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"LIBERATING OURSELVES": UTOPIAN COMMUNALISM IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURY UNITED STATES A Dissertation by CHERYL L. COULTHARD Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Lorien Foote Committee Members, Carlos Blanton Cynthia Bouton Sally Robinson Brian Rouleau Head of Department, David Vaught May 2019 Major Subject: History Copyright 2019 Cheryl L. Coulthard ABSTRACT This dissertation uses Charles Tilly's definition of social movements and considers examples from three nineteenth century communal societies, and three from the twentieth century to argue that Utopian communalism is a social movement, not a series of related phenomena. This movement is a fabric of Utopian threads representing the sharing of ideas, methods and members woven together laterally between communities contemporary to each other and longitudinally across time from the past to the present and into the future. The six Utopian communities include Nashoba, Harmony Society and Modern Times in the nineteenth century and the Diggers, Peoples Temple and Kerista in the late twentieth century. This dissertation examines the six communities in relation to their attempts to resolve social problems of race, gender, and economic inequality. These questions illuminate the continuities in goals, methods, and struggles to overcome socially conditioned attitudes about race, gender and class. The author used published and archival memoirs, letters, community publications, sermons, visitor's accounts, legal and business records and interviews to illustrate the arguments. This dissertation concludes that Utopian communities have struggled to achieve their Utopian goals of gender, race and economic equality often because they proved unable to let go of social institutions and attitudes that perpetuate these inequalities. Nonetheless the striving for Utopia is in itself worthwhile and offers lessons for society at large in how to create a better world. ii DEDICATION For Frances. You always believed in me. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As the saying goes, it takes a village to raise a child. So too, it takes a village to complete a dissertation and PhD degree. I have been truly fortunate to have the support of an incredible village of colleagues, mentors, friends, and family. I could not ask for a better advisor than Lorien Foote. You have guided me through graduate school, and the dissertation process with patience and humor. I truly would not be completing my degree if not for Dr. Foote. I am not sure if you are aware, but you talked me out of dropping out after my third semester. My committee, Carlos Blanton, Cynthia Bouton, Sally Robinson and Brian Rouleau have taught me not only history and gender studies, but to be a better writer, and a better colleague. I hope I can live up to the example you have set for me. Carlos Blanton, Brian Rouleau and Walter Kamphoefner helped me navigate the steep learning curve my first semester as I became an Americanist with no prior background in United States history. I appreciate your patience and your tutelage. Thank you, Cynthia Bouton, for being my mentor and for listening. Rhys Dotson, my roommate and partner in comps--thank you for always being there for me. You kept me sane through the crazy nights of comps prep. Hopefully I can move our Foucault cutout to my office soon. iv My cohort: Rhys Dotson, Tiffany Gonzalez, Allison Faber, Manny Grajales, Trae Wisecarver, Ryan Leach. We have been through a lot together and I look forward to seeing you all succeed in your goals. Hillary Anderson, my cheerleader; thank you for your positive nature, unfailingly good advice, and friendship. My badass feminist historians, Beth Kruse, Kate Skrabanek and Jessica Eder; thanks ladies for your support, your inspiration, and all the laughs. Tim Miller, my guru, thank you for your incredible generosity; sharing your time, wisdom, resources, and support. I look forward to many more conversations with you. My Communal and Utopian colleagues: Susannah Layh, Matt Wilson, Etta Madden, Deborah Altus, Susan Love Brown, Shawna Guenther, Jon Baldwin, Stewart Davenport, Don Pitzer, Jennifer Greene, Christa Shusko, Marta Komsta, Patricia Sorenson, Tim Waterman, and Yana Ludwig; you have welcomed me into your community of scholars and showed me the true meaning of Utopian thinking and communalism. I wish that my father lived to see me complete my degree. While he was never convinced about me going to graduate school, he encouraged my love of reading and learning from the time I was very young. v Thanks to my sister, Val, for encouraging me to go back to school, and listening to me vent. I have been blessed with two wonderful children, Emily and Scott. Going back to school caused some disruption in our family, but you have always encouraged and supported my decision. I am grateful to you both for your love. Finally, my husband, Alex. After being together for more than thirty years, you might have thought there was nothing new to experience. Graduate school has been a challenge for us both, and I appreciate your decision to commit with me to this journey. I look forward to us having more time together. I am thankful for the feedback and advice of my village. Any mistakes or omissions in this work are my own. vi CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES This work was supervised by a dissertation committee consisting of my advisor Dr. Lorien Foote, Dr. Carlos Blanton, Dr. Cynthia Bouton, and Dr. Brian Rouleau of the Department of History and Dr. Sally Robinson of the Department of English. All work conducted for the dissertation was completed by the student independently. Graduate study was supported by a fellowship from Texas A&M University and a dissertation research fellowships from the Institute for Humane Studies; research grants from the Department of History at Texas A&M University, the Women and Gender Studies Program at Texas A&M University, Office of Graduate and Professional Studies at Texas A&M University, George Bush Presidential Library Foundation, and the Center for Communal Studies. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1: SEEKING A NEW WAY………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER II BACK IN THE DAY: NINETEENTH CENTURY COMMUNALISM……………………………………………………………...22 Introduction………………..…………..………………………..……………....22 Nashoba………………………………………………………...……………….28 Harmony Society……………………………………………………..…………40 Modern Times……………………………………………………………..…….51 CHAPTER III BACK TO THE FUTURE: LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY COMMUNALISM…………………………………………………71 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…..71 Peoples Temple………………………………………………………………….73 Diggers……………………………………………………...…………………...86 Kerista…………………………………………………….……………………103 CHAPTER IV COME TOGETHER………………………………………………….120 Introduction………………………………………………...………………….120 Nashoba……………………………………………………….………………122 Modern Times………………………………………………………..………..137 Harmony Society………………………………………………….…………..138 Peoples Temple………………………………………………….…………….144 Diggers……………………………………………………….………………..155 Kerista…………………………………………………………………………159 CHAPTER V WHAT'S LOVE GOT TO DO WITH IT?.............................................164 viii Introduction……………………………………………………………………164 Nashoba………………………………………………………………………..168 Harmony Society……………………………………………………………....176 Modern Times………………………………………………………………….190 Peoples Temple………………………………………………………………...199 Diggers…………………………………………………………………………202 Kerista………………………………………………………………………….208 CHAPTER VI MODERN LOVE………………………………………...……………221 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…221 Harmony Society………………………………………………………………222 Modern Times………………………………………………………………….228 Peoples Temple……………………………………………………………...…230 Kerista……………………………………………………………………….…237 Diggers…………………………………………………………………………249 CHAPTER VII MONEY CHANGES EVERYTHING……………………………….259 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…259 Nashoba………………………………………………………………………..261 Harmony Society............................................................................................…263 Modern Times…………………………………………………………………271 Kerista………………………………………………………………………….279 Diggers…………………………………………………………………………285 Peoples Temple……………………………………………………………...…295 CHAPTER VIII CONCLUSION: WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?…….……....303 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………….…………………..315 ix CHAPTER I SEEKING A NEW WAY Utopianism persists throughout the history of the United States, from the Puritan "City on the Hill" to the modern ecovillage. Threads of Utopian ideology and historical consciousness stretch across this long trajectory. They provide precedents for ongoing critiques of society and plans to rectify our failures in living up to the Founding Fathers' ideals of liberty and equality for all Americans. There is a collage on the cover of the 1993 Spring/Summer issue of Communities: Journal of Cooperative Living that depicts the images of two dozen historical visionary leaders. The cover illustrates the influence that past communities and thinkers hold for modern Utopian communalists, and the ongoing relevance of their ideas. The 1980s Kerista Commune wrote of their debt to Robert Owen. "Robert Owen, a Utopian Socialist (1771-1858) said that the greatest inhibitors to the advancement of social justice were: private property, the family and Christianity…The fundamental precept of the Utopian Socialists was that capitalists would voluntarily surrender their wealth…[for] a quality of life unattainable outside the network of democratic communities in which all live at the same standard of living."1 Kerista
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