Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (Abbreviation: Arch. Agri. Environ. Sci.)

ISSN: 2456-6632 (Online)

An International Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Volume 5 Number 1

2020

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (An International Research Journal) (Abbreviation: Arch. Agri. Environ. Sci.)

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III

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (An International Research Journal)

Volume 5 Issue 1 March, 2020

Content List Article Title Page No. No.

Research/Review/Case studies/Short Communication Articles

1. Using the DSSAT-CROPGRO model to simulate gross margin and N-leaching of cowpea 1-10 fertigated with human urine David Lomeling* and Salah Joseph Huria

2. Growth, yield and quality of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) in response to sowing date and 11-17 phosphorus fertilization Wasima Yasmin, Swapan Kumar Paul* and Md. Parvez Anwar

3. Role of credit in maize (Zea mays L.) production and assessment of food security in a selected 18-24 area of Bangladesh Most. Rehana Akter, Mohammad Ataur Rahman* and Md. Rais Uddin Mian

4. Economics of production and marketing of natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) in Jhapa, Nepal 25-32 Subodh Raj Pandey*, Surya Mani Dhungana and Govinda Prasad Sharma

5. Assessment of fish pond sediments for growth, yield and nutritional quality of Indian spinach 33-39 (Basella alba L.) M. Ashraful Islam* , Nusrat Jahan, Q.F. Quadir and S.M. Haque

6. Impact of forest land cover on runoff, erosion and sedimentation in the Karai Watershed, 40-49 Simalungun Regency, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia Basuki Wasis*, Dhemi Harlan and Muhammad Hafiz Wasis Putra

7. A case study of medicinal plants and their usage by the local community of Dilasaini 50-54 Gaunpalika, Baitadi district, Nepal Sandesh Thapa*, Sara Rawal, Anuska Prasai, Janak Adhikari, Sarika Bist and Anup Ghimire

8. Analysis of agricultural growth and its determinant factors in Nepal 55-60 Amrit Dumre*, Shiva Chandra Dhakal, Mohan Acharya and Prabin Poudel

9. Assessment of remittance and its impacts on economic growth in Nepal 61-66 Sushma Banjara*, Seema Karki and Amrit Dumre

10. Preliminary toxicity assessment of chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) on terrestrial snail (Helix 67-72 aspersa) Varun Dhiman

IV Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5(1): 1-10 (2020) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050101

This content is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org e-ISSN: 2456-6632

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Using the DSSAT-CROPGRO model to simulate gross margin and N-leaching of cowpea fertigated with human urine David Lomeling* and Salah Joseph Huria Department of Agricultural Sciences, College of Natural Resources and Environmental Studies (CNRES), University of Juba, P.O. Box 82 Juba, South SUDAN *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT

Received: 22 January 2020 This study simulated the biophysical, economic and environmental implications of cowpea Revised received: 13 March 2020 fertigated with human urine (equivalent to 60 kg N ha-1) as source of organic N. The DSSAT Accepted: 18 March 2020 CROPGRO model was used to simulate harvested cowpea yield, N(leached), N(uptake), monetary

returns or gross margins in ($) under two different treatments: without fertigation or human

urine (T0) and with fertigation (T1). Biophysical analysis using the Cumulative Probability

Distribution (CPD) showed a 50% probability of the harvested cowpea yield under T1 being -1 higher than under T0 at 1060 and 600 kg ha respectively, accounting for a 43.4% difference. Keywords The Mean Gini Stochastic Dominance (MGSD) analysis was used to assess the gross margin Fertigation and helped in deciding on the best strategic and management option. The findings of this study Gross margin revealed a 50% probability (CPD0.5), of higher gross margin under T1 at $ -215 higher than N-leaching under T0 at $285. This was a $70 difference per season under T1 and so enhancing a faster Risk aversion payback and a larger monetary return on overall investments. Similarly, seasonal analysis with Stochastic dominance -1 fertigation showed that at CPD0.5, the N(leached) was still < 4 kg N ha per season and so posed

no environmental risks. The simulation results also showed higher a probability of N(uptake) of -1 -1 about 270 kg N ha during fertigation compared to about 95 kg N ha under T0. Therefore, the DSSAT CROPGRO model can be used to successfully forecast future cowpea yields, gross

margin, N(leached), N(uptake) under different management practices to enable smallholder farmers in South Sudan make informed decisions on sustainable cowpea production.

Citation of this article: Lomeling, D. and Huria, S.J. (2020). Using the DSSAT-CROPGRO model to simulate gross margin and N- leaching of cowpea fertigated with human urine. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 1-10, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050101

INTRODUCTION NH4 • 10H2O) although with lesser acidic effect in soils than DAP. As in most rural and peri-urban settings in S. Sudan, over There are increasing concerns about the accessibility, availabil- 95% of all human excreta (feces and urine) are disposed of, ity and affordability of industrial N-fertilizers to boosting crop arbitrarily onto the environment, or through a decentralized yields especially in developing countries. For most smallholder sewer system comprising mostly of individual septic tanks at farmers in Africa, these are compelling reasons enough to start households that are occasionally emptied by commercial seeking alternative N-sources. Studies have shown that most exhausters. For Juba City and its peri-urban surroundings with soils in Sub-Sahara Africa are over 80% N-deficient (Liu et al., an approximated population of 450,000, it is estimated that the 2010), whereas other studies have reported increasing acidifica- human urine amounts generated daily would be about 225,000 tion due to poor agronomic practices and long term use of liters. If properly stored and handled, this nutrient rich and read- inorganic N-fertilizers like; Diammonium Phosphate (DAP (NH4) ily available organic N-source would augment the already scarce

2HPO4)) or Calcium Ammonium Phosphate (CAN (Ca(NO3)2 • industrial fertilizer market supply in the country and be part of

David Lomeling and Salah Joseph Huria /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 1-10 (2020) 2 an ecosystem-based adaptation practice. However, current 2009; Suliman and Ahmed, 2010; De Souza et al., 2017). Reduc- published data on the application of human urine (Sene et al., tion in cowpea yield is not only attributable to insufficient soil 2013; Ranasinghe et al., 2016; Andersson, 2016; Araújo et al., moisture during growth, but also to such abiotic stress factors 2017) as a viable fertilizer option are derived from short term like phosphate (P) deficiency (Jemo et al., 2017; Goufo et al., studies and are insufficient to adequately assess the agronomic, 2017; Fatokun et al., 2012; Agele et al., 2018). Although Eutric economic and environmental implications of its use. However, leptosols are the major soil type around Juba County and can be one critical risk component in the widespread use of human perceived to be of moderate to good fertility, sustained cultiva- urine or fertigation (ferti-lizer + irri-gation) across many devel- tion over longer period without any concerted soil amendments oping countries of Sub-Sahara Africa would be the local and may ultimately pose serious soil fertility challenges. Cowpea is regional water scarcity. Water scarcity compounded by the known to sustain soil health by fixing atmospheric N to about erratic spatial and temporal rainfall distribution variabilities 200 kg N ha-1 (Giller, 2001; Rusinamhodzi et al., 2006; would make its use difficult or outright impossible. Thus, it is Adjei-Nsiah et al., 2008) social evaluation of productivity, yield imperative, that knowledge on the spatio-temporal water avail- and N2-fixation in different cowpea varieties and their subse- ability and accessibility for most smallholder farmers who quent residual N effects on a succeeding maize crop and can practice rainfed agriculture, be integrated into the respective leave a positive soil balance of up to 92 kg N ha-1 (Chikowo et al., country agricultural policies and implementation programs 2004; Rusinamhodzi et al., 2006). The use of composted tannery when evaluating the use of human urine. Moreover, farmers’ sludge was also found to sustain cowpea yield during a six-year willingness to adopt the use of human urine will depend not only period (Araújo et al., 2016); increased cowpea yield after on the available infrastructure in terms of hygienic storage, application of biochar in loamy sand soil (Pudasainia et al., 2016); transportation and dosing, but also on the anticipated increased increased cowpea biomass after addition of nitrogen fertilizers yields and profitability. (Hasan et al., 2010). For the sustainable use of human urine as an economically and The CROPGRO model as an ex ante analytical tool has been ecologically viable option for most households in Sub Sahara successfully demonstrated across a broad range of soil, Africa, systematic research and long-term field tests need to be management and climatic conditions in tropical environments carried out and simulations conducted with dynamic crop (Bastos et al., 2002; Banterng et al., 2010; Lomeling et al., 2014; models such as the CROPGRO of the DSSAT (Jones et al., 2003). Zinyengere et al., 2015). It can used for assessing the effects of The model under different management conditions can be used diverse management options on crop phenology as opposed to to quantify crop yields, economic returns as well as assess that of “business as usual” or the status quo. It also can be used to environmental impacts due to N-leaching. assess the type of promising or similar climate smart Cowpea is one the major food crops in Central Equatoria State technologies whose “low scale” investments are not only remu- of South Sudan and an indispensable source of cheap and easily nerative, but also financially affordable as is the case for most available plant protein. The young and tender leaves are smallholder farmers in South Sudan. Model projections during consumed traditionally as ŋete while the ripened and mature simulations can be used as basis for long-term actionable trends seeds as pirinda (Lomeling et al., 2014a). With fertigation, in terms of assessing food demand and agricultural production cowpea can be produced in small farms or household backyards based on projected changes in population, income, technology, during any time of the year. It is a highly remunerative crop with and climate (Robinson et al., 2015). Examples on the use of price increase several times its normal value especially during CROPGRO models have been reported in several studies on the annual “hunger spells” of mid-July to Mid-August. However, bean (Oliveira et al., 2012); on saaflower (Singh et al., 2017); on increasing price of potable water and the large influx of Inter- faba bean (Boote et al., 2002); on peanut (Halder et al., 2017). nally Displaced Persons (IDPS) due to current civil war, cowpea Rainfall forecasts for South Sudan are mostly reported by production per household has significantly decreased within (FEWSNET, 2018) and are generally limited to short-term one to and around Juba municipality. Similarly, cowpea production, as three months lead time. South Sudan still lacks a good a cheap source of plant protein, is not only threatened by a infrastructure, network of weather stations as well as skilled reduced availability of irrigation water but also declining soil personal to capture and store weather data in real-time. The fertility caused increased and extreme elimination of soil nutri- absence of such important historical weather data therefore ents as well as decrease in soil functional characteristics makes any long-term predictions on rainfall occurrence, (Lomeling et al., 2016a). As a drought resistant plant, reduced amounts and intensity difficult. The CROPGRO model requires irrigation is not necessarily a limiting factor, since soil moisture daily, monthly or annual rainfall amounts as an input variable, requirements during cowpea phenology show temporal variabil- thus, simulation of crop yield for most parts of South Sudan in ity between 15-30% (Lomeling et al., 2016b). However, soil the absence of such relevant data may simply be a speculative moisture contents <15% at any one developmental stage of exercise. In our study, we sought to assess the effects of growth has adverse effects on the germination rate, flowering, fertigation on cowpea yield and the economic and ecological canopy height, pod-setting and maturity (Abayomi and Abidoye, implications using CROPGRO-DSSAT model.

3 David Lomeling and Salah Joseph Huria /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 1-10 (2020)

MATERIALS AND METHODS our study, the base production or total variable costs, that included: labor costs, material, costs (seed purchase, water for Study region irrigation, insecticide, transport, ancillary cost, levy taxes) were The experimental study was conducted as from May till constant during the simulation period. Similarly, the produce September 2015 at the Demonstration and Research Plots of sale or accrued total revenue, ignoring price volatility due to the Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Juba. inflation and price hiking were also kept constant. The Gross The study area is located in Juba County, Central Equatoria Margin (GM) per unit time or season was estimated as the dif- State at 4°51´33 N latitude, 31° 34´ E longitude and at elevation ference between the Total Revenue (TR) and the Total Variable of about 500 m above sea level. The climate is sub-tropical with Costs (TVC) as (Eq. 1). mean annual rainfall of 800–1200 mm and a predominantly unimodal distribution. About 80–90% of the rainfall occurs during the rainy months (April–October) with a short dry spell (1) around July. The soil (Eutric leptosol) is sandy loam in texture, mild acidic to alkaline in reaction (pH 6.5 - 7.5), low organic carbon by weight (0.55%), CEC in soil (14 cmol/kg) (Table 1). Where n, is the number of growing seasons, (n+1) each subsequent growing season and R, an intrinsic and inevitable Experimental design and treatments risk factor that is quantifiable and depends on unpredictable The experiment was a Randomized Complete Block Design weather conditions, arbitrary tariff barriers (illegal taxes by (RCBD) with two different treatments with five replications corrupt officials), accidents, poor sale price as well as other each and was conducted from May to September 2015. Each unaccounted risks. R, in an especially risk-prone production area trial was arranged in four randomized complete blocks. Tradi- like in S. Sudan, makes its assessment imperative, as it deter- tional agricultural practices of tillage, seed bed preparation and mines degree of risk aversion of most smallholder farmers. For pest control against aphids, grasshoppers, leaf sucking bugs our study, the breakdown cost-variables used for the seasonal using ashes from burnt plant leaves were applied. Occasionally, analysis for the test plots are projected to real field dimensions a broad-spectrum pesticide Malathion with application rate of are given in Table 2. 0.5 l/ha was applied, where the traditional pest control method proved ineffective. Each plot consisted of 5 rows, 2.5 m long, Strategy Analysis-Mean Gini Stochastic Dominance (MGSD) with a spacing of 30 cm between plants and 50 cm between The estimation of the GM in (Eq. 1) for both treatments may be rows. The size of each plot was 5.4 m² with seeds drilled at a used to examine and compare the MGSD. This is a measure of sowing depth of 5 cm and density of 30 plants/m2. The control the most economically viable and preferable management treatment (irrigation water + No human urine) was designated option with a stochastic dominance. For two risky options, x and as T0 while (irrigation water + human urine: 2 liters per 20 liters y, then x dominates b by MGSD, should (Eq. 2 and Eq. 3). water) as T1. The calculated N fertilizer from T1 was about 60 kg/ha. Irrigation under both treatments was done once the soil E(x)>E(b) (2) moisture level reached about 15%v/v and was measured using or if: the Theta Soil Moisture Sensor ML3 (Eijkelkamp Agrisearch). E(x) - г(x) > E(y) - г(y) (3)

CROPGRO model runs Where E (*) is the means of the GM and г(*) the Gini coefficient, All input variables and modules for soil (SAUR900001.SOL) and 0 £ G(*) £ 1. cultivar (CGRO045.CUL) were kept unchanged as reported by (Lomeling et al., 2014b). The required weather data for DSSAT RESULTS AND DISCUSSION WEATHR module, the WGEN subroutine was run to capture the daily rainfall, minimum and maximum air temperature, solar Biophysical Analysis: Grain yield and fertigation radiation, relative humidity, and wind speed. For Juba County, The biophysical analysis compares the harvested yield (kg ha-1) these data were obtained from the publicly accessible servers of under both treatments and expressed as a cumulative function the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100th percentiles. We used the Cumulative of the US Department of Commerce for the years 1980-2014. Probability Distribution (CPD) to estimate the probability of the For the biophysical analysis, the simulated yield in kg ha-1 was tested variables (yield, N(uptake) or N(leaching)) under either treat- that valued at physiological maturity while the observed yield ment. The results of the five-year simulation with CROPGRO (kg ha-1) derived from 1000-seed weight. For model calibration cowpea when considering the highest CPD0.75, were well simu- (Y2014), cowpea yield from 2014 was used. lated and consistent with the one-year empirical findings of the calibrated cowpea yields of 2014. The yield values were about Estimation of monetary returns -1 705 and 983 kg ha for T0 and T1, respectively, while the The seasonal analysis for the 2015 season was used to assess calibrated value in 2014 was at 588 kg ha-1 (Table 3). the gross margin and economic returns for a five-year period. In

David Lomeling and Salah Joseph Huria /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 1-10 (2020) 4

The observed yield difference between T0 and calibrant Y2014 contained in the urine. Several micronutrients like Iron (Fe) are was 117.0 kg ha-1 this was 16.6% higher, whereas the difference essential for legume-rhizobium symbiosis (Brear et al., 2013), -1 of the under T1 to T0 was 278 kg ha about 28.2%. The mean copper (Cu) for the synthesis of cupro-proteins during N- -1 value between T1 and calibrant Y2014 was about 394.8 kg ha fixation (Senovilla et al., 2017), zinc (Zn) whose role in Cu-rich and 40.2%. The simulated cowpea yield at CPD0.25 for T0 and T1 soils can influence - N fixation (Stowhas et al., 2018). However, were 760 and 1050 kg ha-1 respectively, accounting for a 27.6% the sandy loam soil (Eutric leptosol) in our study, was found to difference. At CPD0.5, the simulated yields for T0 and T1 were have very low levels of Cu, Fe, Zn and so therefore, supplement- 800 and about 1075 kg ha-1 respectively accounting for 26% ing these micronutrients through fertigation was particularly difference. At CPD0.75, the simulated harvested yield for T0 and critical for N-fixation and eventual uptake. -1 - T1 were 750 and about 1115 kg ha respectively, accounting for Figure 3 shows the effect of fertigation on cowpea yield in kg ha 1 32,7% difference (Figure 1). The simulation shows that, the per irrigation schedule. At CPD0.25 the simulated yield under T0 -1 probability of having higher yields especially under fertigation and T1 were about 12.5 and 15 kg ha per irrigation schedule was significantly high. The CROPGRO model satisfactorily respectively, accounting for about 2-3 kg or 16,7% difference simulated the positive effect of human urine on cowpea yield. between both treatments. The yield remained unchanged

This positive effect is particularly attributable to the role of between 2-3 kg/irrigation schedule at both CPD0.5 and CPD0.75. macro- and micro elements contained in the urine (Lomeling and Apparently, a ten-fold increase in irrigation schedules for both

Huria, 2019). T0 and T1 would yield an agronomic response of between 20-30

In other words, even when considering the lowest CPD0.25, kg. Therefore, increasing irrigation schedules to about 20 times there was still a 25% probability that the simulated yield under especially during dry spells would yield a further 40-60 kg. It either T0 or T1 treatment would still be greater than the average appears, that further increase in irrigation schedules would yield of 588.4 kg ha-1 (considering the calibrant Y2014). Further- positively correlate with yield increase of cowpea under both more, the yield range under both treatments was consistent treatments but could conversely increase production costs with that reported by (Saka et al., 2018; Kamai, 2014) for through purchase of further water barrels thereby reducing the semi-arid zone of Nigeria; but comparatively higher than that gross margin. reported by (Kimiti et al., 2009) in the semi-arid zone of Eastern Kenya. The results of the five-years simulation study showed N-leached during fertigation that, fertigation using human urine is a viable and stopgap The soil N(leached) varied considerably between both treatments, indispensable option to obviate any shortcomings of inorganic ranging from 0 to 14 kg ha−1 (Figure 4). There was no significant fertilizer availability and supply for smallholder farmers in difference in N(leached) for both treatments at CPD0.25 and CPD0.5, Africa. The simulated mean difference in cowpea yields under indicating that there was a 25 or 50% probability that the N -1 both treatments was consistent and invariable even at CPD0.75 (leached) would not exceed 2 kg ha . The results of this study and CPD1.0 respectively, suggesting the viability of T1 treatment showed that the application of 60 kg N during fertigation did not as a better option for most farmers to achieving higher yields result in higher N(leached) as when under T0, suggesting that, this than T0. was an optimum N crop requirement for cowpea and reflecting

good N-fertilizer use efficiency. Such low N(leached) would indicate - Seasonal Analysis: Nitrogen uptake during cowpea phenology higher N(uptake) of especially NO3 after both nitrification and During cowpea phenology, the five-years long-simulation ammonification processes in the soil. There was a slight differ- results identified N(uptake) as the predominant pathway in the N- ence at CPD0.75 though not significant (p<0.05). The largest dif- balance (Figure 2). At CPD0.25, the N(uptake) for T0 was about 85 kg ference in N(leached) was at CPD greater than 0.75 at 7 and 13 kg -1 -1 -1 ha , while this about 250 kg ha for T1 indicating a 66% differ- ha for T0 and T1 respectively. The magnitude may be influ- -1 ence of about 165 kg ha . At CPD0.50 the N(uptake) was at about enced by several soil and agronomic factors, e.g. type of soil, -1 -1 95 kg ha for T0 and 260 kg ha for T1 showing a 65.4% differ- actual amount of soil moisture, preceding crops, type and quan- -1 -1 ence of about 165 kg ha . At CPD0.75, this was about 95 kg ha tities of manure or plant residues. Similar studies reported high- -1 - -1 -1 for T0 and 275 kg ha for T1 indicating a 65.5% of about 180 kg er NO3 leaching of about 20 kg ha y after faba bean cultiva- ha-1. The study showed that at any rate, there was a high tion, than after non-leguminous crops in clay soil (Stenberg et al., - probability that the average N(uptake) between both treatments 2012); while during a 3-year test trial on loamy sand, the NO3 would be about 167 kg ha-1. This is attributable to the positive leaching was about twice as high following a barley–pea inter- effect of fertigation. Especially Phosphorous (P) contained in the crop compared with spring wheat or spring barley (De Notaris et urine must have enhanced further nodulation and N-fixation al., 2018). Another study by (Kayser et al., 2010) on a sandy soil (Kyei-Boahen et al., 2017) as well as boosted microbial activity in northwestern Germany reported 83 kg N ha-1 leached in within the rhizosphere. The resultant effect is, increased vegeta- triticale following field bean. Despite fertigation and the high tive growth during phenology inevitably leading both to anticipated N-leaching under T1, the N(leached) under both treat- increased water as well as N-uptake. Unlike under treatment T0, ments was correspondingly low and could be attributable to: a) the significance of fertigation under T1 in enhancing N-fixation the rapid rate of ammonification or mineralization of organic N + + and uptake can be understood from the role of “micronutrients” to NH4 ; b) immobilization of NH4 by soil microorganisms

5 David Lomeling and Salah Joseph Huria /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 1-10 (2020)

Table 1. Some of the physical and chemical properties of sandy loam soil (Eutric leptosol) at University of Juba Research and Demonstration Farm. Soil physical and chemical features Description Soil mapping unit* Eutric leptosol Texture Classification Sandy loam Drainage Class (0-0.5) Moderately well Sand (average) 48.9% Silt (average) 43.7% Clay (average) 7.4% pH (LaMotte STH Test Method) 7.0 Nitrate-Nitrogen 22.68 kg/ha Phosphorus 170.1 kg/ha Sulphate 1000ppm (parts per million) Iron 1.36 kg/ha Magnesium Medium Calcium 396.9 kg/ha Bulk density 1.34 (gm/cm3) Humus content 2.95% *Source: Harmonize World Soil Data viewer version 1.2.

Table 2. Cost-price for different input variables for cowpea under two different treatments. Variables Cost/unit in $ Quantity(ies) Mean amount ($) Irrigation water 1.5a) per barrel (200 liters) 20,000 liters (ca. 2 water tankers) 150 Cowpea seed cost 1.2b) per kg 20 12 Labor none none none Fertilizer or organic amendments (N, P, K) none none none -1 Mean sale price (simulated under T0) 1.6 per kg 800 kg ha 640 -1 Mean sale price (simulated under T1) 1.6 per kg 1070 kg ha 856 -1 Mean sale price (observed under T0) 1.6 per kg 705.4 kg ha 563.5 -1 Mean sale price (observed under T1) 1.6 per kg 983.1 kg ha 786.5 Mean sale price (under calibrant Y2014 1.6 per kg 588.4 kg ha-1 470.7 a) and b) 1 $ equivalent to 25 South Sudanese Pounds (2014) prior to inflation.

Table 3. The effects of fertigation on some phenology parameters of cowpea.

Nr of pods/ Nr of seeds/ Nr of seeds/ 1000-seed Mean observed Mean simulated yield Treatment plant pod plant weight (gm) yield (kg/ha) (kg/ha) at CPD0.5

T0 14 11 154 81.8 705.4 850

T1 16 13 208 84.4 983.1 1125 Calibration 12 11 132 79.6 588.4 Year 2014

Table 4. Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) in cowpea fertigated with human urine.

N(uptake) -1 Soil N(indigenous) N(fertigation) -1 N(leached) (kg ha ) N(residual) NUE³ = Treatment -1 -1 (kg ha ) at -1 (kg ha ) (kg ha ) At CPD0.75 (kg ha ) N(up)/[N(up) + N(le.)] CPD0.75

T0 22.7 0 93 2 68.3 79%

T1 22.7 60 272 3 186.3 76% 3) -1 -1 NUE=Nitrogen Use Efficiency; N(up) = amount taken up by plant kg ha ;N(le) = amount of N lost by leaching in kg ha ; N(res) = residual amount of N in kg ha-1.

Table 5. Mean-Gini Dominance analysis for two different treatments for cowpea. Treatment E(x) E(x)-г(x) Efficient (Yes/No)

T0 (simulated) 640 454.4 N

T1 (simulated) 856 710.5 Y E(x): mean return $/ha. г(x): Gini coefficient $/ha.

David Lomeling and Salah Joseph Huria /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 1-10 (2020) 6 owing to the relatively high C:N ratio, or c) fixation at the cation on the four-fold N(uptake) by T1 than under T0, would suggest the exchange sites of clay minerals contained in the soil. Since the significance of fertigation as well as the role of N in enhancing soil at the test site lay fallow for 6 months with much of the cowpea nodulation, which in turn must have facilitated increase plant residues let to bio-degrade in-situ, it can be assumed that, in N(uptake). Although cowpea plants symbiotically fix atmospher- this enhanced soil microbial activity and accelerated N minerali- ic nitrogen, the additional application of 60 kg ha-1 of organic zation (Abiven et al., 2005; Chaves et al., 2007). nitrogen fertilizer enhanced a three-fold N(uptake) and so positive- Poor understanding of the N-balance between applied N- ly affected cowpea phenology and yield significantly (Lomeling fertilizer amounts, N(uptake) by plants, N(immobilized) in the soil matrix and Huria, 2019). The findings of (Xia et al., 2017) showed that is one of the main reasons leading to overuse of N-fertilizers and low concentrations of nitrogen (<50 mg/L) added to soybean subsequently to N(leached). High concentrations and excessive use plants tended to increase nodulation while higher concentra- of human urine during fertigation may lead to Na-accumulation tions (>50 mg/L) had an inhibitory effect. Similar results by in soils (Sene et al., 2013; Sheneni et al., 2018) thus, inhibiting (Singh and Kalidindi, 2011) found out that application of 40 kg plant growth. Furthermore, excessive use of human urine may ha-1 other than 120 kg ha-1 of urea to specific cowpea EC- - also increase the risks of NO3 leaching and electric conductivity 244390 (G4) and EC-240900 genotypes significantly enhanced (EC). Studies by (Worcester et al., 2017) on both men and wom- nodulation and nitrogen fixation. en subjected to prescribed diet, found out that the pH of women However, depending on legume type, stage of phenology, urine samples was higher than in men. Other studies also report- applied inorganic N-fertilizers, there appears to be a varied ed biochemical changes in urine samples stored for longer influence on nodulation, N-fixation thus, -bio mas and yield. periods (Kuwornu and Obiri-Danso, 2015). These and other Studies by (Abayomi et al., 2008) on three legumes; cowpeas, considerations are critical, if human urine is to be a viable option groundnuts and soybean showed that addition of 30 kg ha-1 of as a cheap source of organic fertilizer for most smallholder urea yielded higher nodulation in the different three legumes farmers. Due to the low levels of urine used in our study, there than at 60 kg ha-1. On the other hand, phosphorous has been was therefore, no risk for N-leaching. However, long term and reported to have an influence on legume nodulation (Tenebe increased urine levels may under unfavorable environmental et al., 1995; Owolade et al., 2006). It can be presumed therefore, conditions lead to N-leaching. that the phosphorous contained in the urine dilution applied during fertigation may equally have enhanced cowpea Nitrogen dynamics and balance nodulation. The simulation results underlined the significant effect of fertigation on N-balance under both treatments (Table 4). For both Strategic Analysis: Gross margin benefits of fertigation treatments, the N(uptake) and N(residual) at CPD0.75 were close to The seasonal analysis program of DSSAT 4.7 was used to three-fold more under T1 than T0 with correspondingly high compare two management options with and without fertigation. NUE at 79 and 76% respectively. Like in most soils, much of the The simulations were carried out for a 5-year period with daily organic-N (oN) in the soil is in the form of amino acids (Brackin climate data consisting of rainfall derived from NOAA rainfall et al., 2015; Paungfoo-Lonhienne et al., 2012) and is known to database for Juba from 1996-2015 historical time series. Figure increase NUE when compared to inorganic-N (iN) (Arkoun et al., 5 shows the differences in gross margin under both treatments 2012; Franklin et al., 2017). Such high NUE under both treat- as represented by the cumulative probability distribution (CPD). ments indicates the ability of the cowpea in utilizing both oN Analysis of Stochastic Dominance (SD) (Figure 5) showed that and iN components that naturally coexist in soils. However, dur- T0 generally had a low variance in terms of monetary returns, ing fertigation, there is a correspondingly larger oN pool com- and a correspondingly lower Mini-Gini Dominance (MGD) than pared to iN, thus increasing the predisposition for preferential N T1 and therefore represented a more riskier investment option.

(uptake) under T1 than T0. Such preferential oN uptake by wheat The economic incentives due to fertigation with human urine at plants was reported by (Geisseler et al., 2009). The N(uptake) under CPD0.25 were about $-290 for T0, while this was about $-250 for

T1 was 63% higher than under to T0 and, would suggest the T1 accounting for a 14% difference. At CPD0.5, T0 was about $- increased preferential oN uptake leading to increased cowpea 285 while T1 was about $-215 accounting for a 23% or $75 dif- biomass and grain yield (Franklin et al., 2017). ference. At CPD0.75, the T0 was $-280 while this for T1 was at $-

The amount of N(residual) under T1 was three-fold higher than 180 making out a 35.7% or $100 difference. The probability for -1 under T0 at 68.3 and 186.3 kg ha respectively. Such a high N higher returns increased with further increase in each percent-

(residual) amount invariably represents a large N-reserve initially age point especially under T1, suggesting that all investments taken up by the cowpea plants. Upon decay and decomposition, under T1 treatment had the best options. For example, there this would release significant amounts of organic-N that would was a 75% probability that the total revenues accrued under T0 subsequently be incorporated within the soil matrix. Much of would not be more than $-260, while this would not be more the organic-N in the residues of leguminous plants have been than $-180 under T1. In effect, the deficit under T1 and other reported to have positive effect on the yield of subsequent non- financial obligations incurred would easily be recovered during leguminous plants (Adeleke and Haruna, 2012; Njoku et al., the subsequent growing seasons than under T0. This study also 2015). Although not directly part of our investigation, inference suggests that for risk averse smallholders, the combined effect

7 David Lomeling and Salah Joseph Huria /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 1-10 (2020)

Figure 1. Cumulative Probability Distribution curves on harvested yield of Figure 2. A CPD on the N-uptake during fertigation under two different cowpea under T0 and T1 treatments. treatments.

Figure 3. A CPD on the estimated yield of cowpea per irrigation schedule Figure 4. Simulation of N leached in kg ha-1 during growing season of under two treatments. cowpea under different treatments.

Figure 5. Cumulative Probability Distribution (CPD) for monetary returns in $ under T0 (no human urine application + irrigation) and T1 (human urine application + irrigation) treatments of cowpea yields.

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Growth, yield and quality of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) in response to sowing date and phosphorus fertilization Wasima Yasmin1, Swapan Kumar Paul1* and Md. Parvez Anwar2 1Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, BANGLADESH 2Agro Innovation Laboratory, Department of Agronomy, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 17 January 2020 An experiment was carried out to study the effect of date of sowing and level of phosphorus Revised received: 26 February 2020 on the yield, yield components and seed protein content of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) at the Accepted: 13 March 2020 Agronomy Field Laboratory, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh during

November 2018 to March 2019 to study the influence of sowing date and phosphorous

fertilization on the growth, yield and quality of faba bean (V. faba). Three date of sowing viz. 25 November, 5 December, 15 December and five levels of phosphorus viz., 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 kg P ha-1 were used in this experiment laid out in a randomized complete block design with three replications. At 60 DAS, 25 November sowing fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 showed significant influence on all characters except dry matter production. Early sowing on 25 November Keywords produced the tallest plant (42.95 cm), highest number of branches plant-1 (8.31), number of Faba bean pods plant-1 (49.87), 1000-seed weight (97.55 g), seed yield (1.21 t ha-1), stover yield (1.98 t Growth ha-1) and seed protein content (31.54%) while the corresponding lowest values were recorded Phosphorus application -1 Planting time from late sowing on 15 December. The crop fertilized with 40 kg P ha produced the highest -1 -1 Seed protein content number of branches plant (8.33), number of pods plant (49.05), 1000-seed weight (97.40 g), -1 -1 Yield components seed yield (1.33 t ha ), stover yield (2.28 t ha ) and seed protein content (38.17%) while control treatment (0 kg P ha-1) produced the lowest values of all parameters. In case of interaction, the highest number of pods plant-1 (58.42), seed yield (1.59 t ha-1), stover yield (2.44 t ha-1) and protein content in seeds (39.60) were recorded with 25 November sowing fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 whereas the lowest seed yield (0.54 t ha-1), stover yield (1.32 t ha-1) and seed protein content (25.90%) were obtained from 15 December sowing along with control treatment. Therefore, early sowing (25 November) with 40 kg P ha-1 appears as the promising combination for higher yield and seed protein content of faba bean.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Yasmin, W., Paul, S.K. and Anwar, M.P. (2020). Growth, yield and quality of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) in response to sowing date and phosphorus fertilization. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 11-17, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050102

INTRODUCTION Faba bean is grown in Bangladesh in winter after the T. aman harvest with minimum tillage or sometimes directly sown in low Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is popular legume and used worldwide lying areas as a relay crop when Aman lodges in the field (Biswas, as an important source of protein for human and animal nutri- 1988). However no statistical data regarding its area and pro- tion (Cazzato et al., 2012) and for nitrogen in the biosphere duction are available. Pulse crop covered an area of 0.37 million (Rubiales, 2010). Faba bean is grown in some limited locality of hectares with the production of 0.39 million tons including very Bangladesh and it is locally known as Kalimotor, Baklakalai, negligible contribution from faba bean (BBS, 2017). Most of the Bhograkalai etc. It is commercially grown in Tangail, Gazipur, people of Bangladesh fulfill their protein requirement through Manikgang, Faridpur, Rajbari and northern part of Bangladesh. pulses. Faba bean has been attributed with its certain medicinal

Wasima Yasmin et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 11-17 (2020) 12 values and a drug used to treat Parkinson's disease Gaibandha district. The experimental land was ploughed with a (Brauckmann and Latte, 2010 and Ramírez-Moreno et al., 2015). power tiller and kept open to sunlight. Afterwards the experi- Determination of optimum date of sowing is important because mental plot was prepared by several ploughing and cross during growing period of faba bean usually fields are occupied ploughing followed by laddering to break the clods and to level with rice in Bangladesh. Farmers might commonly sow faba the soil. The weeds and stubbles were removed from the plot. bean late because they are wait until their existing crop harvest. Land preparation was completed on 20 November and was Early date of sowing (at the onset of November) significantly ready for sowing seeds. Seeds were sown in furrow as per treat- increased vegetative growth, seed yield and its quality (Attia ments of the experiment maintaining 30 cm × 20 cm spacing et al., 2009) and the greatest values of yield and its components with two seeds per hole. The land was fertilized with urea, were resulted from the sowing date 25 November (El-Metwally muriate of potash and gypsum at the rate of 15, 60 and 45 kg et al., 2013). Late sowing increased field emergence and reduced ha-1, respectively. The entire amount of urea, muriate of potash the number of days to flowering, fresh harvest, reduced green (MoP) and gypsum were applied at final land preparation. pod length and number of green seeds pod-1 and yield. Early Phosphorus was applied as TSP as per treatments of the experi- sowing of faba bean gave the best values for yield components ment. Weeding and thinning were done at 25 days after sowing and seed yield was reported elsewhere (Badr et al., 2013; Abido (DAS) when the plant attained a height of 8-10 cm. Second and Seadh, 2014; Kumar at al., 2020). Phosphorus is a major weeding were done at 45 DAS when the plant attained about 28 nutrient, especially for legumes (Kumar et al., 2019). Faba bean -30 cm height. During experimental period, there was no irriga- may require P fertilizer in the range of 20 to 30 kg P ha-1 (FAO, tion required. Bean rust was successfully controlled by spraying 2000). Significant increases were achieved in faba bean yield Copper Oxy Chloride 50WP @ 0.2% fungicide on 14 February and its attributes by increasing phosphorus fertilization rate up and 21 February, 2019. -1 to 45-46.5 kg P2O5 fed (El-Habbasha et al., 2007). The present study was therefore, undertaken to generate information on the Data collection at vegetative stage effect of sowing date and phosphorus fertilizer rate on growth, At 60 DAS five plants were randomly selected excluding border yield and quality of faba bean. rows to record the data on plant height, number of nodules plant-1. Chlorophyll content of five fully expanded young leaves MATERIALS AND METHODS from each five plants was measured by using a portable SPAD meter (model SPAD-502, Minolta crop, Ramsey, NJ). To Experimental site, soil and climatic conditions determine the dry matter production, two plants were randomly The experiment was conducted at the Agronomy Field uprooted from each plot excluding border rows. The total dry Laboratory of Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh weight of plant was taken by using an electric balance after prop- during the period from November 2018 to March 2019. The er drying in an oven at 70°C until constant weight was reached. experimental site belongs to the Old Brahmaputra Floodplain agro-ecological zone (AEZ-9) and is located at 24.75°N latitude, Data collection at harvest 90.50°E longitude and an average altitude of 18 m. The experi- Data on plant height, yield components and yield of faba bean mental field was a medium high land with silt loam with pH 6.80 were collected at harvest. All data including plant height at and low in organic matter content (1.29%). The experimental harvest, number of branches plant-1, Number of pods plant-1, area is under the sub-tropical climate. The average monthly Number of seeds pod-1, 1000-seed weight except seed yield and temperature (°C), relative humidity (%), total rainfall (mm) stover yield, were collected from five randomly selected plants and suns hine (h) prevailing at the experimental site during of each plot, while seed and stover yields data were collected experimentation are presented in Table 1. from the whole plot after harvest. Protein content (%) in seeds was estimated by Micro-Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 1984) at Crop husbandry Professor Muhammad Hossain Central Laboratory, Bangladesh The seeds of faba bean were collected from the local farmers of Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

Table 1. Monthly record of air temperature, rainfall, relative humidity and sunshine of the experimental site during the growing season.

o Air temperature ( C) Rainfall Relative Sunshine Month Year Maximum Minimum Average (mm) humidity (%) (hrs) November 2018 29.30 17.40 23.40 36.20 81.70 228.9 December 2018 26.00 13.50 19.80 17.70 80.20 201.3 January 2019 26.28 12.16 19.07 0.00 75.39 227.2 February 2019 27.03 15.55 21.29 30.00 75.86 164.8 March 2019 29.82 18.95 24.38 58.60 73.03 208.2

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Harvesting the corresponding lowest values were recorded from late sow- When 85% of the pods turned brown colour, the crop was ing on 15 December. Uddin et al. (2017) showed significant ef- considered to be matured. The crops were harvested plot- wise fect on plant height due to early sowing date in bean where as from the whole 5 m2 (2.5 m × 2.0 m) area and then bundled sepa- Hasanvand et al. (2015) stated that due to delayed sowing chlo- rately, tagged and brought to the threshing floor of Agronomy rophyll content in leaves decreased. Application of 40 kg P ha-1 Field Laboratory. The harvesting date for 25 November, 5 showed higher results on plant height (24.12 cm), chlorophyll December and 15 December sowing were 14 March, 20 March content (36.87), dry matter production plant-1 (0.6833 g) at veg- and 22 March 2019, respectively. The crop bundles were sun etative stage while the corresponding lowest values were rec- dried for 7 days by placing them on the open threshing floor. orded from control treatment (0 kg P ha-1). Negasa et al. (2019) Seeds were separated from the plants by beating the bundles stated that plant height increased with increasing level of phos- with bamboo sticks. The separated dried seeds and stover were phorus while Mitran et al. (2018) observed that phosphorous cleaned and weighed. Seed and stover yields obtained from five plays very crucial role for increasing nodule number in legumi- sample plants were added with the respective whole plot nous plants. Root and shoot biomass increased significantly with harvest to get the actual seed and stover yields. Finally seed and increase in phosphorus levels, being lower and higher at low and stover yields were recorded and converted to t ha-1. high phosphorus levels, respectively was reported by Mourice and Tryphone (2012). On the other hand, 25 November sowing Statistical analysis fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 produced the highest result on vege- Data were compiled and tabulated in proper form for statistical tative characters of faba bean except dry matter production analysis. All the collected data were analyzed following the (Table 3). The highest plant height (28.10 cm) was obtained at analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique and mean differences 25 November sowing fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 which was sta- were adjudged by Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) tistically identical at 25 November sowing fertilized with 30 kg p (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). ha-1, 25 November sowing fertilized with 20 kg P ha-1 and 25 November sowing fertilized with 10 kg P ha-1, respectively. The RESULTS AND DISCUSSION highest Number of nodules plant-1 (40.23), chlorophyll content (39.83) at vegetative stage was obtained at 25 November Vegetative characters sowing fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 while the lowest number of Effect of sowing date had significant effect on different parame- nodules plant-1 (26.14) was obtained at 15 December sowing ters related to growth characters of faba bean (Table 2). Early with 10 kg P which was at par with 15 December sowing sowing on 25 November produced higher results on plant height fertilized with control treatment (Table 3). (26.45 cm), chlorophyll content (37.06) at vegetative stage while

Table 2. Effect of date of sowing and level of phosphorous on plant height, number of nodules plant-1, chlorophyll content and dry matter production at 60 DAS of faba bean.

Number of nodules Chlorophyll content Dry matter production Factor and treatments Plant height (cm) plant-1 (SPAD value) (g plant-1) Date of sowing 25-Nov 26.45a 33.62a 37.06a 0.586b 5-Dec 21.33b 34.21a 35.25b 0.612a 15-Dec 17.78c 31.98b 31.89c 0.550c Level of phosphorous (kg P ha-1) 0 19.67c 30.12c 32.49c 0.4933e 10 21.61b 28.23d 34.69b 0.5367d 20 21.92b 33.18b 35.10b 0.5833c 30 21.97b 37.79a 34.51b 0.6167b 40 24.12a 37.03a 36.87a 0.6833a Level of significance ** ** ** ** CV (%) 7.87 5.21 2.25 5.76 Figures in a column under each factor of treatment having the same letter (s) or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letter differ significantly (as per DMRT); ** =Significant at 1% level of probability.

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Table 3. Interaction effect of date of sowing and level of phosphorus on plant height, number of nodules plant-1, chlorophyll content and dry matter production of faba bean at 60 DAS.

Interaction Chlorophyll Dry matter Plant height Number of Level of phosphorus -1 content production Date of sowing (cm) nodules plant -1 (kg P ha-1) (SPAD value) (g plant ) 25 November 0 22.17b 32.00cd 34.83ef 0.500 10 26.42a 26.76e 35.70cde 0.530 20 27.75a 34.13bc 37.47b 0.550 30 27.83a 34.99bc 37.45b 0.620 40 28.10a 40.23a 39.83a 0.730 5 December 0 19.75bcd 30.66d 34.04fg 0.510 10 20.92bc 31.80cd 36.40bcd 0.580 20 20.25bcd 33.13bcd 35.07def 0.630 30 20.33bcd 39.47a 34.04fg 0.630 40 25.42a 36.01b 36.69bc 0.710 15 December 0 17.08d 27.71e 28.61i 0.470 10 17.50d 26.14e 31.96h 0.500 20 17.75cd 32.28cd 32.77gh 0.570 30 17.75 cd 38.91a 32.03h 0.600 40 18.83 cd 34.86bc 34.09fg 0.610 Level of significance * ** ** NS

CV (%) 7.87 5.21 2.25 5.76

In a column, figures with same letter (s) or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letter differ significantly (as per DMRT); * =Significant at 5% level of probability, ** =Significant at 1% level of probability, NS= Not significant.

Table 4. Effect of date of sowing and level of phosphorous on yield components, yield and seed protein content of faba bean.

Number Plant Number Number of Seed Stover Biological Harvest Seed Factors and of 1000-seed height of pods seeds yield yield yield index protein treatments branches weight (g) (cm) plant-1 pod-1 (t ha-1) (t ha-1) (t ha-1) (%) content (%) plant-1

Date of sowing

25 November 42.95a 8.31a 49.87a 3.45a 97.55a 1.21a 1.98a 3.19a 37.61a 31.54a

5 December 44.19a 8.17a 42.67b 3.19b 93.04a 1.07b 1.80b 2.87b 37.18a 31.48a

15 December 38.69b 7.68b 39.25c 3.07b 84.84b 0.78c 1.74c 2.52c 30.58b 30.24b

Level of phosphorous (kg P ha-1)

0 37.24b 7.88c 40.29d 2.99b 84.24c 0.646e 1.38e 2.03e 31.64c 28.00c

10 41.55ab 7.88c 41.85c 3.16b 88.44bc 0.848d 1.53d 2.37d 35.20b 28.00c

20 41.99ab 8.01bc 43.48b 3.20b 93.85ab 1.09c 1.79c 2.88c 37.42a 28.67c 30 43.61a 8.14ab 44.97b 3.55a 95.11a 1.19b 2.21b 3.40b 34.81b 32.60b

40 45.31a 8.33a 49.05a 3.26b 97.40a 1.33a 2.28a 3.62a 36.56a 38.17a

Level of ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** significance

CV (%) 11.26 2.81 3.63 8.63 6.58 6.79 1.69 2.01 3.12 2.86

Figures in a column under each factor of treatment having the same letter (s) or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letter differ significantly (as per DMRT); ** =Significant at 1% level of probability.

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Crop characters, yield components, yield and seed quality seed protein content (39.60%) except plant height, number of Date of sowing significantly influenced yield components, yield branches plant-1, 1000-seed weight of faba bean at harvest. and seed protein content of faba bean (Table 4). Early sowing on Sowing on 25 November fertilized with 30 kg P ha-1 had higher 25 November produced higher results on yield components and result on number of seeds pod-1 (4.27) and 25 November sowing yield such as plant height (42.95 cm), number of branches fertilized with 20 kg P ha-1 had higher result on harvest index plant-1 (8.31), number of pods plant-1 (49.87), number of seeds (41.62%) of faba bean. 15 December sowing fertilized with 0 kg pod-1 (3.45), weight of 1000-seed (97.55 g), seed yield (1.21 t P ha-1 also produced lower results on number of pods plant-1 ha-1), stover yield (1.98 t ha-1), biological yield (3.19 t ha-1), har- (35.74), seed yield (0.54 t ha-1), stover yield (1.32 t ha-1), biologi- vest index (37.61%) and seed protein content (31.54%) of faba cal yield (1.86 t ha-1 ), and seed protein content (25.90%) of faba bean compared to 5 December and 15 December sowing (Table bean at harvest. 15 December sowing fertilized with 10 kg P ha-1 4). Early sowing gave the highest number of pods plant-1 was produced the harvest index (28.74%) of faba bean (Table 5). In reported by Moosavi et al. (2014) and Mozumder et al. (2015). case of interaction, the highest seed yield (1.59 t ha-1), and Similar result was reported by Uddin et al. (2017) who reported protein content in seeds (39.60) were recorded at 25 November that 20 November sowing increase yield attributes including sowing fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 whereas the lowest seed yield 1000-seed weight in French bean. Level of phosphorous also (0.54 t ha-1) and seed protein content (25.90%) were obtained at showed significant difference among all parameters related to 15 December sowing along with control treatment (Table 5 and yield components and yield. Application of 40 kg P ha-1 Figure 1). It can be concluded that early sowing (25 November) produced higher results on yield components and yield such as along with higher dose of phosphorus fertilization (40 kg P ha-1) plant height (45.31 cm), number of branches plant-1 (8.33), appears as the promising practice for maximizing seed yield and number of pods plant-1 (49.05). Zebire and Gelgelo (2019) seed protein content of faba bean. mentioned that effect of phosphorus significantly increase number of branches plant-1 of bean. Application of 39.6 kg P ha-1 Functional relationship between number of nodules plant-1 gave the highest number of pods plant-1 in common bean and seed yield of faba bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) stated by Tesfaye and Balcha (2015). Nodule numbers plant-1 and seed yield of faba bean had a Application of 40 kg P ha-1 also produced higher results on positive linear relationship which could be adequately defined weight of 1000-seed (97.40 g), seed yield (1.33 t ha-1), stover by regression equation. The regression equation specifies that yield (2.28 t ha-1), biological yield (3.62 t ha-1) and seed protein increase in number of nodules plant-1 would lead to increase in content (38.17%) of faba bean compared to other level of the seed yield of faba bean (Figure 2). The functional relation- phosphorous. However, 30 kg P ha-1 had higher result on ship was significant at p ≤ 0.01. The functional relationship can number of seeds pod-1 (3.55) of faba bean (Table 4). Interaction be determined by regression equation y = – 0.8228 +0.0554x between 25 November sowing fertilized with 40 kg P ha-1 (R2 = 0.5422). The functional relationship revealed that 54% of produced higher number of pods plant-1 (58.42), seed yield (1.59 the variation in seed yield could be explained from the variation t ha-1), stover yield (2.44 t ha-1), biological yield (4.03 t ha-1) and in number of nodules plant-1 at vegetative stage of faba bean. Table 5. Interaction effects of date of sowing and level of phosphorous on yield components, yield and seed protein content of faba bean. Interaction 1000- Plant Number of Number Number Seed Stover Biological Harvest Seed seed height branches of pods of seeds yield yield yield index protein Date of Level weight (cm) plant-1 plant-1 pod-1 (t ha-1) (t ha-1) (t ha-1) (%) (%) sowing of P (g) 25 0 35.56 8.20 45.56cd 3.13b 92.98 0.77g 1.46hi 2.23j 34.65e 28.70ef November 10 43.53 8.00 45.91cd 3.23b 98.75 0.89fg 1.65g 2.54hi 35.14e 28.70ef 20 43.53 8.33 48.08c 3.26b 97.41 1.39b 1.95e 3.34d 41.62a 28.70ef 30 44.74 8.40 51.36b 4.27a 98.34 1.41b 2.39a 3.80b 37.20cd 32.00d 40 47.37 8.63 58.42a 3.33b 100.2 1.59a 2.44a 4.03a 39.45b 39.60a 5 0 41.52 7.96 39.57fg 3.06b 80.19 0.62h 1.38j 2.00k 31.13f 29.40e December 10 42.57 8.06 40.91efg 3.20b 86.17 1.07cde 1.50h 2.57h 41.73a 28.00ef 20 44.63 8.16 42.41ef 3.20b 97.35 1.11cd 1.74f 2.85g 38.94bc 29.30e 30 45.44 8.23 43.61de 3.23b 99.40 1.18c 2.14cd 3.32d 35.54de 33.60c 40 46.77 8.40 46.84c 3.25b 102.1 1.40b 2.24b 3.64c 38.58bc 37.10b 15 0 34.65 7.50 35.74h 2.79b 79.56 0.54h 1.32k 1.86l 29.14g 25.90g December 10 38.56 7.60 38.73g 3.06b 80.41 0.58h 1.44i 2.02k 28.74g 27.30fg 20 37.82 7.53 39.94fg 3.13b 86.79 0.78g 1.68g 2.46i 31.69f 28.00ef 30 40.65 7.80 39.94fg 3.16b 87.59 0.97ef 2.10d 3.07f 31.69f 32.20cd 40 41.79 7.96 41.91ef 3.20b 89.87 1.01def 2.18c 3.19e 31.65f 37.80b Level of NS NS ** * NS ** ** ** ** ** significance CV (%) 11.26 2.81 3.63 8.63 6.58 6.79 1.69 2.01 3.12 2.86 In a column, figures with same letter (s) or without letter do not differ significantly whereas figures with dissimilar letter differ significantly (as per DMRT). * =Significant at 5% level of probability, ** =Significant at 1% level of probability, NS= Not significant.

Wasima Yasmin et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 11-17 (2020) 16

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Ramírez-Moreno, J.M., Salguero, B.I., Romaskevych, O. and Duran-Herrera, M.C. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (2015). Broad Bean (Vicia faba) consumption and Parkinson’s disease: natural source of L-dopa to consider. Neurología, 30:375-376. The financial assistance of Bangladesh Agricultural University Rubiales, D. (2010). Faba beans in sustainable agriculture. Field Crops Research, 115: 201-202. Research System (BAURES) (2018/333/BAU) to conduct the Tesfaye, T. and Balcha, A. (2015). Effect of Phosphorus application and varieties on research project is thankfully acknowledged. grain yield and yield components of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). American Journal of Plant Nutrition and Fertilization Technology, 5 (3): 79-84.

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5(1): 18-24 (2020) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050103

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Role of credit in maize (Zea mays L.) production and assessment of food security in a selected area of Bangladesh Most. Rehana Akter1, Mohammad Ataur Rahman2* and Md. Rais Uddin Mian3 1Junior Officer, Bangladesh Krishi Bank, BANGLADESH 2Department of Agricultural Finance, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh -2202, BANGLADESH 3Department of Agricultural Finance, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh -2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 18 January 2020 Credit provides the means for many farmers to adjust their operations to keep up with the Revised received: 25 February 2020 constant changes and, by doing so, to improve their operations. It also contributes to achieve Accepted: 13 March 2020 food security of households. Tabular method is used to analyze credit profile, multiple regres-

sion analyses are used to determine the impact of credit on maize production and "Modified"

OECD scale is used to measure calorie intake level of the 60 maize farming households who has got agricultural credit from Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan Bank in Lalmonirhat district of Bangladesh. Data were collected through field survey by using pre-designed and pre-tested interview schedule. TK.10500, 26333.33, 92103.77 (US$ 125, 313.49, 1096.47) for small, medium and large categories, respectively, which was 100% of the total applied amount. The Keywords total principal received by the household was about TK. 50, 02,500 (US$ 59553.57) and at 9% Bangladesh interest it became TK. 54, 52,725 (US$ 64913.39). The repayment performance of the house- Credit holds was about 100%. It is also revealed from the study that credit had a positive impact on Food security fertilizer demand and irrigation demand and overall a positive impact on maize production. Maize production The coefficient of maize production with respect to agricultural credit was 0.081. The elasticity of fertilizer and irrigation demand with respect to credit was 0.016 and 0.543 respectively. The calorie intake situation of the sample households depicts that about 6.67% of the respondents belonged to the ultra-poor whose per day calorie intake was 1481.991 k.cal. About 20% of respondents were hardcore poor whose per day calorie intake was 1722.133 k.cal. The persons belonged to the absolute poor about 21.67% and per capita calorie intake was 1934.605 k.cal. The rest 51.67% belonged to the non-poor group. Different financial institutions should disburse sufficient agricultural credit to fulfill the requirement of the farmers.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Akter, M.R., Rahman, M.A. and Mian, M.R.U. (2020). Role of credit in maize (Zea mays L.) production and assessment of food security in a selected area of Bangladesh. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 18-24, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050103

INTRODUCRION leading crops in the world. Maize is a versatile crop and is the nutritious than rice in terms of protein, phosphorus, fat content. Bangladesh is one of the world’s most densely populated Among different districts of the country Dinajpur, Lalmonirhat, countries, with its people crammed into a delta of rivers that Rangpur, Bogra, Kushtia, Chuadanga and Dhaka are observed to empty into the Bay of Bengal (BBC, 2019). Most of the people be more progressive in maize cultivation. Bangladesh has 14.09 are dependent on agriculture and it is essential to diversify million hectares of cultivated land and it is estimated that nearly crops for increasing population to ensure food security. Maize is 2.8 million hectares are suitable for maize cultivation. But one of the most important cereal crops and it is one of the most presently it covers only 3.5 lakh hectares and the production is

Most. Rehana Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 18-24 (2020) 19 about 23 lakh metric tons (BBS, 2016). are involved providing credit to the millions of landless, marginal Credit is a catalyst in production, the increasing flow of which and small farmers in rural areas of Bangladesh. Among these, may result in improved per hectare productivity. Agricultural Bangladesh Krishi Bank (BKB) and Rajshahi Krishi Unnayan credit is also important to consumer in achieving food security. Bank (RAKUB) are the key institutions for providing increased Different credit sources and institutions have geared towards amount of credit to the farmers with a view to developing the development of agriculture and achievement of food securi- agricultural sector by and large, different agro based industries, ty (Okeke and Chukuemeka, 2018). Food security refers to the proper marketing of farm products in Bangladesh. situation ‘when all people, at all times, have physical, social and Maize is not only highly productive, but also nutritious crop used economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that as a human food, feed for poultry and fodder for livestock. Maize meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active helps in improving the nutritional status of the rural people. It and healthy life’ (FAO, 2011). Food security encompasses three also indicates that the livelihood and standard of living of the elements: availability, accessibility and utilization (USAID, maize farmers will be improved to some extent. The specific 1996). Bangladesh’s high poverty and under nutrition rates are objectives of the study are assessing the credit profile, impact of exacerbated by frequent natural disasters and high population credit on maize production, the calorie intake level of the sample density. The country’s poverty rate is now 21.8%, having fallen households. by 1.3% over the past year (BBS, 2018). The present rate of ultra -poor is 11.3%. BBS drew up its estimated based on the 2010 MATERIALS AND METHODS household income and expenditure survey. From 2005 till the proceeding five years, poverty fell by 1.7% and 1.2% between On the basis of higher concentration of maize production, four 2010 and 2016. Now BBS estimates a similar type of poverty villages namely Nijshekhsundor, Parshekhsundor, Moddhogod- reduction. In the corresponding period of 2016, the ultra- dimari and Dalalpara under Hatibandha upazila of Lalmonirhat poverty rate was 12.9%. district were randomly selected for the study. The random According to the World Bank, Bangladesh's poverty rate fell from sampling technique was applied for the selection of the sample. 82% in 1972, to 18.5% in 2010, to 13.8% in 2016, and below 9% in A total of 60 different categories of maize farmers was selected 2018, as measured by the percentage of people living below the from four villages who were the beneficiaries of Rajshahi Krishi international extreme poverty line. Based on the current rate of Unnayan Bank of Dowani branch. Survey method was followed poverty reduction, Bangladesh is projected to eliminate extreme to collect data from the respondents. Data were collected by the poverty by 2021, first nation in South Asia to do so. researcher herself through personal interview. The period Maize or corn (Zea mays) is a plant belonging to the family of covered in this study was July 2017 to June, 2018. Data were grasses (Poaceae). It is cultivated globally being one of the most collected during September to October, 2018. Repeated visits important cereal crops worldwide. In some parts of the world, were made to collect the necessary data. maize is used as food grain for human consumption. In addition, it is used as an important feed and fodder for animals. Nearly, Analytical tools 500 products of maize have been listed in the USA. It is also In order to explain the effects of different inputs on maize being recently used as biofuel. Maize is an excellent crop for production, multiple linear regression function was chosen on the food, feed and industrial utilization. Vitamin A rich maize is an basis of the theoretical background (Gujarati, 2004). A general example that has potential in addressing micronutrient deficien- specification of the production function was considered by assum- cies and promoting dietary diversity among the populations. ing that area under maize production, seed, fertilizers, manure and Maize is frequently used as fish feed in small scale fish farming labour man days have an impact on maize production. When data and has been used successfully as energy sources in the diet of were tested to check the multicollinearity problem among the many carnivorous fish. Maize is relatively low production costs, independent variables and the researcher found that the variables along with the increasing consumption of maize flour and area under maize production and labour man days significantly cornmeal where micronutrient deficiencies are common public correlated with other variables. So the researcher removed these health problems; make this food staple an ideal food vehicle for variables from the classical production function. fortification (Ranumet al., 2014). The general specification of the function was as follows (Eq. 1) The necessity of credit for rural producers in adopting modern technology like the maize production has been realized long Y = ƒ (S, F, I, P, M, C) (1) since. Access to credit would enable credit-demanded farmers Where to take advantage of the available productive opportunities and Y = Amount of maize production (kg) increase maize productivity (Awunyo-Vitor and Al-Hassan, S = Cost of seed (Tk.) 2014). Emphasis has been given too many institutions to F = Cost of chemical fertilizer (Tk.) increase more fund in agriculture. Various nationalized com- I = Cost of irrigation (Tk.) mercial banks, other private commercial banks, and different big P =Cost of pesticide (Tk.) or small NGOs insisted by the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) M = Amount of manure (kg) have also been to finance agriculture. Various NGOs, however, C = Amount of credit (Tk.)

20 Most. Rehana Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 18-24 (2020)

As the objective is to assess the impact of credit on maize F = α production, credit has no direct impact on maize production, but it has an impact on inputs utilization mainly on chemical fertiliz- Or, lnF = α+ β1 lnFp + β2 lnBC +μi (7) er and irrigation. It was assumed that the price of fertilizer and bank credits have an impact on the amount of fertilizer used for I = α maize cultivation and similarly, the price of irrigation and bank credits had an impact on irrigation per hectare employed. Or, lnI = α + β1 lnIp + β2 lnBC+μi (8) To estimate the impact of agricultural credit on maize production the following hypothetical model had been developed To assess the calorie intake level of the sample households, the (Eq. 2). consumption data of the households of seven days were measured by the per person per day calorie intake level, each Y = ƒ (F, I) (2) food item which was consumed by the family members of the sample households converted through standard value of 100 Where gm each food item. For the calculation, "Modified" OECD scale Y = Amount of maize production (kg) was used, family members are defined as one adult male and one F = Cost of chemical fertilizer adult female is 1:1, the child whose age is below 5 years consid- I = Cost of irrigation ered as zero and 5–10 years considered as half of an adult member. F = ƒ (Fp, BC) (3) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION I = ƒ (Ip, BC) (4) Credit profile of the respondents Where Sources of credit, interest rates and purpose of the loan are very Fp = Price of chemical fertilizer important factors, both for the lender and receiver of credit. In Ip = Price of irrigation water this study, an attempt has been made to see whether credit BC = Bank Credit receipt, its interest rate and payment status have any effects on maize production. Timely loan receipt, loan adequacy, utilization Equation (2) gives the maize production function while equation patterns and proper supervision are closely related to the (3) and (4) gives chemical fertilizer, and irrigation water repayment of a loan. The borrowers generally divert the funds demand function. mostly for unproductive or consumption purposes, as they cannot avoid the subsistence need of the family particularly Empirical model among lower income people resulting in unnecessary delay in By applying the theoretical model, the empirical model was loan payment and default late delivery of credit also affects to specified as (Eq. 5) its improper use. Proper supervision must be needed to increase the higher loan repayment rate otherwise loan overdue will be Y= (5) increased.

Where Sources and purpose of loan of the respondents Y = Amount of maize production (kg) The respondents are engaged in many activities, but most of α = Constant term them were engaged in cultivating maize crop. In that case, S = Cost of seed (Tk.) RAKUB provides loan for maize production to the farmers. They F = Cost of chemical fertilizer (Tk.) provided loans for different income generating activities (IGAs) I = Cost of irrigation (Tk.) rather than maize production. It was observed that RAKUB P = Cost of pesticide (Tk.) provided loans for different purposes to their beneficiaries. M = Amount of manure (kg.) Respondents of the study were the beneficiaries of RAKUB, C = Amount of credit (Tk.) Dowanipur branch, Hatibandha. They applied for a loan for the μi = Error term purpose of maize production and the branch also provide loan for this purpose. Taking log on both side of equation (6) we get. Adequacy of loan received lnY = ln α + β1 lnS + β2 lnF + β3 lnI + β4 lnP+β5 lnM + β6 lnC+ Table 1 shows that the adequacy of loan for the sample house- μi (6) holds. The lone receivers were categorized in three categories, small amount

Most. Rehana Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 18-24 (2020) 21 loan in small category was Tk. 10500 (US$ 125) and the average input credit with a part of the harvest (The Kind Farmers), amount of loan received was Tk.10500 (US$ 125) which was performed better in repayment than those who were repay- 100% of the total applied amount. On the other hand, average ing with cash (The Cash Farmers). Table 2 shows the repayment amount applied for loan in the medium category was Tk. performance of the respondents. 26333.33 (US$ 313.49), and average amount of loan received From the Table 2 it shows that total principal received by the was Tk. 26333.33 (US$ 313.49), which was 100% of the total household was about Tk. 50, 02,500 (US$ 59553.57) and at 9% applied amount. But Islam et al. (2018) found their research on interest it became Tk. 54, 52,725 (US$ 64913.39). The Banana cultivation in Bangladesh that the overall average households repaid the loan after harvesting their crop. That’s amount of loan received was 85.4% of applied amount. Average why the repayment performance of the households was about amount applied for loan in large category was Tk. 92103.77 100%. (US$ 1096.47) and average amount of loan received was Tk. 92103.77 (US$ 1096.47). Maize production model The average maize production for the sampled farmers was Repayment of the loan 11261.82 Kg/ha. The results of the maize production model are Agricultural Credit repayment is one of the challenging aspects presented in Table 3. Maize production was assumed to be of agricultural financing, especially in rural communities of de- influenced by six different variables, namely seed, fertilizer, veloping countries (Ahiaba, 2018). But the repayment tendency irrigation, pesticide, manure and credit. Having a log linear of loan among the respondents of Dowani branch in Bangladesh specification, OLS model has been applied to estimate the was very satisfactory. They will pay the loan next year after har- parameters of the variables in the production function. General- vesting their crop fully. They tried to pay the loan fully without ly production increases as the area under crop increases. But in any problem as they know if they pay the amount in due time this analysis, we found that area under maize production and fully, they will get more loan which will help them to expand estimated model had a multicollinearity problem which affected their production and get more profit. By cultivating maize pro- the independent variables. That’s why we omitted area under duction, the respondents improved their economic position. crop as independent variable. Ahiaba (2018) found in Nigeria that the farmers who repaid

Table 1. Adequacy of loan received (Tk.) by the respondents. No. of Average amount applied Average amount Amount received in % Category Respondent for loan (Tk.) received loan (Tk.) of amount applied Small amount (Tk.30000) 92103.77 53 92103.77 (US$1096.49) 100 (>US$ 357.14) (US$1096.49) Note: Tk.84 =1US$; Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 2. Amount (Tk.) received and paid by the respondents. Item Amount (Tk.)/Percentage Principal amount received by the respondents 50,02,500 (US$ 59553.57) Interest after one year (9%) 4,50,225 (US$ 5359.82) Total amount 54,52,725 (US$ 64913.39) Repayment by the respondents 54,52,725 (US$ 64913.39) Repayment performance (percentage) 100% Source: Field Survey, 2018.

Table 3. Results of the multiple log linear regression function of maize production. Variables Coefficient t –values Constant 1.222 1.002 Cost of Seed (Tk.) 0.271** 2.899 Cost of fertilizer (Tk.) -0.075 -0.201 Cost of irrigation (Tk.) -0.092** -2.678 Cost of pesticide (Tk.) 0.119** 2.701 Amount of manure (kg.) 0.734** 2.099 Amount of credit (Tk.) 0.081** 2.371 R2 0.961 Adjusted R2 0.957 F 219.539 ** indicates significance at 5% probability level; Source: Author’s estimation.

22 Most. Rehana Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 18-24 (2020)

Regression analysis 0.16%. The elasticity of irrigation demand with respect to bank On the basis of the theoretical conception, the following values credit was 0.543. It means that an increment of credit by 10% of empirical model were found. The estimated coefficient and increased that demand for irrigation by 5.43%. Here, the impact related statistics of the equation are presented in the Table 3. of maize production with respect to bank credit (BC) was 0.081 The fitness of the model was good as indicated by R2. About 96% which indicates that if credit was increased by 10% the maize of the total variation in the dependent variable was explained by production would increase by 0.08%. Credit affects the demand the five variables used in explaining the maize production mod- for inputs. Thus, production is affected by credit via input el. The coefficient of fertilizer and irrigation are negatively relat- demand function. Abbas et al. (2015) also found that agricultural ed to maize production because the cost of fertilizer and irriga- credit; maize cropped area and agricultural labour force are tion are so much which increases the cost rather decreases. positively significant related to maize production. The foregoing That’s why, the coefficient becomes negative. discussion reveals that credit had a positive impact on maize The arguments in fertilizer demand function are price of fertiliz- production. Increasing cost of fertilizer and irrigation affected, er and bank credit (Table 4). It was assumed that demand for by decreasing maize production with respect to credit. fertilizer was influenced by the price of fertilizer and current year’s capability to buy fertilizer was indicated by the amount of Calorie intake situation credit received and used. The coefficient of demand for fertilizer Calorie intake status is an important socioeconomic aspect of with respect to price of fertilizer was .998 and with respect to the sampled household. To assess the calorie intake level of the bank credit was .016. sample households, the consumption data of selected house- The irrigation demand function includes two independent varia- holds of seven days were measured by the per person per day bles, the price of irrigation and the bank credit. The Table 5 calorie intake level, each food item which was consumed by the shows that the coefficient of bank credit and the irrigation family members of the sample households converted through function is 0.543. It indicates that use of irrigation water was standard value of 100 gm each food item. positively influenced by bank credit. Availability and use of credit properly enhanced the uses of irrigation water. The coef- Per capita calorie intake ficient of irrigation demand with respect to price of irrigation To measure the weekly calorie intake level of the sampled and bank credit were 0.897 and 0.543 respectively. The value of households, a structured question, including all commonly con- R2 =0.596 indicates that the fitness of the model is good. sumed food items was developed. On the basis of the amount of The coefficient of fertilizer demand with respect to bank credit food taken by the respondent and their family members per was 0.016 which provides an indication that if credit was capita calorie intake was measured. It was classified into the increased by 10% the demand for fertilizer might increase by following four categories in Table 6.

Table 4. Results of the multiple log linear regression function of fertilizer demand Variables Coefficient t values Constant -3.275 -22.92 Price of fertilizer (Tk.) 0.998 1.192 Cost of bank credit (Tk.) 0.016 75.892 R2 0.993 Adjusted R2 0.992 F 3848.77 Source: Author’s estimation. Table 5. Results of the multiple log linear regression function of irrigation demand. Variables Coefficient t values Constant -5.449 -3.263 Price of irrigation (Tk.) 0.897 7.61 Cost of bank credit (Tk.) 0.543 4.88 R2 0.596 Adjusted R2 0.582 F 41.108 Source: Authors estimation. Table 6. Categories of people according to calorie intake. Category Calorie (k.cal) Ultra poor <1600 Hardcore poor 1600-1804 Absolute poor 1805-2122 Non-poor Above 2122 Source: BER, 2012.

Most. Rehana Akter et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 18-24 (2020) 23

Table 7. Percentage of calorie intake taken by the sample households. Categories No. of respondents Per person per day average calorie intake (k.cal) Ultra-poor <1600 4(6.67) 1481.991 Hardcore poor (1601-1804) 12(20) 1722.133 Absolute poor (1805-2122) 13(21.67) 1934.605 Non-poor (Above 2122) 31(51.67) 2650.374

Source: Author’s calculation. Figures with parenthesis indicate percentage of total respondents.

Table 7 depicts the percentage of calorie intake with respect to production via input demand and positively influenced by credit. amount of credit taken by the sample household. About 6.67% The impact of maize production with respect to credit was posi- of the respondents belonged to the ultra-poor whose per day tive. Borrowed money has been used to a greater extent for the calorie intake was 1481.991 k.cal. About 20% of respondents productive purposes by the loanee farmers. Although they used were hardcore poor whose per day calorie intake was 1722.133 the loan in productive purposes, they cannot get enough prices k.cal. The persons belonged to the absolute poor about 21.67% of the product or due to the uncertain loss of product they can- and per calorie intake was 1934.605 k.cal. The rest 51.67% be- not repay their installment on time. The findings revealed that longed to the non-poor group. From the above discussion, it can households producing maize have higher income and better be summarized that most of the respondents were non-poor food security status than those households who have not been and they were the beneficiaries of credit. Rahman et al. (2014) cultivating maize in the study area. also found that credit has a positive impact on caloric intake of farm households in Bangladesh. Although most of the respond- CONFLICT OF INTEREST ents are non-poor, still there are ultra-poor and hard-core poor The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regard- group of 6.67% and 20% respectively. This is due to uncon- ing the publication of this paper. sciousness and lack of knowledge about nutritious items of food. Since, food security has three fundamental components and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS dimensions, meeting only one or two still lefts person for food insecurity position. The first author gratefully acknowledges the Ministry of Science From the study it is found that about 48.33% of the respondents and Technology of the Government of People's Republic of were poor who belongs to the category ultra-poor, hardcore Bangladesh for funding this research project poor and absolute poor. The reasons behind their poverty were many, such as their large family size, low income, high food Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under consumption, education fees, health facilities, etc. Their the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, expenditure, including food, clothing, education, health etc. was which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction more than their income. They can’t save a single penny for the in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are future. As a result, they can’t maintain food security level and credited. became food insecure and thus belongs to poor. Moreover, their large family size also affects a lot for being poor. Because, they don’t maintain family planning and birth rate increases. It is REFERENCES found that there was only one earning member in most of the households. As a result, he alone couldn’t maintain the family Abbas Ali Chandio, A.A. Jiang Yuansheng, J. and Mansoor Ahmed Koondher, M.A. expenses compared to his income. That’s why; he along with his (2015) Raising maize Productivity through Agricultural Credit: A Case Study Commercial Bank in Pakistan. European Journal of Business and Management, family became poor and food insecure. However, it is true that, 7(32): 159-165. despite having an economic growth in the country, all people Ahiaba, U.V. (2018). Agricultural credit repayment preference among rural farmers cannot get benefit from growth equally due to the different in some rural communities in Kogi State, North-Central Nigeria. American Journal of Rural Development, 7(1): 1-5. standard of their capacity, intellectual ability, etc. To assist Awunyo-Vitor, D. and Al-Hassan, R.M. (2014). Credit constraints and smallholder those people, the government may take special programme in maize production in Ghana. International Journal of Agricultural Resources, this regard. Accelerating the rate of the decline in poverty can Governance and Ecology, 10(3): 239–256. be accomplished only by reducing poverty in the rural areas. BBC News (2019). Bangladesh Country Profile (http://www.bbc.com/), Accessed on 5 May, 2019. Without accelerating rural development, reduction of poverty BBS (2016). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Year Book of Bangladesh, might not possible as a whole. Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. BBS (2018). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Year Book of Bangladesh, Conclusion Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka. Credit is important for the improvement of the respondents. It BER (2012) Bangladesh Economic Review (2011), Economic Advisory Section, works like a catalyst for maize production. It affects the crop Department of Finance, Ministry of Finance, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka.

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FAO (2011). Food and Agricultural Organization, The United Nations. The Role of Rahman, M.S., Khatun, M., Rahman, M.A., Azam, M.G. and Sultana, S. (2014). Credit in Food Production and Food Security in Bangladesh. National Food Assessing the Impact of Credit on Rice Production and Food Security on Policy Capacity Strengthening Program. Farm Households in Bangladesh. International Journal of Innovative Research Gujarati, D.N. (2004). Basic Econometrics. Tata McGraw Hill; 4th edition, Page: and Development, 3(6): 300-308. 202. Ranum, P., Pe˜na-Rosas, J.P. and Garcia-Casal, M.N. (2014). Global maize produc- Islam, A., Rahman, M.A. and Saham, J.K. (2018). Profitability of banana cultivation tion, utilization, and consumption. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, under agricultural credit in Narsingdi district of Bangladesh. Journal of Funda- 13(12): 105–112. mental and Applied Agriculture, 3(3): 525-530. USAID. (1996). Annual Food Assistance Report (PN-ABZ-119). United State Okeke, C.C. and Chukuemeka, O.D. (2018). An assessment of availability and utili- Agency for International Development, Washington, DC. zation of agricultural credit by farmers in Aguata Local Government Area of World Bank (2018) Poverty Rate Is Reducing in Bangladesh Anambra state. Journal of Science Education, NOCEN, 2: 153-159. (http://www.worldbank.org/) Accessed on 4 May, 2019.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5(1): 25-32 (2020) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050104

This content is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Economics of production and marketing of natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) in Jhapa, Nepal Subodh Raj Pandey1* , Surya Mani Dhungana2 and Govinda Prasad Sharma3 1Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, NEPAL 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Agriculture and Forestry University, NEPAL 3Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, NEPAL *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 22 January 2020 A study was carried to assess the production and marketing status of natural rubber in Jhapa Revised received: 29 February 2020 district in 2019, from a random sample of 70 households and 5 traders. Results were drawn Accepted: 13 March 2020 using descriptive and inferential statistics employing SPSS and MS-Excel. The average area

under natural rubber cultivation was 2.2 bigha and the productive area was 1.21 bigha. The

average rubber sheet produced per household was 1167.092 kg and average yield was found Keywords to be 958.77 kg/bigha in the study area. The average annual household income from natural Financial feasibility rubber was found to be NRs. 233418.57 which contributes 58.54 percent in the total house- Marketing hold income. Three marketing channels were identified and the price spread ranged from NRs. Natural rubber 20 to 40. The producers' share in consumers' price ranged from 81.82% to 90.91%. The major Price spread production problem identified was the lodging by wind (0.80) and the major marketing Production problem faced by producers and traders was the absence of grading facility (0.82). Rubber farms were found to be a profitable farm enterprise with a discounted benefit-cost ratio of 1.88. The calculated NPV was 410992.40, IRR was 22% and PBP was 8.52 years respectively denoting the sustainability of rubber cultivation. RRIM 600, RRII 105 and GT1 were the major growing varieties of rubber in the study area. The cost of establishment in the first year (48.702%) is highest compared to the following years. The selling price of latex and sheet was found higher in 2015 and 2016 with a reduction of price in 2017 due to the high import of Indonesian rubber sheet. This research tries to present the general idea on the overall production and marketing status in the study area.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Pandey, S.R., Dhungana, S.M. and Sharma, G.P. (2020). Economics of production and marketing of natural rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) in Jhapa, Nepal. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 25-32, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050104

INTRODUCTION rubber for the source of income. About 400 types of surgical equipment and 50,000 types of other equipment are prepared Rubber Plant (Hevea brasiliensis) is the perennial crop and the from the synthetic and natural rubber. The synthetic rubber is natural source of rubber. There are 79 families, 311 genera and prepared from the remains of petroleum products (RRII, 1980). 2000 species associated with natural rubber production. The Economic and socio-politics in the world, currency exchange and various species associated with rubber production are Hevea speculation of rubber market influence the price of the rubber brasiliensis, Parthenium argentatum, Ficus elastica, Manihot (Ismail and Aziz, 2018). Nepal imported rubber and articles glaziovii, Taraxacum kok-saghyz etc. Among them, Havea brasiline- thereof of NRs. 8,307,815,000 and export of NRs. 18,207,000 sis is best for extraction of latex. The rubber holds the 3rd largest per annum (MoAD, 2017) with a trade deficit of NRs. position of the world industry after iron and steel. About 20 8,289,608,000 in the FY 2016/2017 (MoF, 2018). Prime million of the world populations are directly dependent upon Minister Agriculture Modernization Project (PMAMP), Project

Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020) 26

Implementation Unit, Rubber zone, Jhapa is responsible for up- Saptari and Udhayapur, respectively. The rubber cultivation has lifting the standard of rubber cultivation in Nepal (NPC, 2003). now expanded to Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari and southern part of These plants have 30 years of economic life but may live up to Illam. There are no formal details on the number of rubber farm- 100 years or even more than that. The plantation would start ers and coverage of rubber plant in Nepal. The varieties grown in yielding from the 5-6th year onwards. The natural rubber (latex) Nepal are Rubber Research Institute of India (RRII) 105, Rubber is processed to convert into a storable and marketable form. Research Institute of Malaysia (RRIM) 600 and Godang Tapen The height of the rubber plant is about 30 m. They have trifoli- (GT) 1. This study will help students, stakeholders, farmers and ate leaves and are pollinated by insects. The 3 budded seed can policymakers to get knowledge on the general overview of burst up to 15-18m. The latex can be extracted from any parts production and marketing status of natural rubber. of the plant but the high amount can be extracted from the trunk. MATERIALS AND METHODS The area under rubber cultivation is limited to four districts of Nepal namely Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Illam. The market for Study area natural rubber in developed countries is mostly saturated and is For this study, Jhapa district was purposively selected as it is not expected to grow in the future, but it is expanding in the one of the important districts in terms of rubber cultivation and nations of “New Asia”, which includes India, Asian countries and a sole prioritized district by PMAMP. The district lies in the especially China (Manivong, 2007). To achieve a high yield of 26.20˚ to 26.50˚N latitude and 87.39˚ to 88.12˚E longitude rubber latex, good variety, high fertility of the soil and appropri- with1606 square km of land. It is located in the southeastern ate cultural management both in the immature and tapping part of Nepal with estimated rubber cultivated area of 311 stage are important (Onthong, 2015). The favourable condition hectares as registered by PMAMP-Rubber zone, Jhapa (MoAD, required for rubber farming includes the height of 450 masl, 5- 2017). 15° elevation, the temperature of 21°C to 28°C (due to the agro -ecological diversity 29°-30°C was also found better in Nepal), Sample size and sampling procedure the relative humidity of 70-95%, rainfall of 2000-3000 mm and The simple random sampling design was adopted to select pH of 4-6.5. Areas within 8 degrees north of the equator, 10 municipalities, rural municipalities, villages and farmers. degrees south of the equator, high temperature, altitude below Altogether 70 farm households were selected among 6 munici- 400 m and high humidity are the ideal conditions for the natural palities (Birtamoad, Dhamak, Mechinagar, Bhadrapur, Kankai rubber-producing plant (Yogish, 2017). and Arjundhara) and 3 rural municipalities (Kechanakawal, The history of natural rubber cultivation started from 2046 B.S. Barhadashi and Buddhashanti) (PMAMP-Rubber zone, 2019). with the establishment of Gorakhkali Rubber Udyog Ltd. (estd. An available roster at PMAMP zone office was used to select the in 2041 B.S.) in Deurali, Gorkha by the aid of the Chinese farmers. Government. It had an objective of import substitution by the production of raw materials required for the industry. The Data collection techniques contract was done with Sudha Fal Ras, Sanishare, Jhapa to trial rubber cultivation in 5 ha in 2047 B.S. The task force was Household survey: The household survey was conducted em- formed with the co-ordination between Ministry of Agriculture ploying interview technique using a pre-tested semi-structured and Gorakhali Rubber Udyog in 2050 B.S. The rubber develop- questionnaire. All selected farmers aged 25 and above were ment committee was established in the same year. The Indian interviewed for primary data collection. The interview was team gave the highly optimistic note on the promising potential taken carefully to generate more realistic, reliable and complete of rubber cultivation in Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari and Illam of responses. Respondents were interviewed with questions Nepal (Khanal, 2003). Crop development division under Depart- seeking demographic, educational, sociocultural, behavioural, ment of agriculture was given the role for rubber upliftment in economic and other information regarding production and 2052 B.S. Crop development directorate started subsidy for the marketing of natural rubber. rubber co-operatives in 2061 B.S. The Institute of Rubber and Jatropha Research Institute-Nepal was established in 2067 B.S. Focus group discussions (FGDs): A total of 3 focus group discus- by non-resident Nepalese of America. Small farmers natural sions were conducted with farmer leaders and active commer- rubber producer’s association, Jhapa and Natural rubber cial farmers by using a standard checklist. The information farmer’s cooperative organization, Buddhasanti was established obtained from focus group discussions were used to supplement in 2069 B.S. and 2071 B.S. respectively. Rubber zone was estab- and verify the data collected from the household survey. FGD lished in 2075 B.S. The task force was again formed in 2075 B.S. also enabled to generate alternative data beyond the question- to study the possible expansion of rubber in the eastern part of naire survey. Nepal (Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Illam, Saptari and Udyapur) which gave the promising result of the probable expansion of Key informant interview (KII): The key informant used in the 20,400 ha. The expansion includes 8000 ha, 4900 ha, 2000 ha, survey included the important stakeholders of the study area 1500 ha, 500 ha and 1000 ha in Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Illam, such as local leaders, extension workers, heads and executive

27 Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020) member of farmer groups and cooperatives, heads of communi- Economics of rubber production: Rubber is a perennial crop ty-based organizations, etc. Key informants were interviewed which can be economically cultivated up to 30 years. The gesta- using an interview checklist and the information obtained was tion period is six to seven years. From the seventh year used in verifying the information obtained from the household onwards, it will start yielding which can be realized after 12 survey. years.

Case study: A case study of a typical natural rubber farmer of Establishment cost: The cost incurred for establishing and the study area was conducted for an in-depth search of all maintaining the rubber orchards up to the bearing age was relevant information. Farmer’s perception, decision making, considered as establishment cost. It was calculated at current technology adoption, package of practice, social organization, factor prices. Establishment cost included the expenditure on gender roles, production and marketing economics and its material cost and labour cost. impacts on rural livelihood was studied. Yields and returns: Yield and returns were calculated per bigha Field observation and verification: Field observation was done basis. Prices received for rubber at the time of data collection at different times to witness the situation, which was assistive to was considered to compute the incomes from farms. validate the information received from the household survey. Benefit-cost ratio: It was taken as the ratio of the present worth Data and data types of incremental benefit stream (cash inflow) to present worth of Both quantitative and qualitative information regarding incremental cost stream (cash outflow) for the enterprise. objectives were gathered using primary and secondary sources.

Primary data: The study was based on primary data. Primary data were obtained from the selected farmers through a personal interview during 2019 using a pre-tested and structured Where, th questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed to generate Bt: incremental benefit in t period due to farm enterprise th information regarding preparation of land, seeds, costs incurred Ct: incremental cost in t period due to farm enterprise on the purchase of various inputs, total production and its costs, n: number of years price and marketing of rubber. The questionnaire was pretested i: interest rate before final administration. The collected data were cross- checked and confirmed from key informants interview, direct Keeping farm enterprise by the farmer will be financially observation, and individual interview. feasible if the present worth of incremental benefits is greater than the present worth of the incremental cost or in other Secondary data words, B-C ratio exceeds one. Secondary data was collected from district profile, journals, research articles, thesis, MoALD website, FAO website, Central Net present value (NPV): It is used as a discounted cash flow Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Krishi diary, PMAMP zone profile etc. measure of absolute profitability. NPV is computed as present The secondary data was generated and tabulated elsewhere worth of incremental benefits (cash inflows) less present worth possible and used in further analysis to find out the appropriate of incremental cost (cash outflows) due to farm enterprise. finding. Positive NPV value indicates the feasibility of the business.

Data analysis technique NPV = Data coding, entry and cleaning: The collected data were coded and entered in Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The Where, data was further cleaned by removing errors, inconsistencies Bt: Benefit; Ct: Cost; t: Time in years; r: Interest (discount rate) % and overlapped responses using SPSS. The data was analyzed using SPSS and Ms-excel. Scaling technique: Qualitative data were taken into account to prepare the index. Based on responded frequencies, weighted Qualitative data analysis: The qualitative data were further indexes were calculated for the analysis of farmer’s perception quantified to carry out the quantitative analysis. on the extent of production and marketing problems. Farmer’s perception of the different production and marketing problems Quantitative data analysis: The collected quantitative data were ranked by using five-point scales. The scale value of 1, 0.8, were analyzed using both descriptive and analytical analysis. 0.6, 0.4 and 0.2 were used to most severe, severe, moderate, serious and least serious, respectively. The index of importance was computed by using the formula:

Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020) 28

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Iimp = ∑ The percentage of area covered by RRIM 600 was 75%, RRII 105 was 16% and GT1 was 9% in the studied area (Figure 1) but Where, RRII 105 was majorly grown in Karnataka (Yogish, 2017). The

Iimp: Index of importance area and production of the natural rubber in the studied area is ∑: Summation 85.21 bigha and 81696 kg with the productivity of 958.77 kg/ th Si: i scale value bigha (Table 1). The productivity was found lower than that of th Fi: Frequency of i importance given by the respondents Kerala, India (George and Chandrashekar, 2014). N: Total number of respondents Investment evaluation of rubber plantation Marketing functions: The marketing channels of rubber were The data of the rubber plant was calculated on the year basis. identified based on the data collected from intermediaries Eight years of data were collected from the farmers and 30 involved from the point of production (producer) to the point of years of data on the cost and yield were projected based on ultimate consumer (industrial consumer). The costs involved in profit and cost. The discounted BC ratio was calculated to be moving the rubber product from the point of production to the 1.88. Similarly, the Net Present Value (NPV) was calculated as point of the traders is known as the cost of performing market- NRs. 410992.40. The Internal rate of return was calculated as ing functions. It involves transportation cost, weighing 22%. Similarly, the payback period of the rubber plantation sys- cost, storage cost, loading and unloading cost, packaging cost, tem was found to be 8.52 years (Table 2). The majority of ex- miscellaneous cost etc. penses in the production system is in the 1st year of the plantation (48.702%). International Mountain Society (2017) also Price spread: The price spread is the difference between the reported the maximum expense in the 1st year. Similarly, price paid by the consumer and the price received by the pro- 14.567% of the expenses took place in the 2nd year. The expens- ducer. It includes marketing costs and margins. The price spread es in the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th year of the plantation is 8.106%, was calculated out as: 8.042%, 10.226% and 13.355% respectively (Table 3). The planting cost of the materials is very high. The ratio of material Producer’s share in Consumers’ rupee = cost to labour cost is greater than 1 which means that the material cost in the establishment phase is higher than the labour To assess the marketing efficiency in the sale of the rubber, cost (Table 4). Shepherd’s formula of the following form was used. Price variability in the rubber sheet and latex ME = The trend analysis was conducted to find out the maximum and minimum price of rubber sheet of 5 years. There was a maxi- Whereas, mum price in 2015. There was a decreasing trend in the price up to 2017. There was a dramatic fluctuation in the price of rubber ME: Marketing efficiency sheet in 2017 due to the high import of Indonesian rubber in V: Consumer price per unit of rubber sheet very low price but the price fluctuation in other countries such I: Marketing sheet per unit of rubber sheet as India, China, Japan and USA depends on their production unlike Nepal (Fong et al., 2018). There is little price fluctuation in the year 2018 and 2019 (Figure 2). The trend analysis was conducted to find out the maximum and minimum price of the latex of 5 years. The latex was sold at a higher price in 2015 and 2016. The price decreased during 2017 due to the high import of rubber sheet at a low price. There is very little fluctuation in the price of the latex in 2018 and 2019 (Figure 3). Table 1. Area, production and productivity of study area. Particulars Values Area (bigha) 85.21 Production (kg) 81696.79 Productivity (kg/bigha) 958.77 Table 2. Investment appraisal of the rubber plantation system. Investment appraisal Figure 1. Area coverage by different varieties. Discounted BC ratio 1.88 NPV (NRs.) 410992.40 IRR 22% PBP 8.52 years

29 Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020)

Table 3. Cost of establishing 1 bigha of rubber plantation. Percentage Items I year II year III year IV year V year VI year Total to total cost A Material cost 1 Planting material 80000 8000 88000 28.286 2 Shading material 8000 2000 10000 3.214 3 Manures and fertilizers 12920 12920 12920 12920 17416 17416 86512 27.807 4 Insecticides and Pesticides 1300 1300 1300 1300 1300 1300 7800 2.507 Total material costs 102220 24220 14220 14220 18716 18716 192312 61.814 B Labour cost 1 Land preparation 3200 600 3800 1.221 2 Digging and pit filling 15000 5000 20000 6.429 3 Planting 8800 2000 10800 3.471 4 Shading 8800 2500 11300 3.632 5 Weeding 5000 2000 1500 800 600 500 10400 3.343 Manures and fertilizer 6 8000 8000 8000 8000 10000 10000 52000 16.714 application Insecticide and Pesticide 7 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 10500 3.375 application Total labour costs 49300 21100 11000 10800 13100 13500 118800 38.186 Total cost 151520 45320 25220 25020 31816 32216 311112 100.000 Percentage of the total cost 48.703 14.567 8.106 8.042 10.227 10.355 100.000

Table 4. Summary of cost of establishment of 1 bigha of rubber plantation.

Ratio of material cost Percentage of the Year Labour cost Material cost Total cost to labour cost total cost I 49300 102220 2.073 151520 48.702 II 21100 24220 1.147 45320 14.567 III 11000 14220 1.292 25220 8.106 IV 10800 14220 1.316 25020 8.042 V 13100 18716 1.428 31816 10.226 VI 13500 18716 1.386 32216 10.355 Total 118800 192312 311112 100 Percentage of the 38.185 61.814 total cost

Note: 2071 B.S.=2015 A.D., 2072 B.S.=2016 A.D., 2073 B.S.=2017 A.D., Note: 2071 B.S.=2015 A.D., 2072 B.S.=2016 A.D., 2073 B.S.=2017 A.D., 2074 B.S.= 2018 B.S. and 2075 B.S.=2019 A.D. 2074 B.S.= 2018 B.S. and 2075 B.S.=2019 A.D.

Figure 2. Price variability of rubber sheet. Figure 3. Price variability of latex.

Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020) 30

Table 5. Ranking of pre-production problems. S.N. Pre-production Problems Index Ranking 1 Lack of technical knowledge 0.36 V 2 Lack of saplings 0.49 IV 3 Inability to distinguish the variety 0.60 III 4 Lodging 0.80 I 5 Delayed return 0.73 II Table 6. Ranking of production problems. S.N. Production Problems Index Ranking 1 Lack of skilled manpower 0.713 II 2 Lack of processing facilities 0.593 III 3 Lack of instruments and chemicals 0.530 IV 4 Wind 0.823 I 5 Disease 0.34 V Table 7. Ranking of marketing problem faced by producers. S.N. Marketing Problems Index Ranking 1 Price fluctuation 0.743 II 2 Absence of grading 0.820 I 3 Delayed payment to the farmers 0.567 IV 4 Traders offer low price 0.573 III 5 Inadequate storage facilities 0.297 V

Table 8. Ranking of marketing problems faced by traders. S.N. Traders Marketing Problems Index Ranking 1 Seasonal supply 0.48 IV 2 Undried raw materials 0.64 III 3 Lack of sufficient production 0.72 II 4 Difficulty in transportation 0.40 V 5 Ungraded goods 0.76 I Problems in natural rubber farming er with an index of 0.713. The 3rd, 4th and 5th severe problem Several problems hinder the production and marketing of the identified were lack of processing facilities, lack of instruments natural rubber. Major problems in production and marketing of and chemicals and diseases with the index of 0.593, 0.530 and rubber were identified and analyzed separately which are given 0.34 respectively (Table 6). Sriyalatha (2018) identified the ab- below: sence of technical knowledge as one of the major problems in small farmers in Kalutara district of Sri Lanka. Pre-production and production problems Five major problems in rubber production were identified from Marketing problems focus group discussion, key informants survey and field visits. Five major marketing problems faced by producers and traders Farmers were asked to rank these problems based on severity. in rubber farming were identified and five-point scaling tech- Five-point scaling technique (1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4 and 0.2) was used to nique (1, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4 and 0.2) was used to rank the seriousness measure the relative severity of those production problems. of those problems. The most severe marketing problem faced by Lodging by the wind before economic life was identified as the the producers was identified as the absence of grading with the most severe problem in rubber cultivation with the index value index of 0.820. The 2nd most severe problem was identified as of 0.953. The heavy wind during March and April was reported price fluctuation with an index of 0.743. Similarly, the 3rd, 4th to lodge the rubber plant. It takes about 5-6 years to reach eco- and 5th problem were identified as trader offer low price, nomic life, so delayed return was identified as the second most delayed payment to the farmers and inadequate storage facili- severe problem with an index value of 0.73. The 3rd, 4th and 5th ties with the index value of 0.573, 0.567 and 0.297 respectively severe problem identified were inability to distinguish variety (Table 7) but Kerala, India faced the problem of reduced produc- (0.60), lack of sufficient saplings (0.49) and lack of technical tivity due to reduced farm sizes (Kannan, 2013). knowledge (0.36) (Table 5). Umar et al. (2011) identified that the The most severe marketing problem faced by the traders was replacement of natural rubber by synthetic rubber, as the major ungraded goods with an index of 0.76. Due to the inability to threat in African countries. grade the rubber sheets, the factories don’t offer enough prices There were various production problems identified in the as regulated by the international market. The 2nd most serious rubber farming system, the wind was identified as major problem identified as lack of sufficient production (0.72), production problem with the index of 0.823. Similarly, the 2nd undried raw materials (0.64), seasonal supply (0.48) and most severe problem identified was the lack of skilled manpow- difficulty in transportation (0.40) as shown in Table 8.

31 Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020)

Figure 5. Price spread and producer’s share in the consumer’s price.

Channel III: Producer (NRs 180) - Village traders (NRs. 198) – Wholesaler/Processors (NRs. 220) - Industrial Consumer

The percentage of farmers following the Channel I, Channel II and Channel III were 54.28%, 14.29% and 31.43% respectively (Table 9). Figure 4. Marketing channel of rubber sheet/latex.

Marketing of rubber encompasses all the activities performed in Table 9. Percentage of farmers following different marketing moving the rubber sheet/latex from the point of production to channels. the industrial consumer. Marketing system creates time, space and form utilities. The producers, cooperatives, traders, whole- Marketing channels Percentage of farmers salers and retailers are the main marketing actors. In the chan- Channel I 54.28% nel I, the producer receives NRs. 195, they sell their produce to the wholesaler directly. This channel has the least price spread Channel II 14.29% of NRs. 25 and the producer’s share in the consumer price is Channel III 31.43% 88.64%. Similarly, in channel II, The producer receives NRs. 190. They collect their produce in the co-operatives and includes Marketing of natural rubber only marketing cost. Then they sell their products to the whole- Marketing of agriculture produce is equally important to farm- saler at NRs. 220. They have a price spread of NRs. 30 and have ing for better performance (Acharya and Agarwal, 2011). A the producer’s share of 86.36%. In channel III, the producer sound market is essential for promotion and commercialization receives NRs. 180. The village trader collects and sells to the of agriculture sector. The rubber sheet and latex were not wholesaler at NRs. 198. The wholesaler sold to the industrial directly used by the producer so the industry is considered as consumer at NRs. 220/kg. This channel has the highest price the consumer. The market structure in the study area is present- spread of NRs. 40 and the producers’ share in the consumer ed in Figure 4. As per the information collected from different price is 81.82%. as shown in Table 10 and Figure 5. A similar intermediaries involved in rubber marketing, the various type of marketing channel was identified by Adikari and Sharma channels identified were: (2018) in Tripura, India. The marketing efficiency of the 3 different channels was calculated. The marketing efficiency of Channel I: Producer (NRs. 195) - Wholesaler/Processors channel I, channel II and channel III was calculated as 10.30, 7.81 (NRs. 220) - Industrial Consumer and 7.05 respectively (Table 11). Large companies follow the channel I, which was found more effective. Anuja et al. (2012) Channel II: Producer (NRs. 190) – Collection at Co-operatives found a similar marketing channel. Betty et al. (2018) encour- (NRs. 195.50) – Wholesaler/Processors (NRs. 220) - Industrial aged backwards to produce the budded stumps by themselves Consumer and process the latex to produce the maximum profit.

Subodh Raj Pandey et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 25-32 (2020) 32

Table 10. Price spread of rubber plantation through different marketing channels. S.N. Particulars Channel I Channel II Channel III 1 Gross price received by the producer 195 190 180 2 Marketing cost of co-operatives - 5.50 - 3 Price received by the cooperatives - 195.50 - 4 Marketing cost trader - - 7.88 5 Profit of trader - - 10.12 6 Wholesaler’s purchase price 195 195.50 198 7 Marketing cost of wholesalers 19.46 19.46 19.46 8 Profit of wholesalers 5.54 5.04 2.54 9 Industrial consumers’ purchase price 220 220 220 10 Price spread 25 30 40 11 Producers’ share in consumer’s price (%) 88.64 86.36 81.82

Table 11. Marketing efficiency of different marketing channel. S.N. Particulars Channel I Channel II Channel III 1 Industrial consumer price 220 220 220 2 Total marketing cost 19.46 24.96 27.34 3 Marketing efficiency 10.30 7.81 7.05

Conclusion Fong, Y.C., Khin, A.A. and Lim, C.S. (2018). Conceptual review and the production, consumption and price models of the natural rubber industry in selected The average yield in the study area was found more than that of ASEAN countries and world market. Asian Journal of Economic Modelling, 6(4): 403-413. the national average. Rubber plantations were found to be a George, J.G. and Chandrashekar, H.M. (2014). Growth and Trends in Production profitable farm enterprise and it takes about three years after the and Marketing of Natural Rubber in Kerala, India. International Journal of production phase to cover the investment. The selling price of Current Research and Academic Review, 2(8): 53-61. latex and sheet was found higher in 2015 and 2016 with the International Mountain Society. (2017). The Economics of Smallholder Rubber Farming in a Mountainous Region of Southwest China: Elevation, Ethnicity reduction of price in 2017. The price increased in the year 2018 and Risk. Mountain Research and Development (MRD), 37(3): 281-293. and 2019. The producers following the market channel I was more Ismail, M.B.B. and Aziz, N.N.H.B. (2018). Economic Analysis of Rubber Production profitable than the producers following other marketing channels. in Malaysia Using Ardl Model. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(5): 444-452.

Kannan, M. (2013). The Determinants of Production and Export of Natural Rubber ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS in India. IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF), 1(5): 41-45. Khanal, T. (2003). Natural Rubber. Kathmandu: Gorakhali Rubber Udyog Limited, We want to express our special thanks to Agriculture and Gorkha. Manivong, V. (2007). The Economic Potential for Smallholder Rubber Production Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan and PMAMP, Project in Northern Laos. Laos: School of Natural and Rural Systems Management. Implementation Unit, Rubber zone, Jhapa for this opportunity. MoAD. (2017). Project Document on Prime Minister Agriculture Modernization We want to acknowledge Mr. Shesh Raj Poudel, Senior Project (PM-AMP). Singha Durbar, Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture Development. Agricultural Officer, PMAMP, Rubber zone for his guidance and MoAD. (2017). Statistical information on Nepalese Agriculture. Singha Durbar, support in the entire research period. We want to express our Kathmandu: Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development. special thank to National Youth Council (NYC) for providing MoF. (2018). Economic Survey 2017/18. Singha Durbar, Kathmandu: Ministry of fund to complete this research. Finance, Government of Nepal. NPC. (2003). The Tenth Plan (PRSP) 2002-2007. Kathmandu, Nepal: HMG/N. Onthong, J. (2015). Effect of fertilizer and dolomite applications on growth. Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology, 37(6): 643-650. the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, PMAMP-Rubber zone. (2019). Registered Rubber Gardens under private farms, cooperatives and companies. Chandragadi: Prime Minister Agriculture which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction Modernization Project- Rubber Zone Implementation Unit, Jhapa. in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are RRII. (1980). Hand Book of Natural Rubber Production In India. Kottayam, India: The credited. Rubber Research Institute of India, Rubber Board. Sriyalatha, M.A.K. (2018). Factors Affecting Natural Rubber Production: Case Study of Small Rubber Farmers in Kalutara District, Sri Lanka. IOSR Journal of REFERENCES Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 20(9): 64-73. Umar, H.Y., Giroh, D.Y., Agbonkpolor, N.B. and Mesike, C.S. (2011). An Overview of Acharya, S.S. and Agarwal, N.L. (2011). Agricultural marketing in India (5th ed.). World Natural Rubber Production and Consumption: An Implication for New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company. Economic Empowerment and Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria. Journal of Adikari, S.B. and Sharma, A. (2018). Marketing Pattern of Rubber Plantation in Human Ecology, 33(1): 53-59. Tripura, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Vinitha, A.S. and Ramalingam, L.P. (2017). Scenario of Rubber Production and Sciences, 7(6): 847-853. Consumption in India. International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Anuja, A.R., Kar, A., Mathur, V.C., Jha, G.K. and Kumar, P. (2012). Economic Science and Management Studies, 5(6): 34-39. Scenario of Natural Rubber Production and Marketing in Kerala. Economic Yogish, S.N. (2017, October). Economic Analysis of Rubber Plantation–A Case Affairs, 57(4): 415-425. Study of Shivamogga District. In Proceedings of the Sixth Middle East Betty, A. N., A.i, A. and E.o., A. (2018). Natural Rubber value chains: A gamechanger Conference on Global Business, Economics, Finance and Banking for smallholders. 30th International Conference of Agricultural Economists (ME17Dubai Conference) (pp. 1-14). (pp. 1-34). Vancouver: International Conference of Agricultural Economists.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5(1): 33-39 (2020) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050105

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Assessment of fish pond sediments for growth, yield and nutritional quality of Indian spinach (Basella alba L.) M. Ashraful Islam1* , Nusrat Jahan1, Q.F. Quadir2 and S.M. Haque3 1Department of Horticulture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, BANGLADESH 2Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, BANGLADESH 3Department of Fisheries Management, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, BANGLADESH *Corresponding author’s: E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 04 February 2020 Integrated farming system is a very effective tool for improving rural economy. Our present Revised received: 26 February 2020 study was carried out in different pond dykes of Dumuria upazila of Khulna district, Bangla- Accepted: 13 March 2020 desh to investigate the effect of different fish pond sediments on growth, yield and subse-

quently analyze the nutritional quality of Indian spinach. The experiment consisted of two

factors viz., pond types (P) (three different ponds growing different fish species: P1 = prawn

and carp, P2 = prawn and mola, and P3=prawn, mola and carp) and each pond was cultivated with different fish species with different population densities); and pond sediments (M) (three

levels: M1 = pond dyke soil, M2 =50% pond mud and 50% pond dyke soil, and M3 =100% pond mud). Physical and chemical properties of three ponds dyke soil as well as sediments were Keywords analyzed. Parameters studied on Indian spinach were growth, yield and nutritional qualities. Fertilizers Pond sediments were better quality due to well decomposition and microbial activity of Growth sediments compared to dyke soil of ponds. Organic matter of pond sediment was 2.79 (P ) and Indian spinach 3 EC was 790 (µc/cm). Plant height was varied from 10 to 19% due to the ponds type and Nutritional quality Pond Muds/sediments sediment effects. Mostly, the plant growth was found better under the supplement of 100%

Yield pond sediments compared to dyke soil (M1) and mixed soil (M2). The highest yield was found in

P3M3 and it was varied from 20 to 25%. Minerals like Ca (%), P (%), and S (mg/100g) were

found statistically significantly higher in P2M3 compared to other treatments combinations. Nutrition like Vit A and Vit C were the highest (81.33 µg/100 g and 106.14 mg/100 g, respec-

tively) found significantly higher in P2M3. Therefore, the pond mud (50% and 100%) can be used to increase the yield and nutrient uptake by the crop which can facilitate to reduce eutrophication and fertilizer for the better environment.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Islam, M.A., Jahan, N., Quadir, Q.F. and Haque, S.M. (2020). Assessment of fish pond sediments for growth, yield and nutritional quality of Indian spinach (Basella alba L.). Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 33-39, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050105

INTRODUCTION sediment of pond can be a good source of organic matter to improve the soil health as well as for the crop growth and yield Integrated farming is becoming important for the sustainable (Ihejirika et al., 2012; Li and Yakupitiyage, 2003). Fish feed and production of diversified product which are cost effective and fertilization in fish ponds result to accumulation of organic mat- friendly environment. Such integration may be observed in the ter (Rahman et al., 2004). Moreover, higher amount nitrogen, combination of fish farming and crop husbandry. Since, success- higher fractions of phosphate compounds and organic matter are ful management of tropical fish ponds in a balanced manner deposited in the sediments of fish ponds; which facilitate to im- through fertilizer application and supplementary feed addition prove the soil condition and reduce the cost through less amount is a basic need for the biological optimal fish growth while the inorganic fertilizer application in the crop land (Olah et al., 1994;

M. Ashraful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 33-39 (2020) 34

Rahman et al., 2004; Boyd, 1995; Ihejirika et al., 2012; Uwimana ing trend in Bangladesh to use inorganic fertilizer for the crop et al., 2018). production and the country faces a large fertilizer deficit. Conse- People are suffering from malnutrition due to lack of balanced quently, the share of imported urea increased from 30% in 2005 diet devoid of nutrient rich vegetables and fruits, good protein –2006 and 69% in 2010–2011, and the country is almost com- sources in the food menu. Yet millions of people who depend on pletely dependent on imports of triple super phosphate (TSP) fish to live every day, faced by the fear of food shortage (World and muriate of potash (MoP) (Ahmed, 2011). High application Fish Centre, 2002). This leading to a range of negative health rates of inorganic fertilizers have the disadvantage of surface outcomes, including anemia, poor growth, rickets, impaired runoff of nutrients to water bodies causing eutrophication cognitive performance, blindness and neuromuscular deficits which leading to anoxia and even toxic or harmful impacts on (Murphy et al., 2003). fisheries resources, ecosystems, and human health (Bijay et al., Bangladesh is a land hungry country and its southern part land 1995; Anderson et al., 2002). Pond sediment is enriched with is mostly converted gher for fish culture especially prawn organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, and macro and micronu- (Mollusca rosenbergii) cultivation. Integration of prawn farming in trients and hence, it can be a potential fertilizer supplement and seasonal rice/paddy fields (ghers) has been successfully imple- soil conditioner. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investi- mented and served as a significant source of income to coastal gate the performance of pond sediments from different fish families of southwest Bangladesh. Farmers typically sell the cultures on the growth, yield and nutritional quality of Indian prawns to fetch higher prices in overseas markets; meanwhile spinach. family members remain malnourished due to lack of complete protein, vitamins and other minerals in their diet (Milstein et al., MATERIALS AND METHODS 2006). In these areas the land is occupied with crops for eight months, while the rest of the year pond dyke is mostly remained Location of the experiment fallow. In areas, some negligible amount vegetables are grown The experiment was conducted during the period from January without any nursing. Therefore, integration of pond dyke vege- to May, 2015 to examine the growth, yield and afterwards table culture with fish culture can give the opportunity to avail analyzed the nutritional quality of Indian spinach as influenced the diversification of food and help changing the food habit of by different fish pond sediments. All the experimental units the local people. were selected in the areas where freshwater prawn culture is Integration of fish farming and use of effective pond mud for practicing for several years. The experiment was conducted at the vegetable cultivation is a new approach for the sustainable the different ponds dyke at Dumuria upazila under Khulna environment in Bangladesh. Indian spinach (Basella alba L.) is a district, Southwest part of Bangladesh (Figure 1) to observe very popular nutrient rich leafy vegetable under the family proper utilization of sediments of pond on the growth, yield and Basellaceae. It is widely grown not only in Bangladesh but also in nutritional quality of Indian Spinach. tropical Asia and Africa (Bose et al., 2008). There is an increas-

Figure 1. Map of Bangladesh showing Khulna district (Southwest part of Bangladesh) and the Dumuria upazila where the research was conducted (Source: Google).

35 M. Ashraful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 33-39 (2020)

Experimental design Plant growth and yield analysis of Indian spinach Two factors experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Plants were randomly selected and tagged as samples for collec- Block Design (RCBD) with 3 replications and total experimental tion of data from the middle of the rows of each unit plot for plots were 27. Factor A was types of pond where number of avoiding border effect. Plant height (cm) was taken from the fishes and species were different in each pond and factor B was base to the tip of plant using a meter scale and numbers of the ratio of ponds sediment and dyke soil for the cultivation of leaves were counted during the first harvest of Indian spinach. Indian Spinach. The treatment combinations for two factors of First harvest (from 10 cm above of plant was considered as edi- the experiment are given in Table 1. The size of unit plot was 1.5 ble part) was done after 45 days of seed planting. Length and m2 (1m × 1.5m). Sediments from different ponds and the dyke breadth of largest leaves were measured using meter scale. soil of the respected ponds have been carried to the Soil Science Fresh weight (g) of each harvested plant (harvesting for con- Laboratory of Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh sumption after 45 and 60 days after planting) were weighed and for chemical analysis. The initial soil properties are presented in calculated per plot (kg) as well as to the unit area. Twig of 10 cm Table 2. length from selected plants were separated as leaves and stem. Each sample were cut into pieces and was dried in air for 7 days Cultivation practices and then kept in an oven at 70°C for 72 hours before taking the Selected pond dyke was opened using spade on 25 January dry weight till it was constant. The dry weight was converted in 2015 and the soil was mixed with sediments of pond according dry matter percentage by the following the formula. to the design of the experiment. Indian spinach seeds (green variety) were collected from the seed market and dibbling (3 Moisture content (%) = seeds per pit) was done on 12 February 2015 maintaining the producers recommended spacing (25 cm × 25 cm). Extra seedlings in the same pit were uprooted and used in case of gap fill- Dry matter (%) = ing. Irrigation was given regularly for the germination of seeds as well as for the establishment. Other intercultural operations Where, such as weeding, frequent irrigation, etc. were given at interval FW= Fresh weight according to necessary. Manure or fertilizer was not used in the DW= Dry weight experiment. Only dyke soil and pond mud/sediments were used MC= Moisture content to see the effect of dyke soil and mud on vegetable production.

Table 1. Treatment combination of the experiment. Factors A (Ponds mud under different species combinations*) Factor B: Treatment Fish Amount (numbers)

Prawn 80.84 nos /decimal M1- Dyke soil A (P1) M -50 % pond sediments and Mola 0 nos/decimal 2 50% pond dyke soil Carp (Rohu) 4 nos/decimal M3-100% pond sediments

Prawn 80.84 nos/decimal M1- Dyke soil M -50 % pond sediments and B (P ) Mola 80.84 nos/decimal 2 2 50% pond dyke soil Carp (Rohu) 0 nos/decimal M3-100% pond sediments

Prawn 80.84 nos/decimal M1- Dyke soil M2-50 % pond sediments and C (P3) Mola 80.84 nos/decimal 50% pond dyke soil Carp (Rohu) 4 nos/decimal M3-100% pond sediments

Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of dyke soil and pond sediments.

Pond type Types of soil pH EC (µc/cm) Org M (%) Total N (%) P (ppm) K (ppm) S (ppm)

Pond sediments 6.23 601 1.79 0.09 19.13 114.07 233.2 P1 Dyke soil 5.98 657 1.59 0.08 12.25 97.27 385.0

Pond sediments 6.32 618 1.72 0.08 42.63 150.74 297.8 P2 Dyke soil 6.78 517 1.57 0.08 36.08 110.8 175

Pond sediments 6.60 790 1.92 0.10 50.52 175.18 327.14 P3 Dyke soil 6.60 494 2.79 0.14 33.23 101.85 113.21

M. Ashraful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 33-39 (2020) 36

Nutritional quality analysis of Indian spinach ment combinations (P≤0.05). The highest number of leaves, leaf Twigs (twig consisted of leaves and stem) were used for the length and breadth were 21.6, 17.2 cm and 12.2 cm, respectively nutritional quality analysis. Vitamin C was determined by the in P3M3. It indicates that plant leaf parameters influenced the indophenols dye extraction method. This procedure was based yield of this crop, because yield per plot was found significantly upon the quantitative discoloration of 2, 6- dicholophenol different (Figure 2). The highest (9.4 %) dry matter accumulation indophenols by ascorbic acid. Vitamin A was calculated using was found from P2M3 while the lowest was found in P3M1 and following formula: P3M2 (Table 3). Higher dry matter accumulation utilized the nutrient input for plant production and nutrient uptake by Beta carotene = (3.984 × OD × volume) / (100 × W sample plants. volume) In case of yield, significant variation was recorded due to different level of muds presented in Figure 2. Ponds mud/sediment Phosphorus content of Indian spinach was determined by colori- gave the better growth of plant as well as the yield because of metric method, following the procedure as mentioned by high nutrient are available in the muds compared to the dyke Jackson (1973). Calcium concentration was determined by soil. Fish feed decomposed and contain the higher nutritional

EDTA titrimetric method using Na2EDTA as a complexing agent status for the plant growth like N, P and another macro and at pH 12 in presence of calcon indicator (Page et al., 1982). micro nutrients (Ihejirika et al., 2012; Rahman et al., 2004). Also, Sulphur concentration was determined turbidimetrically with it is reported that this sediment is a good source of nutrient for the help of a digital spectrophotometer (Model: Labtronics the crop production and friendly for the environment and soil LT31) as outlined by Tandon (1995). The iron content was where crop nutrients are readily available due to well decompo- determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Model sition. Actually, sediments can work as a potential source of PG 990) at the wave length of 248.3 nm. fertilizer supplement for the crop product and a new dimension for the sustainable aquaculture-agriculture integrated farming Statistical analysis system. In the experiment of aquaculture, farmers were used Effects of treatments on growth, physiological yield and the fish feed and fertilizers like urea and TSP in the ponds. Those nutritional quality data were analyzed using analysis of variance products and phytoplanktons are decomposed which increased (General Linear Model procedure) and Tukey’s pair wise the organic matter and other minerals in the muds of pond. comparison test (P< 0.05) using Minitab Version 16 (Minitab The reuse of pond-mud for the cultivation of vegetables and the Inc., State College, PA, USA). aquaculture is a good tool considering the cost-effective methods as well as the supplement of diversified food for the rural RESULTS AND DISCUSSION poor people considering the nutritional aspects. Applying a high level of both feed and fertilizer gave high positive nutrient Pond sediments/muds of pond and fish species in ponds effect balances for the pond and sediments become a good source of on plant growth and yield of Indian spinach nutrients for crop production. It is reported that farmer used The present study was an integrated work of aquaculture and 74.69 tonnes feed per hectare of pond assuming that 30% of the horticulture. Fish number and species were different in different nitrogen in the feed is converted into fish flesh and the remain- ponds which were conducted by the aquaculture group. This der are deposited as bottom sediments in the pond (Ali and experiment was conducted in pond dyke using the sediments/ Haque, 2011; Rahman et al., 2004). The bottom sediment is en- muds of considering the work of aquaculture. So, output of fish riched with organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorous, and macro cultivation (May - December of last year) was harvested. and micronutrients (Rahman et al., 2004) and the value of these Already, the feed of fish and fertilizers given to the pond (the nutrients for crop production is potentially high (Voss et al., different number of fish species in different ponds) was decom- 1999). In our experiment, pond mud application has given better posed. The physical and chemical properties of sediments and result for the Indian spinach production compared to the only dyke soil is shown in Table 2. Muds/sediments of different dyke soil. The similar findings have been found by the work of ponds were used in the dyke of respected pond for the Indian Verdegem, 2005. He has reported that using pond sediments on spinach cultivation. Ihejirika et al. (2012) determined the pond the dyke resulted in higher plant yields and improved some of sediments quality and used it as supplement of chemical fertizer the soil fertility characteristics. Thus, this integrated agriculture for crop production. In our study, statistically significant varia- –aquaculture (IAA) system has the great potentiality through- tion was recorded on growth and yield contributing characters out the country (Pervin et al., 2012). Besides, Uwimana et al. of Indian spinach (Table 3). The longest plant height was found (2018) encouraged to promote the use of water and pond sedi-

29.80 cm in P3M3 and the lowest plant height obtained in P2M1. ments as fertilizer for crop production which can be reflected as The similar range of plant height was found in the plot of differ- environmental restoration and sustainable agriculture. ent ponds dyke where 100% pond sediments were used. Alt- Ultimately, this practice could maximize nutrient utilization and hough, no significant difference was found in plant height where decrease the potential for harmful phytoplankton blooms, as other growth parameters like leaf numbers/plant, leaf length reduce the dissolved oxygen level and less environmental im- and breadth were shown significant different among the treat- pacts (Wahab et al., 2008).

37 M. Ashraful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 33-39 (2020)

Table 3. Combined effect of pond types and pond sediments on growth parameters and dry matter content of Indian spinach. Treatment Plant height (cm) Leaf number/plant Leaf length (cm) Leaf breadth (cm) % Dry matter of twig combination

P1M1 24.70 12.60 11.60 7.60 8.10 P1M2 26.20 15.10 12.90 7.90 8.20 P1M3 29.30 18.60 13.10 8.20 8.40 P2M1 21.10 12.50 10.60 6.30 8.00 P2M2 21.30 14.60 11.70 6.70 8.30 P2M3 29.80 20.30 12.00 7.00 9.40 P3M1 23.80 14.70 11.20 8.10 7.80 P3M2 25.10 18.30 14.60 11.70 7.80 P3M3 29.80 21.60 17.20 12.60 8.50 LSD0.05 9.11 7.32 2.69 2.25 0.212 Level of NS * * * * significance * = Significant at 5% level of probability, NS = Not significant.

Table 4. Combined effect of pond types and pond sediments on the mineral contents of edible part of Indian spinach.

Treatment combinations Ca (%) P (%) S (mg/100g)

P1M1 0.56 0.02 2.14

P1M2 0.70 0.06 2.25

P1M3 1.36 0.10 2.67

P2M1 0.69 0.04 1.06

P2M2 0.82 0.05 1.83

P2M3 1.74 0.13 2.78

P3M1 1.07 0.07 1.78

P3M2 1.12 0.13 1.99

P3M3 1.40 0.15 2.35

LSD0.05 0.08 0.02 0.07 Level of significance * * *

P1= Pond type A, P2= Pond type B and P3= Pond type C; M1= dyke soil, M1 = dyke soil, M2= 50% pond mud and 50% dyke soil, M3= 100% pond mud.

Figure 2. Combined effect of pond types and pond sediments on yield of plot of Indian Spinach. Plot size: 1 m x 1.5m. P1= Pond type A, P2= Pond type B and P3= Pond type C M1= dyke soil, M1 = dyke soil, M2= 50% pond mud and 50% dyke soil, M3= 100% pond mud.

M. Ashraful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 33-39 (2020) 38

Figure 3. Cropping pattern in the South-western part of Bangladesh.

Figure 4. Combined effect of pond types and pond sediments on the Vitamin Figure 5. Combined effect of pond types and pond sediments on the Vitamin C content of edible part of Indian spinach. P1= Pond type A, P2= Pond type B A content of edible part of Indian spinach. P1= Pond type A, P2= Pond type B and P3= Pond type C M1= dyke soil, M1 = dyke soil, M2= 50% pond mud and and P3= Pond type C M1= dyke soil, M1 = dyke soil, M2= 50% pond mud and 50% dyke soil, M3= 100% pond mud. 50% dyke soil, M3= 100% pond mud.

The scenario of the research site (Dumuria Upazila under the sediments and at the same time proper utilization of pond Khulna district is the Southwest part of Bangladesh) is to culti- sediments as fertilizers. It is giving the opportunity for consump- vation of fish in pond during the July to December in some tion of diversified diet of fish and vegetable/crop which can extension to February. But the rice is cultivated in the pond ensure the nutritional security of the household family members when pond is becoming dry or less water. In the winter season, (Haque et al., 2016). farmers are used to grow vegetables without caring to the crops. But, farmers give too much concentration to rice cultiva- Pond sediments/muds of pond and fish species in ponds effect tion, also the scarcity of water does not encourage to farmers to on the nutritional quality of Indian spinach grow vegetables after January to April. After May, rainy season Plants grown under different treatments were harvested is a natural disaster and not convenient for the crop cultivation analyzed the mineral and nutritional status from the edible parts that is up to September-October. The research site is climate of Indian spinach. There are some works conducted to grow veg- vulnerable area and its cropping pattern was found through etables in the dyke area utilizing the pond sediments but no work visiting the research site and interviewing farmers (Figure 3). So, is found on the nutritional status of crops influenced by pond different fish species cultivation in the same pond and vegetable sediments. In our experiment, minerals like Ca, P and S were cultivation introduction can uphold the national security analyzed which were found significantly different among the through reducing the use of fertilizer and eutrophication. treatment’s combinations (P≤0.05) (Table 4). Edible parts of Because, it is assumed that diversification of fish is decomposing Indian spinach like leaves and stems were analyzed together and

39 M. Ashraful Islam et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 33-39 (2020) the highest amount of calcium (Ca), phosphorous (P) and sulphur REFERENCES (S) were found 1.74%, 0.13% and 2.78 (mg/100 g), respectively in Ahmed, S. (2011). Urea fertilizer for Bangladesh-challenges and opportunity. P2M3 and the lowest Ca and P was found in P1M1. This result is consistence with the dry matter accumulation in plant parts. On Journal of Chemical Engineering, 26: 22–26. Ali, H., and Haque, M.M. (2011). Impacts of Pangasius aquaculture on land use the other hand, 100% pond sediments showed the higher patterns in Mymensingh district of Bangladesh. Journal of Bangladesh amount of nutrient content compared to the dyke soil. Agricultural University, 9: 169–178. In case of nutritional analysis, the highest content of Vit A and Anderson, D.M., Glibert, P.M. and Burkholder, J.M. (2002). Harmful algal blooms and eutrophication: Nutrient sources, composition, and consequences. 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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Impact of forest land cover on runoff, erosion and sedimentation in the Karai Watershed, Simalungun Regency, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia Basuki Wasis1* , Dhemi Harlan2 and Muhammad Hafiz Wasis Putra3 1Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, IPB University. Bogor, West Java, INDONESIA 2Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, West Java, INDONESIA 3Alumni, Department of Environment Economic, Faculty of Management and Economic, IPB University. Bogor, West Java, INDONESIA *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 17 December 2020 Development activities in the Karai Watershed, in upstream area, are intensive. The activities Revised received: 08 March 2020 tend to decrease the land abilities in absorbing water and protecting surface soil for erosion, Accepted: 13 March 2020 which finally affect the rise of vegetation damage, soil damage, surface run-off and erosion

The method of taking samples and analyzing environmental damage were conducted by

purposive sampling. Data from laboratory tests of soil physical, chemical and biological Keywords properties were analyzed by statistical tests. Measurement result shows that the wide of Erosion Karai Watershed is 462 km2, in which covered forest wide is 115.5 km2 (25%) and the wide of Forest cover non-forest area (garden, dwelling site, road etc) is 346.5 km2 (75%). Land Cover for non forest Karai watershed area is the biggest sediment source in Karai Watershed. Based on observation on field and Run off laboratory analysis, it shows that conservation activities in natural forest to garden, road, and Sedimentation dwelling site have caused damages to soil (parameter bulk density and total fungi) and environment with indicators of erosion, sediment materials in Karai River and Karai 7 Project location. Observation result shows that program to reduce erosion and sedimentation could be implemented by integrated management program of Karai Watershed with priorities to develop mixed garden and agroforestry.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Wasis, B., Harlan, D. and Putra, M.H.W. (2020). Impact of forest land cover on runoff, erosion and sedimentation in the Karai Watershed, Simalungun Regency, North Sumatra Province, Indonesia. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 40-49, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050106

INTRODUCTION Wasis et al., 2019). Population growth is identified as the cause of water quality decreases in Karai river. With the population Watershed in Karai river, Simalungun District, is one of growth, road construction, land clearance, and ecology pressure catchment areas that flows into Toba Lake, which is in Northern for the river decreases water quality of the river and rises Sumatera Province and has the wide of 462 km2 beginning from sedimentation (sand). Landslide occurance, sedimentation at 190-225 m elevation to the downstream of Toba Lake. Natural Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Mikrohidro (PLTM) or Micro-hydro forest vegetation is the best land cover for hydroorological Electric Power (Karai 7 and Karai 13), and the decrease of water functions. Conversion of natural forests will have an impact on quality in the river are the evidence of failure indication in reducing hydroorological functions (Whitmore, 1975; Bapenas, managing resources (forest and land resources). 2003; Wasis, 2012). Development activities in Karai Watershed Issues of environment quality decrease in watershed (Catchment Area), in upstream area, are intensive. The activities management, especiallly landslide issue, erosion, sedimentation, tend to decrease the land abilities in absorbing water and is a dispute that has to be solved quickly, for this issue has protecting surface soil for erosio, which finally affect the rise of caused faster sedimentation proccess. At PLTM Karai 7, surface run-off and erosion (Wasis, 2012 Wasis et al., 2018, sedimentary trap management is maintained per two days, thus

Basuki Wasis et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 40-49 (2020) 41 this activity decreases the ability of PLTM to produce GKE 6 : Gardening Site (N 03°03’ 26,3” E 098°48’ 01,2”) electricity. Damage Forest (Illegal logging) had a significant GKE 7 : Gardening Site (N 03°03’ 03,3” E 098°48’ 27,2”) effects toward the bulk density increase, as well as C-organic decrease. In other hand Illegal logging had a significant effects Research procedures on sand fraction,total microorganisms, and soil respiration (Wasis, 2019). Landslide proccess, erosion, sedimentation are Structure analysis and vegetation ingredient: Monitoring caused of the conversion of forest coverage, the change of square establishment is choosed by purposive sampling at Karai natural forest converted into garden, dwellings, mine site, and Catchment Area. To assess the effect of changing land usage for road construction. For that reason, analysis of biophysics triggered erosion, damaged soil, and damaged plants, sampling condition, analysis of forest coverage, and rehabilitation effort on various land (7 locations which each sample is 20 m × 20 m) is is needed. To solve this environmental problem at this conducted (Soerianegara dan Indrawan, 2005; Wasis, 2012). catchment area, it needs to include all stakeholders (local citizen, local companies, and government). Therefore, The plan Collecting soil samples: Soil sampling is done by purposive of Karai Watershed has to be created to increase the integrity sampling on tropical rain forest, garden and damage soil. The among local stakeholders included in the management of study was conducted on three plots on tropical rain forest and catchment area resources by coordinating, integrating, damage forest of 20 m × 20 m (0.04 ha) each. Within the mine, sychronizing some aspects (policies,management activities, and tropical rain forest and damage forest, three subplots of 1m × development of effective and efficient catchment area). Based 1m were placed randomly for ground sampling. Then the soil on those management, all stakeholders has some agreements sample is composited. Soil sampling for the chemical properties and commitment to construct program and also do some efforts and biological properties of soil is taken evenly on the soil to achieve those purposes that has been agreed together. This surface of 0-20 cm deep. Soil taking is done by composite as study aimed to collect forest coverage data at Karai Catchment much as 1 kg. Soil sampling for soil physical properties was done Area, to analyse the cause of damaged soil and damaged at ground level of 0 - 20 cm depth (Figure 1). Intake of soil is environment which are the rise of soil sedimentaion at Karai done intactly by using ring sample diameter of 7 cm with height river and to assemble program and activitiy guidance in of 5 cm (Wasis, 2012). managing the inrease and rehabilitation of natural resources and land at the Karai Watershed. Soil analysis: Soil that has been take from the field are the analyzed at Forestry Influence Laboratory, Silviculture MATERIALS AND METHODS Department, Faculty of Forestry IPB. Soil analysis for physics properties are bulk density, porosity, available water, and Research place and time permeability, for chemistry properties are soil pH and c-organic, These activities will be conducted at the Karai Watershed and for biology properties is total microorganism, total fungi, (PLTM Karai 7 and Karai 13) Kahean Sub-district, Simalungun and respiration. District, in various types of land coverage (tropical rain forest, agroforestry, local garden, road, damage soil, etc.). This research Data analysis is conducted at January 16thJanuary 18th 2017. Site monitoring data and soil analysis result are then analyzed based on current related rules (PP No.150, 2000) to know the Tools and materials damage that has been made (PLTM Karai 7). Coefficients for soil Research tools used are differentiated into two categories, properties is bulk density, porosity, available water, which are data collecting tools on site and nutrient analysis permeability, pH, total microorganism, and total fungi. tools at laboratories. Data collecting tools on site are complete sample collecting tools (ring sample), to take the composite soil RESULTS AND DISCUSSION samples by hoe, knife, ruler, plastic bag and marker. The details of those seven locations: The calculated result predicts the broad of The Karai watershed is 462 km2, in which the wide of forest coverage is 115.5 km2 GKE 1 : Closed Natural Forest Site (N 03°03’ 30,6” E 098°47’ (25%) and the wide of non-forest coverage (garden, dwelling 51,7”) sites, road, etc.) is 346.5 km2 (75%). This non-forest land GKE 2 : Cleared land for road construction (N 03°03’ 43,0” E coverage will trigger the increase of landslide, erosion, and run- 098° 47’ 51,9”) off. It is proved by the high of sediment trap at PLTM Karai 7. GKE 3 : Cleared land for road construction (N 03°03’ 35,7” E The observation result illustrates that land clearance has caused 098°47’ 56,2”) damaged land by triggering erosion, the lost of soil nutrient and GKE 4 : Cleared land for dam construction (N 03°02’ 50,4” E the increase of rock coverage at the soil surfaces. Damage at 098°47’ 01,4”) those things will surely increase sand sedimentation at Karai GKE 5 : Cleared land for dam construction(N 03°02’ 44,9” E Watershed (PP No.150, 2000). For more detailed result, it is 098° 46’ 54,9”) shown at Table 1.

42 Basuki Wasis et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 40-49 (2020)

Figure 1. Soil sampling at Karai catchment area. Figure 2. Landslide caused by road construction at Karai watershed.

Figure 3. Eroded land at Karai watershed.

Figure 4. The loss of soil materials at Karai watershed.

Basuki Wasis et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 40-49 (2020) 43

Converting natural forest to gardening site, road and damaged soil decrease of available water amounting to 0.01% - 43.43%. are located at coordinate of N 03°03’ 43,0” E 098°47’ 51,9” , and N Those effects tend to run off the water dropped to the ground 03°03’ 35,7” E 098°47’ 56,2”, in which cleared podsol land, caused because of disability of land to absorb in into the soil. Big effects by road construction and soil erosion accounting for 20-150 cm,s of this occurence will bring soil textures (sand, dust, and clay) found on site. (Figure 2). Most of erosion materials enter Karai into the Karai river. Soil damage caused by logging activities, riverbank. This occurance has constibuted enormous sediment land clearing and soil proccessing has decreased soil infiltration materials inside the river. On the site, landslide is also found. abality amounting to 564 - 2.314 cm/hour. It can be caused by damaged soil structure and the decrease of organic materials on Water system of Karai watershed soil surfaces. Soil structure damage will decrease drainage pore. Laboratory analysis result shows that land clearing has damaged As a result, rain water will mostly fall and become run off. This water system function, which are the decreasing Available run off level will tend to increase the level of eroded land in water the decreases infiltration. damaage of water sistem will Karai Watershed (Figure 3 and 4). certainly increase sand sedimentation and will decrease water quality in Karai River (PP Number 150, 2000). For further detail, Soil physical properties it can be seen in the Tables 2 and 3. Laboratory analysis result show that land clearing has affected Other effects of damaged natural forest changing to open land in land physical damage which are the increase of bulk density, and gardening site are the available water decreases in and the decrease of soil porosity. The damage of physical soil conservating water. It can be seen in the decrease of available property will certainly decrease of soil infiltration levels and will water to infiltrate water, which is indicated by the decrease of increase surface runoff in Karai River (Nomor, 2000). For futher permeability accounting for 1.98 - 8.12 cm/hour and the details, it is illustrated in the Tables 4 and 5.

Table 1. Soil damage for natural forest convertion into cleared land. Parameter S.N. GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7 (PP No 150 Th 2000) 1 Erosion (cm) 20-30 50-150 10-20 10-20 5-10 1-2 cm 2 Solum (cm) 0 0 0 0 20-30 20-30 3 Surface rock (%) 60-80 60-80 60-80 60-80 - -

Table 2. Water system analysis in Karai watershed.

S.N. Parameter (PP No 150 Th 2000) GKE 1 GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7

1 Available water (%) 46.78 3.35 14.61 18.74 29.28 30.62 46.77 2 Permeability (cm/jam) 9.35 1.23 1.58 4.68 3.69 2.53 7.37 3 Infiltration (cm/jam) 2.664 350 450 1.332 1.050 720 2.100

Table 3. The change of water system due to converting natural forest to damaged land and gardening site.

S.N. Parameter (PP No 150 Th 2000) GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7

1 Available water (%) -43.43 -32.17 -28.04 -17.50 -16.16 -0.01 2 Permeability (cm/hour) -8.12 -7.77 -4.67 -5.67 -6.82 -1.98 3 Infiltration (cm/hour) -2.314 -2.214 -1.332 -1.614 -1.944 -564 Explanation : - (decrease) ; + (increase).

Table 4. Soil physical property analysis at Karai watershed.

S.N. Parameter GKE 1 GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7

1 Bulk density (g/cm3) 0.64 1.73 1.40 1.54 1.34 0.97 0.78 2 Porosity (%) 75.95 34.88 47.05 41.77 49.50 63.46 70.74

Tabel 5. Soil physical property changes due to converting natural forest to damaged land and gardening site.

S.N. Parameter GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7 1 Bulk density (gram/cm3) +1.09 +0.76 +0.90 +0.70 +0.33 +0.14 2 Porosity (%) -41.07 -28.92 -34.18 -26.45 -12.49 -5.21 - (decrease) ; + (increase).

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Damaging natural forest (tropical rain forest) to agricultural affecting soil. Plants that has big leaves will be easy to break land has affected the rise of bulk density amounting to 0.14– down to vertile the soil, thus reducing the soil sensivity to 1.09 cm2/g. The rise of this bulk density is caused by land erosion (Rahim, 2006). Overall erosion in thich natural forest clearing using heavy equipment such as tractors, causing soil will have low erosion levels called geology erosion (Arsyad, structure damage. On the other hand, the effect of compressing 2006; Wasis, 2012; Wasis et al., 2019). Forest conversion was land will damage the pore of soil. This research result has proven carried out to land of rubber and palm oil farming with some that in this research site has soil pore damaged, which is land actual agro technologies. Land of monoculture rubber I resulted porosity decreases accounting for 5.21– 41.07%. This research the highest run off and soil erosion more than the other land use result demonstrates that logging natural forest and land type and showeddifferent of run off and soil erosion on land of clearing with heavy equipment causes damage in soil physical secondary forest (Sunarti et al., 2008). property. this property is important to natural forest specificly for available water, permeability, porosity, drainage, and soil Soil chemical properties infiltration in which uncovered soil will causes the available Laboatory analysis result illustrates that land clearing causes water will run off on the soil and will eradicate soil structure the damage of function of soil chemical property such as the increasing bulkl density. Soil structure damage will decrease soil decrease of C organic. The damage of soil chemical property will porosity, permeability and soil infiltration. As a result soil decrease the ability of soil in providing nutrition for the plants damage to soil physical property will completely cause the and decrease soil agregate stability (PP Number 150 2000). For decrease of hydrology function (water system) of Karai futher detail, it is shown in Tables 6 and 7. Watershed. This research is the same as the result of Demolishing forest and land causes the decrease of soil Hendrayanto et al. (2001) stating that surface run off of flood chemical analysis such as C Organic. The decrease of soil C (water system decreases) could happened due to the decrease organic accounting for 9.03% - 19.98% (93%). The biggest of soil infiltration capability and the lowered quality of covered decrease of C organic occurs in open land, thus land coverage land vegetation. It is also the same as the research of Aminudin with vegetation is the most effective way to maintain soil (2012) stating that logging natural forest to cultivation line has fertility. Destroying natural forest has caused the loss of natural caused the decrease of permeability accounting for 2.92 cm/ forest biomass. The loss of biomass tend to downgrade the hour, the decrease of porosity amounting to 2.93%, the ecosystem. In addition, destroying natura forest causes damage decrease of available water amounting to 3.22% and the in soil chemical property such as the activities of logging and increase of bulk density accounting for 0.08 g/cm3. land clearing. Cutting trees in natural forest causes the loss of Vegetation effects on eroded land show differently regarding nutrition cycle in ecosystem. The loss of natural forest will affect the type of those plants, crown, growth level and climate. The the loss of branch, leaves, and nutrient. the decrease of organic effects of climate is probably close to the forest management materials on the forest ground will surely decrease the level of and plants (Hardjowigeno, 2005; Rahim, 2006). The existence of nutrients (N, P, Ca, Mg, K, and other soil materials). Those good covering vegetation such as grass and thicked density organic materials will decomposate into simpler compound. In forest could eradicate topography effects for erosion. Thight- addition, those organic materials will get into mineralisation covering vegetaion slows down run off and also prevents loss of process. Decomposated organic materials will assemble soil particles. Type of vegetaion cultivated plays important role resistent organic compound for the next decomposition (humat in preveting erosion (Arsyad, 2006). Rootage of plants tends to compound) and part of that will be released as useful nutrients. be closure of soil agregate and increase soil porosity. Root also Therefore, final decomposition process of those chemical could grab the soil mass for affecting shear strength value. materials could be (directly of indirectly) affected. For the Therefore, soil that has plant roots has high permeability. importance of organic material functions, the decrease of Different plants suprisingly has different characteristics in organic material levels should be notified fastly (Tables 6 and 7).

Table 6. Soil chemical properties at Karai watershed.

S.N. Parameter (PP No 150 Th 2000) GKE 1 GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7

1 pH 4.5 5.6 4.3 5.2 4.1 4.0 4.1 2 C-organic (%) 22.74 8.82 11.92 11.57 2.76 3.90 13.71

Table 7. The change of soil chemical property due to natural forest convertion to damaged land and gardening site.

S.N. Parameter (PP No 150 Th 2000) GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7

1 pH +1.1 -0.2 +0.7 -0.4 -0.5 -0.4

2 C Organic (%) -13.92 -10.82 -11.17 -19.98 -18.84 -9.03

- (decrease) ; + (increase).

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Cultivating natural forest vegetation will cause the loss of decrease of total fungi 1 × 104 spk and soil respiration biomass (log). In natural forest, log or biomass is the biggest accounting for 12.16 –23.08 mgC-CO2/kg soil/day. The result component compared to other plant structures (such as branch of this research has proven that converting natural forest to and leaves). Consequently, natural forest cultivation indirectly open land and gardening site causes the damage of soil tend to be the primary cause of the decrease of soil nutrients biological property. Deforestation in Karai Warershed has (Binkley, 1987; Evan, 2000l; Wasis, 2006; Aminudin, 2012). The caused the decrease of soil microorganism. The activity of damage of soil chemical property due to logging in natural forest deforestation should not be done because there are genetic will break nutrient cycle in the forest. The result of Indrawan's sources and high diversities of microorganism The existence of research (2003) shows that structures and composition of microorganism fuctions as soil fertility maintanance. According primary forest will decide the level of toughness of forest to Subba Rao (1986), soil microorganism is needed to maintain cultivation. It is predicted that the higher the density of soil fertality and could be the important factor for nutrient comertial forest cultivation then the higher the damage is. The cycle. The restoration forest soi doul be made by giving dectruction effects in cultivated forest site will affects a) the inoculation VA-mikoriza and inculation Rhixobium to catalyze availibility of primary vegetation and their brood b) the the growth (Rumondang and Setiadi, 2011; Tuheteru and availability of nutrients and c)other environment components Husna, 2011). Restoration of existed damaged land near such as temperature, humidity and other aspects. Reparation of Catchment Area could be done by giving compostite manure or soil chemical property could be done by giving them natural other natural manure., inoculating microorganism (mikoriza) manure or green manure originated from Leuser Mountain and replanting endemic vegetation (Wasis et al., 2018). Nation Park. The process of giving unorganic manure (chemical According to Nguyen and Klinnert (2001), giving organic manure) is not recommended because it will cause polution. In manure is recommended to maintain plant productivity and soil addition, seed used for reboisation have to use endemic fertility. Giving organic manure into soil is the potential source vegetation (Wasis and Noviani, 2010; Wasis and Fathia, 2011, of N, P, and S elements for vegetation growth (Evans, 2000). Wasis, 2012). Decomposition of organic materials for microbiology is one of the most important steps to release nutrient bond to become Soil biological properties simple form (Kumada, 1987). Giving inoculation mikoriza is Laboratory analysis result show that land clearing has caused needed to increase the growth rate of plants and to conservate the damage of soil biological function which has triggered the nutrient. decrease of total microorganism, total fungi and respiration (PP Number 150 2000). For further detail, it is shown in the Tables 8 Vegetation analysis and 9. Convertion of natural forest converage into garden, road, and Deforestation has degraded the total microorganism, total dwelling sites is found. The result of vegetation analysis using fungi, and respiration. In addition, the detail or total decrease of plot (20 m × 20 m), at garden land closure and damaged soil is total microorganism 5.0 × 106 cpu – 11.0 × 106 cpu, the shown at Table 10. Table 8. Soil biological properties analysis at Karai watershed. S.N. Parameter (PP No 150 Th 2000) GKE 1 GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7 1 Total microorganism (10 6 cpu) 12.0 4.0 1.0 7.0 5.0 1.0 5.0 2 Total fungi (104 cpu) 1.0 0 0 0 0 0 1,0

3 Respiration (mgC-CO2/kg soil/day) 26.68 3.60 5.88 9.72 5.84 6.28 14.52

Table 9. The change of soil biological property due to converting natural forest to damaged land and gardening site.

S.N. Parameter (PP No 150 Th 2000) GKE 2 GKE3 GKE4 GKE5 GKE6 GKE7 1 Total microorganism (106 cpu) -8.0 -11.0 -5.0 -7.0 -11.0 -7.0 2 Total fungi (104 cpu) -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 -1.0 0

3 Respiration (mgC-CO2/kg soil/day) -23.08 -20.8 -16.96 -20.84 -20.40 -12.16

- (decrease) ; + (increase).

Table 10. Result analysis of vegetation on plots (20 m × 20 m) in natural forest and damaged soil at Karai watershed. S.N. Growth level/Potential level Natural forest (GKE 1) Damaged soil (GKE 2) 1 Undergrowth Types : 10 plants - 2 Seedlings Types : 5 plants - 3 Saplings Total : 6 plants; Volume : 0.15 m 3 - 4 Poles Total : 3 plants; Volume : 0.83 m3 -: Volume : - m3 5 Trees Total : 10 Trees; Volume : 15.09 m3 -; Volume : - m3 Total volume Volume : 16.7 m3 (417.5 m3/ha) Volume : 0 m3

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Inside complete natural forest, there are vegetation Type of endemic trees of natural forest in Karai catchment area: statifications vertically (canopy/crown) and completely Shorea (Shorea sp.) horizontally. Inside natural forest, there are also undergrowth Cat Eyed Shorea (Shorea javanica) plants, seedlings, saplings, poles and trees. Total volume of well- Rengas (Glutha rengas) conserved natural forest is 417.5 m3/ha. However, on the Cengal(Hopea sangal) damaged soil there is no stratification of trees vertically and Iron wood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) horizontally. On the other hand, on the cleared land there is no vegetation with total volume of 0 m3. Those observation results Type of trees planted : shows that on cleared land occured damaged vegetation of Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria) natural forest, which means the ability of land in absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) tend to decrease or dissapear. Besides that The type of undergrowth that is: fact, soil become unprotected. Therefore, soil aggregate are Palm (Cyrtostachysrenda) eradicated triggering soil bulk density increases and run-off Calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) increases (Figures 5-7). Bamboo (Bambusa sp.) Rotan (Daemonorops sp.)

Figure 5. Natural forest areas encroached upon society at Karai watershed. Figure 6. Natural forest (tropical rain forest) area in Karai watershed.

(a) (b)

Figure 7. Comparison of water quality (a) water from natural forest, (b) water from Karai river

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Damaged soil and the lost of permanent vegetation (forest) is the needs Integrated Management of Karai Watershed catalyzed reason why Karai Watershed area has low water quality and high participationly by including stakeholders (government, business dissolved sedimentaion. In the sedimentation process, the presence community, academision and each individual). The reason is to of forest land cover on a wide watershed is sufficient to reduce achieve common mutual goals arranged together based on sediment flowing into the river (Junaidi and Tarigan, 2011). characteristic of natural capital such as upper are (atmosphere), According to observation and laboratory analysis could be soil and its component, vegetation, fauna, human capital disovered that damage on land and forest has occured in forest including its intitutional (formal and informal), social capital and area, protertion area and non forest area. As a result to menage man made capital. With those plan in Karai Watershed, Karai catchment area ha to notice technical factors and social hopefully there are improvements among stakeholders in the economic aspects for local citizen. Therefore, to solve the exist resource management by coordinating, integrating and problems integrated catchment area management should be synchronizing policies with management and development of implemented. This research shows that the wider the natural effective and efficient Watershed. Therefore, stakeholders forest cover, the lower surface runoff and erosion. Salim et al. construct programs and also do the activities for achieving (2019) stated that the simulation from several scenarios shows common mutual arrangements. that a decreasing in forest area can increase discharge and Cases of land use changes in some areas in Indonesia will be surface runoff, whereas an increase in forest area will increase presented with discussion on the causes and effects of soil infiltration and evapotranspiration. Decreasing forest area watershed hydrology, especially in relation to carrying capacity by 10% from existing conditions caused 58% of rain water to and sensitivity of the watersheds and flood frequency. become surface runoff. The large number of discrepancies Hydrologic and discharge characteristics of some major rivers in between the existing conditions and the directions in the Indonesia (especially in Java) will be given in relation to the RTRWP will require a long time and large costs to adjust so that status of watershed development. It was concluded that land the short-term alternative that can be done is to convert use changes have occurred at large scale, especially in Java, and dryland agricultural cover to the forest to reach forest cover of significant impacts on water yields of the river basins were at least 45% of the land area in the upstream area and can observed, with increased frequencies of extreme events such as optimize the hydrological function of the watershed. floods and droughts. Also of importance is the drop of present mean annual rainfall compared to earlier time of this century in Integreted management of Karai watershed Java and some other regions in Indonesia, which is believed to Karai Catchment area is one of the biggest catchment area in be related to the disappearance of proper forest land covers which located in Northern Sumatera Province. It has the wide of (Pawitan, 2014). 462 km2 with non forest coverage amounting to 75%. To answer the problem, integreted management of Karai Logical framework for plannng integrated management of catchment area is neccessary. To increase coordination and to Karai watershed continue communition processes among stakeholders to solve Logical framework of this management should be built based on the problem, it needed to be insprative from those stakeholders. the results of meeting with other stakeholders. For further To make integrated program, activiteies and fundraising, it details, logical framework was illustrated in Table 11.

Table 11. Logical Framework for Karai watershed management. Goal Objective Output Improve the function of water absorption. The wide of covered land increases. Govenment: Protected land (Open green land, Protected land, Conservation area, etc) including mixed forest, monoculture forest, enriching resources in conservation area. Increasing the Local citizen: Owned land by local citizen is agroforestry, plants rotation Company: Owned land for private sectors. Reducing contribution of Karai function of Adopted technology of soil and water conservation by stakeholders Watershed for sedimentation, absorbing area increases. flood, and increasing water Government: Control channel, dam checking, cross drainage on road and quality to fulfil the standard for crops area. certain purposes. Citizen: Absorbing pit, crops area, cross drainage. Company: Rorak, Cross drainage on road, rorak, dam checking, crops area and free area to choose. Increasing water quality of Karai river Increasing water Infrastructure disposal and waste management increases (government). quality Management of household waste by citizen increases. Adopting environmentally friendly technology by industries increases.

Asumsi Government policies and cities support the management of this Watershed

48 Basuki Wasis et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 40-49 (2020)

Program recommendation for integrated management of Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under Karai watershed the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, Based on logical framework that has been made with technical which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction biophisics condition, managemen and social economy that has in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are been implemented, stakeholders can arrange alternative credited. activities tat could be done in each sub-district. Related to goals that has been approved to increase absorb function and water REFERENCES quality of the river, surface run off condition, sedimentation, and revenue level of citizen are factors to be considerated in Aminudin, I. (2012). Perkembangan tegakan pada hutan alam produksi dalam deciding activities that should be done. The success of this Sistem gSilvikultur Tebang Pilih Tanam Indonesia Intensif (TPTI). [Disertasi] Bogor Sekolah Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor. program highly depends on citizens' support in local area. The Arsyad, S. (2006). Konservasi Tanah dan Air. IPB Press. Bogor, Indonesia. support are measured by the level of revenue to land Bapenas (2003). Strategi dan Rencana Aksi Keanekaragaman Hayati Indonesia rehabilitation activities. Field observation result for land 2003-2020. IBSAP Dokumen Regional. Pemerintah Republik Indonesia. Binkley, D. (1987). Forest nutrition management. Duke University, Durham, North management could be recieved by citizen and environment do Carolina. USA. not destruct development soil in mixed gardening site and Evans, J. (2000). Sustainaibility of productivity in successive rotations. Proc. of agroforestry. In addition, type of fruit cultivation period that has International Conference on Timber Plantation Development. November 7- occured is banana, talas , rice , sweet , corn and ginger. On the 9, Manila, Phillipines. Hardjowigeno, S. (2005). Ilmu Tanah. Akademika Pressindo. Jakarta other hand, cultivated trees in local communities are rubber, Hendrayanto, Arifjaya N.M., Rusdiana, O., Wasis, B. and Purwowidodo (2001). coffee, pinang, durian, bamboo, and kaliandra. According to Respon hidrologi daerah aliran sungai (DAS) berhutan jati (Tectona grandis) observation results, it shows that Karai Watershead (75%) is Studi kasus di DAS Cijuray KPH Purwakarta Perum Perhutani Unit III Jawa Barat. Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 7 (2) : 7-18. non forest area developed by local communities, thus the most Indrawan, A. (2003). Model sistem pengelolaan hutan alam setelah penebangan effective alternatives to reduce run off and sedimentation is dengan Sistem Tebang Pilih Tanam Indonesia (TPTI). Jurnal Manajemen mixed-covered gardening site and agroforestry. Besides, the Hutan Tropika, 9 (2): 19-33. most important thing that PT Global Karai Energi should do to Junaidi E. and Tarigan, S.D. (2011). 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persemaian Jurnal Silvikultur Tropika, 2 (3): 194-197. Land Cover for non forest area is the biggest sediment source in Salim, A.G., Dharmawan, I. W. S. and Narendra, B.H. (2019). Pengaruh perubahan Karai Catchment Area. Based on observation on field and luas tutupan lahan hutan terhadap karakteristik hidrologi DAS Citarum labolatory analysis, it shows that conservation activities in Hulu. Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan, 17(2): 333-340. Soerianegara, I. and Indrawan, A. (2005). Indonesian orest Ecology. Department of natural forest to garden, road, and dwelling site have caused Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry IPB, Bogor. damages to soil (parameter bulk density and total fungi) and Subba Rao, N.S. (1986). Soil Microorganism and Plant Growth. Oxford and environment with indicators of erosion, sediment materials in Publishing Co. New Delhi. Sunarti., Sinukaban, N., Sanim, B. and Tarigan S. D. (2007). Konversi hutan menjadi Karai River and Karai 7 Project location. Observation result lahan usahatani karet dan kelapa sawit serta pengaruhnya terhadap aliran shows that program to reduce erosion and sedimentation could permukaan dan erosi tanah di DAS Batang Pelepat. Jurnal Hutan Tropis, 13 be implemented by integrated management program of Karai (3): 253-260 Watershed with priorities to develop mixed garden and Tuheteru, F.D. and Husna. (2011). Pertumbuhan dan biomassa Albizia saponaria yang diinokulasi fungi arbuskula mikoriza lokal Sulawesi Tenggara. Jurnal agroforestry. Silvikultur Tropika, 2 (3): 143-148.

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Wasis, B. (2006). Perbandingan kualitas tempat tumbuh antara daur pertama tanah bekas tambang emas (tailing). Jurnal Ilmu Pertanian Indonesia, 15(1): dengan daur kedua pada hutan tanaman Acacia mangium Willd. [Disertasi]. 14-19. Bogor. Sekolah Pascasarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor. Wasis, B., Arifin and Winata, B. (2018). Impact of bauxite mine to natural forest Wasis, B. (2012). Soil properties in natural forest destruction and conversion to biomass and soil properties in Kas Island, Riau Island Province in Indonesia. agricultural land in Gunung Leuser National Park, North Sumatera Province. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 3(3): 264-269. Journal of Tropical Forest Management (JMHT), XVIII(3) : 206-212 Wasis, B., Saharjo, B.H., Putra, M.H.W. and Winata B. (2019). Analysis of Wasis, B. and Fathia, N. (2011). Pertumbuhan semai Gmelina dengan berbagai environmental damage and environmental economic valuation on tropical dosis pupuk kompos pada media tanah bekas tambang emas Jurnal rain forest destruction in Simalungun Regency, North Sumatera Province, Manajemen Hutan Tropika, 17(1): 29-33. Indonesia. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 4(3): 313-318. Wasis, B. and Noviani, D. (2010). Pengaruh pemberian pupuk NPK dan Whitmore, T.C. (1975). Tropical Rain Forest of The Far East. Clarendom Press. pertumbuhan Semai jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb Miq.) pada media Oxford.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

A case study of medicinal plants and their usage by the local community of Dilasaini Gaunpalika, Baitadi district, Nepal Sandesh Thapa* , Sara Rawal, Anuska Prasai, Janak Adhikari, Sarika Bist and Anup Ghimire Gokuleshwor Agriculture and Animal Science College, Baitadi, NEPAL *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected] ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 31 October 2020 An Ethnomedicinal survey study was conducted to get information about the usage of Revised received: 24 February 2020 medicinal plants and the diversity of species found around the village. The main objective of Accepted: 13 March 2020 the study was to document the plants for their medicinal and other uses. Ethnomedicinal

plants are locally available used by tribal communities and local inhabitants for various

medicinal purposes. Random sampling survey was conducted by selecting 50 households to Keywords access the medicinal plants and document their usage in Gokuleshwor, Baitadi. A total of 33 Ayurvedalaya species of medicinal plants to treat 40 ailments was reported with their multipurpose use. Ethnomedicinal plants During the survey, an equal proportion of males and females aged 14 to 78 were selected

False daisy randomly. The literacy rate of the study area was 80% and 94% of the people were found to be Respondents involved in the collection of medicinal plants. The majority of the respondents (92%) used Satisfaction medicinal plants for minor diseases like cuts, wounds whereas few were found to use the medicinal plant for a long time to treat major diseases like cancer, tumor. The use of medicinal plants for skin infections, cuts and wounds, fever was found to be high followed by diarrhea, common cold, ulcer, asthma, jaundice, burns, piles, and eye inflammation. Most of the plants were found to be used for more than one disease. The conservation of Indigenous knowledge on the Ethnomedicinal plant should be promoted as most of the respondents were unaware of the conservation of medicinal plants.

Citation of this article: Thapa, S., Rawal, S., Prasai, A., Adhikari, J., Bist, S. and Ghimire, A. (2020). A case study of medicinal plants and their usage by the local community of Dilasaini Gaunpalika, Baitadi district, Nepal. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 50-54, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050107

INTRODUCTION diseases and disorders has had a long history. Popular observation on the use and efficiency of medicinal plants significantly Nepal is naturally and biologically enriched with diversification. contribute to the disclosure of their therapeutic properties, so Nepal is ranked 25th and 11th position in biodiversity richness in that they are frequently prescribed, even if their chemical con- the world and Asia respectively. Nepal occupies about 0.1% of stituents are not always completely known (Maciel et al., 2002). the global area, but harbor 3.2% and 1.1% of the world´s known Various national, as well as international research organiza- flora and fauna. A total of 118 different ecosystems have been tions, are involved in order to evaluate and authenticate the identified in Nepal (MoAD, 2017). From Nepal over 300 taxa of medicinal and scientific value of plants (Manandhar, 2002). MAPs are traded with a total amount of 10,770 tonnes value Over the centuries, the knowledge of their medicinal value and worth of USD 60.09 million (Ghimire et al., 2016). The geograph- healing properties has been transmitted within and among ically important areas of Nepal include Nawalparasi, Chitwan, human communities (Silva et al., 2010). The tribal communities, Bardiya, Kaski, Syangja, Illam, Lamjung, Humla, Jumla, Manang, significantly the women are involved in the continuation, Mustang, Solukhumbhu, Nuwakot (MoAD, 2017). preservation as well as the promotion of the local crop species, The use of medicinal plants for the purpose of curing human collecting and using the forest-based plants in daily dietary and

Sandesh Thapa et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 50-54 (2020) 51 medicine. Chiuri is used by the tribal communities for various and ward no. 6. Dilasaini gaunpalika consists of a diversity of purpose, highlighting its medicinal importance (Thapa, 2019). plants and among them, the plants used for the medicinal Medicinal plants available in different niches are reported by purpose by the peoples are found to be very limited. Thus, the several researchers. Pandey (1961) reported 73 medicinal plants used by the peoples were surveyed along with primary plants for the first time in Nepal. 143 species of commercial information and other information associated with the use of MAPS were assessed from the gradient of Himalayas (Bhattarai medicinal plants. and Ghimire, 2006), 51 species were reported from Palpa district which was climbing plants (Singh and Kumar, 2017). Research design and data collection Medicinal plant reported from different districts of Nepal; 161 The total number of households in Dilasaini VDC is 497 (Source: species were reported to use by Tamang community in Dilasaini gaunpalika). Sample size of 50 Households were Makwanpur district (Luitel et al., 2014), Tharu community of selected from Dilasaini VDC on simple random basis as sampling Rupandehi district used 45 species of 32 families and 41 genera frame size was determined (497). The sample size was adjusted (Acharya and Acharya, 2009), Magar community of Gulmi to 10% as suggested by Ajayi et al. (2005) in social sciences district used 161 species of plant for medicinal purpose research. A questionnaire survey was conducted and a random (Acharya, 2012), 64 plant species were reported from Jhapa sampling survey was conducted to collect the information on the district used by Meche people (Rai, 2004), 105 vascular plants use of medicinal plants in Dilasaini gaunpalika. A random of medicinal importance was reported from Terhathum district sampling survey was conducted and household respondents (Rai, 2003). Nepal is considered to be reservoirs of medicinal were interviewed. Also, a group discussion was conducted to plants and trade history from 2005 to 2014 showed an increase gather information about the plant species used by them for the of, 27.49 million in 2005 to USD 60.09 million in 2014 (mean for medicinal purpose along with their other uses. For identification the last 10 years being USD 39.34 million (Ghimire et al., 2016). of species and medicinal uses literature was cited (Kunwar et al., IUCN has banned 11 species of medicinal plants on their export, 2009; Kunwar et al., 2010; Rajbhandari et al., 1995). Also, collection, and transportation as they are threatened species secondary information was obtained from the conference (IUCN, 2000). Baitadi district is one of the under-developed papers, bulletins and, websites. districts in province 7 as well in the country. Peoples are found to be highly dependent on traditional medicines. Thus, the plant Data analysis species used by them and their usage in the daily life of people MS Excel 2013 and IBM Statistical Package for the Social living there have been focused on the study. The main objective Sciences (SPSS) for descriptive analysis. Graphs are prepared of the study is to study the attitude of people's perception to- through MS Excel 2013. wards the medicinal plants and the diversity of species used by the peoples found locally in the home gardens and fields. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

MATERIALS AND METHODS Socio-economic characteristics A total of 50 households were selected randomly for the study Study area out of which 50% were males and 50%were females, aged Dilasaini gaunpalika, Baitadi is a hilly district, falls in the between 14 to 78. The literacy rate of the area was 80% and province no. 7 of Nepal touching Jhulaghat, India to its border of 20% were found to be illiterate. Agriculture as the primary Nepal. Gokuleshwor village is at an altitude of 800-950 masl occupation is found to be of 86% respondents and 14% were (Figure 1). Two wards were selected for study viz. Ward no. 5 found to be involved in agriculture as a part time job. None of the respondents were found to get training on the use and protection of medicinal plants (Field survey, 2019).

Usage of medicinal plants All of the respondents were found to be involved in the usage of medicinal plants. The easy availability of medicinal plants got an advantage for the use. 94% of the respondents were found to use medicinal plants occasionally whereas 6% were found to use it regularly. Not all of the respondents were found to have a positive response regarding satisfaction gained from it. About 92% of the respondents are satisfied by the use of it whereas 8% of them are not satisfied with the use of it, Figure 2 (Field survey, 2019).

Marketing and preference of medicinal plants Only 2% of the respondent was found to be involved in the marketing of medicinal plants whereas 98% do not involve in it. Figure 1. Map of Baitadi district.

52 Sandesh Thapa et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 50-54 (2020)

The respondents were found to use for major diseases only (Figure 4).

Diversity of medicinal plants investigated with their related information Medicinal plants documented in the study were found to be used for curing of 40 ailments. The majority of the plant species were found to have ma multipurpose use for both medicinal and other various culinary uses. The majority of plant species were found to be used for skin infection, diarrhea, fever, common cold, cough, cuts and burns, asthma. However, diseases like heart pain, spleen enlargement, tumor, cancer, ulcer, astringent, fungal infection, weakness, eye inflammation, dandruff, Figure 2. The satisfaction gained from its use. jaundice, piles, gastritis were found to be cured by a few species. The details of the medicinal plant with their medicinal uses documented from the study are as shown in Table 1. Medicinal plants assessed in the study were found to have multipurpose use including ornamental and food value. About 34 species were reported which was continuously used from generation to generation for the curing of 41 ailments. A similar use of plants for the medicinal purpose was reported by Kunwar et al. (2010) in far-west Nepal. The author reported 48 species of medicinal plants used for curing various ailments like asthma, tumor, diabetes, cold and cough, joint pain, gastritis and many more. The multipurpose use of medicinal plants was reported by Rokaya et al. (2010) with their culinary and ornamental uses. Figure 3. Preference to medicinal plants with age. The author also reported that the medicinal plants were used chiefly for ophthalmic and gastrointestinal ailment. Similarly, Joshi et al., (2019) reported 44 medicinal plants for treating 62 ailments from Gyaneshwor community forest of Chitwan, moreover, Uprety et al. (2010) documented 56 species used for 60 medicinal formulations. Medicinal plants are widely used to cure minor diseases like common cold, cough, fever, cuts and burns, swelling. Peoples attitude towards medicinal plants is high because of the low availability to hospital services and their faith towards medicinal plants. In our study, we found that people used medicinal plants for diseases like common cold, cough, diarrhea, dysen- Figure 4. Use of medicinal plants in different situations. tery, cuts& burns, skin infections, fungal infections, gastritis, pneumonia, asthma, bleeding gums, kidney stone, sinusitis, The response regarding the preference to medicinal plants over- ulcer, earache, bowel pain and uterine contraction, purgatives, processed medicine was found to be 94% and 6% of them are tumor, piles, ophthalmic disorder, bronchitis heart pain, and attracted to processed medicine. A cross tab result regarding jaundice. Their ancestral preaching towards the use of medicinal the preference to medicinal plants towards age showed a result plants was limited among family members. The use of medicinal which is presented in the Figure 3. plants towards major diseases is found to be low because of slow healing but also few people are attracted to it because of Condition to prefer low or no side effects as compared to allelopathic medicine The study was conducted among respondents of different age (Jawla et al., 2009). The proportion of the collection of the groups randomly. The majority of them were found to use for medicinal plant was high in forests followed by gardens and few minor diseases like cuts, burns, wounds, fever, and common are locally available in the market. The low land use in far west cold. However, those who were found to use for major diseases Nepal makes more reliable to collect medicinal plant from the were also found to use for minor diseases. A study report shows field whose use is known (Kunwar et al., 2015). People's high that 92% were found to use the medicinal plant for minor response for the use of the medicinal plant is also due to its easy diseases and 8% were found to use for major diseases like availability and most of them are found around home gardens typhoid, jaundice, tuberculosis, asthma, heart pain, etc. None of making them cost-effective (Joshi et al., 2019).

Sandesh Thapa et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 50-54 (2020) 53

Cough, common cold, chest pain chest cold, common Cough, Medicinal uses Medicinal ulcer iarrhea, constipation fever, dyspepsia, diseases skin wounds, problem, urinary and liver fever, carcinogenic cough, disorder, voice throat, sore laxative astringent, piles, region cardiac in pain relieving laxative bronchitis, asthma, jaundice, inflammation. eye reduce diseases, lung asthma, cure to smoke of inflammation in used leaves; hairs. falling dandruff, curing juice; fruit earache, treat to used juice; flower diseases ear tumor, wounds, spleen, of enlargement treat limbs. of weakness hemicranias, cures also purgative emetic, seeds; earache, asthma, Fruits: laxative astringent, fine powered form; used in carious teeth, bleeding gums, ulcer sinusitis cough, fever, antiseptic, Astringent, fever chronic diarrhea, dysentery, contractions uterine pain, bowel in sedatives as used tonics as used , vermifuse anthelmintic, as used rhizome; Cold. Cough Antipyretic, ulcer impurities, blood bronchitis, throat, sore dysentery, diarrhea, in used Bark diuretic. carminative, Fruit: diabetes, Seeds: stone Kidney wounds Cuts, disorder gums infections, fungal wounds, infections, skin cold, common Fever, pain teeth Diarrhea, Diarrhea fat Reduces leprosy diseases, skin asthma, indigestion, purifying, blood jaundice, Gastritis, infections Skin burns Cuts, fever pneumonia, wounds, Cuts, appetite improve gastritis, Painkiller, infections fungal infections, Skin infections skin Burns, Cough cold, Common

Rhizome Plant parts used parts Plant bark fruit bark, leaves bark, root fruit Bulb seeds root, rhizomes oil, fruits flowers, leaves, leaves stem seeds roots, fruits bark root root rhizome seeds Leaves, fruits seeds, Bark, leaves flowers Leaves, barks Leaves, fruits Leaves, Fruits Leaves, fruits leaves fruits fronds leaves leaves Seeds, barks tuber

Kurz

Soó

Pers.

Benth.

H.Li & R.J.Mitchell & H.Li Mill.

Ham. ex D. Don D. ex Ham.

Skeels

(Gaertn.) Roxb. (Gaertn.)

alba

Urb.

(Christm.) Swingle (Christm.)

A.Juss.

C.Presl

Roscoe

(L.) (L.)

(L.)

D.Don

(L.) (L.)

L. L.

(L.) Corrêa (L.)

emblica

calamus

marmelos

Acorus

Zingiber offcinale offcinale Zingiber Plant species Plant (Roxb.) butyreceae Diploknema Aegle prostrata Eclipta belliricia Terminalia nepalense Lilium Phyllanthus Roxb. subulatum Amomum stramonium Datura Burm.f. (L.) vera Aloe album Viscum Lour. tricuspidata Trichosanthus Retz. chebula Terminalia Buch. esculenta Myrica (D.Don) hatagirea Dactylorhiza (L.) serpentina Rauwolfia var. polyphylla Paris tenuiflorum Ocimum cumini Syzygium (Lam.) pinnata Kalanchoe houstonianum Ageratum indica Azadirachta paradisica Musa guajava Psidium aurantiifolia Citrus asiatica Centella L. Zanthoxylum dealbata Alsophila erecta Tagetes sativa Cannabis religiosa Ficus tuberosum Solanum

Zingiberaceae Family Butyraceae Rutaceae Compositae Acoraceae Combretaceae Liliaceae Phyllanthaceae Zingiberaceae Solanaceae Asphodelaceae Loranthaceae Cucurbitaceae Combretaceae Myricaceae Orchidaceae Apocyanaceae Melanthiaceae Lamiaceae Myrtaceae Crassulaceae Compositae Meliaceae Musaceae Myrtaceae Rutaceae Apiaceae Phyllanthaceae Cyatheaceae Compositae Canabaceae Moraceae Solanaceae

Ginger English name English tree nut Butter quince Bengal daisy False flag Sweet myrobalon Belleric gooseberry Indian cardamom Hill snare Devil’s vera Aloe fuge Devil’s Myrobalon Bayberry Orchid Serpentine basil Holy plum Black Bryophyllum Bluemink Neem Banana Guava lemon pennywort Asiatic Myrobalan Silverfern Marigold juana Mari Potato

Medicinal plant investigatedinformation. with related theirplant Medicinal

Adhuwa Local name Local Chiuri Bael Bhringraj Bojho Barro lasun Ban amla Pahade Alainchi Dhatura Ghiukumari Harchur Indrayani Harro Kaphal Panchaule Sarpagandha Satuwa Tulsi Jamun Pattharchatta jhar Gandhe Neem kera Kola/ Amba Kagati Ghodtapre Amala Kurjo Sayapatri Bhang Peepal Aalu

33. S.N. 1. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Table 1. Table

54 Sandesh Thapa et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 50-54 (2020)

Conclusion Export of medicinal and aromatic plant materials from Nepal. Botanica Orientalis: Journal of Plant Science, 10: 24-32, https://doi.org/10.3126/botor.v10i0.21020 Medicinal plants are the basics for the household treatment of IUCN (2000). National Register of Medicinal Plants. Kathmandu: IUCN Nepal. minor and some of the major diseases. The study showed the Jawla, S., Gupta, A.K., Singla, R. and Gupta, V. (2009). General awareness and direct relationship of households with the use of medicinal relative popularity of allopathic, ayurvedic and homeopathic systems. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 1: 105–112. plants. By the use of medicinal plants, 92% of the respondents Joshi, A., Kalauni, D. and Bhattarai, S. (2018). Survey on usage of medicinal plants: were satisfied. 76% of the collected medicinal plants from a case from Chitwan district of Nepal. SAARC Journal of Agriculture, 16 (2): gardens and 22% from forests and 2% from others like ayurve- 129-141, https://doi.org/10.3329/sja.v16i2.40265 dalaya. A total of 33 medicinal plants were documented to cure Kunwar, R.M., Acharya, R.P., Chowdhary, C.L. and Bussmann, R.W. (2015). Medicinal plant dynamics in indigenous medicines in far west 40 ailments. The majority of the medicinal plants collected were Nepal. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 163: 210–219, found to be used for diseases like fever, diarrhea, cuts and burns, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.01.035 gastritis, heart pain, chest pain, a painkiller. Also, the uses of Kunwar, R.M., Shrestha, K.P. and Bussmann, R.W. (2010). Traditional herbal medicine in. Far-west Nepal: A pharmacological appraisal. Journal of Ethnobi- medicinal plants were reported against diseases like ulcer, dia- ology and Ethnomedicine, 6, https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-6-35 betes, laxative, dyspepsia, anxiety, gum bleeding, jaundice, pneu- Kunwar, RM. and Bussmann, R.W. (2009). Medicinal, aromatic and dye plants of monia, asthma, cancer and so on. The use of a single medicinal Baitadi and Darchula districts, Nepal Himalaya: status, uses and manage- plant for multiple diseases increases the value of medicinal ment In Biodiversity at and Natura usstattung in Himalaya III. Edited by: Hartmann M, Weipert Journal of Naturekunde Museum, Erfurt, Germany 2009: plants and an effective strategy should be adopted for exploring 43-49. the use of it. Also, the lack of training related to medicinal plants Luitel, D.R., Rokaya, M.B., Timsina, B. and Münzbergová, Z. (2014). Medicinal in the study area showed less knowledge on the conservation of plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 10 (5): plants and their effective use and propagation. Thus, the 1-11, https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-10-5 concerned government/ non-government body should take Maciel, M., Pinto, A.C., Veiga Jr., Valdir F., Grynberg, N.F. and Echevarria, A. effective action for exploring the use of medicinal plants. (2002). Plantas medicinais: a necessidade de estudos multidisciplinares. Química Nova, 25 (3): 429-438, https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100- 40422002000300016 Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under Manandhar, N.P. (2002). Plants and people of Nepal. Timber Press Portland, the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, Oregon USA; pp. 599. which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction MoAD. (2017). The State of Nepal's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture. in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are Kathmandu: Ministry of Agriculture Development. Pandey, P. (1961). Distribution of medicinal plants of Nepal. Symposium on credited. Medicinal Plants, pp. 15-61. Ceylon Rai, S.K. (2004). Medicinal plants used by Meche people of Jhapa district, eastern REFERENCES Nepal. Our nature, 2 (1): 27-32. Rajbhandari, T.K., Joshi, N.R., Shrestha, T., Joshi, S.K.G. and Acharya, B. (1995). Acharya, R. (2012). Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Resunga Hill used Medicinal plants of Nepal for Ayurvedic Drugs Government of Nepal, by Magar community of Badagaun VDC, Gulmi district, Nepal. Scientific Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu: pp. 387. World, 10 (10): 54-65, https://doi.org/10.3126/sw.v10i10.6863 Rokaya, M.B., Münzbergová, Z. and Timsina, B. (2010). Ethnobotanical study of Acharya, R. and Acharya, K.P. (2009). 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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Analysis of agricultural growth and its determinant factors in Nepal Amrit Dumre1* , Shiva Chandra Dhakal2, Mohan Acharya1 and Prabin Poudel1 1M.Sc. Agricultural Economics, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, NEPAL 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, NEPAL *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT

Received: 17 December 2020 This paper critically analyzes the trajectory of agricultural growth and its determinants in Revised received: 26 February 2020 Nepal. Agricultural growth is vital for stimulating overall economic growth. The World Bank Accepted: 13 March 2020 research shows strong statistical link between agricultural and overall economic growth in

less developed countries. Economic growth and agricultural growth in Nepal also show strong

correlation (r = 0.7501***). Agricultural transformation is characterized by declining share of Keywords agriculture in national employment and GDP, and increasing share of secondary sectors like Agricultural credit industry, service and manufacturing. However, this structural shift seems unplanned and Agricultural transformation ungoverned in case of Nepal. The contribution of agriculture to GDP is continuously declining, Agri-GDP but, the growth of secondary sectors likes industry and manufacturing still looks stagnant.

Economic growth At this incipient stage of agricultural transformation, productivity growth in agriculture is both a necessary as well as sufficient condition for the development of economy as a whole. Agricul- tural growth depends on institutional (agricultural credit and land holdings), infrastructural (irrigated area, farm mechanization, electricity, storage, transportation, agricultural market), technological (high yielding varieties or improved seed, fertilizers and pesticides) and socioeconomic factors (population, poverty and literacy). Policies strengthening these determinants can help Nepal in achieving targeted sustained economic growth.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Dumre, A., Dhakal, S.C., Acharya, M. and Poudel, P. (2020). Analysis of agricultural growth and its determinant factors in Nepal. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 55-60, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050108

INTRODUCTION the economic wealth of the nation. Majority of the population (65.6 percent) are involved in agriculture sector (MoAD, 2018). Nepal is one of the least developed and low income countries in Major portion of total export depends on agriculture; large the world. Nepal aims to graduate from least developed country cardamom, ginger, lentil, tea, coffee being the major exportable to developing country by the year 2022 and low income to commodities. The fate of development of Nepal is highly middle income country by 2030 (MoF, 2018). Out of the three dependent upon the growth of Agri-GDP as the large proportion criteria (i.e. Human Asset Index, Economic Vulnerability Index of population as well as industries and trade are agriculture and Per Capita Income) set by UN to graduate to the league of dependent. Growth in agriculture sector is thus, the panacea for developing nations, two of them have been met but Nepal lies achieving economic development in Nepal which in turn far behind in the Per Capita Income (Shrestha, 2018). Low per depends on the several factors. Researchers have emphasized capita income is attributed by the high agriculture dependent labor force growth, human capital, financing, capital accumula- rural population. tion in public infrastructures and research and technology as Agriculture is one of the powerhouses of Nepalese economy major determinants in examining agricultural growth (Thapa, contributing 26.5 percent of total national gross domestic prod- 2011). This paper makes an attempt to critically analyze the uct (GDP) (MoF, 2018). It is both the source of food as well as sectoral structure of GDP, find the relation between economic

Amrit Dumre et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 55-60 (2020) 56 growth and agricultural growth and determine the factors affecting agricultural growth and thus find out where in Nepal lies in the path of agricultural transformation.

METHODOLOGY

This study is basically carried out using publicly available data sources, such as Economic Survey Reports (FY 2003/04, 2012/13 and 2018/19) and World Bank database. Relevant journal articles, reports and books were consulted for having detail insight on determinants of agricultural growth. Descrip- tive statistical tools such as pie-chart, bar-diagram was used to Figure 1. Sectoral contribution to GDP in FY 2017-18. represent sectoral contribution to GDP, comparative study of productivity of major crop in South Asia. Trend line was used to study the trajectory of agricultural growth, pattern of contribution of agricultural and non-agricultural sector to GDP and growth of agricultural credit flow. Correlation analysis was employed to find out the relation between agricultural growth and economic growth in Nepal. MS-Excel and STATA (version 12) was used for this purpose.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sectoral contribution to GDP The contribution of agriculture sector to GDP is gradually decreasing annually while that of non agricultural sector is Figure 2. Pattern of sectoral contribution to GDP. increasing. In the FY 2017-18 the contribution of agriculture and non agricultural sector to GDP was 28.1 percent and 71.9 per- Nepal has crossed 1,000 US dollar and poverty rate has sharply cent respectively (Figure 1). The contribution of agriculture to declined which is marked as a major boost to graduate from GDP was projected to decline to 27 percent in the FY 2018-19 least developed to developing country. (MoF, 2018). Nepal has shown a drastic change in the structure The experiences of developed countries show the transfer of of employment and GDP composition in last few years. labor force from less productive agricultural sector to more pro- According to World Bank, the share of agriculture in GDP has ductive non-agricultural sector. However, story of agricultural decreased drastically from around 69 percent (1966) to 26 transformation is rather different in Nepal. The contribution of percent (2016) whereas the contribution of service and industry agriculture to GDP is continuously declining, but, the growth of to GDP shows the increasing trend which is believed as good secondary sectors like industry manufacturing etc. still seems indicator of an economy (World Bank, 2019). stagnant. The service sector, on the other hand, is growing at Nepal’s economy is enjoying a solid expansion through the faster rate. Agricultural labor force is in continuous decline due reconstruction activities after the devastating earthquake of to heavy outmigration. The economy has become remittance 2015. The economic growth in the recent two-three years dependent and agriculture still remains the less productive shows sustained growth around 6 percent. The preliminary sector. Therefore, the structural shift in agriculture is found to draft of concept paper of 15th five year plan has set a target to be unsystematic. Without the sustainable development in other achieve a minimum economic growth of 9.4 percent per annum sectors like service and industry, such shift could be suicidal for next five year Similarly, contribution of agriculture sector and a country like Nepal having deep rooted life style, culture, industrial sector in national GDP is projected to reach 22.1 religion and knowledge based agriculture (Satyal, 2010). Under percent and 20.3 percent respectively (Himalayan Times, 2019). these circumstances, higher agricultural growth is vital for the As an economy develops, the relative contribution of agricul- sustainable economic development (Figure 2). ture to output and employment must decline (Joshi, 2018). A declining share for agriculture in national employment and GDP Economic growth and agricultural growth is an inevitable consequence of economic progress (Cervantes- The World Bank research shows strong statistical link between godoy and Dewbre, 2010). This is largely due to higher income agricultural and overall economic growth in less developed elasticity of demand for non-agricultural goods and services. countries. Countries with agricultural share of GDP greater than This process of agricultural transformation is usually accompa- 20 percent in 1970s exceeded 3 percent a year in 17 of the 23 nied by rising incomes and lower incidence of poverty of the countries whose GDP growth rate was above 5 percent a year agriculture dependent population. Per Capita Income (PCI) of while 11 of the 17 countries with GDP growth below 3 percent a

57 Amrit Dumre et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 55-60 (2020) year managed agricultural growth of only 1 percent or less annual average of 7.3 percent from the fiscal year 2017/18 (Timmer, 1988). Analyzing the relation between annual agricul- (MoF, 2018). tural growth rate and GDP growth rate in Nepal shows a significant positive correlation (r = 0.7501***) at 1 per cent level of Determinants of agricultural growth significance. This indicates agriculture is a key sector for Cereal crops, horticulture, livestock, fisheries and forestry are economic growth in Nepal. the major subsectors of agricultural sector of Nepal. Cereal The trend line in Figure 3 shows agricultural growth is increas- crops contribute the highest (49.4 per cent) to the agri-GDP ing but the rate is not significant. In the fiscal year 2017/18, followed by livestock (25.8 per cent), horticulture (16.7 per GDP at basic price increased by 6.3 percent which is expected to cent) and forestry (8.1 percent) (Joshi, 2018). Growth of agricul- increase by 6.8 percent in the fiscal year 2018/19. Favorable ture sector requires the increased productivity in all these sub- weather conditions, increased access of irrigation facilities and sectors. The productivity growth in agriculture is both a neces- easy availability of seeds and chemical fertilizer contributed to sary and sufficient condition for the development of this sector increase the production and productivity of agricultural sector as well as the economy. However, productivity of major subsec- in the same year. Gross Value Added (GVA) of agriculture and tor of Nepalese agriculture seems stagnant. Productivity of non-agricultural sector is estimated to grow by 5 percent and maize, in Nepal, is at the bottom in South Asia while that of rice 7.5 percent respectively. Data of last decade shows the average is only higher than Afghanistan (Figure 5). Contraction of annual economic growth rate of 4.6 percent with 3.1 percent agricultural land due to escalating urbanization and plotting in and 5.3 percent average annual growth rate respectively in one hand and declining of agricultural labor force on the other agricultural and non-agricultural sector (Figure 4). Nepalese hand has exacerbated the situation of poor agricultural economy was devastated by the earthquake and border block- productivity in Nepal. We are facing a challenge to increase ade in the fiscal year 2015/16. Reformative works from that productivity from declining agricultural land and agricultural stage has made it possible to expand the economy with an labor force. This requires a capital intensive technology driven agricultural sector. Agricultural growth depends on institutional (agricultural credit and land holdings), infrastructural (irrigated area, farm mechanization, electricity, storage, transportation, agricultural market), technological (high yielding varieties or improved seed, fertilizers and pesticides) and socioeconomic factors (population, poverty and literacy). Thapa (2011) identified population growth rates, male literacy, improved seeds and chemical pesticides as important contributors in agricultural growth of Nepal. The contribution of female literacy, road density, irrigation coverage, agricultural credit and mineral fertilizer were also significant contributors to agricultural growth in Nepal. Awan and Mustafa (2013) found total cropped area, irrigation water; improved seed distribution and import of pesticide have signifi- Figure 3. Scatterplot matrix for correlation analysis of agricultural growth cant impact on growth of agri-GDP. Major determinants of and economic growth. agricultural growth in Nepal are:

Figure 4. Trend of agricultural growth in Nepal from the year.

Amrit Dumre et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 55-60 (2020) 58

Figure 5. Comparative study of productivity of major crops in different countries (Source: Joshi, 2018).

Figure 6. Status of agricultural credit in Nepal (Source: MoF, 2004), (MoF, 2013) and (MoF, 2018).

Agricultural credit positive impact of agricultural land on agricultural growth re- Least developed countries like Nepal needs improved technolo- spectively in Kenya and Ethiopia. Nepal has cultivated land of gy for increasing agricultural productivity and sustained agricul- 30,91,000 ha and still 10,30,000 ha arable agricultural land is tural growth. These modern agricultural technologies (chemical uncultivated (MoAD, 2018). Escalating urbanization has posed a fertilizer, improved seed, irrigation, farm machineries etc.) are huge threat on agricultural productivity in Nepal. capital intensive. Adoption of these technologies demands increased credit facilities to the resource poor farmers. Access Agri-inputs to credit can promote the adoption of high yielding technologies The growth of agricultural sector is largely dependent on the in agriculture (Saboor et al., 2009). Easy and cheap credit is the availability and use of the agri-inputs like chemical fertilizers, quickest way for increasing the agricultural production improved seeds, and chemical pesticides. Research shows that (Abedullahet al., 2009). Total amount of Rs. 128.33 billion at least 30 to 50 per cent yield is attributable to commercial agricultural credit was mobilized up to mid-march of 2017/18 fertilizer nutrient input (Stewart et al., 2005). Use of high yield- which increased by 40.6 per cent to Rs. 180.2 billion. This figure ing varieties seed increases the yield by 45 per cent. Crop losses was only Rs. 50.91 billion. Since then, there had been about 167 due to various pests is about 35 per cent (Kafle et al., 2014). per cent in last five years period and stood as Rs. 135.76 billion Availability of safe and efficacious pesticides and their judicious in the fiscal year 2017/18 (MoF, 2018). Disbursement of agricul- use is critical for the sustainable increase in agricultural produc- tural credit by commercial bank has increased drastically than tion. Nepal is far behind in using fertilizer per hectare of arable earlier indicating good sign for agricultural growth (Figure 6). land. Potential demand for fertilizer in Nepal is about 7,00,000 MT of which actual supply was only 3,24,977 MT in the year Agricultural land 2016/17 (Panta, 2018). The average increase of fertilizer use Increase in agricultural land has a positive relation with agricul- per hectare in Nepal is 3.4 kg per annum. The sale of improved tural productivity. As the cultivated land increases, production seed increased from 6911.604 MT in 2016/17 to 8143.958 MT also increases, then, it could be expected that agriculture sector in 2017/18 (MoAD, 2018). Subsidy program on chemical contribute larger percentage of its output growth. Odhiambo fertilizer and improved seed had impressive effect on their and Nyangito (2004) and Teshome and Lupi (2018) found adoption (Bista et al., 2016).

59 Amrit Dumre et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 55-60 (2020)

Rural infrastructure technological (high yielding varieties or improved seed, fertiliz- Rural infrastructure like road connectivity, transport facilities ers and pesticides) and socioeconomic factors (population, are the most crucial factors for sustained agricultural growth. poverty and literacy). Strengthening of all of these factors is Road networks and transport facilities helps in reduction of crucial in achieving the targeted double figured economic transportation cost and makes the agricultural products compet- growth. Declining of agricultural labor force and agricultural itive in the market. It gives an encouragement to the farmers and land demands the capital intensive technology driven agricultur- thus helps in increasing agricultural productivity. There has been al sector. For this easy and cheap (low interest rate) agricultural substantial increase in road network. All district headquarters credit should be encouraged with regular monitoring. Timely have been linked to road networks except Humla (MoF, 2018). supply of the agricultural inputs as per the farmers’ demand Linking all the agricultural areas of Nepal with road networks can should be ensured by the government. Both underground and boost up agricultural production creating favorable environment above ground irrigation facility should be increased. Expansion for rural farmers. Irrigation also plays crucial role in agricultural of the road networks by government is a must to connect rural growth. Bhattarai and Narayanamoorthy (1994) found a strong farmers with market. Policy discouraging conversion of agricul- inverse relationship between incidence of rural poverty and tural land into other purpose should be formulated and imple- percentage of gross area irrigated in India. Therefore, it is mented. Efficient extension services should be provided to thought as a critical factor for overall development of agricultur- increase adoption of high yielding agricultural technologies. It is, al sector. Only 1.473 million hectare out of a total of 2.641 thus, imperative for the government to address all these sectors million hectares of agricultural land in Nepal had irrigation facili- for agricultural as well as economic growth. ty in the fiscal year 2017-18. However, due to lack of availability of sufficient amount of water in the source and delayed imple- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS mentation of the projects of water transfer, only, 33 per cent areas of irrigated land has irrigation facility throughout 12 We would like to acknowledge Dr. Ujjal Tiwari, Assistant months of a year (MoF, 2018). Expansion of additional irrigated Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusi- area and introduction of modern irrigation technology, in coming ness Management for constructive suggestions and guidance. days, can enhance the agricultural productivity of Nepal. We are indebted by the overwhelming support from our col- leagues Seema Karki and Sushma Banjara during the prepara- Literacy rate tion of this article. Adoption of high yielding modern technology is crucial for the increased productivity. Educated people readily adopt these Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under technologies than the illiterate and uneducated one. Literature the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, shows that education has high rates of return to investment, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction and higher contribution to economic growth rates by improving in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are total factor productivity (Thapa, 2011). Education increases the credited. decision making capacity of the farmers. Nepal has made a substantial improvement in social sector like education. Adult REFERENCES literacy rate increased from 20.57 percent in 1980 to 67.9 per cent in 2018 (World Bank, 2019). This improvement in literacy Abedullah, Mahmood, N., Khalid, M. and Kouser, S. (2009). The role of agricultural rate has played important role in human capital development credit in the growth of livestock sector: A case study of Faisalabad. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 29(2): 81–84. and growth of agricultural productivity in Nepal. Awan, F. and Mustafa, U. (2013). Key factors contributing to agricultural growth in Pakistan: An application of time series analysis. Journal of Agricultural Conclusion Economics and Development,1(12): 6–13. Bhattarai, M. and Narayanamoorthy, A. (1994). Impact of irrigation on agricultural

growth and poverty alleviation: Macro level analyses in India. Water Policy It is evident from the research that agricultural growth is vital Research. for the overall economic growth for the least developed Bista, D. R., Dhungel, S. and Adhikari, S. (2016). Status of fertilizer and seed subsidy countries like Nepal (as shown by the strong correlation in Nepal : review and recommendation. The Journal of Agriculture and Environment, 17: 1–10, https://doi.org/10.3126/aej.v17i0.19854 between agricultural growth and economic growth in Nepal). Cervantes-godoy, D. and Dewbre, J. (2010). Economic Importance of Agriculture for The process of agricultural transformation is still at the incipient Poverty Reduction (No. 23). OECD, France. stage in Nepal. The contribution of agricultural sector to GDP is https://doi.org/10.1787/5kmmv9s20944-en Himalayan Times. (2019, March 3). 15th five-year plan targets minimum 9.4pc declining but the sectoral contribution of industry and service annual growth. Retrieved from https://thehimalayantimes.com/ to GDP still looks stagnant. At this critical stage of agricultural business/15th-five-year-plan-targets-minimum-9-4pc-annual-growth/ transformation, agriculture driven growth is the current need Joshi, G.R. (2018). Agricultural Economy of Nepal: Development Challenges and for the overall economic growth of the nation. Agricultural Opportunities (First). Sustainable Research & Development Centre. Kafle, L., G.C, Y.D., Yang, J., Bhattarai, S., Tiwari, S., Lekhnath Kafle, Yubak Dhoj, growth depends on institutional (agricultural credit and land G.C, Jeng-Tze Yang, Shankar Bhattarai, S.T. and Katuwal, M. (2014). holdings), infrastructural (irrigated area, farm mechanization, Integrated Pest Management in Nepal Integrated Pest Management in electricity, storage, transportation, agricultural market), Nepal, https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2563.2324

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MoAD. (2018). Krishi Diary. GoN, MoAD, Agriculture Information and Communi- Shrestha, R.S. (2018, February 28). Nepal puts LDC graduation plan on hold. The cation Centre, Hariharbhawan, Lalitpur. Himalayan Times. Retrieved from https://thehimalayantimes.com/business/ MoF. (2004). Economic survey, 2003/04. Ministry of Finance. Singh Durbar, nepal-puts-league-of-developing-countries-graduation-plan-hold/ Kathmandu. Stewart, W.M., Dibb, D.W., Johnston, A.E. and Smyth, T.J. (2005). The contribution MoF. (2013). Economic Survey , 2012/13. Ministry of Finance. Singh Durbar, of commercial fertilizer nutrients to food production. Agronomy Journal, 97 Kathmandu. (1): 1–6, https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2005.0001 MoF. (2018). Economic Survey 2017 / 18 Ministry of Finance. Singh Durbar, Teshome, A. and Lupi, A. (2018). Determinants of Agricultural Gross Domestic Kathmandu. Product in Ethiopia. International Journal of Research Studies in Agricultural Odhiambo, W. and Nyangito, H.O. (2004). Sources and Determinants of Science (IJRSAS), 4(2): 12–20, https://doi.org/http:// Agricultural Growth and Productivity in Kenya. dx.doi.org/10.20431/2454-6224.0402002 www.arcjournals.org Panta, H.K. (2018). Supply chain of subsidized chemical fertilizers in Nepal. Journal Thapa, Y.B. (2011). Agricultural Growth: Lessons for Redesigning Principles Y. of Agriculture and Animal Science, 35: 9–20. Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Economics, 1(1). Saboor, A., Hussain, M. and Madhia, M. (2009). Impact of Micro Credit in Alleviat- Timmer, C.P. (1988). The Agricultural Transformation. In H. Chenery and T.N. ing Poverty : An Insight from Rural Rawalpindi , Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Srinivasan (Eds.), Handbook of Development Economics (Vol. I, p. 328). Elsevier Life and Social Sciences, 7(1), 90–97. Science Publishers B.V. Satyal, V. R. (2010). Agriculture in Decline. Economic Journal of Development, 11(1): World Bank. (2019). World Bank data base. Retrieved from 144–157. https://data.worldbank.org/

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Assessment of remittance and its impacts on economic growth in Nepal Sushma Banjara*, Seema Karki and Amrit Dumre Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Chitwan, NEPAL *Corresponding author’s E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT

Received: 15 February 2020 This study delves into the issues related to remittance and its role in the Nepalese economy. Revised received: 10 March 2020 Remittance is found to have positive association with human capital formation and financial Accepted: 13 March 2020 development while negative impact on productivity and international trade in Nepal. Nepal is

one of the leading nations of sending workers abroad received approximately US$ 6.29 billion

of remittances, almost 25 per cent of its GDP in 2017/18. The investment of remitted amount in unproductive sectors like consumption expenses rather than in productive sectors has resulted in an increment in overall import. The remitted income has occupied a major position Keywords of financing which exceeds all the foreign aid and investment in recent years. Thus, the Financial development Government of Nepal should make an appropriate policy to maximize the benefit of remit- Foreign aid tance and retain the manpower to the sustainable economic growth and development sector GDP of the country. Human capital

Productivity ©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Banjara, S., Karki, S. and Dumre, A. (2020). Assessment of remittance and its impacts on economic growth in Nepal. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 61-66, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.050109

INTRODUCTION youths to leave their villages. Especially gulf countries (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, Oman, and Kuwait), South Korea and Malay- Remittance refers to the money and goods that are transferred sia became the priority destination for them. The new destina- by the emigrants to their households, either from urban areas or tions emerged because of the globalizing dynamics and the abroad (Richard and Adams, 2011). Nepal represents the coun- boom in the oil industry that started in the Middle East in the try with a small size economy of US$ 25 billion GDP with a share 1970s (DoFE, 2015). The liberalized economic policy adopted of remittance to its GDP is approximately 25 per cent in 2018 after 1992 helped to formalize labour migrations and opened which was only 1.8 per cent in 1995 (MoF, 2018). This indicates doors for recruitment and remitting agencies to operate in the that the Nepalese economy is becoming more remittance- country and solicit workers for jobs in the other countries dependent with the inflows of remittances that have been con- (Shrestha, 2016). Rai and Awale (2016) have reported that tinually growing over recent decades. The share on the migrant about 1500 Nepalese workers on average fly out from population from Nepal is 3 million; approximately 10 per cent of Kathmandu international airport to these countries every day. the total population of the country (Sharma, 2019). The history The survey carried out in 2010/11 revealed that approximately of labour migration dates back to 300 years ago; in May 1815 56 per cent of the Nepalese households received remittances, agreement between the colonial British government in India and both from internal and external sources. Nepal formally opened up the avenues for Nepalese to be em- Different scholars have differently characterized the impact of ployed overseas with the annual recruitment of Gorkha soldiers remittance on economic growth in various countries. Remittance from Nepal for the British armed force. Since then, Nepalese has been considered as a major source of financing in the Nepalese have been migrating to North-East India in search of work in the economy but there has been limited study carried out exploring coal mining and agriculture sectors (Kshetry, 2003). This centu- the relationship between remittance and its impact on economic ry old tradition undergoes a transformation after the civil war of growth in Nepal. Therefore, the objective of the study is to analyze Maoist party which became one of the push factors for the the remittance inflow and its impact in the Nepalese economy.

Sushma Banjara et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 61-66 (2020) 62

METHODOLOGY and health in the developing countries. Fajnzylber and Lopez (2007) concluded the positive but relatively small impact of The study is based on the secondary data obtained from the remittance on growth and investment. The study on the impact of various issues of Economic Survey of Ministry of Finance (Fiscal remittances on economic growth in Nepal showed that remittance years 2000/01, 2008/09 and 2018/19), World Bank, Quarterly has positive relationships with financial development and human Economic Bulletin and Economic reports of Nepal Rastra Bank capital accumulation while a negative association with productivi- (Central Bank). Different remittance related journal articles, ty and international trade signifies the mixed impact of remittance reports and books were also reviewed. Descriptive statistical flows on the economic growth (Dahal, 2014). Likewise, remittance tools such as bar diagram, tables are used to represent the re- has contributed to create human capital through investment in mittance status in developing countries and South Asia, a pie education and health and lift up people from the extreme poverty chart to show the foreign employment status in Nepal and line group in Nepal (Sharma, 2019). Remittance may deteriorate graph and trend line to discuss the remittance and national economic growth as it led to moral hazard and the Dutch disease economy. Correlation relationship is carried out to show the (real appreciation and loss of competitiveness in tradable goods) relationship of remittance income with gross domestic product by hollowing out of adult members and creating inefficiency in and gross capital formation and all of this is carried out using MS farm production due to shortage of labor and income substitution excel and STATA (version 12). effect (Sharma, 2019; Richard and Adams, 2011).

Empirical findings The remittance and economy of developing nations and south Asia Remittance and economic growth More than 247 million people or 3.4 percent of the world popu- Researchers throughout the world have conducted several lation, live outside their countries of birth. United States, studies to investigate the impact of remittance on economic followed by Saudi Arabia, Germany, the Russian Federation, the growth. There are different conflicting perspectives regarding United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, the impact of remittance on economic growth (Turnell et al., Spain, and Australia are the top migrant destination country in 2008). The optimist argued that the remittances have a positive the world (World Bank, 2016). Countries having higher income effect on economic growth as it increases in investment and are the largest sender of the remittance where the United States human capital while pessimists’ remittances negatively affect (US$68 billion) followed by the United Arab Emirates (US$44 economic growth through inflation and moral hazards resulting billion) and Saudi Arabia (US$36 billion) (World Bank, 2019). from reduced labor supply (De Haas, 2007). Difficulty of disen- In 2018, the top recipient countries recorded were India, China, tangling the links between remittance and economic growth Mexico, the Philippines and the Arab Republic of Egypt. As a might be the cause of this controversy. The study conducted by share of GDP, however, smaller countries such as Tonga (35.2 Tolcha and Rao (2016) in Ethiopia over 1981-2012 found that per cent), the Kyrgyz Republic (33.6 per cent), Tajikistan (31 per remittance has a significant impact on economic growth in the cent), Haiti (30.7 per cent), Nepal (28 per cent), and EI Salvador short run whereas it has adverse effect in the long run. Cooray (21.1 per cent), were the largest recipients in 2018 (Figure 1). (2012) found that remittance has a significant positive effect on economic growth considering education level and financial sec- South Asia tor development in South Asia. Similar, a study carried out in Remittances to South Asia upsurge by an estimated 12.3 per Bangladesh over 1975-2013 concluded that the remittance has cent in 2018, faster than the 5.7 per cent observed in 2017. In positive association only in the long run with economic growth India growth of remittance is 14 per cent which remained mod- (Majumder and Donghui, 2016). Lokshin, Bontch-Osmolovski erate (6.7 percent) in Pakistan whereas Bangladesh, remittances and Glinskaya (2010) found that the remittance reduces showed a brisk uptick of 14.8 per cent and Sri Lanka witnessed poverty by one fifth between 1995 and 2004 in Nepal. Similarly, remittance growth of 3.8 percent in 2018 (World Bank, 2019). Adams (2006) in Ghana and Taylor, Mora, Adams and Lopez- India is the highest remittance (US$78.6 billion) recipient Feldman (2005) in Mexico also concluded that international country in South Asia followed by Pakistan (US$21 billion) and remittances reduce poverty. Chami et al. (2005) carried out the Bangladesh (US$15.5 billion). In terms of gross domestic study covering 113 countries over 1970 to 1980 showed that product (GDP) Nepal secured the highest position among all in the remittances serve negatively and have a significant effect on 2018, having 28 per cent. This implies that the Nepalese econo- per capita GDP growth for different groups of the country. A my is highly dependent on the remittance (Table 1). similar study carried out in 100 countries for the period 1975 to 2002 by Giuliano and Ruiz-Arranz (2009) suggested that remit- Foreign employment in Nepal tance enhances GDP growth in less developed countries by According to the population of Nepal, about 500 thousand peo- serving as the alternative to finance development. Richard and ple entered the labour market every year creates a big challenge Adams (2011) reviewed that international remittances, to provide employment opportunities. The nation is unable to however, creates a negative impact on labour supply, education, extend the employment market as expected. Labor force survey and economic growth, it usually has a positive effect on poverty 2017, showed that unemployment rate in Nepal is 11.4 per cent.

63 Sushma Banjara et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 61-66 (2020)

Figure 1. Top remittance receiving countries in 2018 (Sources: World Bank staff estimates, World Development Indicators, IMF Balance of Payments Statistics; Note: GDP = gross domestic product).

Table 1. Remittance inflows to top five South Asian countries in 2018 Year: 2018 Country % of GDP Country Amount (US$ billion) Nepal 28.0 India 78.6 Sri Lanka 8.1 Pakistan 21.0 Pakistan 6.8 Bangladesh 15.5 Bangladesh 5.4 Nepal 8.1 India 2.9 Sri Lanka 7.5 Sources: World Bank staff estimates, World Development Indicators, and International Monetary Fund (IMF) Balance of Payments Statistics.

The increase in the unemployment rate in the country compel trend of remittance income of Nepal has depicted through the millions of youth to fly overseas for foreign employment. About figure below revealed that the share of the remittance to GDP 4.30 million youths have gone abroad in foreign employment has been dramatically increased over the recent decades. through formal and informal way. However, more than 167 Similarly, the relation between remittance income and GDP is countries have been opened for foreign employment by person- found to be highly correlated (0.9914) at 0.01 level of signifi- al initiatives; only 110 countries have been institutionally cance with about NRs.1074 billion of average GDP. opened for foreign employment (MoF, 2018). The contribution of the remittance on the national economy can Of the total 4,365415 licensed migrant workers, 4167310 were be computed with remittance to GDP ratio which is shown in male and 198105 were female till FY 2017/18. Malaysia is the the figure below. Even in the presence of the wide trade deficit first destination providing foreign employment to 1313658 and rising burden of debt servicing, the surplus in current (30.1 per cent) of Nepalese workers followed by Qatar 1196168 account and balance of payment is due to elevated levels of (27.4 per cent), Saudi Arab 880951 (20.2 per cent), UAE 572470 remittance inflows in recent years (Shrestha, 2008). Chami, (13.1 per cent) and 402468 (9.2 per cent) in other countries Hakura and Montiel (2009) also discussed that growth volatility (Figure 2). In Nepal, lack of employment opportunities, political could be stabilized through remittance flows as raise in instability, the low salary structure, government liberal policy migrant’s remittance to GDP ratio by one per cent reduces the within the nation and higher demand for the labour in the indus- standard deviation of GDP growth by 0.16. The remittance to trialized Asian and middle-east countries are major causal fac- GDP ratio is relatively higher compared to other South Asian tors of foreign employment. Similarly, the majority of Nepalese countries. The annual remittance contribution to GDP has been students who have gone abroad (United States, United King- increasing since FY 2000/01 and decrease in FY 2009/10 and dom, and Australia, etc.) for higher studies have decided not to again raised to 29 per cent in FY 2014/15 which is 24.9 per cent return to because of a lack of opportunities in the nation in FY 2017/18 (Figure 4). (Dhungana, 2012). The remittance income and gross capital formation has been depicted through the Figure 5. Sapkota (2013) discussed that The remittance and Nepalese economy only 2.4 per cent of remittance is used in capital formation and The increasing number of emigrants every year for employment rest are spent on day to day expenditure of households in Nepal. raises the amount of remittance substantially. Remittances have Similarly, (Dhungana, 2012) evoked about the dearth of the become one of the major factors to contribute to household resource for investment due to consumption-oriented pattern income and GDP of the nation (DoFE, 2014). As shown in Figure of remittance utilization in Nepal. The average gross capital 3, the remittance income in Nepal was about NRs.10 billion in formation is found to be NRs. 405 billion. The relation between 1998 was drastically increased from NRs.65 billion in 2004 to remittance income and gross capital formation is found to be NRs.209 billion in 2008. In FY 2017/18, the remittance income highly correlated (0.9766). Similarly, the relation between GDP in Nepal is approximately NRs.755 billion (MoF, 2018). The and gross capital formation is also highly significant and positive.

Sushma Banjara et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 61-66 (2020) 64

Figure 2. Country wise foreign employment in Nepal (Source: Ministry of Figure 3. The remittance income and gross domestic product (GDP) over FY Labor, Employment and Social Security and Department of Foreign 1997/98-2017/18 (Source: Economic Survey, 2018/19). Employment).

Figure 4. Growth of remittance to GDP ratio over FY 1994/95-2017/18 Figure 5. Remittance income and Gross Capital Formation over FY 1197/98 (Source: Economic Survey, 2018/19). -2017/18 (Source: Economic Survey, 2018/19).

Remittance has become a major source of foreign currency only at FY 2017/18 represents the trade deficit scenario of the reserves which have now sufficient for mechanizing and service nation (Figure 6). imports of more than a year. It has increased the liquidity in the The foreign aid is received in the form of grants and loans from banking system and the lack of other investment opportunities bilateral and multilateral sources. As per the Ahamada and in the nation leads the investment into the unproductive sectors Coulibaly (2013) and Giuliano and Arranz (2005) remittance (consumption growth) that results in increment in overall import represents the major part of external finance exceeding export in recent years (Dhungana, 2012). Similarly, the study carried revenues, foreign direct investment (FDI) and aid for most of the out by Dhungel (2014) also disclosed that the remittance developing countries. In the case of Nepal, the flow of foreign contributes just 0.07 percent in gross domestic product implies aid which has been remained nearby the remittance income that international remittance is spend mostly on consumption during FY 2001/02 has consistently become lower than remit- expenditures rather than investing on the productive sector. tance income. Remittance has drastically increased from FY Damber (2017) suggested that a substantial increase in remit- 2005/06, an occupied position as a major source of financing to tance results in lower domestic production due to the emigra- the foreign aid in FY 2017/18 as shown in Figure 7. tion of youths and dependency on imports rather than investment has deteriorate GDP per capita of Nepal. Sharma (2019) Policy and legal frameworks revealed that remittance results in an increase in import of The liberalized economic policy adopted after 1992 helped to luxurious goods as well as eroded the competitive advantage of formalize labour migrations and opened doors for recruitment the country by debilitating the export sector which leads to the and remitting agencies to operate in the country and solicit trade deficit. The import of goods has been inclined from about workers for jobs in the other countries (Shrestha, 2016). In past, NRs. 284 billion to NRs. 1242 billion over FY 2008/09 and FY the government of Nepal responded with the promulgation of 2017/18 respectively. The rapidly increasing imports are highly Foreign Employment Act, 1985 to regulate foreign employment financed by remittance, while the export worth about NRs. 67 but failure of this act gives rise to new Foreign Employment Act billion during FY 2008/09 was approximately NRs.81 billion 2007 for dignified, organized and reliable foreign employment.

65 Sushma Banjara et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 61-66 (2020)

Figure 6. Remittance income and total imports and exports of the goods over Figure 7. Status Remittance income and foreign aid in Nepal over FY FY 2008/09-FY 2017/18 (Source: Economic Survey, 2018/19). 2001/02-2017/18 (Source: Economic survey, 2018/19).

The government introduced National Labour Policy 1999 and encouraging migrants to keep their savings in financial assets in Foreign Employment Policy 2012 to provide a safety and the country rather than holding in abroad to increase the levels accessible migration process and to protect the rights of Nepali of remittance and creating environment for migrants to invest workers involving in foreign employment. Foreign Employment in productive assets within the country (Pant, 2011). Act (2007) has removed all gender-based discriminatory clauses and made provision that only license holder manpower agencies Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under can deal with foreign employment (Shrestha, 2008). The Three- the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, Year Interim Plan had adopted the policies and strategies for which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction providing pre-departure training, life and accidental insurance in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are for the contract period, the establishment of labor commission credited. and labor tribunal. Recently, the Constitution of Nepal has secured the right to employment and right to labor as basic Conclusion rights. The Act on Right to Employment-2018 obliged all local levels to have Employment Service Center (ESC) to list out This study attempted to analyze the relationship between unemployed people, to provide at least 100 days of employment remittance and economic growth in Nepal through the study of during a fiscal year under the Prime Minister Employment different empirical articles. It concludes that many economists Programme. The government of Nepal has brought ‘National are optimistic that the remittance can be a major contributor to Employment Policy 2016' and Foreign Employment Policy 2012 economic growth while some of them found remittance to have into implementation as per the commitment for sustainable a negative impact on it. This review shows that more work is development goals to ensure safe and secure employment needed to be carried out with appropriate methodology to re- through International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention. solve the controversy regarding the impact of remittance on The Fifteenth Plan also aims to make foreign employment safe economic growth and other areas. Nepal is one of the leading and secure, dignified and organized. Similarly, more than 167 nations of sending workers abroad, it ranks the fifth largest countries have been opened for foreign employment by person- recipient of remittance in term of GDP in the world and first al initiatives but only 110 countries have been institutionally among South Asian countries in the year 2018. Various study opened for foreign employment by the government of Nepal showed that remittance has a positive association with financial (MoF, 2018). development and human capital formation while the negative The role of remittance for a nation is very significant because impact on productivity and international trade in Nepal. The the investment of government is very low in this sector; the remittance being invested in the unproductive sector leads to remittance inflow rescued the economy during ten years of an increase in the overall import of goods which creates insurgency period and the worldwide financial crisis during dependency and slows down the economic growth in the long 2007 or 2009. On this dilemma of remittance inflow of Nepal, run. Remittance has been an important avenue for assisting the government should make proper policy to maximize the family members to lift their livelihoods but couldn’t be the best benefit of remittance and retain the manpower to the sustaina- way for development without its investment in productive ble economic growth and development sector. Similarly, to mini- sectors. Therefore, the government should make appropriate mize the sapping effects of the remittance at the societal level, policies to maximize the profit of remittance and retain the policymakers could come up with the idea of capacity building manpower to the sustainable economic growth and develop- activities (Sharma, 2019). Government could formulate policies ment sector of the country. like sending the remittance only through official channel,

Sushma Banjara et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 61-66 (2020) 66

REFERENCES Growth. IMF Working Paper. International Monetary Fund. Giuliano, P. and Ruiz-Arranz, M. (2009). Remittances, financial development and

growth. Journal of Development Economics, 90: 144-152. Adams, J. (2006). Remittances and poverty in Ghana. Washington, DC: World Kshetry, D. (2003). Remittances: Costs and Benefits. Nepal Rastra Bank Samachar, Bank. 9-12. Ahamada, I. and Coulibaly, D. (2013). Remittances and growth in sub-Saharan Lokshin, M., Bontch-Osmolovski,, M. and Glinskaya, E. (2010). Work-related African countries: Evidence from a panel causality test. Journal of Internation- migration and poverty reduction in Nepal. Review of Development Economics, al Development, 25: 310-324. 14(2): 323-332. Chami, R., Fullenkamp, C. and Jahjah, S. (2005). Are immigrant remittance flows a Majumder, S. C. and Donghui, Z. (2016). Relationship between Remittance and source of capital for development. IMF staff Paper 52. Washington, DC: Economic Growth in Bangladesh:an Autoregressive Distributed Lag Model International Monetary Fund. (ARDL). European Researcher, 104(3): 156-167. Chami, R., Hakura, D. and Montiel, P. (2009). Remittances: An automatic output MoF. (2018). Economic Survey 2018/19. Kathmandu, Nepal: Government of Nepal. stabilizer. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. Pant, B. (2011). Harnessing Remittances for Productive Use in Nepal. 23(1). Cooray, A. (2012). The Impact of Migrant Remittances on Economic Growth: Evidence from South Asia. Review of International Economics, 20(5): 985-998. Rai, A. and Awale, S. (2016). Killed in the line of duty. Retrieved from Dahal, P. (2014). The impact of remittances on economic growth in Nepal: an https://nepalitimes.atavist.com/nepalis-killed-in-theline-of-duty. analysis of a significant basis of development. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Richard, H. and Adams, J. (2011). Evaluating the Economic Impact of International Administration, 2610-282. Remittances On Developing Countries Using Household Surveys: A Damber, U. (2017). The Impact of Remittances on Economic Growth in Nepal. Literature Review. Journal of Development Studies, 47(6): 809-828. Journal of Development Innovations, 114-134. Sapkota, C. (2013). Remittances in Nepal: Boon or Bane? The Journal of De Haas, H. (2007). Remittances, migration and social development: a conceptual Development Studies. review of the literature. United Nations Research Institute for Social Devel- Sharma, B. (2019). Remittances and Capacity Building Issues in Nepal. opment, Geneva. Retrieved from http://essays.ssrc.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16740-0_9 remittances_anthology/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/Topic_1_deHaas.pdf Shrestha, P. (2008). Contribution of Foreign Employment and Remittances to Dhungana, B.R. (2012). Remittance and Nepalese Economy. Retrieved from Nepalese Economy. 20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244810914 Shrestha, P.K. (2016). Liberalization and Growing Dependency of Nepalese Dhungel, K.R. (2014). Does Remittance in Nepal Cause Gross Domestic Product? Economy. Kathmandu, Nepal: Nepal Rastra Bank. An Empirical Evidence Using Vector Error Correction Model. International Taylor, J., Mora, J., Adams, J. and Lopez-Feldman, A. (2005). Remittances, inequali- Journal of Econometrics and Financial Management, 2(5): 168-174. ty and poverty:evidence from rural Mexico. Department of Agricultural DoFE. (2014). Labour Migration for Employment A Status Report for Nepal: Economics, University of California, Davis, CA. 2013/2014. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Labour and Employment. Tolcha, T.D. and Rao, D.N. (2016). The impact of economic growth in Ethiopia. DoFE. (2015). Details about foreign employment permit issued. Kathmandu: Indian Journal of Commerce & Management Studies, VII(2). Department of Foreign Employment. Turnell, S., Vicary, A. and Bradford, W. (2008). Migrant-worker remittances and Fajnzylber, P. and Lopez, H. (2007). Close to home: The development impact of Burma: an economic analysis of survey results. remittances in Latin America. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank. (2016). Migration and Remittance Book 2016. NW, Washington, DC. Giuliano, P. and Arranz, M.R. (2005). Remittances, Financial Development, and World Bank. (2019). Migration and Remittances Recent Developments and outlook.

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 5(1): 67-72 (2020) https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.0501010

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Preliminary toxicity assessment of chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) on terrestrial snail (Helix aspersa) Varun Dhiman Waste Management Laboratory, School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Shahpur- 176206 (Himachal Pradesh), INDIA E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT

Received: 27 January 2020 Chromium and lead are among the major toxicants that have their own environmental Revised received: 21 March 2020 concerns and are very harmful for living organisms even in small concentrations. The present Accepted: 22 March 2020 study is performed to evaluate the acute toxicity potential of chromium and lead on terrestrial

garden snail (Helix aspersa) at different concentration ranges from 1.0 mg/L to 20 mg/L at

different exposure time. In determining acute toxicity, LC50 values after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h for both the metals were determined by probit statistical analysis method. Graphs also plotted between percent mortality and used concentrations to obtain regression equation and R2 val- Keywords ues. The obtained median lethal concentration (LC50) for chromium were 15.13 mg/L, 12.88 Helix aspersa mg/L, 6.76 mg/L and 4.027 mg/L for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h period of exposure, respectively. Heavy metals Similarly, for lead obtained LC50 values were 15.282 mg/L, 6.095 mg/L, 2.094 mg/L and 1.352 LC 50 mg/L for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h period of exposure, respectively. The study signifies the role of Probit these metals in causing metal stress which leads to variation in electrolytes and A/G (Albumin Toxicity to Globulin) ratio. The analysis of obtained results revealed that chromium is less toxic to H. aspersa in comparison to lead at similar concentrations and exposure time. It is concluded that the present study is one of its own kind of approach which may contribute in developing standard protocols for determining preliminary toxicity assessment of different heavy metals.

©2020 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Citation of this article: Dhiman, V. (2020). Assessment Preliminary toxicity assessment of chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) on terrestrial snail (Helix aspersa). Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 5(1): 67-72, https://dx.doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2020.0501010

INTRODUCTION metals are comparatively highly toxic as compared to the essential metals that positively bind with number of enzymes as their Majority of the known heavy metals and their metalloids are co-factors. Besides their natural origin, heavy metals are always found to be highly toxic to the living organisms (Singh et al., remains a matter of serious concern due to their toxic actions on 2011). Exposure to minute concentration causes anomalies in our environment (Jaishankar et al., 2014). Terrestrial ecosystem the normal metabolic functioning of the animals and plants. is facing huge concern of heavy metal contamination (Tovar- Chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) are one of the known toxic metals Sánchez et al., 2018). Anthropogenic activities such as mineral existed in various forms in the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem mining, electronic waste dumping and use of plastics, releases influences the local flora and fauna (Wilbur, 2000; Ab Latif Wani the heavy metals in the terrestrial environment involve the and Usmani, 2015). Studies signifies the role of chromium in phenomenon of leaching (Tchounwou et al., 2012).This directly maintaining the carbohydrate and enzymatic metabolism in contaminates the terrestrial ecosystem. Non-biodegradable animal bodies (Havel, 2004) while lead is highly toxic in even nature of these metals is the main issue associated with them parts per billion level of concentration therefore considered as (Igiri et al., 2018). By following dfferent exposure routes like non-essential metal (Ab Latif Wani and Usmani, 2015). These inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption, they find their place

Varun Dhiman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 67-72 (2020) 68 in the soft tissues of the organisms and initiate the process of MATERIALS AND METHODS bio magnification (Jakimska et al., 2011). Through food chain they enter in the trophic levels. The risk assessment of these Samples collection heavy metals is basically analyzed on the basis of dose- Adult snails were collected from the surrounding area and with- response relationship (Zhang et al., 2007). Body of living organ- in the campus of central university of Himachal Pradesh, isms is unable to metabolize these metals which ultimately Dharamshala during rainy season in the month of September. causes toxicity in them and finally leads to death (Jan et al., Animals were transported to the lab in plastic boxes to the 2015). Therefore, toxicity test and assays have been conducted laboratory and placed in glass chambers (20×20×20cm) contain- to explore the toxic effects of these metals. ing moistened soil, organic matter from the same habitat. These Garden snail, Helix aspersa is among the terrestrial biotic snails were acclimatized to laboratory conditions by providing community which is very useful for pollution biomonitoring suitable habitat to them for fifteen days under room tempera- (Berger and Dallinger, 1993). Their soft tissues and shells are ture with 12 hours light and 12 hours of dark period using fluo- highly susceptible towards any kind of contamination. They rescent lamps. have the capability to bio accumulate these metal contaminants (Rać, Stachowska and Machoy, 2005). Moreover, Biochemical Sample preparation and metal concentration examinations prove them as potential bio monitoring agents for Crude extract is prepared by the physical sonication of snails heavy metals at particular site. Terrestrial garden snail, (Figure1) viscera for the absolute homogenization of the H. aspersa is used in the toxicity assay during the present study. extract. Both snails from metals treated and control chamber This snail species is found to be abundant and highly distributed are being used in preparation of homogenized crude samples for along the moist places, home gardens and agricultural field’s of further biochemical analysis. Before physical sonication, visceral shahpur area of Himachal Pradesh, India. They live in colonial parts are treated with 4N H2SO4. The prepared extract is culture (Selander and Kaufman, 1975) and love to eat calcium filtered out using Whatman filter paper no. 42. The samples rich food, fresh twigs and leaves of various cereals and vegeta- were stored in 50 ml glass vials at -20°C in a deep freezer until bles such as cabbage, lettuce, bamboo twigs etc. (Iglesias, 1999). further analysis. This research aims to study the preliminary toxic effects of Chromium and Lead salts used are of AR grade. Test concentra- chromium and lead on adult garden snail, Helix aspersa to tions were prepared from the stock solutions of both the heavy determine the electrolyte variations, changes in A/G protein metals using calibrated pipettes and graduated cylinders. In this ratio and mortality rate for each metal exposure at different experiment, the used Chromium concentrations were control, concentrations. 1.0, 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0 mg/L that was sprinkled on per 100 g of littering soil where snails are placed. In case of Lead, used concentrations were similar to Chromium. These concentration ranges were chosen on the basis of previous hit and trial studies.

Figure 1. Flow chart of sample preparation.

69 Varun Dhiman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 67-72 (2020)

Figure 2. Flame photometer analysis of potassium and lithium ions.

Toxicity assay Percent mortality conversion and probit regression analysis

In this preliminary study, two toxicity experiments were carried for LC50 estimation out in the departmental laboratory for determining toxic effects Probit method is useful in analyzing binomial response variables of Chromium and Lead on the terrestrial garden snail, H. aspersa. which involves regression analysis. Present study uses this The snails for experiment are transferred to glass chambers. approach to identify the dose-response relationship. For this Each chamber contains suitable moisture level which is purpose, the used concentrations of metals in the experiment maintained by using wet cotton cloth. Twenty snails were put were converted into log concentration values. Specially desig- per container with two replicates including the control chamber. nated “Finney’s table” is used for obtaining probit values of All the toxicity assay procedures are carried out in controlled percent mortality of snails used in the experiment (Vincent, conditions under room temperature of 28± 2°C with photoperi- 2008; Finney and Stevens, 1948). For the calculation of LC50 ods of 12 hour’s light and 12 hours dark. For carrying out the values of different metals used in various concentrations, experiment, equal sized snails are preferred and exposed to the following mathematical equation is used: given concentrations. Counting of snails is carried out at every 12 hours and mortalities were recorded during the whole proce- y= ax + b dure (Tables 2 and 3). The alive and dead snails from control and treated glass chambers are taken away for further biochemical Where a is variable; y is dependent variable; x is independent analysis. variable and b is intercept. In regression analysis, x variable and intercept are substituted in the above formula and y probit Biochemical analysis value of 50 using Finney’s table is substituted in the same Biochemical analysis of crude extract of the snail’s viscera equation. Here is the calculation procedure: involves the determination of biochemical changes in the electrolytes (Potassium and Lithium), variation in A/G protein y= ax + b ratio after metal exposure (Figure 2). y= variable x ± (intercept) 5= variable x ± (intercept) Flame photometer analysis 5± intercept = variable x Crude extract is taken in four different beakers and mixed with x= (5± intercept)/ x variable

4N H2S04 solution in equal proportion. Magnetic stirrer is used x= obtained value to mix the solution properly. The prepared solution is LC50= antilog of value of x transferred to water bath until water has been evaporated from LC50= 10^x the solution and charred mass remains. After this process, remaining mass is transferred into muffle furnace at a tempera- LC50= Required result ture of 500 °C for the preparation of ash. The ash formed is Before the determination of probit values, the mortality rate of diluted to 100 cc of distilled water and formed solutions are snails is calculated using the Abotte’s formula (Rosenheim and filtered out to carryout flame photometer analysis. The main Hoy, 1989). The LC50 values for different time intervals were purpose of ash preparation is to remove ron salts from the crude taken from 5 probit value mentioned in Finney’s table because extract as they interfere with sodium ions during flame this value corresponds to 50% of the mortality. The actual LC50 photometer analysis (Figure 2). was calculated by taking inverse log of the used concentrations.

Varun Dhiman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 67-72 (2020) 70

Table 1. Variations in i) Total protein; ii) Albumen level and iii) A/G ratio in metal (Pb, Cr) stress in comparison to control.

Glass Chambers Total Protein (g/dL) Albumen Level (g/dL) A/G Ratio (g/dL) Control Chamber <3.00 0.02 -1.00 Pb Treated <3.00 0.01 0.11 Cr Treated <3.00 0.01 0.11

Table 2. Mortality recorded in snails at different Cr concentrations (different time intervals). Exposure hours No. of snails Per chamber Cr concentrations (mg/L) in 100 g soil Control 1.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 24 hr 0 0 03 06 09 48 hr 20 0 02 06 09 12 72 hr 0 02 09 12 15 96 hr 0 04 11 14 17

Table 3. Mortality recorded in snails at different Pb concentrations (different time intervals). Exposure hours No. of snails Per chamber Pb concentrations (mg/L) in 100 g soil Control 1.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 24 hr 0 02 05 08 12 48 hr 20 0 05 08 11 15 72 hr 0 08 12 15 18 96 hr 0 10 13 17 19

Table 4. Log concentrations and probit values when exposed to Chromium after 24 and 48 h. Number 24 h 48 h Cr concentration (mg/L) Log concentration of snails used per chamber % Mortality Probit % Mortality Probit 1.0 0 0 0 10 3.72 5.0 0.698970004 15 3.96 30 4.48 10.0 1 20 30 4.48 45 4.87 20.0 1.301029996 45 4.87 60 5.25

Table 5. Log concentrations and probit values when exposed to Chromium after 72 and 96 h.

Number 72 h 96 h Cr concentration (mg/L) Log concentration of snails used per chamber % Mortality Probit % Mortality Probit 1.0 0 10 3.72 20 4.16 5.0 0.698970004 45 4.87 55 5.13 20 10.0 1 60 5.25 70 5.52 20.0 1.301029996 75 5.67 85 6.04

Table 6. Log concentrations and probit values when exposed to Lead after 24 and 48 h. Number 24 h 48 h Pb concentration (mg/L) Log concentration of snails used per chamber % Mortality Probit % Mortality Probit 1.0 0 10 3.72 25 4.33 5.0 0.698970004 25 4.33 40 4.75 20 10.0 1 40 4.75 55 5.13 20.0 1.301029996 60 5.25 75 5.67

Table 7. Log concentrations and probit values when exposed to Lead after 72 and 96 h. Number 72 h 96 h Pb concentration (mg/L) Log concentration of snails used per chamber % Mortality Probit % Mortality Probit 1.0 0 40 4.75 50 5.00 5.0 0.698970004 60 5.25 65 6.30 20 10.0 1 75 5.67 85 6.04 20.0 1.301029996 90 6.28 95 6.64

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in its body elecrolytes (Capillo et al., 2018). On comparison to other studies, the results of present study reveals the similar Anthropogenic activities such as high rate of urbanization and trend in changes in the A/G ratio and electrolytes of the target industrialization are responsible for environmental pollution. snail on exposure to different concentrations of chromium and Mainly release of heavy metals in the environment is a serious lead. The obtained results discussed below: threat. By determining the changes in A/G protein ratio and electrolyte disturbance in the crude extract of Helix aspersa, we A/G Protein ratio can easily predict the toxic potential of heavy metals and their On analyzing the total protein ratio of untreated and metal harmful effects on the environment. Studies have been made to treated snails, it was found that the total protein content in all access changes in the protein content on exposure to different the snails was less than <3.00 g/dL while the albumen level de- heavy metals which reveals the disturbed protein metabolism in creases from 0.02 (control chamber) to 0.01 g/dL in both lead different snail species (Waykar and Petare, 2018). Similarly, A and chromium treated snails. A huge difference is recorded in A/ study in year 2018 assess impacts of heavy metals in marine G ratio in metal treated snails as compared to control. The A/G mollusk Mytilus galloprovincialis, reveals the typical fluctuations ratio is increases from -1.00 g/dL to 0.11 g/dL in both lead and chromium treated snails (Table 1) which highlighted that the rate of proteins in the snail’s body increases in a manner in the presence of heavy metals. These results go in the same direction with a study carried out by Masaya and his associates in year 2000 which highlighted a significant increase in the protein rate under the effect of a chemical stress at different biological models (Masaya et al., 2002).

Electrolytes disturbance Flame photometer analysis shows significant variation in the electrolyte balance in the extract of snails in control and others facing metal stress. The analysis of lead and chromium treated snails extract shows decline in K+ and Li+ ions level.

LC50 and snail’s mortality rate In this experiment four concentrations of chromium and lead viz. 0.1 mg/L, 5.00 mg/L, 10.00 mg/L and 20.00 mg/L were taken and mortality rate was observed after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h exposure respectively (Tables 2 and 3). It was observed that, on Figure 3. Plot of metal concentrations (Cr) versus snail’s mortality from table increasing dose and exposure time, mortality rate was signifi- 4 and table 5 at different exposure periods. cantly increased. Lowest mortality was observed at 1.0 mg/L exposure for 24 hours while 85% mortality rate (Table 4 and Table 5) was observed in the snails for 96 hours for chromium exposure of varied concentrations. Similarly, in case of lead exposure, higher mortality rate was observed as compared to chromium at similar concentrations. 60% and 95% of mortality was observed in 24 and 96 hours at 20 mg/L concentration exposure respectively (Table 6 and Table 7). The concentrations taken in the whole experiment were converted into log concentrations and their corresponding probit values.

By taking antilog, actual LC50 values obtained for chromium were 15.13 mg/L, 12.88 mg/L, 6.76 mg/L and 4.027 mg/L for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h period of exposure respectively. Similarly, for

lead obtained LC50 values were 15.282 mg/L, 6.095 mg/L, 2.094 mg/L and 1.352 mg/L for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h period of exposure, respectively. Some physical and behavioral changes were also observed during the experiment. Avoiding behavior, random movements, mucus secretion from the body, Color of snails appeared dark brown, stop feeding and restlessness before Figure 4. Plot of metal concentrations (Pb) versus snail’s mortality from death were some of the major observations. These changes can table 6 and table 7 at different exposure periods.

Varun Dhiman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 5(1): 67-72 (2020) 72 be attributed to an increase in physiological stress due to metal nary toxicology. Slovak Toxicology Society, 8(2): 55. Berger, B. and Dallinger, R. (1993). Terrestrial snails as quantitative indicators of intoxication. The Figure 3 and 4 shows the graphical representa- environmental metal pollution. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 25 tion of metal concentrations versus snail’s mortality. By plotting (1): 65–84. the graph, regression and R2 values were obtained for both the Capillo, G., Silvestro, S., Sanfilippo, M., Fiorino, E., Giangrosso, G., Ferrantelli, V. and metals at different time intervals. Faggio, C. (2018). Assessment of electrolytes and metals profile of the Faro Lake (Capo Peloro Lagoon, Sicily, Italy) and its impact on Mytilus galloprovincialis. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 15(5): 1800044. Conclusion Finney, D.J. and Stevens, W.L. (1948). A table for the calculation of working probits and weights in probit analysis. Biometrika. JSTOR, 35(1/2): 191–201. Havel, P. J. (2004). A scientific review: the role of chromium in insulin resistance. The present investigation is an attempt to measure variable Diabetes Educator. SAGE Publications Inc., 30(3 SUPPL.): 1–14. toxic effects of chromium and lead on the garden snail, Helix Igiri, B.E., Okoduwa, S.I., Idoko, G.O., Akabuogu, E.P., Adeyi, A.O. and Ejiogu, I.K. aspersa. The mortality rate increases with the increase of metal (2018). Toxicity and bioremediation of heavy metals contaminated ecosys- concentrations in the soil and also with increasing the duration tem from tannery wastewater: a review. Journal of Toxicology. Article ID 2568038, 1-16, https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2568038 of exposure. General observation was made that, the Helix Iglesias, J. (1999). Field observations on feeding of the land snail Helix aspersa aspersa become more susceptible to the toxic effects of both Muller. Journal of Molluscan Studies, 65: 411–423, https://doi.org/ 10.1093/ metals by increasing their ambient concentrations. H. aspersa mollus/65.4.411 Jaishankar, M., Tseten, T., Anbalagan, N., Mathew, B.B. and Beeregowda, K.N. could be used as cheap living model bio indicator for heavy (2014). Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy metals. metals biomonitoring in terrestrial ecosystem by observing Interdisciplinary Toxicology, 7(2): 60-72. physiological and chemical changes occurred due to metal Jakimska, A., Konieczka, P., Skóra, K. and Namieśnik, J. (2011). Bioaccumulation of stress. Flame photometer analysis shows the deviation in metals in tissues of marine animals, part I: the role and impact of heavy metals on organisms. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 20(5): 1117-1125 normal trend of electrolytes concentration as compared to con- Jan, A.T., Azam, M., Siddiqui, K., Ali, A., Choi, I. and Haq, Q.M. (2015). Heavy metals trol. Also, changes have been observed in A/G ratio of the pro- and human health: mechanistic insight into toxicity and counter defense tein content due to these metals exposure. Regarding metal system of antioxidants. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16(12): 29592-29630. toxicity, chromium was found less toxic than lead to this snail Masaya, M., Yoshinobu, H., Ai, Y., Maki, K., & Yasuo, O. (2002). Determination of species. This study is valuable and highly important for the cellular levels of nonprotein thiols in phytoplankton and their correlations determination of LC50 concentration and total mortality dose to with susceptibility to mercury. Journal of Physiology, 38(5): 983. terrestrial living communities. This study also proves to be Rać, M., Stachowska, E. and Machoy, Z. (2005). Shell of Snail Helix aspersa maxima (Helicidae) as a protection of bioaccumulation toxic sodium fluoride in Soft fruitful in developing future understanding of ecological and Tissue. Folia Biologica, 53: 235–238, environmental concerns associated with chromium and lead. https://doi.org/10.3409/173491605775142783 Rosenheim, J.A. and Hoy, M.A. (1989). Confidence intervals for the Abbott’s formula correction of bioassay data for control response. Journal of Economic ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Entomology. Oxford University Press Oxford, UK, 82(2): 331-335. Selander, R.K. and Kaufman, D.W. (1975). Genetic structure of populations of the Author desire to acknowledge Department of Environmental brown snail (Helix aspersa). I. Microgeographic variation’, Evolution. Wiley Sciences, Central University of Himachal Pradesh for providing Online Library, 29(3): 385–401. Singh, R., Gautam, N., Mishra, A. and Gupta, R. (2011). Heavy metals and living necessary facilities and valuable support to accomplish this systems: An overview. Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 43(3): 246. research work. Tchounwou, P.B., Yedjou, C.G., Patlolla, A.K. and Sutton, D.J. (2012). Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology: Volume 3: Environmental Toxicology. A. Luch. Conflict of interest: The author declares that there is no conflict Tovar-Sánchez, E., Hernández-Plata, I., Martínez, M.S., Valencia-Cuevas, L. and of interest. Galante, P.M. (2018). Heavy Metal Pollution as a Biodiversity Threat. Heavy Metals, 383. Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under Vincent, K. (2008). Probit analysis. San Francisco: San Francisco State University. the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License, Waykar, B. and Petare, R. (2018). Comparative variations in protein contents of three freshwater snails Bellamya bengalensis, Mellanoides tuberculata and which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction Lymnaea acuminata collected from Dedargaon reserviours of Dhule district in any medium, provided the original author(s) if the sources are (M.S.) India, on exposure to heavy metals. https://doi.org/10.24327/ credited. ijcar.2017.7918.1252 Wilbur, S.B. (2000). Toxicological profile for chromium. US Department of Health

and Human Services. Public Health Service, Agency. REFERENCES Zhang, M., Aguilera, D., Das, C., Vasquez, H., Zage, P., Gopalakrishnan, V. and Wolff, J. (2007). Measuring cytotoxicity: a new perspective on LC50. Ab Latif Wani, A. A. and Usmani, J. A. (2015). Lead toxicity: a review. Interdiscipli- Anticancer research, 27(1A): 35-38.

About the Journal

ISSN Number : 2456-6632 (Online) Title : Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (AAES) Periodicity : Four issue in a year (March, June, September and December) Publisher : Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Haridwar-249408 (Uttarakhand), India Journal Homepage : www.aesacademy.org Email : [email protected]

Official Cover Page

he journal Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (AAES) is a peer- reviewed, multi-disciplinary, open T access International Journal that provides rapid publication (on monthly basis) of original research articles as well as review articles. It publishes research papers in all areas of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. All papers are subjected to peer review by members of the editorial board or qualified reviewers by the use of double blind peer review system and if accepted it will be published in the coming issues (March, June, September and December) of the journal. Agricultural chemistry, Agricultural development, Agricultural economics, Agricultural engineering, Agricultural entomology, Agricultural extension, Agricultural genomics, Agricultural microbiology, Agro-ecology, Agronomy, Animal science, Aquaculture, Bioinformatics, Bio-processing, Bioremediation, Crop science, Cytogenetics, Dairy science, Ecosystems services, Environmental impacts, Environmental pollution, remediation and restoration, Environmental microbiology, Environmental toxicology, Environmental sciences, Epigenetic, Food and nutritional sciences, Forestry, GIS and remote sensing applications, Horticulture, Irrigation Science, Lives stock production, Marine science, Medicinal plants, Natural resource ecology and management, Nutrient recycling, Pesticide science, Plant breeding, Plant patho- logy, Plant protection, Pollution Research, Post-harvest biology and technology, Poultry science, Seed science research, Soil science, Stored products research, Sustainable Development, Systematic biology, Tree fruit production, Toxicology, Vegetable Science, Waste management, Water resources management and Weed biology and other related disciplines.

Dr. Vinod Kumar Editor-In-Chief

Guidelines for Authors

The journal ‘Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science’ publishes papers of international significance relating to the Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Science and related fields.

• Types of papers

Original papers (Regular papers) should report the results of original research. The material should not have been published previously elsewhere, except in a preliminary form. Reviews should cover a part of the subject of active current interest. They may be submitted or invited.  A Short communication is a concise, but complete, description of a limited investigation, which will not be  included in a later paper.  Short communications should be as completely documented, both by reference to the literature and description of the experimental procedures employed, as a regular paper. They should not occupy more than 6 printed pages (about 12 manuscript pages, including figures, etc.).  Letter to the Editor: correspondence.

• Language

The manuscripts must be written in good English (American or British usage is accepted, mixture of these should be avoided).

• Ethics in publishing

For information on Ethics in publishing and Ethical guidelines for journal publication read the guidelines.

• Conflict of interest

All authors are requested to disclose any actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappro- priately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work.

• Copyright

Upon acceptance of an article, authors will be asked to complete a 'Journal Publishing Agreement' (for more information on this and copyright. An e-mail will be sent to the corresponding author confirming receipt of the manuscript together with a 'Journal Publishing Agreement' form or a link to the online version of this agreement.

• Submission

The research papers/reviews/short communications can be submitted for its forthcoming issues. The research papers can be submitted any time preferably online at www.aesacademy.org or via email to [email protected] or [email protected]. All correspondence, including notification of the Editor's decision and requests for revision, will take place by e-mail. All submissions must be accompanied by a cover letter detailing what you are submitting.

• Referees

Authors are required to identify four persons who are qualified to serve as reviewers. Authors are requested not to suggest reviewers with whom they have a personal or professional relationship, especially if that relationship would

prevent the reviewer from having an unbiased opinion of the work of the authors. A working e-mail address for each reviewer is essential for rapid review in the event that reviewer is selected from those that are identified by the authors. You may also select reviewers you do not want to review your manuscript, but please state your reason for doing so.

• Article structure

Title of the manuscript: The title of the manuscript should be short, specific and informative. The author(s) name and their full address with the name of the department, institute, city, pin code, state and country. Complete addresses of corresponding author along with E-mail id must be provided on the title page and the name of corresponding author must be indicated by star (*) in the names of authors. Abstract: Abstract (not to exceed 250 words) should be written with the aim, major findings (numerical values) and a conclusion statement including novelty of the work. Keywords: At least three to five keywords must be added at the end of abstract. Keywords must not be included in the title of the manuscript. Introduction: Clearly write the introduction of research problem, objectives of the work and provide an adequate background, avoiding a detailed literature survey or a summary of the results and significance of the study in the introduction section. Materials and Methods: Materials and methods should be written clearly and systematically. Standard methods used in the study should be mentioned. Provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced. Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described. Results and Discussion: Results should be clear and concise and should be presented either in the tables and figures. Repetition of results should be avoided. Results should be discussed with input of current references and should explore the significance of the results of the work, not repeat them. A combined Results and Discussion section is often appropriate. Avoid extensive and old citations and discussion of published literature. Conclusions: The main conclusions of the study may be presented in a short conclusions section followed by Results and Discussion section. Conclusion should be written in view of the major findings of the study. Do not use non-standard or case-specific abbreviations in the Conclusions. Citations should be avoided in the conclusion section. Acknowledgements: Funding agency that provided financial support for the conduct of the research : and/or preparation of the manuscript and to briefly describe the role of the sponsor(s), if any, in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication should be acknowledged. Grant number/file number must be mentioned for a funding agency. Abbreviations: Abbreviations should be defined in the text where they are used first. Tables: Tables should not be excessively large. All the tables should be cited consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters. Carefully use the tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. Table caption for each table must be provided. Figures: Colour or grayscale figure with high resolution must be provided. In case of graphs well defined axis should be preferred. Figure caption for each figure must be provided. References: All the references should be cited both in the text and reference section of the manuscript and vice versa. Citation in the text section  For single author: The author's name (without initials, unless there is ambiguity) and the year of publication, Example: (Chopra, 2015).  For two authors: Both authors' names and the year of publication, Example: (Kumar and Chopra, 2015).  For three or more authors: First author's name followed by 'et al.' and the year of publication, Example: (Kumar et al., 2015). Groups of references: should be listed chronologically of their publication year. More than one reference from the same author(s) in the same year must be identified by the letters 'a', 'b', 'c', etc., placed after the year of publication. , Example: (Kumar and Chopra, 2014a; 2014b; 2014c).

III

Citation in reference section Reference to a journal publication  For single author: Kumar, V. (2014). Fertigation response of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra) with sugar mill effluent in two different seasons. International Journal of Agricultural Science Research, 3(9): 164-180.  For two authors: Kumar, V. and Chopra, A.K. (2014). Ferti-irrigational impact of sugar mill effluent on agronomical characteristics of Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) in two seasons. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186: 7877–7892. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-014-3974-4  For three or more authors: A.K., Srivastava, S., Kumar, V. and Pathak C. (2013). Agro-potentiality of distillery effluent on soil and agronomical characteristics of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185: 6635-6644. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-012-3052-8

Reference to a book publication  Mettam, G.R., Adams, L.B. (2009). How to prepare an electronic version of your article, in: Jones, B.S.,  Smith, R.Z. (Eds.), Introduction to the Electronic Age. E-Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 281–304.

Reference to a book chapter  Kumar, V. and Chopra, A.K. (2013). Contamination of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with textile effluent at Haridwar (Uttarakhand). Climate Change Effects on Agriculture and Economy, Biotech Books, New Delhi, 73-80.

Reference to an online documentation  The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. (2004). Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertaintie. pp, 20-22. Retrieved August, 18 2006 from www.nanotec.org.uk/finalreport.htm

• Submission checklist

The following list will be useful during the final checking of an article prior to sending it to the journal for review. Please consult this Guide for Authors for further details of any item. Ensure that the following items are present:

 One author has been designated as the corresponding author with contact details:  E-mail address  Full postal address  All necessary files have been uploaded, and contain:  Keywords  All figure captions  All tables (including title, description, footnotes)  Further considerations  Manuscript has been 'spell-checked' and 'grammar-checked'  References are in the correct format for this journal  All references mentioned in the Reference list are cited in the text, and vice versa  Permission has been obtained for use of copyrighted material from other sources (including the internet)

• Submission and publication

There is no publication charge for publication of manuscripts in Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. As all the articles will be published with DOI number, and the Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy is a not for profit society registered under the societies registration Act XXI of 1860 (E) and do not getting any funding from any sources thus, only a reasonable DOI services charges will be borne by the authors. The author shall submit their manuscript via e-mail or through the online submission portal (http://www.aesacademy.org/). The submitted

manuscript will be acknowledged and a manuscript number is allotted, then the manuscript will be sent for review by the potential reviewer(s). On completion of the review process and depending on the quality of manuscript, the authors will be informed of the decision after which he/she may be invited to revise the manuscript and to make changes/ corrections, if any. After submission of the revised manuscript it will be checked for the changes made by the author(s). After that, if the manuscript is accepted, an acceptance letter will be send to the corresponding author. The decision of Editor-in-Chief would be final for the acceptance of manuscript for publication in the journal. A galley proof will be sent to the corresponding author who should be returned within five days of receipt, by e-mail. However, on non-receipt of the proof, the papers will be published on the recommendation of Editor-in-Chief to avoid any delay in publication. A secured pdf (e-print) file of the published research paper/review article would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the members of Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy.

• Proofs

Galley proofs of the accepted manuscript will be sent to the corresponding author and should be returned within five days of receipt by e-mail. However, on non-receipt of the proof, the care would be taken by the publisher to get the papers corrected and published at the earliest possible. As part of our Go Green initiative, AESA has decided to publish the journal online. This will help us to fulfill our environmental commitment to care of our mother earth for ourselves and generations to come. There will be nominal charges to cover publication and administrative costs. A secured e-print (pdf file) of the published research paper/review article would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the members of Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy. Authors will be able to access the manuscript published in the journal after free registration on the website of the journal.

• Other contributions

The book reviews/announcements of forthcoming seminars/conferences and their reports/ book reviews/letters to the editors would also be considered by the Editors for publication.

*Fellow of the Academy (FAESA): The life members of the academy will be considered for the fellow of the academy. The payments would be accepted preferably online /or through Bank transfer.

This form is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org e-ISSN: 2456-6632

Subscription Form

• Section “I” Name of applicant (In capital latters): Km/Mr./Miss/Dr./Prof./______

Designation: ______Affix a passport Department: ______size photograph Institution /Organization: ______Educational Qualifications: ______Research Field: ______

• Section “II” Type of Membership (Check √): Annual ( ) / Lifetime ( ) / Individual ( ) / Institutional ( ) Year of Membership: From ____/____/______to ____/____/______or lifetime ( ) or renewal ( )

• Section “III” Mailing Address: ______Phone (with code): ______Fax (with code): ______E-mail: ______

• Section “IV” Self Declaration I herby declare that all the information given by me in this form are true. I am enclosing herewith an Online payment Invoice No. ______of worth INR/USD ______(in words ______) in favor of “Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy” payable at Haridwar towards my selected membership/subscription. I am agree with the rules and regulations of Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy.

Dated: ______Signature of Applicant

Instructions: 1. All fields are necessary. 2. A copy of this completely filled form should be sent by registered/speed post to the address: Dr. Vinod Kumar (President), Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy 86, Gurubaksh Vihar (East) Kankhal Haridwar-249408, Uttarakhand, India or via email to [email protected] . 3. Do not staple the form with demand draft or any other document. Membership/Subscription Information

INSIDE INDIA (INR) OUTSIDE INDIA (USD) Publication charges NIL Publication charges NIL Annual membership 1000 Annual membership 100 Life membership 5000 Life membership 500 Individual subscription of hard copy per issue 1500 Individual subscription of hard copy per issue 150 Institutional subscription of hard copy per 2500 Institutional subscription of hard copy per 250 issue issue

*Fellowship of the Academy (FAESA): The life members of the academy will be considered for the fellow of the academy. For any query email us at [email protected]

Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy | Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science For any query visit journal homepage or email us at [email protected]

This content is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org e-ISSN: 2456-6632

Publication Agreement and Copyright Transfer Form Manuscript ID: AAES/______(to be allotted by publisher only) Title of Manuscript : ______*Name of Authors : 1. ______2. ______3. ______4. ______

1. I the undersigned corresponding author, agree to the following on behalf of myself and my co-authors (the Authors) that I, have read and followed the publication ethics and best practice guidelines of the Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. 2. The Authors are the sole author(s) of the Article and have full authority to enter into this agreement and in granting rights to AGRO-ENVIRON MEDIA are not in breach of any other obligation. 3. The content of the manuscript is original and not any part of it is not under consideration by any other journal. It has not been published previously (except as an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis). 4. Nothing in the Article is obscene, defamatory, and libelous, violates any right of privacy or publicity, infringes any intellectual property rights (including without limitation copyright, patent, database or trademark rights) or any other human, personal or other rights of any person or entity or is otherwise unlawful. If however the Article includes material from other sources the Authors warrant they have obtained the necessary rights from the owners of the copyright to publish all such material. 5. The accuracy of content given to the journal, in particular the names of co-authors present and correctly spelled, and that ad-dresses and affiliations are up to date. I ensure that all the co-authors have agreed to all of the contents. I will notify all the authors when the Manuscript is accepted. I am answerable to all the enquiries on behalf of all the co-authors. 6. I am solely responsible for maintaining proper communication with the journal and between co-authors, before and after publication. I ensure that all authors have seen and approved the final version of the paper and all are aware about the submission of the paper. I agree to grant complete rights of my work to the journal from the moment when the Manuscript is accepted for publication. 7. The authors of Manuscript have no commercial associations (e.g., consultancies, stock ownership, equity interests, patent licensing arrangements, etc.) that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted Manuscript, except as dis-closed on a separate attachment. All funding sources supporting the work and all institutional or corporate affiliations of mine/ours are acknowledged in a footnote. 8. I agree that all the matter like accepted/rejected Manuscript inclusive of Figures/Photographs etc. is kept for one year only and after that the matter may be destroyed with the decision of Editor-in-Chief. 9. Open Access of the article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro-vided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. 10. I agree that no responsibility is assumed by the Journal, its staff or members of the advisory/ editorial board for any injury and / or damaged to persons or property as the matter of Products legal responsibility, ignore or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products instruction , advertisements or ideas contained in the publication by the journal.

Dated : ______Corresponding Author’s Signature Corr. Author : ______Full Address: ______E-mail: ______

Note : Please sign and submit the scanned copy of this form along with gallery proof of the manuscript. *Include individual author’s names only not any publisher.

Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy | Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science For any query visit journal homepage or email us at [email protected]

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Archives of of Archives Science Environmental and Agriculture

An International International An Journal

Volume Volume

Issue Issue

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Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

www.aesacademy.org

2020 Year