, we are yet to establish what levels would be quantitativeIy be achieved with an increased harvesting of lesser known species. With reference to logging damage to the site, under conditions of high logging intensity (e. g. >30 in' ha~'), between 10 to 25 percent of the area is impacted by roads, skid trails and landing ('FAO, 1989b). In lower logging intensity areas (e. g. <20 in3 ha'), the soil disturbance is from 6 to 13 percent of the area ('Uhl at a1 1991; White 1994). According to Bruenig (1996), with excessive roading and skidding, and thus excessive compaction and erosion, felling cycles of 25 to 50 years are not sustainable and that a cycle of 60 to 100 years is more realistic. The implementation of reduced-impact logging techniques result in significantly fewer site negative impacts. 'Winkler (in FAO 1997, ),

' Verissimo, A Barreto, P. , Mattos, M. , Tarifa, R. & Uhl, C. 1992. Logging impacts and prospects for sustainable forest management in an old Amazonian Frontier: the case of Paregominas, Forest Ecology and Management, 55 (14): 169-199. 2 FAO, 1989d, Logging in Papua New Guinea. By V. Buenaflor. UNDP/FAO Project. FAO DPIPNE/841003 Working Document No. 15, 67 pp ' Watanabe, S. 1992, Percentage offelling in the natural forest and damage caused by felling operations - a case of natural forest in Lokkaido, Japan. In ITFO, ed. Beyond the guidelines - an action program for sustainable management of tropical forests. ITFO Technical Series No. 7. ' FAO 1989b, Review of Forest management systems of tropical Asia. FAO Forestry Paper No. 89. Rome 228 pp ' Uhl, C. Verissimo, A, Mattos, M, Brandino Z & Viera, L. C. G. 1991. Social economic and ecological consequences of logging in an Amazon Frontier: the case of Tailandia. Forest Ecology and Management, 46 (34): 243-273 00 ' FAO. 1997, . Report of a case study on "environmentally sound forest harvesting". Testing the applicability of the FAO Model Code in the Amazon in Brazil. By N. Winkler, Draft Report Rome 59 pp 34 . found that, under conventional logging practice, 14.4 percent of the area was covered by roads, skid trails and landings, while in reduced- impactlogging, only 4.5 percent of the area was impacted. 'Malvas (in FAO, 1987) established that with optimalIy spaced and located roads, skid trails and landings a minimum of approximately 5 percent of the area would be impacted.

' FAO 1987. Development offorest sector planning, Malaysia: a report on the logging demonstration cum training coupe. ByJ. D Malvas. Project FO:DPIMAU85/004. Field Document No. 7. 43 pp 35 Chapter Three

Social Perspectives of increased Utilisation of Lesser Used Species (LUS) 3.0 Introduction The effects of logging of commercial tree valued as timber on the lives of most forest dependent people of the Amazon region of Brazil and Peru as far as this study is concerned may be appreciated by trying to assess the extent to which their value systems has been influenced or altered as a result of this activity. In most cases, depending on the extent and magnitude of any new activity, or influence, on the social conditions which were prevailing, it is possible to realise various perspectives and views which would describe the real or apparent change in attitudes and in the life styles of the people. Such perceptions may vary depending on whether one chooses to take account of the historical events which have resulted in current values or predicaments, or that, these should be neglected entirely in any form of assessments to be made. But, being sensitive to the factthat history is made up of many voices, and therefore it can be explored in an attempt to understand some of the fundamental reasons underlying any form of development, this study draws heavily on various forms of examples provided through personal communication as well as literature which have been provided by experts and consultants contacted in the course of the country field visits. Most, forest dependent people have special relationship with the natural forest environment where they are found. Whatthey appreciate in a piece offorest and the resulting interdependence that exist between them can best be described by the people themselves if they are given that opportunity to do so. Butthis is often notthe case, as this is in most cases subjected to a review and judgement of other people. Perhaps the beauty of this natural relationship between the forest and its dependents should rest with the beholders themselves, since in most cases, their knowledge of what is available, their use, etc. of various forms of species and the range and variation of biodiversity provide a basis for their cultural adaptation and their general development. As this relationship is altered by new influences such as technologies which favour increased logging, several social implications are produced which may not be very obvious untilthe alteration created is

36 irreversible, and there is no doubt that the various forest habitats have experience or are experiencing such changes. In this regard, the importance of forests in terms of its values need to be appreciated in its totality with equal emphasis placed on the ecological, social and economic benefits that can be derived from them, while also appreciating the costs of introduced actions and activities on such natural resources. This is because the three aspects provide a continuum of conditions which should be studied in order to avert problems associated with most common property heritage of which most tropical forests of the world is a part.

, 3.7 Experiences from Braz" The socio-economic importance of the logging industry and its influence on the lives and activities of people who live in and also depend on Brazilian Amazon forest has been very remarkable and hence provides a good reference point of information forthis study. Whiles most forest dependent people adapted their lifestyle to suittheir natural forest settings, the opening of the Amazon frontier which began some 25 years ago as a result of the building of roads into the forest, brought with it colonists who arrived to engage in various forms of economic activities. With the exception of mining activities, various reasons have been cited, such as the lack of infrastructure, absence of reliable credit and infertile soils, as having contributed to the hinderance of this colonisation process CSmith, 1982, 'Moron, 1989). This, notwithstanding, cattle ranchers are known to have constituted a second wave of occupation, but they also faced problems of poor soils, pests and poorly adapted forege species, to the extentthat despite government incentives, this industry has not generally enjoyed much economic success ('Hecht at al 1988). With this checked performance story of these two pioneer groups, one would have expected the stagnation of the Amazon frontier, butthis appears to have been changed and enhanced by logging activities subsequently.

' Smith, N. J. H, 1982. Rainforest Corridors: the Transamazon Colonisation Scheme. University of California Press Berkeley ' Moron, E. F, 1989, Government-directed settlement in the 1970's: an assessment of Transamazon highway colonisation. In DA. Schumann and W. L. Partridge (Editors), The Human Ecology of Tropical Land Settlement in Latin America. Westview Press, Boulder, Co, pp 172-198 pp ' Hecht, S Norganard, R. B and Possio, G, 1988. The economics of cattle ranching in Eastern Amazonia, Interciencia, 13: 233-240 pp 37 Significantly, two agents can easily be identified in the logging activities which occur in a frontier region such as the Para state in Eastern Amazonia. These were those who controlthe forest resource - ranchers and colonists, and those who log and process timber- loggers and sawmill owners. Alongside these two groups of people are many indigenous communities, particularly those that retain their old traditions and therefore relying heavily on hunting and fishing and in accordance with their cultural practices adopt methods which ensure that the forest renews itself. This group is also known to practise slash and burn methods of farming, but again the scale of operation is relatively quite accommodating, although sometimes the use of fire may get out of hand than intended. In a study which, focused on Tailandia where a colonisation project was established by the Institute for the lands of Para (ITERPA, 1989) it was established that, stretching between kilometers 53 and 183 along the Para Highway 150, an area covering a total of 158,400 ha. which was able to accommodate about 3000 families of smalllandholders loggers who harvest for the mills have become the main catalysts forthe building of secondary roads in the region. They seem to do this in eXchange for partial logging rights on the lands of ranchers and agricultural colonists. Most of the logging occurs on 50 ha. lots occupied by colonists. In interviews conducted amongst a total of 59 colonists families, they found that 869'. were involved, either actively or passively in logging activities. Of those passively involved (619",) of all families), simply sold trees in their forest tracts from time to time, whereas with the colonists who were active, 25% participated in the logging process. Most of the logging roads and landings are opened or constructed manually using machetes and chainsaws. This activity required an average of seventy minutes of human labour which is expended for each cubic meter of wood prepared for extraction. Therefore, a three-man team, working 8 hours day~ could prepare 20 in' of timber daily and about 440 in per month. On the other hand preliminary data from the Paragominas region (approximately 2000 kin east of Tailandia) where timber extraction is done with bulldozers reveals that these times and energy efficiency relationships change as logging becomes more mechanised. For example, timber extraction at Paragominas is at least three times faster than in Tailandia (a logging team in Paregominas produces 70 in' day~').

38 At Tailandia, therefore, it is not uncommon to find peasant farmers and joggers join up resources to log portions of the amazon forest using predominantly more labour intensive tools and equipment for the small mills which appear to be run by smallfamilies predominantly. With reference to farming which represents a major source of occupation, the study found that on a hectare of farm land, most farmers interviewed produce on the average 1.4 tons of rice and 3.4 tons of cassava for flour. Though these are considered reasonable yields by tropical farming standards, only one crop of rice and cassava is possible before the plots must be left fallow. Armed with this knowledge, people make decisions influenced by the fact that land is also reasonably cheap, and hence joggers acquired such lands for both timber exploitation and also for agricultural purposes. However the choice between these two activities is influenced by the presence or otherwise of the rainy ordry season.

3.7. I HouseholdEconomyandlncome Distribution Based on the interviews conducted, an assessment was made on the expenses incurred by a colonist farming household found in Tailandia. These expenses, generally covered food and material needs which include clothes, tools, school supplies, health costs and transportation. The dietary needs for a family of eight, the average family size in the region, were estimated to cost Us $1140. This estimate does not include the consumption of rice and cassava flour produced on the family farm. The study also considered that other material needs equal 40% of total dietary needs or Us $528 perfamily (FGV, 1970). Therefore, the annual maintenance expenses for a colonist family of eight are approximately Us $1660. As the prices offered for farm produce in general is extremely low (Us $0.12 kg~' for cassava flour and Us $0.04 kg~' for rice), generally a hectare of farm land would produce Us $464 (vide 3.1 for tonnage produced ha') of farm produce before it is abandoned. This means that a farm family of eight would need to clear almost about 4 ha a year to earn enough to satisfy its basic subsistence needs (4 x $464 = 1865) - $180 (i. e. consumption of rice and cassava meal from family farm) = $1676). However, more than half of the colonists in the study

39 area to = 59) had farm areas in cultivation that were less than 4 ha. In some specific examples which were encountered, fortho farm families, one had cleared 2 ha year' and another had cleared 7.5 ha year~' In relation to the first specific examples of the two farm families cited above, only 509^", of the family's financial necessities were satisfied by farming. In the second example it was found that by clearing a large area (7.5 ha) this family met with a comfortable margin of security its necessities.

3.7.2 The Role Of Logging in the HouseholdEconomy , Normally, colonists may benefitfrom the timber in theirlotin one of two ways. In this regard, they may either selltheir timber trees so identified without becoming actively involved in the logging process. This system of activity appears to form the largest proportion (61%) of the colonist families interviewed. A second group which comprised of colonists who function as "loggers" (representing 259'. of those interviewed), felled desirable trees and also engaged in cutting access roads into the forest. The remaining smaller group representing 14% were not yet involved in any aspect of logging. Significantly too, there were other colonists, who argued that the stumpage paid fortimber was too low (Us$ 5 pertree in Jan 1989). These people believed that the value of standing forest will increase as the region's timber resources diminish and hence prefer to wait for more favourable market conditions. The study also identified a group of the colonist which it called "provider colonists" (61%), representing the principal suppliers of wood to Tailandia's sawmills. They selltimber in the form of standing trees to joggers, however, the value of the tree and the form of payment vary.

I While 68% received payment in cash, 329". traded wood for necessities such as agricultural tools, fuel, field animals or a promise from the logger to completely clearthe selectively logged tract, which would thus allow the colonist to farm the area without much hinderance. In comparative terms, the majority (699^",) of these "provider colonists" earned more money from agriculture at the time of the study than from timber sales and this situation has not changed at all as at

40 1998 (per coinm). For some 159', of these colonists, the family economy depended mostly upon business other than agriculture or logging, and for the remaining 169^'. it was sales derived from logging that contributed the most to the household economy. What is worthy of note is that many colonist from this last group had arrived in the study area the previous year of the study and had riot produced their first farm crops yet. In such a situation, selling wood from their lots is the main way that these colonists could survive the first year until their fields begin to produce. Most joggers were land titleholders and also serve as intermediaries responsible for felling timber and transporting the logs to the sawmills. Such people were either directly or indirectly involved in farming. Funds realised through logging is invested in agriculture, with preference going to the establishment of perenial tree and vine crops and also livestock acquisition and management. In another study undertaken by Higuchi(1994), most timber based industries of the state of Amazonas, have abandoned their own harvesting activity. But have managed, through a dealership system that is made up of industry, buyer, "prepostos" (intermediaries between buyers and "ribeirinhos") and "ribeirinhos" (low-volume producers) to ensure that their requirement for logs are constantly provided for. This form of harvesting system is typical of harvesting sites in the dense forest off100dable lands ('varzea' forests). In a case study carried out by this same author, in the Rio Mainoria region of this state, one buyer and one "preposto" who used 33 "ribeirinhos" during the felling, extraction and raft transportation phases of roundlog production, were carefully monitored during the 1992-93 timber crop season. This "preposto" and his team of "ribeirinhos" delivered 6,240 in' of roundwood to the buyer. (The normal size of a raft is 5,000 in'). In this case study the raft took 20 days (non stop trip) to reach Mariaus and the transportation cost was approximately Us $ 5.00 in".

41 3.2 Experiences from Peru With about 40 million hectares of potential production forest in Peru, its been estimated that between two to three million hectares of this is presently being utilised by a poliferation of small scale harvesting operations widely scattered throughoutits Amazon region. Such operations can be found more in areas along the rivers and in areas which can be described as remote from highly populated areas. It is not uncommon to find that after a logging operation has taken place in these areas, the residual forest becomes vulnerable to conversion to other uses.

3.2. I The Alexander von HumboldtNationalForestActivities About 80 kilometers, south-west of Peru's principal timber industry town Pulcallpa, one can locate the Alexander von Humboldt National forest which is one of the four National forests of Peru. This resource which was demarcated in 1965, initially covered an area of 645,000 hectares of Amazon rain forest. However, as a result of the development of road infrastructure which has attracted a lot of settlers to this area, the original forest in terms of size has been compromised to a large extent. Part of this forest has been a subject of an ITFO project, entitled "Forest Management in the Alexander von Humboldt National Forest" (PD 95/90). This project was undertaken by the National Institute of National Resources (IRENA) of Peru. Though this project 's objective was to develop a modelforest management plan in some 138,000 hectares of forest and to assign an effective harvesting plan, it also sought to expand the number of timber species for commercial extraction in order to promote forest regeneration and to raise the socio-economic level of the rural communities who live close to these forest resources. With an estimated population in the range of 25,000 people living within Alexander von Humboldt National Forest, many of which are described as being very poor, this project attempted to divert the activities of individuals from exploiting the forest and its

. lands for both legal and illegal farming purposes. Based on one of the several models being developed and tested in Peru in line with her Government's initiative to promote sustainable management,

42 this ITTO sponsored project sought to established a model of forest management plan in a 138,000 ha. of forest assigned to it. In this regard, an effective forest harvesting plan was developed alongside a timber sale concept model which tried to expand the number of timber species utilised for commercial extraction. Additionally, the project aimed at promoting forest regeneration and also provide a basis for raising the socio-economic level of the identified rural forest dwelling communities in this area. Among the various activities designed to achieve the objectives of this project was to set aside environmentally sensitive areas such as watersheds and steep slopes as protected areas with the, remaining 105,000 hectares divided into five lots, with each divided into forest management unit of 3,500 hectares. The forest management units were sub divided into annual cutting parcels of 400-600 hectares each, and management plan developed for them, based on ensuring a complementary relationship between the public and private sectors. A timber sale concept based on tender and public auction of inventoried trees to be offered to a contractor, had the intention that the economic resources so generated by such sales should be sufficient to finance the implementation of the project's management plans which include silviculture, forest monitoring and road design and construction. However, due to problems encountered in the first few years of implementation of the model which were completely unforeseen during the designing stage, as the major market in Pucallpa suffered badly from a period of subversion, many of the contractors have been very selective in their logging and harvesting of timber, taking only those tree species which command high prices and leaving the rest. Thus, while projected yield estimated based on 60-year rotation with two or more interventions for the forest management units was 28 in3 han, the actual yield which were achieved were between 3-19 in3 ha-,. This project has identified over 308 different timber species in the Alexander von Humboldt National Forest as potentially suitable for commercial extraction, but only 25 species have been considered as providing the main resource base forthe sustainable management of the area, due to either their high commercial value or abundance.

43 Significantly, a number of peripheral activities have evolved I . which have provided opportunities forthe local communities and thus contributing to the multiplier effects of the projects model. Among these, are, the fabrication of a simple form of trailer the "sulky", which is now being used in conjunction with a portable winch to drag out residual timber which would otherwise be left to rot on the forest floor. Also, the availability of residual timber which is not worthy in the economic sense to be sent to Pucallpa, has promoted the acquisition of a demonstration portable sawmill. The resultant sawn timber is sold directly to a number of small scale furniture manufacturers who have located their shops along the road side. The harvesting and salvaging of branches and other discarded onion of hi h densit commercial tree s ecies such tahuari Tabebuia sp) and chontaquiro (Dip!^^ manjusii) have been promoted, such that these are cut into "Tucos" (small, cylindrical blocks) and then used in the production of parquets for flooring in small scale sized mills. It was also observed that the project has encouraged the use of portable furnaces for charcoal production and its estimated that about 200 tons of charcoal were produced monthly. On the other hand, beyond the bounds of this main project area, some portions of the National Forest has been encroached upon as a result of deforestation due to intensive farming activities of the communities. In trying to quantify these activities, some experts have

estimated that in the process of conversion of forest to subsistence agriculture in particular, approximately 150,000 in3 of commercial and potentially commercial timber are burnt each year.

3.3 SOCio-Cultural Characteristics of some Forest Dependent Communities In a study undertaken by an environmental non-governmental organisation located in Pulcalpa in an area close to the National forest which has been colonised by migrant populations whose main preoccupation is to derive benefits from the coexistence of logging and farming activities. Most of the areas visited had population growth rate higher than the recorded national

average.

44 Other activities which were typical of the place were hunting and fishing. The population structure of this study area had a larger proportion of people falling into the working class age (15-48 years), with most of the members of these communities providing communal support on one another's farm. In order of preference, most families spend more time on farming followed by providing communal support on someone else's farm, while hunting and fishing appear to take lesser time. It is common to find that the head of a family of five will switch his preference for any of these activities depending on the extent to which some form of forest products harvesting activity is readily available to contribute additional income. Forest products harvesting including logging, represent an important socio-economic activity forthese communities. Such activities include the harvesting of only the most valuable timber species, medicinal herbs gathering and collection of resins from trees. Members of the community who are hired to log for companies receive very little incentive to expand the range of timber species. The result is that small operators hired by companies do not seem to benefit much from logging activities here. On the other hand, members of the local communities extract some few logs and poles forthe construction of house frames. They also collect palm leaves and trunks forthe construction of walls, floors and roofs of their houses.

3.4 Common Rights of Traditional Forest-Based Communities Most Amazonian rural populations (especially caboclos and Indians) are highly dependent on forest resources particularly non-wood products for food, clothing, shelter and many other uses. Historically, to build their houses most Indians used a minimum of hardwood but large Quantities of poles splits (rather than sawn) palm trunks, palm leaves, palm fibre and thin lianas ('Parodi 1988) Most people acknowledged the factthatthe list of non-wood resources which are utilised by these communities is almost endless. Many communities identified in the Amazon forests of the two countries are dependent on the forest for nutrients in the form of fruits, leaves, roots, etc. In both lowland and

' Parodi, J. J, (1988) The use of palms and other native plants in non-conventional, low-cost rural housing in the Peruvian Amazon. In M. J. Balick, ed. The palm-tree of life: pg 1/9-129 New York, New York Botanical Garden 45 upland forests, wild animals and birds find part of their sustenance in the edible fruits and seeds or nuts in addition to leaves and other animal sources. Many Amazonian communities, particularly those who retain their old traditions, rely heavily on hunting and fishing while respecting the principles of sustainability, CDubois 1989). However, according to Dubois, when these traditions are lost or ignored, hunting and fishing become more and more depredatory and destructive of the resource base. With special reference to Brazil, a system of extractive reserves have been established in the Amazon. These reserves, currently comprise more than 2.0 million hectares, (0.4%) of the Brazilian Amazon. They are officially nine in number (vide table 3.4) and represent public forested lands designated for the sustainable use of forest resources, where long-term collective rights are granted to groups engaged in non-timber forest product activities.

Table 3.4

Extractive Reserves in Brazil

Name State Area (ha) Resources Alto Jurua Acre 506186 Rubber

Chico Mendes Acre 970570 Nuts, rubber Cajari Amap^I 481650 Nuts, rubber palms Ouro Preto Rondon 204583 Nuts rubber, palms Pirajuba6 S. Cata 1444 Molluscs, fish Ciriaco Marenh 7050 Palms (babagu) 10450 I Mata Grande Marenh Palms (babagu) Frexal Marenh 9542 Palms (babagu) Tocantins Tocant 8280 Palms (babaqu) Totals 2,99754 (Source: von Behr, .op. cit)

These extractive reserves integrate respect for historical forms of land occupation and use with development efforts that seek to advance the course of forest dependent people's social and economic conditions. Alongside

' Dubois, J. C. L, 1989. Animal and vegetal extractivisim (extractive exploitation of animal and vegetal natural resources)in the Amazon. In Amazonia: facts, problems and solutions, Proc. Workshop, pg 49- 53, University of Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo. Brazil1989. 46 these benefits, public control and responsibility for conserving the forest is retained. The importance of these Brazilian extractive reserves and the populations that depend on them have been recognised since 1970, when settlers and rubber tappers of the Amazon region began organising themselves through trade unions of rural syndicates to defend their rights and their way of life.

Table 3.5

NWFP Production from "Extantivism"in Brazil in 1992

Product Tonnes

1.0 Rubber I . I Caucho 4 I. 2 Hevea (cogulated latex) 18468 I .3 Hevea (liquid latex) 1108

2.0 Non-elastic gums 14 2.1 Balata 71 2.2 Magaranduba 248 2.3 Son/a

3.0 Wax 6531 3. I Camauba (wax) 1286t 3.2 Cainauba (powder) 12861

4.0 Fibres 899 4.1 Bunti 2667 4.2 Camauba 77716 4.3 Piagava 388 4.4 Others

5.0 Tannius 923 5. I Angico (bark) I012 5.2 Barbatimao (bark) 6 5.3 Others

6.0 01eaginous I68717 6. I Babagu (nut) 34 6.2 Copaiba (oil) 14 6.3 Cumaru (nut) 10958 6.4 Licuri (shell) 6898 6.5 Oticica (seed) 2149 6.6 Pequi(nut) 3860 6.7 Tucum (nut) 1022 6.8 Others

47 Product Tonnes

7.0 Food 124555 7.1 Agai(Fruit) 9827 7.2 Castanha de caju 25303 7.3 Castaha do para 208298 7.4 Erva-mate cancheada 541 7.5 Mangaba (fruit) 2,003 7.6 Palmito 6429 7.7 Pinhao 19285 7.8 Urnbu (fruit)

8.0 Aromatic, medicinal, toxic 8. I IPecacana or Poaia (root) 3 8.2 Jaborandi(leaves) 1257 8.3 Uurucu (seed) 504 8.4 Others 2861

Source: Fundagao Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica, IBGE (1994)

In table 3.5 the range of non wood forest products (NWFP) recorded from "extractivism"in Brazil for 1992 is shown indicating the different groups of products, and their quantities as extracted and recorded in that year. On record, by this system of acknowledging the important role and contribution of NTFP's or NWFP's the demands of diverse traditional population groups such as rubber tappers, Brazil nut and palm nut gatherers and collectors of fruits and flowers had to be rationalised so that their rights could be guaranteed on a more sustainable basis. Before this type of rationalisation, extraction was done by large entrepreneurs whose actions yielded profits for a restricted number of powerful families and commercial companies, but only minimal benefits forthe forest dwelling communities involved in the process. With the progressive establishment of extractive reserves, supported by a large coalition of governmental and non-governmental organisations, some

progress has been made in ensuring that more benefits accrue to local people. A case in point is the Agro-Extractivist Co-operative of Xapur (Acre) founded in 1989 by rubber tappers, where the co-operative pays adequate prices to local forest dwellers for Brazil nuts. The long term survival of the extractive reserves will depend on diversification of market-oriented extractive activities including timber exploitation and others such as training of people in . sustained yield management and agroforestry. Despite these gains some reports indicate that the concept of Extractive Reserves are not working as 48 well as they were intended. 'AIlegrelti(1994) has outlined some reasons for this observation, and these include the inability to organise marketing co- operatives to provide economic support fortheir members. Therefore, in I order to survive, forest dwellers are either leaving their holdings or increasing their area of slash-and-burn plots. Additionally policies that directly affect the reserves are rarely enforced, and with lack of proper pricing policies for extractive commodities, many products can not find markets, pointing to a possibility that the extractive reserve initiative might eventually not respond to the intended objectives.

3.5 Some Factors Affecting the Harvesting and Use of Non-wood Forest Product(NWFP)/Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP) Experiences gained from the Amazon forests of both Brazil and Peru point to the fact that for NWFP-based activity to be sufficiently sustaining and appealing, a greater number of marketable NWFPs would need to be identified. Currently, however, a majority of the reserves' communities sell only one or two major NWFPs for cash. Their livelihoods are greatly supplemented by less sustainable activities, such as animal rearing, slash and burn cash-crop agriculture. In order to develop new commercial NWFPs at these local levels, there might be a need to address four major challenges namely, lack of markets, high production costs, lack of familiarity with production methods and an unreliable supply. Perhaps, the greatest challenge listed to be facing NWFP based economies is the nature of the market with an inherent tendency to replace most extractive products with synthetic substitute and cultivated trees. There is a general lack of markets for most of the goods of the vast numbers of useful plant products from the Amazon and only a small number are sold commercially. These include Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), agai palm (EUteipe oleracea), fruits and, to a far less degree, natural rubber (Hevea brasilieusis), oils and aromatics. The majority of NWFPs are used domestically for tools, decorations, construction materials, medicinals and food. As rural economies become increasingly linked to the market economy, however, they have an increasing need for cash. Butthen, the limited income

' Allegrelti, L. F. 1994. Extractive reserves in Brazil: Searching for sustainable development with social justice. TRI News 13 (1) Spring 1994. 49 earning potential of most of these extractive products generated from the forests, in comparison with other alternatives makes it impossible to satisfy their aspirations. For most of these products the markets are small and volatile and the only NTFPs which can be sold are those with established markets and buyers located within the boundaries of any particular region. It would appearthat most commercial NWFPs from the Amazon are unknown even at the national level and knowledge aboutthem is extremely localised. n Again, the difficulty in establishing markets in part derives from, and its also exacerbated by the relatively high costs of harvesting NWFPs. Most Amazonian NWFPs come from small-scale producers who cannot employ large economies of scale, hence higher cost for gathering and harvesting which therefore result in expensive products. This is especially the case where the product in question is not entirely unique and a cheaper substitute is available elsewhere. The result is that, the Amazonian NWFPs that have proved successful tend to be those for which no close substitute exist, such as Brazil nuts and aqai fruit. Even when a market exist for a given NWFP, it is rarely produced at the local levelif the community lacks a tradition of utilisation. This is especially the case with NWFPs that require considerable labour and/orinvestments and therefore involve some amount of risk forthe producer. Often the skills do not exist locally for processing and/or adding value. When faced with the above factors, communities opt to simply avoid the industry or the vocation all together. Another important limitation is the problem of supply or availability due to ovenharvesting of a resource with market value. When this happens, it is difficult to create a steady supply of many natural product without resorting to harvesting methods which are environmentally destructive, which could have best been addressed by using a plantation like approach to solving. Unfortunately, even when a resource does not require such intensive management practices, it may be rapidly ovenharvested without formal or informal co-operative agreements for management of the resource on common lands which abound freely everywhere. This has still been found to be the case even when the situation is improved by market development which eventually leads to an increase in value of the resource in question.

50 More often than not, the welfare impacts are likely to be negative unless underlying political and land-rights issues are tackled. Irispite of the above, it is asserted that there are several important reasons to support NWFP (NTFP)-based natural forest management and in particular extractive reserves. It is estimated that over one and half million people in Brazilian Amazon still derive a significant proportion of their income from extractive products ('Richards 1993). The immediate alternatives involve clearing the forest or migration, therefore, there is a strong humanitarian and strategic case for supporting extractivism, giving time to

. develop longer-term solutions. Additionally, the harvesting methods of most extractive products are non-destructive, and depending on the intensity of harvesting leave little or no impacts on the forest ecosystem. With adequate prices, extractivism could be indefinitely sustainable, since this activity supports the needs of various groups of forest dependent people in addition to whatever revenue that can be generated from timber harvesting whether traditionally well known or lesser known.

3.6 OthersocialPerspectives of the Utilisation of Newspecies 3.67 An Examples from Peru As a follow-up to an ITTO sponsored project PD 37188 entitled the "Industrial Use of New Forest Species in Peru", which sought to introduce and incorporate some Less Known/Used specie into the forest industry especially within the vicinities of Iquitos, Pucallpa and Lima. An attempt was made to generate some information in terms of the potential effects of the industrial uses of these new speciesin Pucallpa. Some of the species which were studied by this project were Aguana masha, Andiroba, Azucar huayo, Bolaina blanca, Cachimbo, Capirona, Congona/Machinga, Estroraque, Higuerilla, Mashonaste, Oj6 renaco, Oj6 rosado, Panguana, Pashaco, Pumaquiro, Requia, Shihua huaco, Tahuari, Utucuru, Yacushapana (See Appendix 2) for their scientific names). Whiles most respondents from the Industry have estimated that the use of these new species have between 5-20% impact on improving their

' Richards ,M. 1993 - Major NTFPs of Amazonia and their constraints. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 72 (1) pg 21-27. 1993 Troy Austin, Harle Alexis; 1998 - The Liana Project: Traditional Arts Conservation and Economic Development in the Amazon. Rainforest Action Network. Pp 9-13 1998 51 ASSESSMENTAND RANKING OF SOME SELECTED PRIMARY FOREST SPECIESAccoRDiNG TosociAL NEEDSAND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

TABLE 3.6.2

Priority Species Several Knowhow People have Has natural Ability Naturally Can coesist with Used Used in Used by Seeds are Ranking

Uses to Produce knowhow to Grow Quickly Abundantin Other Planted Locally Export Processing available

Exist to Manage Area Crops and Market Centers

Animals in Area

Tahuari(N) + + +. + + + + + 7

2 Shihuahuaco (N) + +- + + + + + 6

3 CaOba + + +. + + + 5

3 Cedro + + +. + + + 5

3 Ishipingo + + +. + + + 5

3 Lupuna + + +. + +. +- + + 5

, 4 Copaiba * + +- + +. +. + + 4

5 Pumaquiro (N) + +- + + 3

5 Estoraque (N) + +- +- + + 3

Ranking Scale: o + +. o N Newly Commercialised Species ILUS ILKS * Medicinal

, ------0------. ---, , utilisation volumes as far as the project was concerned, others especially some farmers and people living close to these forests had a different perception of the use of these species which the industry perceived as New. In this wise some views were sought from the people in terms of the occurrence of these trees which were well known to them in either residential forests or primary forest, after some form of logging has taken place. A summary of the views of these respondents on the condition of the forest following logging is presented in table 36.1 .It is very obvious from the table that certain species well known to them are increasingly being reduced in quantities in the forest around them.

Table 3.6. I Abundance of Species in Residual 11 I I I IV V Very Abundant Easy to Find Not Easily Rarely Found Not Found Found

Isma inoena Tahuari Shihuahuaco Quinilla CaOba Marupa Ariacaspi Cumala roja Copaiba Tornillo Huicungo Catahua Cumaia blanca Esloraqe Inayuga Yarina (Palm) Huaymro Panguana Huasai(Palm) Chapaja (Palm) Aguano masha Ishpingo Ungurahui Shebon (Palm) Pumaquiro Cedro Aguaje (Palm) A1canfor inoena Pona Lupuna blanca Canela inoena Palta inoena From study

On the basis of their observations an attempt was made to assess the importance of some selected species which can easily be identified in the residual or primary forests and also secondary forest in terms of their importance, use value, marketability and their ability to be adapted in farming systems The results (based on rating of O and I) are presented in tables 3.62 and 36.3. These assessment prioritise the species with Tahuari, followed by Shihuahnaco and then a group made up of four species namely CaOba, Cedro, Ishpingo and Lupuna identified as common to the residual/primary forest(table 36.2). In the case offorests described as secondary forest (table 3.63), the assessment

.

52 ASSESSMENTAND RANKING OFSOMESELECTEDSECONDARYFOREST SPECIESACCORDINGTOSOCIAL NEEDSAND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

TABLE 3.6.3

Priority Species Several Knowhow People have Has natural Ability Naturally Can Goesist with Used Used in Used by Seeds are Ranking

Uses to Produce knowhow to Grow Quickly Abundantin Other Planted Locally Export Processing available

Exist to Manage Area Crops and Market Centers

Animals in Area

Bolaina (N) + +- + + + + + + + 8

Capirona + + +- +. + + + + + + 8

Sangr de grado * + +. +. + + + + + + + 8

2 Marupa +. +. + + + + + + + 7

2 Uria de gate * + + +. + + + + + 7

~ 3 Tahuari(N) +. +- +. + + + + + + 6

3 Topa + +. +. + + + + + 6

4 Cejtjco *** + + + + 5

4 Shebon *** + + +. + + + 5

Ranking Scale: o + +. o N Newly Commercialised Species I LUS ILKS * Medidnal *** Nori Timber

, ------. " - ---. -. prioritises three species namely Bolaina, Capirona, Sangre de grado, followed by three groups of species. The tables also present a picture of the importance of these species to the forest dependent people of this area of Peru and how they contribute or influence their general outlook in life as forest dependent people.

3.6.2 Examples from Braz" Traditionally, the forest resources of the Brazilian amazon region have been used for a variety of purposes by various groups of forest dependent communities. These range from hunting, trapping, animal rearing and breeding, food, plant and fuel gathering and the extraction of raw materials. Within the context of such uses products and produce from some of these trees have become affected as timbermen expand the range of cherished species to include these tree species which were originally the sole preserve of such communities, and associated wildlife. In the table 3.6.4below a small collection of forest tree species which were specifically identified by groups of forest dependent communities as important sources of their non wood raw material orfood for either themselves or wild animals but are also being sourced as raw material for timber are presented.

Although the list of species in the table representjust a sample of the range of many tree species which have alternative uses, as a result of increasing commercialisation activities, occasioned by logging, it is obvious from the table that the traditional roles of certain species in the life and living status of forest dependent communities is constantly being influenced or threatened, anytime a species finds acceptability in the processing/trade or marketing chain. The natural consequence of this is that is people in these communities, and also the wild animals and birds species, identified as depending on them become increasingly incapacitated by such action. In both cases depending on the intensity of harvesting taking place in any such forest ecosystem, some negative impacts on their original life style is bound to be recorded.

53 .

Table 3.64

Ref. no of Tree Tree species and Tree characteristics Main non-wood uses in Appendix I Family

42 Berthol/atIa excelsa***** Large, emergenttree Nuts eaten by human, domestic Leoythidaceae and wild animals

68 Campa 91anensjs* Medium to large tree Oil extracted from seeds used MeI^^ceae mainly as a medicinal ointment but also to make soap.

74 Gaolocar villosum* Large tree Edible nuts collected from wild Gaolocaiaceae trees; mesocarp used locally as butter substitute.

87 CoPaiit?re spp* Large tree Oily resin extracted without Leguminosae killing the tree which has a steady market in Brazil as a medicinal product.

98 CoUma spp *** Large/smalltree Fruit eaten by humans and wild Apocynaceae animals; milkly latex used for chewing gum and caulking canoes.

118 Dipteiyx adoreta* Large tree Coumarin, extracted from the Fabaceae seeds (tonka beans), used in perfumes.

192 Leoythis ptsonjs* Large tree Edible nuts; eaten mainly by Leoythidaceae bats, parrots and monkeys.

284 Protium spp *** Medium to large tree Resin (elemi/breu) tapped from the bark and used to caulk canoes; fruit attracts wild birds and apes.

Source: From Uriasylva 186, V01 47, 1996 (modified by study)

Key: * species well commercialised fortimber ** species less commercialised fortimber(LUS/LKS) *** species not commercialised as timber ***** species forbidden to be commercialised fortimber

54 Chapter Four

Economic and Trade Related Aspects of increased Utilisation of Lesser Known (LKS) orLesser Usedspecies (LUS) 4.0 Introduction

The Amazon forest regions of Brazil and Peru represent a sizeable proportion of the broad forest types of the two countries, and also provide the raw material base and a source for various forms of produce and products for domestic consumption, industrial processing, and trade on internal and external markets. With such a diversity of natural resource base, various forms of economic activities have evolved through time in an .attempt to harness the wide range of these goods and services. Whilst acknowledging that, previously, much of these resources have remained relatively inaccessible and under utilised commercially, the construction of roads and the expansion of new frontiers through the provision of new infrastructure in the 1960's have strongly brought about a rapid change. These development have strongly influenced the extent and range of utilisation of known forest species and also improved the quest to explore the inherent potentials of other species. Most species which hitherto were not commercially exploited as timber have been utilised for one product or the other and increasingly this change in utilisation status has come about as a

result of many factors. Some of these factors have been identified as availability of new markets, location and distribution of the new species, and availability of processing technologies. Also other factors such as new legal and physical supply restrictions which have evolved through time in these countries have forced people to widen the choice and the range of preferred species. This situation will increasingly become prominent in this industry since generally the cost of harvesting of timber appears not to change much whether one targets a known species or a lesser known species.

4.7 The Timber Industry in Braz" The production of timber from the native forests of Brazil for both industrial and domestic use increased from approximately 215 million in' in 1990. The timber industry of Brazil uses its tropical timber resources for the production of sawn timber, veneer and plywood. Although, the use of timber

55 I .

for these products and those of a larger aggregated value was limited to a small number of species, which were cherished as decorative, this restricted range of utilisation has changed in the course of time, to embraces a wider range of species groups. In tandem with production, consumption of wood products from Brazil has also increased overthat period. Information from Brazil's Secretary of External Commerce (SECEX) indicate that since 1992, volume of sawn wood exports from Brazil has doubled, to over I million in' in 1994/95.

Significantly an increasing proportion of this is made up of lessenknown species which are supplanting the traditional Brazilian exports of Mahogany (Swietenia ^Q^a King)andvirola (^QLa ^^I^). According to the same records from SECEX, the period 1980 to 1993 saw 10 species contributing 65 per cent of the total amount of sawn wood exported. Five of the most cherished species represented more than 55 per cent of these exports, namely mahogany (^^!,^t^ in^^, 30.69",), virola (Virola sunnamansis, 9.8%), jatoba (^.;{in^^^ ^^11, 8.5%) cedro Decrallas 3.4% andsucu ira Bowdichias andDilotro iss 2.6%.

There are indications that the domestic Brazilian market has a much larger demand for Amazon timber than the foreign markets. This is because historically, Brazil has consumed an average of 90-95 per cent of its total hardwood production by volume (Steven Stone 1997). On record domestic demand has risen from under I million in' in the early 1950's to over 10 million in3 in the 1990's. With such a large proportion of its wood products consumed domestically, the timber industry growth will continue to grow as more room is made forthe processing of new species. With a majority of currently registered timber processing facilities, of Brazillocated in six of its states namely Acre, Amapa, Amazonas, Pare, Rondonia, Roraima, and with the Para sate having the largest concentration of sawmilling activities in the Amazon where numerous studies have been undertaken, experiences and examples from such studies would serve as reference source forthis study.

56 4.7. I Logging investments With forest terrain characterised by both wet and dry land, the method of harvesting and transporting timber differs and therefore requires various types of investment. In the floodplain forests (Varzea) timber felling and extraction are done manually, with extraction teams of 3 men, relying on tides or wet season floods to buoy the felled logs. Sometimes, logs are literally pushed to the banks of rivers on carefully designed skid trails. Alternatively water bulfalo or hand-operated winches are employed to drag the boles from the forest.

According to studies conducted by Barros at a1(1995), the biggest cost of varzea logging was labour(57%), followed by the cost of purchasing the trees (439",) as shown in table 4.1. ,. The total cost for extracting I in' of wood from the varzea was estimated at Us $6.70. On the rather dry land or "terra firme" forest, logging teams were usually made up of 5 men. In contrast to varzea logging, chain saw machines were always used for harvesting and trucks were required to move logs from the point of felling to the banks of the river or to a landing created at the edge of a public road. Here, owing to the more mechanised approach, the return on human labour was greater in terra fume logging (492 in' vrs. 265 in' harvested per person year ~' in varzea logging). However, the use of trucks greatly increased extraction costs compared with the varzea where extraction was manual and relying on tides and seasonal floods. In both the terra firme and varzea, logs were genei'ally extracted from lands owned by thirds parties who were paid for the trees. Loggers paid on the average Us $5.85 in" forterra fume logs as against Us $2.90 in" for varzea logs. As in the varzea, terra firme logging teams frequently received financing from the mills in the form of equipment or advance payments.

57 The higher costs for standing timber and equipment costs in the terra firme operations have resulted in total logging cost per cubic meter being more than two times higher than those for the varzea (Us $14.30 vrs Us $6.70).

Table 4.1. , Cost of Production in Varzea and Terra Firme Operations.

Varzea Terra firme (floodplain) (dry land) productivity (in' yearn) Volume harvested 873 2311 Production/person 265 492 Costs (Us$ year~') Labour2 33338 4755 Purchase of standing tree' 2532 '35/9 Equipment and fuelforfelling' 1.90 11/9 Equipment and fuelfor extraction' 0.0 13689 Total annual cost of logging 5872 33082 Cost m' to extract wood' 6.73 14.32 Cost in~'for mill to buy wood 9.00 18.00

After Barros at al.

' Varzea logging team had an average, 3.3 men (n=19, S. D=2.4) with an average production of 4.85 in' day ~'. Logging teams in terra firme forest had on the average, 4.7 men (n=6, SD = 1.4) and these include chainsaw operator, a truck driver, and helpers to cut access paths forthe trucks and produced 12.84 in' day ~'. Logging teams in both forest types worked for agproximately 180 days each year. Hence the total production was 873 for in day ~ varzea logging and 2311 in forterra firme log^ing. ' The average salary paid in the region was Us$3.93 day ~ (n=28, S. D = 1.2). Food was provided to labourers at an average daily cost of $1.69. Hence, in 180 days of work the cost of labourin varzea logging was Us $3338 !33 men x 180 days) (Us$3.93 + $1.69). A similar calculation forterra fume forest case. Throughoutthe region the cost of quality standing timber averaged Us $2.90 in" and Us $5.85 in" in varzea and terra firme forest respectively. This was roughly one-third of the price paid for logs delivered to the factory gate of bandsaw mills (i. e. Us $9 and Us $18 in respectively for varzea and terra firme logs). On the other hand, lower quality v arzea logs destined for smallfamily rn" mills, are sold for Us $1.95 - 4.40 in at the mill gate. The cost of standing trees in this case was usually less than Us $1.00 in" . ' An axe is used to felltrees in the varzea. The cost of an axe was Us 410. Depreciation was $1.60 considering a use-period of 5 years and a residual vale of 20% after this time (Us 410-Us 42)/5 years, Capital investment cost, calculated using a 6% interest rate. were Us $0.30. Hence the cost of the axe expressed on an annual basis is Us $1.90. Logging crews in terra firme forests use chainsaws to felltrees at an annual cost of Us $1119. considering depreciation, capital costs, maintenance and fuel. Brand new chainsaws cost Us$700. Depreciation was calculated considering a use-period of 3 years and a residual valve of 207" and amounts to Us $187. Capital investment cost calculated at 6% interest rate were Us $21. The annual cost of maintenance was Us $295 and included the replacement of two blades ($100 each) three chains (Us $30.20 each) and one pin (Us $4.20). Fuel consumption was 6 litres of a gas/oil mixture per day at Us $0.57 perlitre or Us $3.42 day~' or Us $616 forthe 180 day work year. Because log extraction is done manually in varzea logging, the cost of extraction was included under labor. In terra mrme logging where a truck is used, the value of a new truck was Us$33000. Depreciation was estimated at Us 45280, considering a se-period of 5 years and a residual value of 20% of the dales price. Capital investment costs calculated at 6% interest rate were Us$990. The annual cost of maintenance was Us $5000 (Verissimo at a1, 1992). To calculate the cost of fuel, an average distance of 10 km between the logging site and the riverbank or main road. (20 kin roundtrip), a truck capacity of 4.28 in' (n=7, SD=, 2) and fuel consumption of . 0.86 litre of diesel kin~' (n=7, SD=0.49) and 0014 litre of oil kin~' (N=5, sd=0,005). Hence, The annual cost of diesel was Us$2136 (2311m'/4.28m')(20 kin x 0,861 x Us $0.23) and Us $5280 depreciation + Us $990 capital investment cost + Us $5000 maintenance + Us 42419 fuel/oil) ' This is the price that mills pay for logs bunched at the water's bank (i. e. this does not include the cost of transport to the mill). The difference between the extraction cost and the sales prices at the mill gate represents profits for middlemen. 58 Whiles the above example does nottake into accountthe use of heavy duty extraction equipment in other larger scale logging and extraction units in this same region (Terra fume) of Paregominas studies by Verissimo at a1 (1992), companies in operations has logging terms which averagely consisted of 13 men, equipped with two chainsaws, one bulldozer, a log loader and three lorries. The average production of such a unit during one logging season (7 months) was estimated to be 9200 in' (SD 2130, n=16) or 13/4 in' per month. (Table 4.1.2) The total value of this production was approximately Us $253,000. The costs of logging were estimated at Us$1,4190 and this includes the purchase of logging rights (159",), salaries and benefits (20%), food (5^^), fuel (9%), taxes (12%), equipment maintenance (179",) and depreciation (22%). The cost to transport logs from the forest to the mill was estimated at Us $7576, and includes salaries (15%), fuel (24^^), maintenance (209^".) and depreciation (41%). A summary of logging and transport costs revealed that, approximately Us $22 are spent for each cubic meter harvested (Us $206247/9200m' us $22.42 in~');

59 Table 4.12 Estimates of logging and transport costs during one logging season involving the harvesting of 9200 in of roundlogs in the Paragominas region of eastern Amazonia'. Category Cost(us$) Cost of logging: Logging rights $16940 Salaries $1,840 Worker benefits4 $8607 Food $6000 Fuel $10262 Forest tax $14168 Equipment maintenance $19000 Depredation $24373 Total logging costs $1,4190 Cost of transgort: Salaries $7140 Worker benefits $4140 Fuel $18280 Maintenance'a $15000 Depredation $3,200

Total transport costs $75761 Capital investment cost'5 $16296 Cost of logging and transport $206246 Value of production $253000 After Verrisimo at al

' Cost estimates are based on 11 wood establishments engaged in logging and with five independent logging teams in 1989. The logging season has a duration of 7 months (210 days), but because of rest time, rains and mechanical failures, the actual number of working days in approximately 140. Forest logging rights sold for $70 ha" (SD=28) in 1990. Given an average extraction intensity of 38 in' and an average annual mill consumption of 9200m' for a typical mill with one based saw. approximately 242 ha of forest must be harvested year' (9200 in"/38m" = 242) to supply mill needs at a cost of Us $16940. Salades are for ten people during 7 months as follows: bulldozer operator -$2240; loginer operator -$, 960; two chainsaw operators - $1120 each; four field hands and one cook -$840 each; one foreman -$4200. ' Workers benefits are 58% of salary and this includes sodal security, retirement and health and accidentinsurance. CFhese employer obligations are riot always fulfilled). ' Food costs for the logging team (ten people as well as the three truck drivers are estimated at $6000 for the 7 month harvesting season. ' Estimates for consumption of diesel by Bulldozer - 110 litres day" (SD=31) x 140 days of work of the harvesting season, i. e. 15400 litres. A log liner consumes 70 litres of diesel day ~' (SD= In x 140 days = 9800 litres. Hence the total price of diesel fuelis estimated at $7560 (25200 litres at $0.30 litre ~'). Fuel consumption by two chainsaws is estimated at 8.6 litres day' (SD=04) x 140 days or 1204 litres at $0.50 (price per litre) = $602. Total consumption for lubrication oil by the bulldozer, log liner, and chainsaws dimng the logging season was estimated to 750 litres x $2.80 litre" = $2100. The total fuel related expenses was approximately $10262. ' IBAMA. The Brazilian Institute of the Environment, charged a tax of $2.00 for each in' of bole wood extracted IBAMA uses the Francon volume measure (77% of the "real" volume)in assessing this tax. ' Maintenance cost was provided by 5 sawmills that systematically monitored these costs for bulldozer ($, 1200 year'), 1091ifter I$7000 year') and two chainsaws ($800 year'). Chainsaws cost $700 new and are used for 3 years after which they have a value of $140. Annual depreciation is $373 or ($700-140)/3 years) x two chain saws). Bulldozers cost $120000, new and are used for 7 years after which their value is reduced to $24000. Annual depreciation is $13714 or (($120000-24000)/7 years, Loglifters costs $90000 and are used for 7 Years after which their value is $18000. Annual depreciation is $10286 or ((90000-18000)/7 years). ' Three drivers required for log transport during 7 months with a total salary per driver estimated at $2380. " Worker benefits are approximately 589'" of salades or $1380 per driver. '' Considering that 9200 in'of roundlogs must be transported. and that, on average 13 in' (SD=2.7) are transported per trip, and that the average round-trip distance between mill and forest is 160 kin. the number of trips necessary between mill and logging site is estimated at 708 or (9200 in'/, 3 in') for a total travel distance of approximately 113280 kin or (708 trips x 160 kin). Average diesel consumption is 05 litre kin-I x 113280 kin = 56640 litres x $030 (price per litre) = $16992. A complete oil change (20 litres)is necessary every 5000 kin, necessitating 23 oil changes during a logging season. The cost of oilis $2.80 litre-I x 23 changes x 20 litres per change is $1288. '' Data from five mills that had systematically recorded truck maintenance costs. '' Logging truck cost approximately $65000. new, and are used for 5 years after which they have a sale value of $13,000. Annual depreciation pertruck is $10400 or (($65000 - 13000)/5 years) '' The annual cost of having capital tied up in machinery is estimated at $16296. This estimate assumes that (a) the mill owner uses his own capital for equipment purchases; (b) the total investment for equipment is $406400 (see footnotes) and 14; (c) a 69'0 rate of return on investment; (d) investment periods in accordance with the useful life of each item of equipment '' The average harvest for logging season was 9200 in' (n=16). Such harvested volume is divided into four pricing groups: (a) high value ($50m". SD=13) or 10% of total harvest; to) medium value ($32m', SD =13) or 50% of total harvest; to) low value ($20m~' , SD=8) or 10% of total harvest; (d) very low value ($15m', SD=5) or 30% of total harvest. 4.7.2 Investment for Transport of Logs from Forest to Mill Mechanisms for Transporting Stocks of logs deposited at landings created at the bank's of rivers public roads and variously created road networks are varied. In the case of varzea logging, transport is done via log rafts. Fortimber harvested from terra fume forests transportation is provided for by trucks or barges. A typical log raft used in transporting logs from varzea forest is nothing more than a few logs strung together and guided to a nearby family operated mill by a person in a dug out canoe. In more carefully planned operations, these rafts may be composed of a thousand or more logs that are guided by a bug boat for many hundreds of

, kilometers to a mill. In the course of being transported in the estuary, these rafts move forward when the tides are in their favour and are guided to quite backwaters when the tides do not facilitate forward movement. These large log rafts provide supplies to the larger veneer and plywood mills situated in the estuary. Because of the large quantities of wood that can be transported using only a tug boat, round log transport in such log rafts is far cheaper than other options in this region of Brazil(Table 41.3). It was estimated in this study that the cost of transport jin' of roundlog to a milllocated 100 kilometers from the site of logging was only about one dollar using large log rafts such as described above.

4.7.2.7 Terra Firme Transportation As most timbers harvested from terra fume forest are generally too dense to float, and hence cannot be rafted, trucks are commonly used for log transportation usually in the upland areas of Amazonia. In the lower Amazon regions, logging trucks are typically small(4.3 in' capacity) and the transport cost was about Us $30.00m" per 100 kin, (Table 4.1.3). This transportation cost is more than 25 times of what is achievable by raft transportation. In other lower Amazon area with proximity to waterways, barges are mainly used for the transportation of such heavy terra fume logs as an alternative to truck transport. Most barges in this region typically carried 270 in' of roundlogs. An investment to the tune of Us $220,000 was 61 required to purchase a barge and the accompanying 20 ton tug boat. Usually for distances greater than about 20 kin from the forest to the mill, the transportation cost per cubic meter using a barge was less than fortruck transportation. Also the study established that, the transportation cost incurred when moving roundlogs by the barge system to a milllocated 100 kin away from the forest was just one-quarter of that for truck transportation (Us $30.00m~' vrs Us $8.00 in"). An estimation of Transportation costs in Para, Brazil based on a variety of means can be found in Appendix 3.

Table 4.1.3 The comparative cost (Us$) of log transport using rafts, barges and trucks for the requirements of a typical bandsaw-type milliocated 100 kin from the timber source and requiring 10200 in' of roundlog year ~' (Lower Amazon River and Estuary)'

Means of Transport Category Raft Barge Trucks Capacity (in ) 960 270 4.28 Annual cost of transportation (Us$) 3 1335 10009 79200 Depreciation 4417 7898 75000 Maintenance 3035 49236 30348 Labour5 890 6673 14850 CapitalC 'taiinvestmentcosts' investment costs 1357 7474 106757 Fuel 1,034 80990 306155. Total annual costs (Us $) 1.08 7.94 30.02 Cost in~' perlOO kin

' A typical bandsaw mill along the lower Amazon River with three options for transporting logs from forest to the mill. If the mill relied on raft transport, it required one tug boat. Ifthe mill relied on raft transport, it required one tug boat. Ifthe mill relied on barge transportation, it needed one barge and one tug boat. Relying on truck transportation, the mill required a fleet of trucks. ' Log rafts consisted of logs cabled together side-by-side. They contained on the average 960 in (n=4, SD=89). They were guided downstream by to-20 ton boats (ave. 12t. n=4, SD=3.6). Barge sizes ranged from 150 to 550 t (average 381 ton, n=13, So=113) with average volumetric capacity of 270 in'. in this example a standard 400 t barge with an accompanying 20 ttug boatis used. The capacity of typical truck was 4.3m'. A company transporting 10200m3 of timber for too kin would require 15 such trucks. This assumes that the truck operates for 180 days year' and that roughly 107. of the scheduled work time is

. lost to repairs. ' The 10 ttug boatthat accompanied the log raft costs $29670 new. with a use-period of 20 years, after which time the residual value was 10% of the purchase price. Hence depreciation was $1335. The cost of a new 400 t barge was $165200 (Empresa Tecnica Nacional S. A). Considering a use-period of 20 years and a residual value of toy". depreciation was $7434. The tug boat(20 t)that moves the barges had a purchase price of $57218 and annual depreciation of $2575. Hence total depreciation in the barge transportation system was $10009. The cost of a new 6 ton truck was $33000. Considering a useful life of 5 ears and a 20% residual value, depreciation was $5280 pertruck for $79200 for a fleet of 15 trucks. Maintenance for a 10 t tug boat in duded painting, calking, replacement of wood degrades, and motor repair a tan estimated wood degrades, and motorrepair at an estimated a annual cost of $670. Approximately 1000 in of cable were used in one year to link the logs together at a cost of $3200; 2000 pins were used per year to act as attachment points forthe cables at a cost of $500;; and too in of heary nylon rope was purchased annually to attach the tug boat to the rafts ($47). Hence, total maintenance expenses were $4417. Maintenance for barges includes cleaning, painting caulking. and welding which amounted to 4% of the initial invesiment or $6608 (Empresa Tenica Nacional S. A). Maintenance cost for the tug boat were $1290 year", which is similar to those for log raft tugs. but accounting for the greater size (20 t) of these barge tugs. Hence the total maintenance expenditure for barge transport were estimated at $7898. Maintenance costs for logging trucks were approximately $5000 year" Glenssimo at a1, 1992) or $75000 forthe fleet of 15 trucks in this example. ' The crew of a log raft was composed of three men. Daily wages were $3.93 plus food ($1.69 day~ ). Assuming 180 work days per year. the total expenditure in salaries/food was estimated at $3035. The crew size of a 400 I barge was six men 62 4.7.3 Processing of Timber: Choice of TechnologyandProfitabi"ty According to information provided by AIMEX (Associagao das Industrias Exportadoras de Madeiras do Estado do Para) a total of about 1200 companies are recorded as members of the organisation, activity processing and/or exporting wood products from the Para state in 1998. They also confirmed that there were so many others outthere who were not members of this organisation. In their study, Barros et al identified over 1290 mills in this business who were generating over 28000 jobs. Industrial wood processing takes many forms in the Eastern Amazon. Mills range from rudimentary circular saws to highly efficient vertically integrated plywood factories. It is not uncommon to find these mills corresponding to three groupings which is as a result of their choice of technology orthe equipment used for processing timber. The first group which is made up of a number of small operations are based on circular saws; a generally medium-sized operation based on band saws representthe second group. The third group is made up of veneer and plywood processing mills which are classified as large outfits. (See appendix 4, Wood processing mills classified based on technology, type and size etc).

4.7.3.7 WoodProcessing in SmallMills A majority of these small mills situated in the vicinity of the estuary which represent 92% of the sample studied by Barros at a1 (1995), were household

. operations, which rely on labour from very close families. Most of these mills were established in the 1980's in response to a demand for rough-sawn timber for housing construction in Belem, the capital city of the region, and other areas of north eastern Brazil. They also served as

a

. (stipulated by the Port Authority). Salaries were $683.80 per month on average (Boat Workers Union of Para and Amapa) Hence, total labour costs for a 400 ton barge were $49236. A truck crew for long-distance haulage. consisted of two people who received $3.93 in wages and $1.69 in food each day over a 180 day period or $2023 per year. Hence wages and food for the crews of all 15 trucks would be $30348 year". ' The cost of capital investments was determined using a 6% interest rate and the data is provided in footnote 3. ' It is assumed that the 10 ton tug boats working with log rafts moved, on average. 4 kin h', on theirtrips throughoutthe estuary and lower Amazon (Bel6m Port Authority). Per hour, these tugs consumed 10.7 litres of dieselfuel(n=5. SD=32) and 005 litre of oil(n=3. SD=0.01). The price of dieselfuel was $0.23 litre ~' and that of oil was $1.87 litre ~'. Hence the cost of fuel to transport 10200 in ' of logs a distance of 100 kin (200 kin roundtrip) was $1307 plus $50 for oil. The 20 t tugs that move the barges travelled 9 km hr -, (n=4. SD=4.1) on average and consumed 34 litres of diesel hr" (n=13. SD=8.5) and 0.4 litres of oil hr-, (n=8. SD=0.16). Hence to transport 10200 in' of logs. $6546 was spent on diesel and $628 on oil. Logging trucks with a capacity of 4.28 in' consumed 0.86 litres of diesel and 0.014 litres of oil for each kilometer travelled. Hence the total fuel cost to transport 10200 in' of log for a distance of 100 kin was $94279 plus $12478 for oil. 63 intermediary processing mills for larger mills which sought to meet international demand for Virola sunnamensis. These small mills were able to produce these boards at very low cost partly because most of them processed timber very close to the nearby varzea forest. They have the advantage of low log extraction and transportation costs as well as low establishment cost. Usually the motorfrom a household boat can be adapted to power the saw, and the millinfrastructure can be made of poles, lashings and palm leaves harvested from the nearby forest. The total cost for a fully operational mill was around Us $3000 (Table 4.14 footnote I). Frequently, wood buyers helped to finance such new mills, providing capital or equipment to interested families. A typical small mill produced 650 in' of sawn . timber annually from 1850m' of roundlogs. The price paid for logs at the bank of the rivers ranged from Us $2.00 to Us $4.50m-3. The annual operating cost for these mills was approximately Us $14800 (i. e. Us $22.80m~' of sawn wood produced). The average sales price of wood was Us $27m~'. Profits for these small mills were estimated at Us $2755 year~ear' In casesInca where h alllabour,1/1b including, Id' thtfthat for I log transport, was provided by the household, annual returns could increase to Us $8500. This amounts to approximately Us $1700 for each family member which is made up offIve workers averagely.

4.7.3.2 Wood Processing in Medium-sized Mills These mills produced on the average 3500 in of sawn wood per annum and typically they have one bandsaw (or multiples of this), and a total work force of 30 people. They recorded a processing efficiency of around 35% and with a roundlog input of 10200m3, they produced around 3500 in' of sawn wood, (Table 4.1.4). 64 The cost of establishing a single bandsaw mill was approximately Us $170,000 (Verissimo at a1 1992). The cost structure of the operations of these sawmills are very Table 4.14 Cost structure and profitability in small sized, family operated circular saw mills in the Lower Amazon River and estuary

. Production costs (Us $) Depreciation 118 Maintenance 787 Fuel and oil 1139 Labour 5058 Raw Material5 5883 Transport 1721 CapitalCaital' investment t t costt7 89 14795 Total cost of production , Value cost of production' (Us $) 17550

. Indicators of profitability Net profit(Us $) 2755 Profit margin (%) 17 Net present value (69^', interest rate)' Us 34044 $ 20754 Net present value (, 2% interest rate) Us 124 $ Internal rate of return (9",)

After Barros at a1(1995)

' The cost of a new circular saw was Us $2959 and this includes a motor (Us $1704), a 40-in circular saw (Us $208), a mount forthe saw (Us $308, a carriage forthe logs (Us $177), rails forthe carriage . (Us $204), a protective structure (Us $298). To calculate depreciation, a useful life of 20 years and a residual vale of 20% were used. ' Maintenance costs were Us $787 year~' and included a motor overhaul every 2 years, periodic saw and belt replacements and purchase offiles. ' Mills operated for 180 days year' (15 days month") and consumed 211 of diesel during each day of operation. These imput costs Us $0.23 litre-I and $1.87 litre", respectively, Hence the total annual expenditure was Us $1139. These small mills employed five men on the average. These workers received Us $3.93 day -I ^jus Us $1.69 for food. Considering I 80 days of\, York year-I, the total labour cost was Us $5058. These small mills used two classes of varzea wood: "white" and "red". The cost of white-wood logs was Us $1.95 in-3 vrs. Us $4.40 in-3 for red-wood logs, Visits conducted to 65 small mills, indicated that 43% used red-woods exclusively, 269'. used only white-wood and 319', worked with both. In this analysis, the mill under consideration used equal quantities of red and white wood, paying on the average Us $3.18 m'. Hence to buy the 1850 in' of roundlogs required for each year, the mill would spend Us $5883. ' Logs are transported to the mill from a distance of 11 kin (average) in a smalllog rafts containing 50 in . Two men in a small 5 ton boattransported allthe logs needed for I year in 60 days. Hence the total cost of transportation was Us $1721, including Us $235 for boat depreciation, Us $157 for capital investment costs, Us $674 for labour costs and Us $89 for fuel and oil. The cost of capital investment for the mill was calculated using a 69', interest rate and a 20 year use ^eriod. These small mills produced, on the average, 650 in' of sawn wood. The value of"red" woods on the local market(where 83% of all sales occur) was Us $33 in~', and "white" woods Us $21 in'. Hence the average price, considering equal sales of both wood types was Us $27 in-3. Net present value and internal rate of return were calculated considering a use-period of 20 years' 65 much influenced, by the multiciplicity of factors which include, location of the harvesting site and mode of transportation from harvesting site to the mill. There, three operational models can be identified, namely: i. Mills using logs extracted from varzea forest but relying on log raft transport, and selling products on both export and domestic market; ii. Mills using logs extracted from the terra fume forest, but relying on barge transport and directing production to both export and domestic markets; and iii. Mills using logs extracted from terra fume forest relying on truck transport and directing all production to the domestic market.

Processing Model, : In all a total of about 48 bandsaw mills were studied under this processing model. They processed a I

, range of 50 species harvested from the varzea forest and rafted to the mills. Such species were grouped based on the known characteristic of two prized species, \{itQ!^ surinamensis (white wood) and Car a uianensis (red woods) approximately 309", of the annual operating cost was for the purchase of logs (Us$ 9 in") and 39", was

^ spent for transport via log rafts (Us $1.08 from harvesting sites of about 100 kin away). Most of the operational costs (659^",) were for wood processing in the mill. These mills produced sawntimberfor domestic and export markets at an average sale price of Us $106 in' Most of the mills in this model realised an annual profit in the range of about Us $60,000 year' or Us $17 in" of sawntimber. The Internal Rate of Return (IRR) was 37% and Net Present Value (NPV) was Us $523000 (6% discount rate). (Table 4.1.5)

66 Processing Model 2: These mills relied on barges to transport logs from terra firme forest to their mills and functioned using more than one processing lines and hence required more capital investment. Their operational costs were in the range of Us$473,000 year', which is made up of log purchases (39%), log transport (17%) and log processing (43%). Product were sold both on the domestic and export markets. Theirtarget markets for products are both export and domestic. The total value of production was approximately Us $686000; with annual profits estimated to be Us $215000 or Us $60m" of processed wood. The

, IRR was 62% and the NPV (6%) was Us $ 2000000. Despite the high cost of raw material, this model of operation appeared to be lucrative, (Table 4.1.5)

Processing Model 3: This group of mills relied on trucks to transport wood from terra fume forests to their mills. Most of these mills sold their products solely on the domestic market, though they expressed the wish to explore the export market. With the relatively high cost of truck transportation, and the corresponding relatively low price paid for sawn timber on the domestic market, this model appeared to be viable only when extraction was done close to the mill site. For example, if the logging site were 20 kin or more from the mill, there would be marginal or no profits accruing from the operation. Ifthe mills processed timber coining from an average distance of 10 kin and allthe production was sold on the domestic market, then the net profit was estimated at Us $30,600, IRR at 14% and NPV at Us $57000 (6% interest). If the mills were able to sell two-thirds of their production to foreign markets, as in this model, then the net return might increase to Us $223000, IRR increases to 93%, and NPV rises to Us $2123000 (6% interest rate). 67 In this same export example, of model 3, if extraction is extended to areas 50 kin from the mill(which requires a fleet of eighttrucks), returns might still be Us $45000, IRR 30^", and NPV, Us $836000. This latter scenario assumes that public roads were available. These examples bring to bear the fact that the mode of extraction and transportation pattern adopted by a company significantly influences selling price of the product, and hence the profitability of any operations.

4.7.3.3 WoodProcessingin Veneer andPlywoodFactories Most veneer and plywood mills in this part of Brazil produced an on average, 33850 in' of processed wood products annually from approximately 91,000 in' of roundlogs. This production was ten times greater than that of typical bandsaw mills. Most of the timber raw

I material requirements of these mills are large well formed logs which are normally floated from varzea forest as far away as 2400 kin. These large mills sometimes have to use hand-operated winches and water buffalos in order to enable extraction of roundlogs from varzea forests during low water tide periods. The start-up investment cost to establish a large

I veneer/plywood mill was estimated to be one million United States

. dollars, or about six times more than the investment to install a

bandsaw mill and more than three hundred times the investment to

establish a small mill. In Table 4.16 a presentation of the financial records for one of these large veneer/plywood mills is shown. The annual operating and marketing cost for this mill with a production of 23755 in' year~', was Us$53 million. The production of this mill was sold on both the domestic and export market resulting in a net return of about Us $590000. In this particular example, the company's data for wood sale price (average price was calculated based on information derived from

interviews conducted (Us $268 , table 4.1.6, footnote 3), were below the average value that was calculated based on information derived from interviews conducted (Us $268 in'). Using the interview data, its estimated that the value of this companies production is 6.4 million Us dollars and the net return, at approximately one million (1995). 68

I Table 4.15 The effects of timber source (terra firme vrs varzea), transport mode, and market destination on production costs and profitability for a band saw milllocated in the lower Amazon River and estuary. Model 2 3 Varzea. Raft transp. Terra firme, Barge trans Terra firme, Truck trans Mkt: Domestidintemat. Mkt: Domestidintemat. Mkt: Domestic Sample: too firms Sample: 10 firms Sample: 100 firms

. Production costs(Us$): Cost of logs 9,800 183600 183600 Log transport 1,034 80989 5359, Log processing 203000 203000 203000 Cost of capital 5160 5160 5160 Total cost of Produdion 3,0994 472749 445351 Value of production' (Us $) 37,000 686000 476000

. IndicatorsofProfitability: Net Profit (Us $) 60006 2,3251 30649 Profit margin (%) 16 31 6 Net present value (6%)(Us$) 5230/6 2008305 156577 Not present value (12%)(Us$) 275970 1174/31 25256 Internal ratio of return (%) 37 62 14

' The modelis based on mills that produce 3500m' of sawn timber annual. Source of timber, transport mode, market destination, and distance from forest to mill(kin) are given under the model number. ' Bandsaw mills use on the average 10200 in' of roundwood annually. They pay Us $18m~' for logs from terra fume forest close to other banks of the river or at the roadside, and Us $9m" for logs from the varzea at the banks of the river. ' For Models I and 2, transport distance of too kin are used, which is typical of bandsaw mills that rely on fluvial transport. For Model 3, where 3 trucks are used, the transport distance is approximately 10 kin in accordance with what was observed in the field. An analysis of log transport costis as in table 41.3 ' The average production of bandsaw mills was 3500m' and the cost of production was estimated at Us $58m" of sawnwood !Verissimo at ai 1992). The capital necessary to install a bandsaw mill was estimated at $172000 (Verissimo at a1; 1992) and the cost of capital was calculated considering a 6% interest rate. ' Model I: the bandsaw mills that process wood from the varzea sell one'third of their production to the external market attop prices. Us$ 185 in", another third (somewhat lower quality) to this same market at Us $103 in", and the last third to the domestic market at Us $30 in". Hence, the average sale price for these varzea wood products is Us $106 in". Model 2: the mills here sell one'third of their production. which is the best to the export market for Us $300 in", another third (somewhat lower quality) to this same market at Us $153 in" and the last third to the domestic market at Us $136 in". Hence. the average price is Us $196 in". Model 3: where the bandsaw mills sell all wood on the domestic market, where the average price forterra firme woods was Us $136 in".

69 Table 4.1.6

Annual costs and profits for a large veneer/plywood millin the Amazon estuary

Production (in31 13305 Veneer 10450 Plywood Direct costs of production (Us $) Veneer 16/8, 55 Plywood 19/0261 Indirect costs of production (Us $) 1382618 Total production costs (Us $) 491,034 Marketing costs' (Us $) 430359 Value of production' (Us $) 5932356 Net profit (Us $) 590963 Profit margin (%) 10

After Barros at al(calculations based on internal records of a firm operating in the estuary (, 992).

' This mill had 618 employees and a total annual production of 23755 in ' Commercialisation costs included sales and export taxes (Us $133741) and a 5% commission to the sales agent(Us $296618). ' According to the company's financial reports, the average sales price in 1992 was $252 in~' for veneer and $247 in"for plywood. 7:0 4.7.4 Productivity andResource Transfer to Various Stakeholders From the various studies and observations made, timber harvesting and wood processing along the main stern and tributaries of the Amazon, river including its upland forests, is characterised by extreme heterogeneity of actors, who range from rudimentary family centered circular sawmills to large vertically intergrated plywood factories, (Anderson at a1, 1994; Barros and Uh1 1995). With such an extensive range of actors contributing, affecting or influencing the flow of resources from these forests, its productivity which rests on the effects of the various action and inactions on the numerous species of timber, non- timber and other fauna, whether known, lessenknown or unknown, becomes very complex and also dimcult to assess comprehensiveIy. This, notwithstanding, highlights of various factors identified here provide some further insights.

47.4. I Timber RawMaterialCosts As land rights and rights to harvest timber gets more secured and well defined the cost of enforcing property rights in relative terms decrease because mills and other stakeholders reach acceptable compromises. With such assurances gained, timber harvesting frontiers stabilise and expand. On the other hand, as harvestable timber timber becomes scare, the price of the timber raw material as reflected in stumpage fees paid to landowners (colonists, etc) and government tend to rise overtime because areas of accessible forest get beyond the immediate reach of mills. In table 4.1.7, some timber species have been classified in terms of their value and also prices at which they are offered for sale as either roundlogs or sawn timber. It has also been observed by Stone (1998) that stumpage fees have more than doubled in realterms over a period of 5 years (1990-95) from an average of 84 to 193 Us $ ha'. This rise in clearing rights is a reflection of the longer distances that harvesting of preferred species have to be done. The average mill price of logs for first quality timber increased from an average of 60 to 82 Us $1m'. Second and third quality timber increased from 38 to 43 Us $1m' and 24 to 30 Us $1m' respectively. These price increases have stimulated a widening of the area of harvesting and induced significant changes in transportation technology. Additionally, extraction efficiencies have been improved through planning and also an expansion of species choice in order to improve on the productivity of the forests.

71 Table 4.1.7 Timber Species, Extraction Technique, Costs and Yields by Price Class, 1995

Price CommonName Latin Name Priceof Extraction Extraction Volume Class Logs Technique Cost Extracted Us$/in3 Us$/, 3 in31ha

LowValue (, 00-175US$/in'sawnwood) Intensive 15 3045 Andiroba Carapa spp. 35 Cedrorana Cedrelinga 20 Catariaeformis Ducke Copaiba GOPaifora spp. 20 Curupixa Micropho/is venulosa 40 Pierre

Jatoba Hymenaeaspp. 40 Louro Vermehlo OGOtea rubra Mez 40 Massaranduba Manifikara spp. 40 Piquia CaOyocarvillosum 25

. (Abl. ) Pers Tatajuba Bagassagiuanesnsis 40 Aubl

Tauri Couratan^pp 35 Medium Value (, 75-300 Us$/in' sawnwood) Selective 30 1020 AngelimPedra Hymenolobiumspp. 50 Cedro Cedre//aOdorateL. 80

Cumaru Dineteryx spp. 70 Freijo Cordia geoldiana Huber60 IPe Tabebuia spp. 80 Pau Amare10 EUxy/ophoraparaensis 50 Hub Sucupira Bowdrchia nit^^a Benth 80 HighValue (600-700 Us$/in'sawnwood) Extensive 75 OnO Mahogany Swietenia macrophyla 220 King

Source Stone (1995)

, 72 4.1.4.2 Cost of Capital In addition to increases in timber raw material costs, capital costs have also risen. With the introduction in 1994 of plan^^! by the Brazilian Government, which relied on a strategy of high interest rates to reduce the rate of inflation of 40-60% per month, and thereby increasing the cost of liquidity, the government managed to contract the money supply, and reduce consumption. This policy of high interest rates affected all industries that relied on continued investment in heavy machinery and land purchases such as the timber industry. Also, by raising the cost of credit, it has decreased investment in housing and construction, reducing domestic demand and depressing prices for sawntimber.

4.1.4.3 Cost of Labour

Because of rather stingent labour laws, the timber industry in the Amazon demonstrates division of labour between the formal and informal sectors of the economy. Firms have to pay taxes of approximately 509". on total cost of labour (Verissmo at a1, 1995). Thus firms that abide by these laws pay significantly higher wage bills than those operating outside of the law. As a result, there is a large incentive for firms to minimise the number of officially hired labourers and to under report them when they are required to do so. But generally, unit labour cost for harvesting seem to have decreased which might be attributable to gains in labour productivity. On

the other hand not much gains have been recorded for processing productivity, wince not much new technology have been introduced, (especially in the saw mills) for a very long time.

Anderson. A. 8.1Mousasticoshvily and DS maced0.1994. Impacts ECologicos e SOCio-Economicos ds Exploacao Seietiva de Virola no Esnario Amazonico: Implicacoes Para Politicas F10restais brazileiras. World Wildlife Fund Barros, A. and C. Uh1, 1995. Logging along the Amazon River and Estuary: Patterns, Problems and Potential. Forest Ecology and Management 77:87n05

74 4.7.4.4 Cost of Transportation With receding supplies of raw material, firms are forced to haultimber from increasingly long distance had risen to 98 kin in 1995. The average round- trip to transport logs back from the forest had risen by 38%. To reduce transportation costs, the industry response has been to se larger trucks to haul. Mills have progressiveIy changed from the use of three flat-bed trucks with a capacity of 13 in' of logs each at a total investment cost of Us $234,000 to two 18-wheeled rigs, each with a capacity of 30 in' or roundlogs. When these vehicles are combined with one flatbed truck, the average total investment cost of most small mills in transportation was Us $474,000. As a result of this increased investment, unittransportation costs are estimated to have dropped from approximately Us $0.13 to Us $0,101km per in', and hence mills have been able to extend the frontier of harvesting to secure larger stocks of raw material. On the other hand, some firms respond to such increasing distances by relocating mills closer to the forest frontier by establishing satellite operations. But due to the high costs of establishing and maintaining a satellite operation, this option is not practised by most small mills in Paregominas signalling a size advantage for later firms as forests recede and the industry consolidates.

4.7.4.5 Cost of Energy The timber industry depends criticalIy on dieselfuel and electricity. From 1990-95, the real price of diesel rose by 89^'. from Us $0.36 to Us $0.39 litre'. While in 1990, a mill producing 4300 in'/yr of sawntimber was spending Us $11,788 for electricity or about Us $2.74 in-3, in 1995, the average cost of electricity had risen by almost 709". to Us $4.65 in'.

4.7.4.6 Prices of Products

I As most of the wood produced in the Amazon is consumed beyond its borders, prices are exogenously determined, and hence firms are price-takers,

\ i. e. they have very little or no ability to influence prices. The policy of high interest rates has reduced demand for domestic construction, depressing demand for wood products and leading to a cyclical decline in the real price of sawn timber etc. (Table 4.1.7. ) Premium sawn-timber prices have dropped on

75 the average of 15% in realterms from Us$336 to Us$291/in'; medium grade sawn-timber prices have declined by 24% from Us$216 to Us$174/in', (1990- 1995). Export prices, although have also declined, these have remained relatively more stable than the domestic prices, overthis period.

4.7.4.7 Changes in Technology With the larger truck and barge capacities to fill, firms have had to invest in more extractive machinery in the form of skidders and bulldozers and this has reduced the influence of middlemen in harvesting. By contrast, there have been little or no substantial changes in processing technology in sawmills but several mills have invested in secondary processing machinery to increase efficiency and value-addition. Investment in plywood production have significantly increased as a result of utilization of more LUS/LKS.

4.7.4.8 Marketing Channels Whilst most surveys conducted in 1990 in Paregominas, had no records of any firm involved exclusively with marketing and exporting sawntimber, by 1995 export hoses were in operation. These firms, each had kilns of 600- 1000 in' capacity, with a mean capital stock value of Us$500000 and annual gross revenues ranging from Us $1-7 million. The emergence of these export houses marked a significant improvement and increase in investment forthis industry and substantially higher revenues being realised from logging and harvesting of timber.

, 4.2 Timber Processing in Peru : According to the National Forestry Chamber, the forests of Peru covers an area equivalent to 65 per cent of the country, but the sector's contribution to the Gross National Product (GNP) is less than 2 per cent, and hence since its establishment (1989), it has among other things sought to promote national

o forest productivity, by ensuring that its industry and trade expand their activities and efficiently process and market more of the timbers in Peru. Essentially most timber processing activities are centered around Pucallpa, Iquitos and Lima. This industry has several similarities with the timber industry of the Brazilian amazon region and hence this study would highlight more on examples which are characteristically unique to Peru.

76 Having benefitted from an ITTO sponsored project PD 37188 Rev. 3(I); "Utilisation Industrial de Neuva. ESPecies forestales en el Per", whose outputs are of tremendous relevance to this study, more emphasis would be placed on the results which has really had a great and beneficial impact on this industry. Its current Forestry Law, which was passed in 1978, is said not be conducive to private forestry enterprise since felling or harvesting contracts tend to be short term and also cover very small areas (often only 1000 ha). As a result of this, there appears to be little or no incentive for forest dependent companies to invest in forest management activities. Primarily, this industry has for many years concentrated on the list of species shown in table 4.2. I, and hence selective logging has been these species has been the best option for most of this industry until the results and output of ITFO project P037/88 made significant in roads into the potentials originally overlooking by the industry in these new species.

Table 4.2. I List of the most used/traditionally known species of the Industry

Commonname S i ntific name

CaOba Swietenia inphy//a Tronillo Cedrelihga Gatenaiformis

Cedro Cedra adoreta Catahua Hura Grepitaus Diablo fuerle Podocaips sp EUCalipto EUCalyplus 910bulos Lupuna Chorisia sp Copaiba Copaifera sp Moena roseda Antoa sp Cumala virola sp Ishpingo Amburana Gearensis Higuerilla Gunuria spruceana Cachimbo Brosimn allcastrum

From Study

77 4.2.7 A General industrial Outlook Generally the harvesting of timber can be differentiated into various scales of operation, ranging from small medium to large scale. Most small-scale operation involves about 5 to 10 people who produce some 200-250 in' of roundlogs per month. The medium sized operations are usually made up of between 10-20 people, who produce roundlogs in the volume of 750-1000 in' per month. An operation which is described as large scale involves some 30 or more people, who produce some 2500 to 3000 in' of roundlogs per month. The medium and large scale operations are usually supported by mechanised tools and equipment, but generally about 70 per cent of roundlog production is produced manually. The cost of harvesting of roundlogs is between Us $35- 50 per in . There are basically two methods of roundlog transportation, and depending on the location of the mill, about 20"1-0 per cent of roundlogs may be transported by road or by river or flurialtransport and vice versa. On the average mills are known to bear a higher cost for roundlogs transported by road, which ranges between Us $20 - 28 per in', as against Us $10-, 4 per

in . In terms of assets, mills invest in plant and equipment which are more or less also typical of the Brazilian timber industry. Generally, skidders, bulldozers, log loaders and hauling trucks represent the fleet of logging and also long distance haulage vehicles for mills undertaking a lot of road transportation. The investment cost for such assets range between Us $150,000 to Us $600,000 for small to medium sized plants. With large scale operation, depending on the extent of mechanisation investments between Us $1.2 million and Us $2.2 million can be found for mills depending on river transportation of its roundlogs. Such mills normally invest in 200-600 tons barges which are mounted with 15-20 ton cranes, and an accompanying tow boat. The total investment cost for such a facility is in the range of Us $140,000-I 60,000. Such haulage facility has a capacity to carry between 115 in' to 165 in' of roundlogs. Haulage trucks usually carry between 11.5 and 16.5 in of roundlogs. Mills may hire such haulage trucks for roundlog transportation where they do not have their own fleet of trucks at costs ranging from Us $20-25 per in3. Mills may generally source roundlogs from their own forest concession, the open market or commission dealers to provide such raw materials. The

78

I ' industry is serviced with roundlogs from various distances ranging from 40- 250 kin or sometimes more. The average distance by road is about 120 kin, whiles distances ranging between 50 to 600 kin are recorded for river transportation to the mills. Primary processing of roundlogs takes place in various sawnmills located in various sites which take advantage of river courses of established road network. The investment cost for a small scale millis estimated at Us $300,000-500,000. A medium sized sawmillrequires an investment between Us $800,000 and S$1 million. Large scale operations have investments over Us $2.0 million. The cost of sawmilling was estimated to be Us $12.72 in" based on a month production of 490 in' and this cost could vary depending on the efficiency at which the mill operates. As at the time of the visit there were 4 large vertically integrated mills in Peru producing plywood. The investment cost, and rated capacities forthese mills were estimated as follows: 30,000m' annual production capacity with investment cost estimated at Us $18-19.5 million (fairly new plant) 12,000 in annual production capacity with investment cost estimated at Us $8-10 million (also new plant) 30,000 in' annual capacity with investment cost estimated at Us $8 million (over 20 years old) 10,000 in' annual capacity with investment cost estimated at Us $4-6 million (over 20 years old). In the production of plywood, these mills require between 2.12-2.36 in' of roundlogs to produce every cubic meter of plywood. The direct operational cost of production is estimated at Us $100 per in3. Mills usually market their finished products by promoting the well known species which have been used in production of specific products. Hence products made from well known primary species attract quite high prices. However, currently, in a lot of production lines, lesser used species are being used as substitutes and these have been well accepted by the market. Most lesser used species are sold as sawntimber products and as components of other products rather than on their own. The domestic marketfor wood products (exfactory-Pucallpa), could achieve prices as high as Us $551 per in'for sawntimber made from Mahogany; other primary species (as shown in the list of 13 in table 4.2. I) also attract prices of Us $420 per in'. For

79 mixed species, normally used in the construction industry mainly, of which many lesser known species form a part, a price of Us $260 per in' is achievable. The packaging industry uses a lot of lessenknown species for the manufacture of its products and these attract a price of Us $721m'. The export market is a repository for a lot of kiln dried sawn timber and value added products. Prices in the range of Us $72-800 per in' are achieved for various products with flooring products achieving the highest prices in the range of Us $800- 1000 in'3 in'

4.2.2 Lessons from ITTO Project PD 37188 Rev 3 (" - Industrial Utilisation of

. New Tropical Forestspecies (Phase landlD As a project which was implemented with an objective of identifying and elaborating . the potentials of lesser known or used species, through industrial trials and testing, some 49 species were subjected to various industrial testin Iquitos and Pucallpa. In an evaluation report by 01av Jensen (1998), a simple classification of species actually tested in Pucallpa and Iquitos is presented here as Table 4.2.2) Although the species ^^. a. panttQ appears in the species list for both Iquitos and : PCallpa, the indications are that it is not the same species, but it belongs to a

common genus. Another observation is that three of the s ecies namel Catahua QQp^.!!z^ and 1.1^^^ have prominently featured in the list of species which are traditionally well known and used, but the reality of the situation is that knowledge with regard to the industrial properties had been very limited, and so this study provided this information. In the course of the studies, species were first analysed based on prior knowledge of some of their properties and then grouped into their suitability for sawing, natural durability, drying, preservation, easiness to machine, etc. Other value added processing application such as kiln drying, veneer and plywood production were also investigated. Species response to nailing, sanding, glueing and preservation against insect and fungi attacks were studied. Most of the species which were sawn were processed as surface planed lumber and further made into decorative panels, tongue and grove products, finger jointed products, flooring and parquets, mouldings and furniture parts.

80 An assessment was made on industrial yields and productivity for the various species, which resulted in yield levels ranging from 24.1% for Ubos (^. pQnd. I^.^ mombin) sawn as I inch thickness-boards, and 65.3% for Shihuahuaco Coumarouna sp) sawntimber with over 3 inches thickness. Others also recorded yields ranging from 39% for Pumaquiro (based on two-inch sawn boards) to 73% recorded for Machinga. Defining industrial productivity as the volume of finished sawntimber per species achieved during an 8-hour shift, outputs ranging from 14 in' for Tahuari and 46 in' for Machinga (2-inches sawnboards) were recorded. While most of the species investigated proved to have good and acceptable working properties in terms of milling, drying, etc, a few species showed varying degrees of difficulty to sawing due to tension in the wood, high silica content which results in rapid dulling of tools. These include: Aria ^:^,::PC CaOhimbo, Ca noria Camna Catahua, ^s^^, ^!^^, casha^Q, A1^ Martinari Mashonaste, ""'99, ^ci, Yacuhaana The studies further indicated that application of improved or more appropriate techniques of processing such as radial rather than tangential sawing, and the use of tungsten carbide or satellite-tipped tools were necessary if the processing of these species was to be commercialised. With radial cutting or sawing not commonly used in Peru, the study concentrated on training people from the industry in the use of this technique as well as identifying species which were susceptible to biological attacks and hence needed preservation treatment. In an attempt to improve on the end-use application of these new species, the phase 11 of this project constructed a model demonstration house currently used as (an auditorium) on the campus of the National Agricultural University (La Moling), using many of these species. This model house is used as a premises for courses organised for architects and builders to promote the use of these new forest species. In term of marketing and the promotion of trade in these new species, both domestically and internationally, activities supported by SIAT of Peru ensured that contracts in these species were closed nationally with as many end-users as possible. SIAT also engaged in a lot of education and publicity campaign on the use of the species. Most end-user have expressed interest in their uses as substitutes for timber or woods that are becoming increasingly rare and consequently expensive such as Tomi/10. For example, in the opinion of carpenters and architects, species such as

81 CaOhimbo, GOPaiba and to a lesser degree Capirona are good as substitutes for Tomi//0. These three species also have a further advantage of being chea er. On the international market, some of the project activities sponsored, the work of international consultants in North America, Europe and Japan as well as trade missions to Japan and Europe, and these provided acc(^ss to information on processing technologies and new products as well as trends on the international timber markets. PrincipalIy, technological studies were carried in Nagoya Universit in Japan, on a lot of these new species. As a result of a series of seminar which ^ : were held in Japan, to introduce and promote the use of these new Peruvian wood species, Capirona was found to be a good substitute for Japanese species Abedul and also for other imported specie such as Apitong from South East Asia, the Perilian Shihuahuaco and Estoraque were found to be suitable substitutes. The North European market with a preference for lightly coloured woods found the I^ following group of species as suitable for flooring namely: Aguana masha, Capriona, Estoraque, Pumaquiro, Requia, Shihuahuaco, Tahuari and Yacushaana. Alternatively, forthe European Mediterranean markets which showed preference for darker and the heavier species of wood for the flooring end-use, Cachimbo and Pangana were considered suitable for furniture, carpentry and mouldings, with Machinga found to have similar properties to Rainin from Malaysia and Indonesia and hence a suitable substitute forthese species on this European markets. It must, however, be emphasised here that although the potentials for processin , marketing and development of trade in this species seem very promising from these studies their contribution to the economy of Peru, would be influenced stron I b their extent of occurrence and abundance silviculturally in these forest. With a majority of these species showing densities ranging between tin' ha~' to 10 in ha~' described as quite abundant except for a few which have been found to be confined to specific ecological zones eg. Cachimbo, which occurs in alluvial soils only, the indications are that the future of this industry will depend on the potentials these

, species. Another species Capirona, which has a similar preference for specific sites, can also occur as pure stands on soils and sites prone to flooding as well as non- flooding sites. A range of other species including Machimango, Machin a Mashonate, Pashaco, Requia, Yacushapana, Ubos, Oj6, Shihuahuaco, Tahari, etc, occur in almost alithe tropical forest sites of Peru in varying densities.

82 Table 4.22

List of New S ecies Test Ind tri 11 rider Pr tP037 8R v3 I

Industrial to tin Location minon name of s ecie Scientifi nam fs Ies Iquitos Andiroba Carepa guianensis Azucar huayo Hymenaea oblongifolia Brea caspi Protium elewellynii Carehuasca Guatteria hyposericeal Cedrillo Evisma bicolor Dauchi inoena Ocotea sp Huamansamana Jacaranda copaia Mari bena Pterocarpus am azonum Mari inari Hymenolobium sp Pashaco ' Macrolobium acaceaefolium Quillosisa Vochysia vismiifolia Sapotillo Quararibea sp Shiringarana Micandra spruceana

Pucallpa Aguana masha ' Paremachaerium ormosoides Aria caspi Apelia molaris Ayahuma Couroupita sp Bolaina blanca ' Guazuma crinita Cachimbo ' Cariniana domestica Cachimbo blanca Cariniana decandra Cafecillo huayruro Qualea parensis Capriona ' Calycphyllum spruceanum Carafia Dacryodes nitens Catahua Hura crepitans Congona/Machinga'-3 Brosinum alicastrum Copaiba Copaifera officinalis Copal Trattinickia peruviana Estoraque ' Myoxylon balsamum Higuerilla Cunuria spruceana Hualaja Zanthosylum sp Huangrna casha SIoanea in Innora Huayruro Ormosia sp Marupa Simaronba amare Mashonaste Clarisia racemosa Moena amarilla Aniba sp Oj6 blanco Ficus insipida Oje renaco Ficus sp Oj6 rosado Ficus glabrata Panganua ' Brosinum utile Pashaco blanco A1bizzia sp Pashaco colorado Parkia pendula Paujil ruro Guarea multiflora Pumaquiro ' ASPidosperma macrocarpon Requia Guavea sp Sapotillo Quararibea sp Shihuahuaco ' Coumarouna sp Tahari' Tabebuia serratifolia Ubos Spondias mornbin Utucuru ' Septhoteca ternanii Yacushapana ' Terminalia amazonica

Modified after 01av Jensen's report

Notes: I - represent most promising new spedes 2 - represent species of low density and durability; and also very susceptile to be biological degradation. (end- use: domestic building and packaging industry). 3 - represent medium-density and durable species which need drying and chemical treatment; have excellent working properties and can be used for a wide range of products for domestic and export markets. 4 - represent durable and dense (and often more darkly-coloured) wood which do riot need chemical treatment, but less workable

83

, 4.3.3 Economic impacts of increased utilisation of LUS/LKS Any attempt at assessing the economic impacts of increased utilisation of lesser known or used species, ought to be done within the context of the many factors which assist in either improving or worsening the direct, indirect and intangible benefits and costs which can be associated with the entire forest enterprise. The most obvious manifestation in this wise are the impacts which can be associated with direct benefits and costs atInbutable to the harvesting and utilisation of these LUS/LKS. What comes to mind readily are the prices which are paid for products manufactured from these species, and the profits or loses which are quantifiable as a result of using or marketing these species.

I The value of such produce or products can be measured by the consumer's willingness to pay or the readiness of the markets to accept these products. The extent and impacts of this appears to be very variable, and this expresses itself as a continuum over a preference scale which is not as positive as the industry would have wished it to be in relation to the more cherished primary or well-known species. This is because harvesting and processing cost which are almost the same or may be higher in this case from the industry's view point, is matched against a rather lower prices offered on the markets where these species and products made from them are sold. Forthe industry, such margins appear to be too low and has a negative impact on their operations as far as profitability is concerned. Additionally, the monetary returns whether absolute or otherwise, resulting from an increased utilisation of LUS/LKS to forest dependent people and the country as a whole, following from either their direct participation or indirect receipts from taxation or royalties/stampage charged, seem to contribute positively to the national wealth. Although in most cases the net benefits from the use of these new resources appears to slightly positive, the extent of this impacts is far from being appreciable. Also, by increasing the range of species to be harvested and processed, work is provided and sustained for people who may or may not be previously employed. Here, the transfer of labour from subsistence farming to creative work becomes a net benefits to society as a whole, not because of the extra production obtained from the provision of employment, butthe new opportunities and possibilities which are

84 favourable for collecting taxes for governments, etc. , which will in turn generate more employment in other sectors. To a certain predictable extent, this employment generated by the forest industry which is sustained as a result of increased harvesting may assist in either stabilising or improve the vertical distribution of money in areas which are within the close proximit of the mills since in most cases there is relatively a smaller income differential , between the upper and lower classes of these forest industry workers living closer to timber resource frontiers. Characteristically, with the quantification of most intangible benefits and cost being subjective and rather difficult to define, their association with increased utilisation of LUS/LKS may find expression in the creation of either a healthy or unhealthy spill over from any operation which concentrates on their uses. In a rather negative way, it impacts heavily on rivers and water bodies as they get silted from erosion and other activities which seriously affect the terrain where any such increased harvesting activity abound. On the other hand such silted rivers deposit such following flooding to improve the soil condition on the banks of the rivers down stream, and therefore provide the required soil condition for growth of seedlings (especially in the varzea). The influence of these two reciprocating activities will depend on the intensity and periodicity with which each occurs. The range of biodiversity is also altered and depending on the extent of the harvesting intensity, the recorded impacts are normally far from being positive. In situations where such identifiable LUS/LKS represent a sources of food or provide other forms of intangible benefits, the associated impacts on forest dependent people cold be very grave, as this could affecttheir entire life styles and ways of living, which in most cases is difficult to quantity or even imagine. An example of this is illustrated by a quantitative, inventory of forest used by the Chacobo India's of the Bolivian Amazon, where it was found that they have uses for 75 out of the 91 tree species, identified representing about 82% of a hectare offorest studied by (Boom 1985). This sample included 95% of the individual trees (619 out of a total of 649) which were identified and counted. Similarly, the Ka'apor Indians of Marenhao, Brazil were also found to have a use for every single species of tree on a sample hectare, with these use value ranging from food, fibres, fuel, material for construction and crafts, medicine and rubber latex. Ifthese Indians, orthe other wider groups of forest

85 dependent people have so much knowledge relating to the various ways in which to use the forest, it stands to reason that there are many more products to be marketed or used than the few species identified as producing timber, even if we keep on expanding the range. Therefore most of these species may best be left standing in the forest either to serve these purposes of as mother trees to contribute to the broader equation of improving environmental

* management forms a part. In contributing to this debate, Rietbergen and Poore (1995) have indicated that since current attention on the increased use of Lessenknown timbers are focused on the effects on the forest ecosystem and the productivity of the forest, it is almost impossible to asses these effects because of a lack of relevant data on LUS/LKS. In particular, their work indicate that there is a lack of data on the proportion of these LUS/LKS in various forest types, and on the volume extracted per botanical species and per unit area. Additionally, data on natural regeneration and changes in forest composition are virtually non- existent. Sequil to this, the increased use of LUS/LKS may have either positive or negative effects for the following, largely unrelated reasons, namely: . The increased utilisation of LUS/LKS may induce smaller changes in the species composition of the forest because of the tendency to harvest more species, or may lead to greater changes due to heavier logging; . The effects on financial and economic profitability are unpredictable, although, the utilisation of more species increases the economic value per unit area, the cost of extraction may be dis-proportionally higher; . As more forest becomes economicalIy profitable, the areas harvested annually may either decrease when log production quotas are enforced or increase when there no restrictions. In Tables 4.31 and 4.3.2, summaries from Brazil and Peru, respectively are presented on the views of respondents interviewed in the course of the study as to the likely economic impacts of increased harvesting of lesser used or lesser known species taking various influential factors into consideration.

86 Table 4.3. I.

Likely Economic Impacts of Increased Utilisation of Lesser Known/Lesser Used Species. (BRAZIL)

Harvesting Processing Trade Factors (P) (N) (P) (N) (P) (N)

Timber raw material 3 4 3 Mill capacity tilization 4 5 3 Cost of Production 3 3 3

Netincome 3 3 3 Profitability 2 2 2 . Technology improvement 2 Technology transfer Product substitution 3 3 2

Investment Cost 3 -I

Health hazards -I

Forest Health -2 -, -I

Forest Valuation 4 3 2 Conservation of Biological Diversity -3 -2 -I Nori-forest industry -2 Non-timber products & Services -2 -, -I Traditional Forest-related knowledge -3 Fuelwood supply 2

Market access 2 3 Employment 3 3 2 Forest coinmnity stability -2 Indigenous peoples rights -2 -2 -I Source: from study Notes. P = position impact N = negative impact Impact measured on a scale of I - 5 (positive) and -I to -5 (negative)

87

I Table 4.3.2.

Likely Economic Impacts of Increased Utilisation of Lesser Known/Lesser Used Species. (PERU) Harvesting Processing Trade Factors (P) (N) (P) (N) (P) (N)

Timber raw material 4 5 4

Mill capacity tilization 4 4 4

Cost of Production 3 3 3

Netincome 3 2 2

Profitability 3 2 2 Technology improvement 2 2 Technology transfer 2

Product substitution 4 3 3

Investment Cost 2 -I

Health hazards -I

Forest Health -I -2 -3

Forest Valuation 4 4 3 Conservation of Biological Diversity -4 -2 -I Nori-forest industry -I 2 Non-timber products & Services -3 -I Traditional Forest-related knowledge -3 Fuelwood supply 2 2 Market access 3 2 3 Employment 3 3 4 Forest community stability -I -I Indigenous peoples rights -2 -2 -I Source: from study Notes. P = position impact N = negative impact Impact measured on a scale of I - 5 (positive) and -I to -5 (negative)

88

I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to acknowledge with special thanks the following underlisted people who in diverse ways provided support; for a for discussions contact source; enabled questionnaire to be completed, and also served as sources of information as far as this subject matter is concerned forthe study team.

I. Evaristo. F. de Monra Terezo; Bel6m-Par6 Brazil 2. Dr. Niro Higuchi; Marianus Brazil 3. Dr. Cleuber Delano; Jose Lisboa, IBAMO Brazil 4. Dr. Ivan Tonaselli; Curitiba, Brazil 5. Guilherme dos Sarios Can/alho; Aimex Bel6m-Par6, Brazil 6. Johan C. Zweede; Belem, Brazil 7. Paulo Barrelo; (IMAZON) Arianindeua, Brazil 8. Cecilia Malaguti; Brasilia, Brazil 9. Dr. Joao O. Pereira de Can/alho, EMBRAPA, Brazil 10. Dr. Jose Natalino Macedo Silva, EMBRAPA, Brazil 11. Enrique To ledo. GP, Lima, Peru 12. Juan. A. Simon Aponle; Pucallpa, Peru : 13. Wilfredo Jurado Maltos; Lima, Peru 14. Elema Rubio Urrelo; Pulcallpa, Peru 15. Fernando Razetto; Lima Peru.

The list is by no means exhaustive since several other people provided : various forms of support to enable this study accomplish its objective and to these people in both Brazil and Peru we want to thank sincerely for every assistance provided. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Appendix I. .. Madeiras Tropicals Brasileiras (Classified List of Timber Speices of Brazil) (1)

Appendix 2 ... New species of Peru (x)

Appendix 3 ... Estimates of Transportation Cost, Para Brazil (xi)

Appendix 4 ... Wood Processing Mills Classified Based on Technology, type and Size In three Municipal Location of Brazil (XIIi)

Appendix 5 ... ITTO Project No. P033195 Impacts Of Increased Utilization of Lesser Known Species (LKS)(Letter of Enquiry on impacts of increased utilization of LUS) (xv) A1^

MADEIRAS TROPICAIS BRASILEIRAS

I. Abarema jupunba*** Fava-amargosa Mimosaceae 2. Acacia polyphyija*** Monjoleiro Chrysobalanaceae 3. ACiOa edulis*** Castanha-de-cutin Chrysobalanaceae 4. ACOSmlUm nitens*** Itaubarana Fabaceae 5. Agonandra brasiliensis* Pa-martim-da-mata Opiliaceae 6. A1bizia corymbosa*** Faveira Mimosaceae 7. A1chomea triplinervja** Iricurana Euphorbiaceae 8. A1chomeOpis trimera*** Canelarana Euphorbiaceae 9. A1dina heterophylla** Macucu-de-paca Caesalpiniaceae 10. Alexa grandiflora* Me Iancieira Fabaceae I I . Allantoma lineata** Seru Lecythidaceae 12. Amburana acreana* Cerejeira Fabaceae I 3. Ariacardium giganteum* Cajuagu Anacardiaceae 14. Ariacardium tenuifoljum* Cajui Anacardiaceae I 5. Andira inermjs ** Andira-uxi Fabaceae I 6. Andira microntha** Andira-uxi Fabaceae 17. Andira retusa** Fava-amargosa Fabaceae 18. Aniba canelijja** Preciosa Lauraceae I 9. Aniba parviflora*** Pau-rpsa Lauraceae 20. An81ba PUGhury-minor*** Puchuri-do-Marenh^o Lauraceae 21 . Antonia ovata*** Quina Loganiaceae 22. Apeiba tibourbou* Pau-de-iangada Tiliaceae 23. Apuleia leiocarpa* Garapa Caesalpiniaceae 24. Apuleia molaris* Garapa Caesalpiniaceae 25. Araucaria an gustifojja**** Pinheiro-do-Parena Araucariaceae 26. ASPidOSperma album** Araracanga Apocynanceae 27. ASPidosperma carepanauba* CarepanaOba Apocynanceae 28. ASPidosperma desmanthum** Araracanga Apocynanceae 29. ASPidOSperma discolor** CarepanaOba Apocynanceae 30. ASPidOSperma macrocarpon* Peroba-inico Apocynanceae 3 I . ASPidosperma megalocarpon** Araracanga Apocynanceae 32. ASPidosperma parvifoljum*** Pereiro-am are10 Apocynanceae 33. ASPidosperma polyneuron Peroba-rosa Apocynanceae 34. ASPidOSPerma pyrifoiium*** Guatambu-peroba Apocynanceae 35. Astronium fraxinifojjum***** Gongalo-a. ves Anacardiaceae 36. AstroniUm gracije** Muiracatiara-lisa Anacardiaceae 37. Astronium Iecointej* Muiracatiara-rajada Anacardiaceae 38. AstroniUm Urundeuva***** Aroira Anacardiaceae 39. Bagassa guianensis* Tatajuba Moraceae 40. Baifourodendron riedelianum Pau-martim Rutaceae 41 . Batesia floribunnda*** ACapurana-da-terra-firme Caesalpiniaceae 42. Bertholletia excelsa***** Castanheira Lecythidaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

I

. 43. Bocageopis multiflora*** Envira-aritu Annonaceae 44. Bombacopsis ginata* Cedro-doce Bombacaceae 45. Bombax endecaphylium** Sumaiima-branca Bombacaceae 46. Bombax 910bosum Sumaiima-branca Bombacaceae 47. Bowdichia nitida* Sucpira-preta Fabaceae * 48. Bowdichia nitida* Macanaiba Fabaceae 49. Brosimum acutifolium** Murur6 Moraceae 50. Brosimum Iactescens*** Muirapiranga-branca Moraceae 51 . Brosimum pareense Muirapiranga Moraceae 52. Brosimum parinarioides Amapt^-doce Moraceae 53. Brosimum'potabile Amapa-doce Moraceae 54. Brosimum rubescens** Conduru Moraceae 55. Buchenavia capitata** Cuiarana/tanibuca Combretaceae 56. Buchenavia grandis** Cuiarana/taniboca Combretaceae 57. Buchenavia macrophyiia** Cuiarana/tanibuca Combretaceae 58. Buchenavia ochropuruna** Cuiarana/tanibuca Combretaceae 59. BuchenaVia parvifolia** Tanimbuca-ammarela Combretaceae 60. Byrsonima aerugo*** Muruci Maipighiaceae 6 I . ByrsOnima densa*** Murici Malpighiaceae 62. Byrsonima Stipulacea*** Murici Malpighiaceae 63. Cabralea canjerana** Canjerana Meliaceae 64. Caesalpinia echinata***** Pau-brasil Caesalpiniaceae 65. Calopyllum brasiliense* JacareOba Guttiferae 66. Calycophyllum spruceanum** Pau-inulato Ruibiaceae 67. Careipa densiflora** Cainagari Bonnetiaceae 68. Carepa guianensjs* Andiroba Meliaceae 69. Cariniana estrellensjs* Jequitiba-branco Lecythidaceae 70. Cartniana integrifoita* Jequitiba-do-Amazonas Lecythidaceae 71 . Canniana microntha* Jequitiba-rosa Lecythidaceae 72. Caryocar 91abrum* Piquiarana Caryocaraceae 73. Caryocar microcarpum** Piquiarana-da-v;^rzez Caryocaraceae 74. Caryocar villosum* Piquit^-verdadeiro Caryocaraceae 75. Gassia fastuosa** Can afistla Caesalpiniaceae 76. Gassia scleroxylon** Muirapixna Caesalpiniaceae 77. Castilla Ilej** Caucho Moraceae 78. Cecropa obtusa*** jinbaUba Cecropiaceae 79. Cedrela odorata* Cedro Meliaceae 80. Cedrelinga cetenaeformjs* Cedrorana Mimosaceae 81 . Centrolobium paracense** Pau-rainha Fabaceae 82. Cheiloclinum cognatum*** Bacupari Celastraceae 83. Chysophyllm anomaium*** Mangabarana Sapotaceae 84. Clarisia racemosa* GuariOba/oiticica Moraceae 85. Cochlospermum orinocense*** Perlquiteira Cochlospermaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

11 86. Conceveibaguianensjs*** Tapich6 Euphorbiaceae 87. Copaiferaduckej* Copaiba Caesalpiniaceae 88. Copaiferamartjj* Copaiba Caesalpiniaceae 89. CoPaiferamultijuga* Copaiba Caesalpiniaceae 90. Copaiferaofficinajjs* Copaiba Caesalpiniaceae 91. Copaifera reticulata* Copaiba Caesalpiniaceae 92. Cordiagoeldiana* Freij6 Boreginaceae 93. Cordiascabrifojja*** Freijoarana Boreginaceae 94. Cordiatetrandra*** Chap6u-de-sol Boreginaceae 95. Cordiatrichotoma*** Freij6 Boreginaceae 96. Corytophotarimosa*** Castanha-jacar6 Lecythidaceae 97. CoUepiarobsta** Abiurana Chrysobalanaceae 98. CoUmagUianensjs* Son/eira Apocynaceae 99. CouratarigUianensjs* Tauari Lecythidaceae 100. Courtari oblongifoiia* Tauari Lecythidaceae 101. Croton matourensjs*** Mairavuvuia Euphorbiaceae 102. CrUdia oblonga*** IPerana Caesalpiniaceae 103. Cryptocraya aschersonjana*** Canela-branca Lauraceae 104. Curate 11a americana* Aderno/cairnb6 Dilleniaceae 105. Cynometra spruceana*** Jutsirana Caesalpiniaceae 106. Dalbergia miscolobjum** Jacarand6-do-cerrado/cabiUn Fabaceae 107. Dalbergia spruceana** Jacaranda-do-Par^ Fabaceae 108. Dendrobangia bolivjana*** Careraria ICacinaceae 109. Dialium guianesjs** Jatai-peba Caesaipiniaceae 110. DimorPhandra macrostachya*** ProcuOba Caesalpiniaceae 1/1. Dimorphandra multiflora** Faveira Caesalpiniaceae 1/2. Dinizia excelsa* Angelim-vermelho Mimosaceae 113. Diosphyros praetermjssa*** Caqui Ebenaceae 114. Diplotropis martiusjj* Sucupira-da-varzea Fabaceae 1/5. Diplotropis purpurea* Sucupira-da-terra fume Fabaceae 1/6. Diplotropis racemosa* Sucupira Fabaceae 1/7. Dipteryx ferrea** Cuumaru-ferro Fabaceae 118. DipteryX Odorata* Cumaru Fabaceae 119. DipteryX Polyphyjja** Cumaru Fabaceae 120. Drypetes vanabjjjs*** Pau-bronco Euphorbiaceae 121. Duroia macrophyiia*** Purui Rubiaceae 122. ECClinUSa guianensjs*** Abiorana-bacuri Sapotaceae 123. Endopleura uchj** Uxi-liso/uxi Humiriaceae 124. Entero10bium maximum* Tamboril Mimosaceae 125. EPerua schomburgkii* Sucupira-amare Ia Mimosaceae 126. EPerua Bituga** Copaibarana Caesalpiniaceae 127. Eperua schomburgkiana** Muirapiranga Caesalpiniaceae 128. Erisma calcaratum** Cachimbo-dejaboti Vochysiaceae 129. Erisma uricinatum* Cedrinho Vochysiaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

111 130. ESChweilera amazonjca** Matamata-ci Lecythidaceae 131. ESChweilera rhodonoclada** Inhjaiba Lecythidaceae 132. Eucalyptus EUCalipto Mynaceae ^ 133. Eucalyptus CIOeziana** EUCalipto Myrtaceae 134. Eucalyptus creba** EUCalipto Mynaceae 135. Eucalyptus eugenioides** EUCalipto Mynaceae 136. Eucalyptus grandis* EUCalipto Myrtaceae 137. Eucalyptus maculata** EUCalipto Myrtaceae 138. Eucalyptus microporjs** EUCalipto Mynaceae 139. Eucalyptus pilulares* EUCalipto Myrtaceae 140. Eucalyptus propinqua** EUCalipto Myrtaceae 141. Eucalyptus resinifera** EUCalipto MyF1aceae 142. Eucalyptus terenticomjs* EUCalipto MyF1aceae 143. Eucalyptus tesselarjs** EUCalipto Mynaceae 144. EUgenia floribunda*** Murta Mynaceae 145. EUplassa pinnata* Louro-faia Proteacea 146. EUxylophora pareensjs* Pau-amare10 Rutaceae 147. Ferdinandusa ovalis*** Duradao Rubiaceae 148. Ficus insipida*** Gameleira Moraceae 149. Ficus trigona *** Gameleira Moraceae 150. FicUUs trigona*** Gameleira Moraceae 151. Glycydendron amazonicum** Glicia Euphorbiaceae 152. Goupia glabra* CupiUba Goupiaceae 153. Guarea grandifojja** Jit6/inarinheiro Meliaceae 154. Guarea guidonja* Jit6/inarinheiro Meliaceae 155. Guarea silvatjca** Jit6/inarinheiro Meliaceae 156. Guazuma ulmjfojja*** Mutamba Sterculiaceae 157. Gustavia augusta*** Jeniparana Lecythidaceae , 158. Hevea brasiliensjs*** Seringueira Euphorbiaceae 159. Hevea spruceana*** Seringueira Euphorbiaceae 160. Hieronyma laxiflora*** Mangoncalo Euphorbiaceae 161. Him atarithus sucuuba** SucuUba Apocynaceae 162. Himella piresjj*** Carip6-torrado Chrysobalanaceae 163. Huberodendron swieteniojdes*** Agoita-cavalo-grande Bombacaceae 164. Humiria balsamifera*** Urniri-de-cheiro Humiriaceae 165. Hura creptans* Agacu Euphorbiaceae 166. Hydrogastertinerve** Bomba-d'69ua Tiliaceae 167. Hymenaea courbarjj* Jatobt^ Caesalpiniaceae 168. Hymenaea palustrjs* Jatoba-claro Caesalpiniaceae 169. Hymenaea parvifolia* Jatoba Caesalpiniaceae 170. Hymenolobium coinplicatum* Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 171. Hymenolobium elatum** Angelim-pedra Fabaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

IV 172. Hymenolobium excelsum* Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 173. Hymenolobium flavum*** Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 174. Hymenolobium heterocarpum* Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 175. Hymenolobium sericeum* Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 176. Hymenolobium modesturn* Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 177. Hymenolobium nitidum** Angelitn-pedra Fabaceae 178. Hymenolobium petraeum* Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 179. Hymenolobium pulcherrimum Angelim-pedra Fabaceae 180. Inga alba** Inga Mimosaceae I81. Inga capitata** Inga Mimosaceae . 182. Inga edulis** Inga-cip6 Mimosaceae 183. Inga heterophylla** Ing6-ferradura Mimosaceae 184. Inga pareensjs** Inga Mimosaceae 185. Inga subericantha** Inga Mimosaceae 186. Iryanthera sagotiana*** Ucuubarana Myristicaceae

: 187. Jacaranda GOPaja* Parepar6 Bignoniaceae 188. Laetia Procera* Pau-jacar6 F1acourtiaceae 189. LaplaCea fruticosa*** Santa-rita Theaceae 190. Lecythis idatimon*** Matamatt^ Lecythidaceae 191. Lecythis lurida* Jarana Lecythidaceae 192. Lecythis pisonjs* Sapucaia Lecythidaceae 193. Lecythis poiteauj*** Jarana Lecythidaceae 194. Licania apelata*** Ajuru Chrysobalanaceae 195. Licania gracilipes*** Careiperana Chrysobalanaceae 196. Licania heteroniorpha*** Macucu-do-Rio-Negro Chrysobalanaceae 197. Licania 11atifojja*** Macucu Chrysobalanaceae 198. Licania macrophylia*** Ariaera Chrysobalanaceae 199. Licaniia me in branacea*** Cartperana Chrysobalanaceae 200. Licania microntha*** Careiperana Chrysobalanaceae 201. Licania oblongifoija*** Macucu-bronco Chrysobalanaceae 202. Licania octandra*** Caraip6 Chrysobalanaceae 203. Licaria arjtu*** Louro-ant Lauraceae 204. Licaria canneja*** Louro-canela Lauraceae 205. Licaria inahuba*** Maliba Lauraceae 206. Luuehea divaricata* Agoita-cavalo Tiliaceae 207. Lueheopsis rosea** Agoita-cavalo Tiliaceae 208. Machaeriuum scleroxyion** Pau-ferro Fabaceae 209. Maclura tinctorja** Amoreira Moraceae 210. Macoubea guianensjs*** Macucu-da-terra-firme Apocynaceae 211. Macrolobium acacifojjum** Arapari Caesalpiniaceae 212. Macrosamanea pedicellarjs*** Jueirana-branca Mimosaceae 213. Malouetia duckej** Tamanqueira-de-leite Apocynaceae 214. Manilkara bidentata* Magaranduba Sapotaceae 215. Manilkara cavalcantej* Magaranduba Sapotaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

V 216. Manjikara huberj* Magaranduba Sapotaceae 217. Manjikara in undata* Magaranduba Sapotaceae 218. Maprounea guianensjs*** Carombola-da-mata Euphorbiaceae 219. Maquira conacea*** Miratinga-da-vatzea Moraceae 220. Maquira guianesjs*** Cauchorana Moraceae 221. Maqira sclerophyiia* Muiratinga Moraceae 222. Marinaroxylon racemosum** Angelim-rajado Mimosaceae 223. Martiodendron elatum** Jutai-cica Caesalpiniaceae 224. Mezilaurus itauba* Itallba Lauraceae 225. Mezilaurus Iindaviana* Itallba Lauraceae 226. Miconia surinamensts*** Tinteiro Melastomataceae 227. Micropholis venulosa* Rosadinho/curupixa Sapotaceae 228. Minquartia guianensjs** ACariquara 01acaceae 229. Mora pareensjs* ProcuUba Caesalpiniaceae 230. Mounti brachyantha*** MireUba Melastomataceae 231. Mounti callocarpa** MireOba Melastomataceae 232. Myrocarpus frondosus** Cabreiiva-parda Fabaceae 233. Myroxylon balsamum* Balsamo Fabaceae 234. Nestandra cuspidata* Canela Lauraceae 235. Nestandra cymbarum* Louro-in hamui Lauraceae 236. Nestranda rubra* Louro-vermelho Lauraceae 237. 0cotea amazonjca*** Canelapmamelada Lauraceae 238. 0cotea costulata* Louro-c^nfora Lauraceae 239. 0cotea fragrantissima* Louro-preto Lauraceae 240. Octoea guianensjs* Louro-prata Lauraceae 241. 0cotea neesiana* Louro-preto Lauraceae 242. 0cotea porosa**** Imbuia Lauraceae 243. OrmOSia COGcinea** Tento Fabaceae 244. Ormosia flava** Tento-amare10 Fabaceae 245. Ormosia pareensjs* Tento Fabaceae 246. OSteophloeum platyspermum** Ucuubarana Myristicaceae 247. Ouratea polygyna*** Pau-de-serra Ochnaceae 248. Parehancornia amapa* Amapa-amargoso Apocynaceae 249. ParePiPtadenia rigida** Angico-vermelho Mimsoceae 250. Paraprotium amazonjcum*** Breu-andirobarana Burseraceae 251. Patinari excelsa** Parinari Chrysobalanaceae 252. Patinari montana*** Parinari Chrysobalanaceae 253. Parkia decussata*** Faveira-arera-tucupi Mimosaceae 254. Parkia OPPositifojja** Visgueiro Mimosaceae 255. Parkia pareensjs* Faveira Mimosaceae 256. Parkia penduia* Faveira/angelim-saia Mimosaceae 257. Parkia velutjna** Parica Mimosaceae 258. Paulownia tomentosa*** Quiri Scrofulariaceae 259. Peltogyne catingea* Pau-roxo Caesalpiniaceae t

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

Vl 260. Peltogyne Iecointej* Pau-roxo-da-terra-firme Caesalpiniaceae 261. Peltogyne marenhensis* Roxinho Caesalpiniaceae 262. Peltogyne paniculata* Pau-roxo Caesalpiniaceae 263. Peltogyne paradoxa* Roxinho Caesalpiniaceae 264. Pentaclethra macroloba**** Pracaxi Mimosaceae 265. Perebea mollis*** Muiratinga-da-terra-firme Moraceae 266. Pinus elliottjj* Pinus Pinnaceae 267. Piptadenia 90noacantha** Pau-jacar6/angico Mimosaceae 268. Piptadenia suaveo1ens* Fava-toIha-fina Mimosaceae 269. Pithecellobium elegans*** Fava-mapuxiqui Mimosaceae 270. Plathymenia reticulata** Vinh;^tico Mimosaceae 271. Platonia irisignis* Bacuri Guttiferae 272. Platymiscium duckej* MacacaUba-do-campo Fabaceae 273. Platymiscium ujej* MacacaUba Fabaceae 274. POinCiana regia*** Flamboyant Caesalpiniaceae 275. Porequeiba guianesjs*** Urnari-amare 10 ICacinaceae 276. Routeria cairnjto** Abiurana Sapotaceae 277. Routeria egregia*** Abiu-pitomba Sapotaceae 278. Pouteria gongrjpjj** Abiurana-branca Sapotaceae 279. Routeria 11aurifojja*** Guapeva-vermelha Sapotaceae 280. Pouteria oblanceojata*** Abiorana-preta Sapotaceae 281. Routeria obscura*** Maregongalo Sapotaceae 282. Routeria OPPositifojja*** Abiu-branco Sapotaceae 283. Pauteria pachycarpa* Goiab^o Sapotaceae 284. Protium braasiliense*** A1mecegueira Burseraceae 285. ProtiUm pareaense*** Breu-amescla Burseraceae 286. Pseudobombax inuunguba*** Munguba Bombacaceae 287. Pterocarpus amazonjcus*** Mututi-da-varzea Fabaceae 288. PteroCarpus officinalis** Mututi Fabaceae 289. PteroCarpus rohrjj*** Mututi-da-terra-firme Fabaceae 290. Ptychopelatum o1acojdes*** Muirapuana 01acaceae 291. Qualea albinora* Mandioqueira Vochysiaceae 292. Qualea brevipedicellata* Mandioqueira-aspera Vochysiaceae 293. Qualea dinzjj** Mandioqueira-escamosa Vochysiaceae 294. Qualea pareensjs* Mandioqueira Vochysiaceae 295. Qualea rosea*** Laba-laba Vochysiaceae 296. Qualea witrockjj*** Urnirirana Vochysiaceae 297. Quararibea guianensjs*** Guarariba Bombacaceae 298. Rauvolfia paraensjs** Peroba-d'agua Apocynaceae 299. RauWolfia pentaphyiia*** Son/a Apocynaceae 300. Reedia macrophyija*** Bacupari Guttiferae 301. Rinorea guianensjs*** ACariquarana Violaceae 302. Roupala montana* Louro-faia Proteaceae 303. Ruizterania albinora** Mandioqueira Vochysiaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

Vll 304. Sacoglottis guianensjs*** Axua Sapotaceae 305. Sapium aereum*** Leiteiro Ephorbiaceae 306. Schefflera inorototonj* Morotot6 Araliaceae 307. Sclerolobium guianense** Taxi-bronco Caesalpiniaceae 308. Sclerolobium paniculatum*** Can/oeiro Caesalpiniaceae 309. Sclerolobium pareense** Taxi-preto Caesalpiniaceae 310. Sclerolobium pilgerianum Inga-IOUro Caesalpiniaceae 311. Sclerolobiumpoeppigianum** Taxi-pitomba Caesalpiniaceae 312. Scleronema micranthum** Cardeiro Bombacaceae 313. Sickingia tinctorja*** Arareua Rubiaceae 314. Simarouba amara* Marupa Simaroubaceae 315. Siparuna decipiens*** Limao-do-mato Monimiaceae 316. SIoanea nitida*** Urucurana Elaeocarpaceae 317. SIoanea nitjda*** Urucurana Elaeocarpaceae 318. SPOndias lutea** Cajat^/tapereba Anacardiaceae 319. Sterculia apeibophylia* Axix6 Sterculiaceae 320. Sterculia pilosa* Xixa Sterculiaceae 321. SteerCUIia pruriensjs** Axixa Sterculiaceae 322. Stryphnodendronpaniculatum*** Taxi-pitomba Mimosaceae 323. Stryphnodendron pulcherrimum*** Fava-branca Mimosaceae 324. Swanzia apetaja*** Gombeira Fabaceae 325. Swartzia euxylophora*** Arruda-vermelha Fabaceae 326. Swanzoa grandifojja*** Careg^0-de-negro Fabaceae 327. Swartzia Ieptopetaja*** Muirapixuna Fabaceae 328. Swanzia panacoco*** Coreg^0-de-negro Fabaceae 329. Swartzia racemosa*** Casca-de-sangue Fabaceae 330. Sweetia fruticosa*** Sucupira-am are Ia Fabaceae 331. Swietenia macrophyija**** Mogno Meliaceae I 332. Symphonia 910bulifera** Ariani Guttiferae 333. Tabebuia eximja* IP6-amare 10 Bignoniaceae 334. Tabebuia incana* IP6-amare 10 Bignoniaceae 335. Tabebuia longiflora* IP6/pau-d'arco Bignoniaceae 336. Tabebuia serratifolja* IP6/pau-d'arco Bignoniaceae 337. Tachigali myrinecophila* Taxizeiro-preto Caesalpiniaceae 338. Tapirira guianensjs** Pau-pornbo Anacardiaceae 339. Terminalia amazonjca** Cuiarana/tanibuca Combretaceae 340. Terminalia argentea*** Capit^0-do-campo Combretaceae 341. Tetragastris altissjma** Breu-manga Burseraceae 342. Tetragastris panamensjs** Barrote Burseraceae 343. Theobroma subincanum*** Cupui Sterculiaceae 344. Thyrosdim guianense*** Amaparanar6 Anacardiaceae 345. Tilia cordata*** Tilia Tiliaceae 346. Toulicia guanensjs*** Canela-do-igap6 Sapindaceae 347. Trothnickia gurseraefolia* Amescla Burseraceae 348. Trichilia Iecointej*** ProcuUba-da-terra-firme Meliaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** Species forbidden to be commercialised

Vlll 349. Vantariea gianensjs** Uxirana Humiriaceae 350. Vatairea sencea* Angelim-amargoso Fabaceae 351. Vataireopsis speciosa* Faveira-amargosa Fabaceae 352. Virola flexuosa*** Virola Myristicaceae 353. Virola inichejjj*** Virola ' Myristicaceae 354. Virola multicostata*** Virola Myristicaceae . 355. Virola o1eifera** Bicuiba Myristicaceae 356. Virola sebifera** Bicuiba Myristicaceae 357. Virola surinamensjs**** Virola Myristicaceae 358. Vismia cayanensjs*** CaOpia Guttiferae 359. Voclhysia divergens*** Cainbar6 Vochysiaceae 360. Vochysia ferruginea*** Cajarana Vochysiaceae 361. Vochysia guianensjs** Quaruba-branca Vochysiaceae 362. Vochysia in undata** Quaruba-cedro Vochysiaceae 363. Vochysia maxima* Quaruba-rosa Vochysiaceae 364. Vochysia meIinonjj*** Quaruba-rosa Vochysiaceae 365. Vochysia obdensjs** Quaruba-rosa Vochysiaceae 366. Vochysia obscura*** Quaruba-rosa Vochysiaceae 367. Vochysia vismaefojja** Quaruba-vermelha Vochysiaceae 368. Vouacapoa americana* ACapu Caesalpiniaceae 369. XylOpia aromatica*** Envireira Annonaceae 370. Xylopia nitida*** Envira-branca Annonaceae 371. Zanthoxylon regnelianuum** Maininha-de-porca Rutaceae 372. Zanthoxylum rhoifojjum** Mainica-de-porca Rutaceae 373. Zizyphus itacaiunensjs*** Maria-preta Rubiaceae 374. Zollernia paraensjs*** Pau-sarito Caesalpiniaceae

* Species very well commercialised. These can be easily found on Brazilian market ** Species less commercialised *** Species not commercialised **** Species commercialised with some restrictions, e. g. volume restrictions ***** I Species forbidden to be commercialised

IX A1^

New eci s f Peru

. Common Name Scientific Name

I. Aguano masha r h I in aCrmoSiodes 2. Andiroba Carepa guianensis 3. Azucar huayo Hymenaea oblongifolia 4. Bolaina blanca Guazma crinita

5. Cachimbo Cariniana domesticata 6. Congona/Manchinga Brosimm ajicastrm 7. Panguana Brosimum ntile a 8. Estroraque Myroxylon balsamum 9. Higuerilla Cunria sprceana I O. Mashonaste Clarisia racemosa I I . Oj6 rosado Ficus glabrata 12. Oje renaco Ficus sp I 3. Pashaco Parkia pendula 14. Pumaquiro ASPidosperma macrocarpon I 5. Requia Garea sp I 6. Shihuahuaco Coumarouna odorata

I 7. Tahuari Tabebuia serratifolia I 8. Utucuro Septhoteca tesmanii I 9. Yacushapana Terminalia amazonica

Utilisation of Industrial New Species PD 37188

.

X APPENDIX 3

. Estimates of Transportation Costs, Para, Brazil

: Type Cost Us$/in31km Source

NavigableRiver, Barge 0.07 Stone, 1996b. Barge 0.08 Barros and Uhl, 4995 Raft 0.02 Barros and Uhl, 1995 Road - Paved Large Truck 0.05 Stone, 1996b. Medium truck 0.10 Verissimo at al, 1992 Road - Dirt Large Truck 0.10 Stone, 1996b. Medium Truck 0.17 Stone, 1996b. Medium Truck 0.24 Verrissimo at al, 1995 Small Truck Barros and Uhl, 0.30 1995 Cleared Forest Truck 0.20 -0.30 unpublished data. Selectively Truck 0.35 -0.50 Stone, unpublished Extracted data. Forest Mahogany Truck 0.50 -0.75 Stone, unpublished Extracted data. Forest

Untouched Forest Truck 1.50 - 2.00 Stone, unpublished data.

Notes:11 Large truck refers to an eighteen-wheelrig with a capacity of 30m' 21 Medium and smalltrucks refer to flatbed trucks with a capacity of 13 and 5m' respectively. 31 Barge rates are used forthe cost-coefficientfor water-based transportation because rafts can only be used in the case of softwood timbers that float. Given present scarcity of commercial softwoods in the varzea (Anderson at a1, 1994), future timber harvests carried along the Amazon river and its tributaries are likely to be mostly hardwood species.

XI A1^

Wood Processing Mills Classified Based on Technology, Type & Size in Three Munici al Locations of Brazil

Type and Size Municipality Sum

Sawmills

Circular' ' Breves 10,608 Tail^ridia 1,680 Sub Total 12,288 91', of Sub Total 29",

I Band-saw(M) Breves 26,844 Paregominas 112,838 Tail^ridia 108,504 Sub Total 248,186 % Sub Total 369".

2 Band-saws(M) Breves 18,000 Paragominas 38,208 Tailandia 47,940 Sub Total 104,148 9", Sub Total I 59, ".

3 Band-saws(L) Breves 43,200 Paregominas 31,920 Sub Total 75,120 9^', Sub Total I 19, ',

4 Band-saws(L) Breves 18,000 Sub Total 18,000 % of Sub Total 3 9^",

5 Band-saws(L) Paregominas 26,640 Sub Total 26,640 9". of Sub Total 49",

Sub Total Sawmills 484,382 70%

XIIl Continued

Type and Size Municipality Sum

Veneer Mills

I Lathe(L) Breves 8,400 Sub Total 8,400 % of Sub Total I%

2 Lathes(L) Paragominas 15,000 Tailandia 24,000 Sub Total 39,000 % of Sub Total 6%

3 Lathes (L) Paregominas 58,800 Sub Total 58,800 ^, of Sub Total 99^.,

Plywood Factories

I Production Line (L) Paragominas 12,600 Sub Total 12,600 9^", of Sub Total 2%

3 Production Lines(L) Breves 36,000 Paregominas 51,760 Sub Total 87,760 ^, of Sub Total 13%

Sub Total Veneer and Plywood 206,560 30%

Grand Total 690,942

Source: After Stone 1995

Note: (S) - small scale operation (M) - medium scale operation (L) - large scale operation

XIV .

APPENDIX 5

ITTO PROJECT No. PD 33/95. IMPACTS OF INCREASED UTILIZATION OF LESSER KNOWN SPECIES (LKS)

, LETTER OF ENQUIRY ON IMPACTS OF INCREASED UTILIZATION OF LESSER KNOWN SPECIES (LKS)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An earlier study commissioned on behalf of the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) by the International Institute for Environment and Development (11ED), entitled "Conservation Concerns relating to the Diversification of Species extracted for Timber" (March 1991), sought information based on terms of reference for producer country reports to be prepared. This was to enable an evaluation of the ecological impact of increased harvesting of^LK^^^(LKS) to be undertaken. The study defined lesser known species (LKS) as commercially less acceptable species (CLAS as defined by IUFRO) Other terms which appear to connote similar meanings used in literature on this subject are -

. Lesser Used Species (LUS)

. Newspecies (NS)

. Previously Unmarketable Species (Pus)

The study in reference made a lit of recommendations which needed to be follow up. In this regard, the present project (P033/95), hopes to build on the knowledge and experiences of this previous study and those of others as well as new ones on this subject. The attached terms of reference (ToR) coverthe information deemed relevant to enable an evaluation of the impacts of increased harvesting of LKS/LUS and forest typed, but not for others, the absence or otheiwise of any information, which is just as valuable from the point of view of this project study, should be recorded and forwarded to:

THEPROJECTCOORDINATOR/MANAGINGDIRECTOR ITTOPROJECTN0. 33195 (IMPACTS OFINCREASED UTIUZAnONOFLESSERKNOWNSPECIES) TIMBEREXPORTDEVELOPMENTBOARD POBOX575, TAKORADl, GHANA ,

FAXN0. 233 -37,23339

xv 2.0 PRESENT SITUATION OF TIMBER UTILIZATION

. The different Tropical Moist types of Forests (TMF)that can be identified in terms of distribution area and floristic differences

. . The management objectives of the existing production forests and whether wildlife conservation is an additional management objective of these production forests . List of tree species growing to timber size, subdivided into various categories according to their'present marketability or utilization (i. e. prime timber, LKS etc. ) and their resource life if known.

. Existing forest legislations concerning LUS/LKS: which of the present legislation is intended to encourage the use of LKS (e. g. Log export ban prime spp, list of obligatory spp. For loggers, differential taxes in favour of certain spp. , minimum percentage of total volume logged to consist of LKS/LUS, etc. )

2. I EXPECTED FUTURE DEVELOPMENT CONCERNING LKS/LUS

. List of lesser-known timber species (LKS/LUS) expected to become more importantin future trade

. What would be a sustainable level of exploitation of these selected LKS/LUS and their susceptibility to increased commercialisation

. What factors if any constrain the greater use of the timber of these selected species such as toxic or irritant chemicals on parts of the tree

. 3.0 IMPACTS OF IMCREASED HARVESTING OF LKS/ LUS (with reference to productive forest only)

: 3.1 ECOLOGICALIMPACTS

31.1 Quantitative Description

What is the present range of total exploitable timber volumes per hectare in the various tropical moist forest types of your country (considering commonly exploited species only)

. What would this range be if all LKS/LUS were included?

, . What considerations may be recorded ad acceptable logging damage limits to various forest stands (e. g. skid trial, no. of harvestable trees/hectares etc. ) . Would logging all exploitable LKS/LUS affect forest regeneration potential in the various types of TMP identified, in such a way that timber exploitation would become unsustainable? (Considering factors such as damage to the remaining stand, climber colonization, etc. )

. If so, what restrictive measures would have to be applied to logging to ensure the continued fulfilment of basic environmental services (sail and water conservation) and a XVl

, .

. sustained yield of timber? (e. g. annual allowable cut over all and that per species in combination with felling cycle, and other methods of yield regulation)

. Taking into consideration the various forms of logging intensities within the past 15 years pr so, as againstthe naturally occurring disturbance levels of the various forest types, what has been the response of timber trees species in general(both preferred/prime and LUS/LKS) to various forms of canopy openings (e. g. slight, medium and heavy forest canopy opening)

. What roles do the various species of LKS/LUS play in forest regeneration especially in assisting canopy closure and recolonization of other species

. To what extent has the identification or numbers of LKS/LUS been threatened by timber exploitation, forest fire hazards and other management practices which may be described as incompatible with felling cycles

. What would be the impact of logging all exploitable LKS/LUS on carrying capacity of the various Tropical Moist Forest types for vertebrates such as primates and birds?

. Which species would be particularly vulnerable to increased logging intensity (e. g. certain animal and bird species depending on more or less continuous high canopy for their survival

. Which LKS/LUS represent key food resources for wildlife populations, especially where they also serve as important pollination or seed dispersal agents. Could these be classified as :

wind-pollination species wind dispersal species I insect/birds/animal pollinated species I I

. What is the potential suitability of various TMF to provide habitat for selected wildlife

3.12 Qualitative Description

. An assessment offorest areas whether managed or unmanaged fortheir contribution to forest diversity and nutrient cycles

. Description of the autecology of the LKS/LUS selected under(2 above), especially for:

factorsaffectin re eneration

phenology, mating systems, methods and agents of seed dispersal, regularity of seedling, age/size when first fruiting with fertile seed, pollinators, limitations on pollination and dispersal, spatial distribution and life tables of seedling cohorts;

factors affectin rowth

inorphological growth habit(s) or changing models of tree form or architecture, growth data from experiments, especially those on spacing and light conditions;

factors affectin res onse to 10 in of surroundin stand

XVll tolerance of soil compaction and impeded drainage, fire and wind; response to timber infestation; ability to recover from logging damage to crown. , stem, bark and surface roots;liability to bark scorch by sunlight; mortality rates after logging;

3.2 ECONOMIC, TRADE AND MARKETING IMPACTS

. What are the present criteria for LKS/LUS to enter the market and how do these criteria depend on domestic marketrequirements or otherwise

. What are the industrial uses of harvested timber species? How many mills rely wholly or partly on LKS/LUS and what volumes of these are required? What volumes of LKS/LUS contribute to total export trade? a . What is the industrial profile of investment outlook for forest tree resources processing facilities in :

. new products or products lines based on LKS/LUS . newmills . increased production and upgrading based on LKS/LUS . downsizing . millclosures

. Whatis the rationale forthe choice of equipment? To what extent has increased utiliza6tion of LKS/LUS influenced the choice or otherwise of new technologies that seek to improve conversion processes and products (i. e. fibre extending technology)

. The local economic and financial environment, and in particular, the loggers' and processors' willingness to invest? (usually an increased investment often means and increased number if species can be harvested, evacuated and processed;the importance of good drying kilns for rather refractory species that provide problems in sawing, river transportation etc. )

3.3 SOCIAL IMPACTS

. Do any of the selected LKS/LUS play an important role in the livelihoods of forest- dwellers or forest fringe dwelling human populations (e. g. harvested for medicinal, construction al, fuelwood purposes)?

. If so what are the conflicting uses, e. g. flowers, fruit, fodder, medicine?

. At what growth or developmental stage (shrub, tree, seedling, seed) are these species used or collected?

. How could the logging and harvesting of timber be restricted in order to safeguard the continued utilisation of these species by the local populations?

. Are any of the selected LKS/LUS essential forthe survival of population of birds, primates and other vertebrates?

. What contributions or otherwise could increased logging of selected LKS/LUS make to ecotourism initiatives in these tropical moist forests? XVlll . Are viable populations of these species adequately protected in existing protected areas? If not, how would LKS exploitation need to be restricted in order to maintain viable populations of these species.

. How could the extraction or harvesting of LKS/LUS directly affectthe collection and utilization of non-timber products available in the identified areas of the forests in questions (e. g. bamboo, rattan, vines, medicinal/pesticidal plants; bast fibre plants, gums/latex, seedlessential oils fuelwood etc. )

. Evaluate the effects on community stability, job creation and the potential for people participation which may resultfrom increased harvesting of LKS/LUS.

. How can one encourage a wider distribution of the benefits (if any) of increased harvesting of LKS/LUS among different socio-economic group or minimise its negative impacts on specific groups of people.

3.4 OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

, How do any of the selected LKS/LUS contribute positively to temporary or permanent changes in populations of endangered species (flora and fauna) and protected habitats in the ecosystems of the tropical moist forests identified (i. e. special sites having values e. g. historical, archaeological, religious, scientific, etc. )

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