Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Home , Baba Amte, Social security in India, Sunderlal Bahuguna

Editor Prof. Gracious Thomas

School of Social Work Indira Gandhi National Open University Maidan Garhi, New Delhi 110068 March, 2010

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Printed at : Preface History of Social Work is an age old phenomenon. The seeds of the origin of Social Work could be traced from global ideologies which include humanism, rationalism, welfarism, liberalism, democracy, secularism and utilitarianism. Selfish desires and human sufferings existed in societies across the globe alongwith concern for the poor and the concept of mutual assistance to protect humanity. Social work emerged from the perspectives of charity, social reforms, and social and welfare services. Local rulers, kings, queens, landlords, foreign conquerors, and elected governments across the world did initiate welfare programmes to extant the much needed care and support to the people. World religions and philanthropists too provided welfare services to mitigate, the sufferings of people. Social Work concepts in India thus had its origins in charity, reform movements, religious teachings, and initiatives by philanthropists. Although professional social work was recognized and developed by western societies, the bases on which the profession grew simultaneously existed in every continent. India perhaps has a stronger foundation in terms of philanthropic concerns. The contribution of various religions, care and support initiatives provided by local rulers and subsequently by the elected governments of the Independent India bear witness to this debate. In this volume some of the best social work professionals have presented rich evidence of the contributions made by the state which include kings, queens, local rulers and elected governments in India from pre-colonial period to the present day democratically elected government, initiatives by renowned individuals, social reforms through social movements, initiatives by NGOs, initiatives by Hindu, Islam, Sikh, Jain, Buddhist and Christian religions and the Gandhian concepts related to social work. The authors have also dealt at length about the current status of professional social work education, training, practice as well as the extent of availability of social work literature in India. The nineteen chapters presented in this volume provide adequate literature about the history of social work in India from various perspectives. This is the first ever effort by professional social workers to record the origin and development of social work in Indian sub-continent. Obligations involved in the preparation of this volume have been many. It is not feasible to adequately express the debt that I owe to the many experts, institutions and documents that assisted me to make this compilation possible. On behalf of the School of Social Work, IGNOU, I wish to express our profound gratitude to several authors from across the country who include Dr. Neena Pandey, M. Manju Gupta, Ms. Sushmita Patel, Dr. Bishnu Mohan Dash, Mr. K.K. Singh, Ms. Nita Kumari, Dr. V.V. Devasia, Ms. Manju Kumar, Prof. M.Z. Khan, Dr. Ushvinder Kaur Popli, Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan, Dr. Suresh Pathare, Prof. Ashok Sarkar, Mr. Gurupada Saren, Mr. Narender Dubey, Ms. Trishti Bhardwaj, Prof. Sanjai Bhatt, Dr. R. Nalini and Dr. S.R. Billore for their valuable contribution which have made this compilation rich, interesting, educative and immensely useful to faculty, scholars and students of social work. Despite the limitations, I hope that this volume will provide the much required resources to the readers in learning the history of social work in India. PROF. GRACIOUS THOMAS Director School of Social Work, IGNOU New Delhi Contents

1. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 1 Neena Pandey, Manju Gupta, Sashmita Patel 2. History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 55 Bishnu Mohan Dash 3. History of Social Work: 77 Initiatives through Social Movements Bishnu Mohan Das 4. History of Social Work: 106 Initiatives by NGOs K.K. Singh, Nita Kumari 5. Hinduism and Social Work 139 Manju Kumar 6. Islam and Social Work 164 M.Z. Khan 7. Sikhism and Social Work 182 Ushvinder Kaur Popli 8. Jainism and Social Work 202 Gracious Thomas, Ashutosh Pradhan 9. Buddhism and Social Work 221 Gracious Thomas, Nita Kumari 10. Christianity and Social Work 244 Suresh Pathare 11. Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 265 S.R. Billore 12. Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 287 S.R. Billore 13. Gandhian Social Work: 306 Methods and Techniques S.R. Billore 14. Gandhian Social Work: 327 The Historical Perspective S.R. Billore 15. Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 343 S.R. Billore 16. Growth of Social Work Education 362 and Training Tushti Bhardwaj 17. Social Work Literature 380 Sanjai Bhatt 18. Involvement of Social Workers in 398 National Development R. Nalini, Tushti Bhardwaj 19. Career Prospects in Professional 418 Social Work R. Nalini 1 History of Social Work: State Initiatives

*Neena Pande, Manju Gupta Sashmita Patel

Introduction

History of Social Work in India is an age old phenomenon. Though Social Work as a profession was recognized and developed by western countries yet the bases on which the profession rests upon very well exist in the foundation of Indian history. The seeds of evolution of Social Work could be explored in world ideologies i.e. secular, humanism, protestantism, rationalism, welfarism, liberalism democracy and utilitarianism. The notion of welfare stemmed up in India in the roots of Dharma. The history of human sufferings and selfish desire too persisted in human society and so existed the mutual assistance to provide protections to humanity. History speaks volume of initiatives taken by kings, queens, landlords, foreign conquerors and invaders, and also under the system of diarchy and later under the constitutional reform of 1935 which ushered in a new era of popularly elected government in the provinces. Social Work emerged as a profession from the perspectives of social services, charity, reform and welfare. Social Work traveled a long way from welfare to empowerment and development and the present emphasis of the profession is protecting and

*Dr. Neena Pandey, Ms. Manju Gupta, Ms. Sashmita Patel, Aditi Mahavidyalaya, Delhi University, Delhi. 2 Origin and Development of Social Work in India promoting people’s rights. In this section you will find details on the following:

● Initiatives by local rulers of Ancient and Medieval period ● State Initiatives during colonial period ● Post-independence state and central initiatives. Initiatives by Local Rulers: Kings, Queens, Landlords in Ancient India

Strong ethical and spiritual values were part of Indian traditions since early Vedic period. The seeds of human development were served since the origin of Indian society. The spirit of social service manifested itself in various ways in different spheres of life, and inspired both individuals and organized group of people in society. Dimensions of welfare during ancient times evolved in diverse ways but we shall touch upon important phases only, i.e. Pre-Vedic, Vedic and the golden era of Gupta period. Pre-Vedic Period has been the age of invention like other societies of Europe and Greek and India has not been an exception to it. Human being’s relation with environment was existing since beginning and was the basis of survival. The society had a great deal of planning during this period introducing urbanization with planned structure and architecture. It is believed that institutions like law, custom, agriculture, religion existed and guided the people before Aryans migrated to India. People’s self initiated indigenous systems were very much at place before the Aryans arrived. Later the discoveries in 1922-23 A.D. inform about the technology used in Harappan and Mohinjo-daro in Sindh. The excellent and advanced town planning shows the acceptance of each class in society i.e. rich and poor. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 3

The designing of the house and the pattern were such that they show an advance architecture and administration which was need based. Welfare administration is well reflected through advanced and well planned public spaces, the drainage system. This provides the pattern of community life with set rules is an example of people’s friendly society. It is worth to mention that high level of respect and dignity were endorsed to women. The gender inequality has become a challenge today but it is proud to mention that high ideas of social work were practiced during Indus Valley Civilization. Not only human beings even the animals were respected. Lord Shiva has been depicted as ‘pashupati’ (lord of animals) in the architecture of this primitive civilization. The Vedic period provides life’s highest orders, which is found in the Aryan’s scriptures entitled ‘Veda’ i.e. Rigveda, Samveda, Yazurveda, Atharvaveda. It emphasized that the religious hymns and music, sacrifices and knowledge are the soul of human life. The learning of Veda was called Shruti, which was memorizing through listening. One of the finest skills of case work counseling is ‘Listening’ which was practiced in the ‘Pathashala’ mode of education where the ‘Guru’, the teacher used to recite and the disciples practiced the listening and oratory skills and learnt the lessons. It is during Vedic period we locate state authority in the form of family and tribe. Mazumdar informs that the family served as the foundation of the state. A number of families, bound together by real or supposed ties of kindred, formed a clan, several clans formed a district, and a number of these districts composed a tribe, which was considered to be the highest political unit. The monarchy involved many officials to ensure welfare and protection of people. There were messengers and spies to assess people’s feelings towards the state, monarchy 4 Origin and Development of Social Work in India and affairs related to society. Even today we find that assessment of needs and understanding and prioritizing these needs becomes the most important steps towards problem solving. The essential institutions invariably constitute the core of social living even today were marriage, education, religion, laws etc. which emerged during the Vedic period. The assemblies called as ‘sabhas’ and ‘samitis’ were constituted for decision making and ensured people’s participation. Charity in Vedic era was considered as morality. Helping the needy and beggar were praised as moral behaviour. One can conclude that seeds of social welfare were sworn in Indian subcontinent in its early civilizations. There are many stories in Indian literature on ‘Dana’ (charity). We have examples of ‘Karna’ a character from Mahabharata considered as ‘Danveer’ (a giver), Raja Harishschandra as ‘Satyawadi’ (truthful) and Raja Bhoj as an advocate whose justice mechanism was based on human values. The nature and the environment were considered part of religion to be respected and protected. The values, which are being looked for practice today were a part of history of Indian society. It was during the early Vedic era, women were enjoying equal positions. There is a reference of women ‘rishis’ apala, Maitreyi Ghosha. Inequality on the basis of gender was missing but in the later Vedic era with the growth of large territorial state women’s status received the inferior status. The women have accomplished high status as educators, rishis and brahamcharinis. There were forty Sanskaras associated with human life, individual’s age, growth and development. Out of eight types of marriages the Paisacha, Rakshasa and Asura marriages were considered as unlawful. We find similar contemporary challenge before social work in addressing the situations of increasing crimes against women. The ashrama system of ancient times delegated duties History of Social Work: State Initiatives 5 associated with relationships to provide discipline in human lives. The Mauryan Empire provides the information of separate Department of administration and municipal boards. Chandaashoka (Ferocious Ashoka) adopted Buddhism and devoted his life to humanistic values. The eight fold paths of Buddhism finds its relevance in social work principles. Peace, dignity and right to livelihood are living issues and frame ethical standards of a society and being practiced by the NGOs and civil society organizations in our times. The welfare initiatives by Asoka propounded the virtue of care and upliftment of his people by providing public business and facilities. Indian history hosts Charaka during the regime of Kanishka who occupies the royal and highest place of honour for owning indigenous system of medical treatment. In the ancient state there is a mention of bhaisajyagrha, a medical store in the city or town. Kautilaya mentioned about the vetenry surgeons who were the in-charge of cattle, horses and elephants. There was a provision of Samsthadyaksa (controller of establishment who looked after public health) and find Kharavelas contribution form eastern coast of Kalinga, who excelled in the arts of peace. He hosted various public gatherings and initiated number of work of public utility like irrigation, construction of buildings, gardens, canals and recreational places. The ancient books such as Manusmriti by Manu, Arthashastra by Kautilya and Mahabharata by Vedavyasa have mentioned the political institutions as example of scientific governance. The origin of state as divine origin where the king was the representative of God had a mention in Manusmriti much before we learn about the origin of state. Arthashastra and Mahabharata talked about the electoral system much earlier what Locke, 6 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Hobbes and Rousseau called it Social Contract Theory two thousand years later. The safety and security of the subjects were the role and responsibility of the king. The king was elected by people. Arthashastra by Kautilya accounted state’s role which played an effective part over a man’s social, economic, cultural, moral and even spiritual life. There was hardly any limit to the state’s sphere of activities. It includes within the functions of the state not merely the security of life and property, administration of justice and such economic control, including nationalization of trade and industry, as is now being practiced and advocated by most advanced socialistic state, but also maintenance of proper relation between members of a family, the strict observance of rules prescribed by religion or social customs and etiquettes. Kautilaya mentions various schools developed which speak of high volume on science of governance. It is very important to take note that not only governance, trade and industry, the state management system had control over various occupations and professions, i.e. physician, prostitutes, public amusements and gambling and prescribes it to be the duty of state to protect the helpless, the aged, and the orphan, and save people from social evils and natural calamities. The state lays down the principles of family system, the duties of each in relation to their family members such as, duties of father towards son and daughter, towards his mother and wife, towards brother and sister. In nutshell state played an important role in social economic, political and cultural life of an individual. Welfare state was an ideal feature of ancient India as the king was the custodian of law emerged from Dharma. The mythologies talked about karma theory as well, which propounded the essence of deeds. The good deeds bear wealth of happiness. For the King, the state it is referred ‘praja sukhe sukham rajna’ (The king’s happiness History of Social Work: State Initiatives 7 lies in the happiness of people/subjects). Welfare is most important of all business. The family was a focal unit of state and society. The duty of the family was stated and made obligatory. The bread winner has to look after parents and all the dependents, widows and children in the family. A person embracing asceticism without making any provision for the maintenance of his wife and children use to be booked by the state. The state acted as legal guardian in protecting the rights of minor and needy in family. It acted as court and offenders were punished. Subsistence to the helpless women and orphans were taken care of by the state. The state trained them and provided them with state responsibilities as spies. The orphan children were given education in various fields. Poor Relief was one of the important measures of the state. It was the duty of the state to help and support during natural calamities. Special efforts were taken for the dependants and sick people. The details of the families and needy was accounted by the state. The state treasury used to spend to meet the needs arised due to drought and famine. Kautilya informs about famine relief. Yuan Chwang referred to existence of numerous rest houses for the relief of needy and distressed travelers where food, medicines, and other needs were supplied. State provided employment work for those who were left over to their own fate i.e. helpless widows, crippled women, mothers of prostitutes. The dependants were taken care of and they were trained to take up the responsibilities of state. The women who were single opted out as spies and informers to keep a check on people’s move and intentions. The orphans were provided with all the facilities and were educated in various fields and then provided with jobs. 8 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

People friendly business policies were executed. It was the forte of the king to bargain with the traders in public. Price control was a state activity. Stringent punishments were attached to any kind of corruption. The traders were checked and booked on adulterated food grains, vegetables and oils. Traders using incorrect balances and measures were penalized. They were charged with fine. The buildings and houses were re- built, water projects and irrigation were the initiatives taken by the state. The subjects were provided with relief material and money. The state suspended the land revenues, granted loans, seeds, distributed food to the people. Craft and weaving was one occupation women took up and state supported by resources and materials. Those who were landless worked as tillers and labourers in state lands. Establishments of labour courts were there to settle down the disputes on wages and exploitation. The occupations of slaves were defined. The masters were cautioned not to use their salves in ‘mean work’ such as carrying the dead, sweeping ordure, urine or the like or the leavings of waste food. One of the concerns of contemporary social work is to restore the rights of scavengers. In those days, the dignity of work was protected by the state as high order. The masters had no right to use female slaves to sexual pleasure. The municipal administration were responsible for construction of gardens, recreational centres, forest land, irrigation work, cremation grounds, feeding houses and pilgrimage. The tasks like proper boundaries of villages, record the details of people and register their names, registration of sale and transfer of land, taking stock of number of family members and the cattles, fixing up taxes and collection and remission of taxes granted by the competent authority, account of occupation based categories, traders, merchants, History of Social Work: State Initiatives 9 labourers, artisans and slaves, record of birth and death, income and expenditure were maintained. The Gopas were authorized to maintain the inventory of evil characters and keep the details of a man and his property, income and expenditure. The responsibilities were delegated to nagarpala and sthanikas who were the in-charge of city administration and local administration. The fraud and embezzlement with public account were considered as serious offence and punishments were listed to stop the corruption. The concept of welfare state has been beautifully summarized by Apastamba. According to this text the state had to provide food, clothing, shelter and medical treatment to the people. No one in the kingdom shall suffer from hunger, sickness, cold or heat either through want or otherwise, royal guest house at the capital was to be made open and accessible to all. It is well known that India has been ruled by different cultures i.e. Aryan, Sultanate, Moghal and British. The Arab invasion expanded the trade and commerce. India exported products such as spices, cotton, textiles, shawls and muslins, pearls and precious stones while Indian traders imported silver, vermilion, lead, gold, rose water, saffron and opium. During this period Islam emerged as one of the religions directed on alms giving amount to one fortieth of one’s annual income and fasting in the month on Ramzan highlighting the virtues of self control and contentment. The Indo-Arabian cultural intercourse provided the platform for Indian scriptures to move to other parts of the world as well. Ali, the fourth Caliph records that the land where books were first written and where wisdom and knowledge sprang is in India. ‘Panchtantra’ the book of morals taught through the stories of animals and birds were translated in Arabic and were taken to Europe. India was considered as capital of knowledge 10 Origin and Development of Social Work in India and learning. The issue of animal protection and their dignity finds space in ‘Hitopadesa’. With the emergence of Sultanate, we find important contribution of Iltutmish who was considered as patron of learning. Number of madarasas were built by him. He built educational institutions in Delhi and Multan. There was maktab attached to every mosqsue. A special effort was made for education to be accessible to the people. The justice and administration of Sultanate period is recorded in the history as great ideals. Strong market policies, army, espionage system, construction and introduction of coins were its strength. The contribution made by Shershah for the welfare and development of people finds vital place in Indian history. He built sarais (inn) and dak chowkies (police beats). An efficient postal system was set up and the roads were built to connect the cities. The gradual invasion laid down the foundation of Mughals in this country. During this period we find initiatives of secular philosophies, tax systems, and architect. Akbar is looked as social reformer who prohibited child marriage, issued strict orders for those who were indulged in alcoholism, introduced laws against slavery, constructed hospitals and centres of charity, reviewed the whole system of education. Separate grants were provided to pathshalas and schools. He eventually founded a new cultural order called Din-i-IIahi (divine faith), a collection of morals from all the religion. We find references of high ordeals practiced by Shivaji, Maharanapratap, Laxmi Bai who fought for their people and nation. During this time Bhakti Movement (religious movement) spread in the country. This preached high ideals of values and virtues of humanity. You will find a detailed account on the same as separate unit is designed which shall explore social work in different religion. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 11 Initiatives by Colonial Rulers: French, British, Portuguese Rule…Etc.

The Colonial period represents an altogether new phase in the life of the country. There had been invaders and conquerors before, but they soon settled down as the natives of the country. The governments changed at the political centre of the time without disturbing the continuing features of society, especially in the countryside. The colonial rulers were different in this respect and with them came a variety of new social forces like religion, technology, education, a system of law and judicial administration, etc. The Colonial era in India began towards the end of 15th century, when the Portuguese sailor, Vasco de Gama, established a trading presence in Goa. Rivalry between European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British, and French among others form the beginning of the 16th century.

European Settlements in India Many trading companies were formed in Europe for trade with India and other parts of Asia and Africa. These trading companies, which mainly belonged to Portugal, Holland, England, France and Denmark established their trading centres in different parts of India too. Most of these centres were in the coastal areas and were used as warehouses for trading of goods.

Portuguese Settlements The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India. The closing of traditional trade routes in Western Asia by the Ottomans and rivalry with the Italian states set Portugal in search of an alternate sea route to India. The first successful voyage to India by Vosco de Gama 12 Origin and Development of Social Work in India in 1498, when he arrived in Calicut, in Kerala, The Portuguese established a chain of outposts along India’s west coast and on the island of Ceylon (now, Sri lanka) in the early 16th century. They built the St.Angelo Fort at Kannur to guard their possessions in North Malabar. Goa was their prized possession and, the sear of Portugal’s viceroy who governed Portugal’s empire in Asia. Portugal’s Northern Province included settlements at Mumbai, Daman and Diu, etc. Bombay (Mumbai) was given to the British Crown in 1661 as part of the dowry of Catherine (Portuguese princess).

British/English East India Company In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of England accorded a charter, forming the East India Company to trade with India and Eastern Asia. The British landed in India in Surat in 1612. Permission was granted by the ruling sovereign, Jehangir, to open up outposts in Calcutta and Madras. The British soon took advantage of their position by actively supporting the kingdoms militarily and gradually entering their politics. The Anglo-French wars of the 1700s, saw the British and the French fighting proxy wars on behalf of the rulers. During the last of these wars, Robert Clive decisively defeated the French and greatly extended British rule. By early 19th century, the French were almost defeated and the British East India Company indirectly ruled most of India. In 1857 an insurrection in the army Sepoys ensued in the popular Revolt of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny). This mobilized resistance, though short-lasting, was caused due to the widespread resentment due to British discriminatory and religious policies. As a result of this, India formally became a crown possession. At the height of British power in the closing part of the 19th century, the British Empire stretched from Burma (now Myanmar) to Afghanistan, covering almost the entire undivided Indian Subcontinet History of Social Work: State Initiatives 13 consisting of modern day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

French/French East India Company Following the British, the French also established trading basis in India. At the height of French power in the mid- 18th century, the French occupied most of the southern India and the area lying in today’s northern Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. The French, however, suffered major military setback against the British, losing their possessions by the end of the 18th century.

Dutch/Dutch East India Company The Dutch (Dutch East India Company) established trading posts on different parts along the Indian coast. For some while, they controlled the Malabar East coast, the Coromandel Sough Coast and Surat (1616-1795). They conquered Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (1658-1796), from the Portuguese. The Dutch also established trading stations in Travancore and Coastal Tamilnadu as well as at Rajashahi (present day Bangladesh), Pipely, Hugili- Chinsura and Murshidabad (present day west Bengal), Balasore (Baleshwar or Bellasoor) in Orissa and Ava, Arakan, and Syriam present dayMyanmar (Burma). Ceylon was lost at the Congress of Vienna in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, where the Dutch having fallen subject to France, saw their colonies raided by Britain. The Dutch, later became less involved in India, as they had the Dutch East Indies, (now Indonesia) as their prized possession.

Danish Denmark was the last of the colonial powers to set foot in India. It established trading outposts in Tranquebar, Tamilnadu (1620), Serampore, West Bengal (1775) and the Nicobar Islands (1750’s). At one time, the main 14 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Danish and Swedish East Asia companies together imported more tea to Europe than the British did. Their outposts lost economic and strategic importance, and Tranquebar, the last Danish outpost, was sold to the British in 1845.

Other External Powers Other colonial nations such as Belgium, Italy and Germany did no set foot in India. The Spanish did not have territorial rights to India due to the Line of Demarcation drawn by Pope Alexander VI in 1493. The Japanese briefly occupied the Andman and Nicobar Island during World War II.

State Initiatives during Colonial Period The major focus of the colonial state was maintaining and expanding colonial territory. It was only by the beginning of the nineteenth century that it was compelled to devote some attention to the other aspects of administration, apart from the collection of revenue and the maintenance of law and order.

Famines in India India is a land of agriculture. Indian cultivators, from time immemorial, have depended on the monsoons for irrigation. There were hardly any canals or other modes of irrigation. Famine struck whenever the monsoons failed. Even when harvest was good, nothing could be stored because of the lack of storage facilities. There were thirteen famines in Colonial India between 1770 and 1860. There was no definite policy to deal with problem of famine and many experiments were made which proved quite unsuccessful during the first years of Crown rule (1860-1909). There were twenty major and minor famines and scarcities. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 15

From the experience of Poor Laws in England, the Colonial State developed their famine relief policy that the greatest amount of needful help should be given to the needy which gives smallest encouragement to undue reliance on it. This policy was slightly modified in 1861 when the state decided to provide matching grants to private agencies for meeting the costs of feeding the destitute during famines. Soon the state was forced to give up its policy of saving life irrespective of the cost as it was beyond their financial power to undertake. The seriousness of the frequent occurrence of famines made the colonial state appoint Famine Commission in 1880. Further Famine Code was developed in 1883. Inspite of the recommendation of the Commission for the famine relief, insurance and alternative source of employment for the surplus population depending on agriculture, the administrators were not interested in solving the problem. The Famine Codes of 1883 were modified from time to time on the basis of experience gained form the implementation of Codes. By the end of nineteenth century, there was a change in the attitude of the state in favour of prevention of famines. It can be noticed that the Social Work profession also stresses more on prevention aspects. The major famine took place in 1907-08 and after that there was no famine in Colonial territory until the great famine of Bengal in 1943.

Measures to Improve Agriculture Besides construction of a few canals only 12 per cent of cultivable land was irrigated by 1940. In 1885 a law was passed according to which, if a tenant held a piece of land for 12 years he would enjoy the right to occupy it. Towards the beginning of the 20th century pressure from the Congress and other leaders for agricultural land reforms led to the establishment of a department of agriculture. The Imperial Institute of Agriculture was 16 Origin and Development of Social Work in India also set up during the time of Lord Curzon. It provided facilities for advanced training, research and experimental farming. Some agricultural schools and colleges were also set up in different parts of the country. Expansion of transport has often been described as commercial revolution. During colonial period a significant commercialization of agriculture also took place with the growing of cash corps like jute, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane etc. Development of Transport The credit of setting up the first railway line in India goes to Lord Dalhousie. The first railway line connecting Bombay to Thane was opened in 1853. The following year Calcutta was linked to the coalfields in Raniganj and Bombay was connected with Kalyan. In 1856, another line was opened to join Madras with Arakonam. Thereafter the development of railways given maximum encouragement and it made brisk progress. Railway lines connected the port cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras with their hinterlands from where the raw materials were transported. However, little attention was paid to link the various parts of the country, which would help in the movement of goods produced within the country, from one part to another. The same policy was also applied to protect the Colonial interest in the freight charged. By 1876 about 5,000 miles of railway lines had been laid out connecting all the major centres in India, both by the government and private British companies. By the end of the 19th century over 25,000 km of lines had been laid. Construction of Railways also provided employment opportunities to thousands unskilled Labourers. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 17

The Colonial State brought the whole of India under their control. They established uniform law and administration throughout the country. This created political unity in the country. The concepts of regional kingdoms were no more valid. People saw themselves as part of the same country. Transport and communications between different regions helped this process. People traveled, communicated through the postal and telegraph systems and this helped in setting the networks between the regions.

Educational Services The most prominent area where the state had taken initiative was education. By the Charter Act of 1813, the company administration had to accept responsibility for the education of India and this was the beginning of the state system of education in Indian under the colonial rule. By 1833, the educational grant which was one lakh rupees under the Charter Act of 1813 had increased to ten lakhs of rupees per annum. In 1835 the Governor General William Bentinck had decided to impart western education in India. In 1844 English become the official language and it was declared that people having the knowledge of English would be preferred for public employment. In 1854 the colonial state declared its intentions of “creating a properly articulated system of education from the primary school to the university” through the dispatch sent by Sir Charles Wood, president of Board of Control. Until 1854, the colonial state did not accept the direct responsibility for the education of the masses and its educational policy was influenced by what is known as the Downward Filtration Theory. According to this, the company was expected to give a good education to only a few persons and they were in turn expected to educate the masses. 18 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

The Crown rule which began after 1857 professed the welfare of masses as the goal of colonial state. The all- India expenditure on education increased ten times by 1932-33 as compared to 1882-83. It laid the foundation on which the education system of India subsequently developed. As a result of these measures there was an increase in the number of schools and colleges run by the state, missionaries and other private organizations. State control over education also increased. The growth of education was not, however, uniform at all levels and more attention was given to the expansion of high schools and colleges. Primary schools were inadequate. As a result, vast masses of the country continued to remain illiterate. During colonial period, few notable exceptions such as Jagannath Shunker Sett and D.K. Karve advocated vernacular language as the medium of instruction. G.K. Gokhale sponsored a bill in the Central Assembly in 1913 for providing mass education through compulsory primary education. Even though Gokhale’s attempt to promote compulsory education failed, a substantial expansion of primary education took place between 1921-47, after the colonial state transferred education to Indians, first under the system of diarchy and later under the constitutional reform of 1935 which ushered in a new era of popularly elected government in the provinces. It is interested to note that most of the Indian leaders accepted the model of educationas as evolved by the colonial state. They saw in Western education a panacea for all the ills of Indian society and promoted its wide spread with great zeal and orgainsation. There were also secretarian demands for the provision of special education facilities by the state to the neglected or disadvantaged groups. Special measures were adopted to promote education among Muslims, Harijans and other History of Social Work: State Initiatives 19 backward classes and among tribal population. The education of women which had been long neglected by Indian society was also received special attention. A new programme of adult education was also introduced during this period with a view to eradicate illiteracy among the masses. Even in contemporary India, Social work professionals take due interest in promoting education for all sections of society irrespective of any discrimination.

Health Services Earlier health service under state auspices was not widespread, colonial rule made efforts in providing medical care. In 1664 Hospitals were opened by the East India Company for its servants. By the end of the 18th century a hospital was opened for Indians in Calcutta. Around the years 1800, hospitals were started for Indians in Bombay and Madras and by 1840 there were about a dozen hospitals for Indians in various large towns besides the presidencies. Theses limited efforts by the state in providing medical services to the native population was supplemented by the medical service provided by the Christian Missionaries, especially for the needy and population in the interior towns. Even in the present scenario social work professionals try to provide preventive and promotive health care services to the needy and deserving population. During the colonial period the first Medical College was established in 1835 in Calcutta and soon after medical colleges were started in Bombay and Madras. The Colonial state appointed the Sanitation Commissioners in 1880 in the five British provinces of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. This heralded an era of active state role in promoting public health. It was followed by the appointment of the Plague Commission after the outbreak of plague in 1896 20 Origin and Development of Social Work in India which took a heavy toll of life. The Commission in its reports submitted in 1904, recommended the strengthening of the public health services and establishment of laboratories for research and for the preparation of vaccines and sera. The state took prompt action on these recommendations. There was a gradual expansion and strengthening of the medical and public health services in the country. In India the Bhore committee (1945) was appointed to conduct a health survey and development in the entire medical field. This committee recommended the introduction of hospital social worker, and the first trained social worker was appointed at the J.J.hospital, Bombay in 1946. Medial social work courses were first started in India in 1946, at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in the able direction of Dr. (Miss) G.R. Banerjee.

Industrial Expansion: Labour Welfare The second half of the 19th century witnessed the growth of a few modern industries in India. These industries were of two types, plantation industries and machine industries. This led to the growth of cities and employment of labourers in large numbers in industries. Because of widespread rural poverty, people were driven to these cities to seek employment. Living and working conditions of labourers in industries were horrible. In response to this situation, labour legislations came in the wake of modern industrial development, commencing with the apprentices Act (1850), the Fatal accidents Act (1853), the Merchant Shipping Act (1859), the Workmen’s Breach of Contract Act (1859) and until the passing of the first Factory Act (1881), a series of labour legislation was passed by the government which were mainly aimed at regulation of employment rather than of the improving conditions of labour. Due to the pressure from textile mill-owners in England, the Central History of Social Work: State Initiatives 21 government appointed a Factory Commission in 1890 and based on the recommendations of this Committee, the Indian Factory Act was passed in 1891. This Act was generally on the lines of the earlier Bombay Act. The Factory Act was amended in 1912, 1923 and 1934. Some of the major legislative measures enacted by the colonial state in response to various pressures and the gradual transfer of power to the Indians at the provincial levels are; The Workmens’ Compensation Act of 1923, a series of Provincial Maternity Benefit Acts passed between 1929-40, the Payment of Wages Act of 1936 and the Bombay Industrial Disputes Act of 1938. In this type of social legislation, considerations of economic justice and the welfare of the workers play a vital role. Social work profession appreciates sagacity of colonial state’s intervention in labour welfare matters, through legislation and administration, it has facilitated the growth of social welfare. Every economic activity, including agriculture, is now guided by some system governing the number of days of work, hours of work, rest, etc. These were earlier decided at the discretion of the employers, but are now influenced by labour legislation.

Initiatives towards Social Welfare During the second and third decades of the twentieth century, through a series of legislation, the colonial state initiated programmes for the control of certain social problems like beggary, crime and juvenile delinquency in the metropolitan cities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. It can be noticed that these were the services with which the government was familiar, as they had been in operation for some time in England where, much earlier, similar problems had been faced in the process of industrialization. Social defence was the state 22 Origin and Development of Social Work in India intervention that first began in India. The history of PrisonReform Movement in India can be traced to some of the committees under the British administration during 19th Century. Now a days of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are working in the prison for the welfare of the inmates. During colonial period, among the earliest measures were the provision for the employment of orphans and destitute by the Apprentices Act of 1850, and Reformatory Schools Act of 1870. Madras was the first province to pass the Children’s Act in 1920, and was soon followed by Bengal and Bombay. Legislation for the control, prevention and treatment of beggary was passed in 1945 by the governments of Bombay and Madras. Suppression of Immoral Traffic was also attempted by a few provinces like Bombay, Bengal and Bihar. In the field of social reform many historic measures were taken, a series of measures of social legislation enacted by the state during 1828-56. These included the abolition of Sati by William Bentinck in 1829, the abolition of slavery in 1843, the abolition of female infanticide and human sacrifice in 1802, and the passing of the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856 which was the last major piece of social legislation for a long time. The only major piece of social legislation to be passed during the later half of the 19th century was the Age of Consent Act in 1891. Though it was the zeal of Indian social reformers (Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chander Vidyasagar, Mahdev Govind Ranade, Ramakrishna Bhandarkar and otheres) that created an atmosphere which made implementation of such legislation possible, but the credit of passing these Acts goes to the Colonial state. This type of regulation can be considered a legislative triumph in the field of social justice. It is interesting to note that modem social work in India introduced by the Christian Missionaries at the History of Social Work: State Initiatives 23 beginning of the 19th century. The regenerative forces into action were first brought by the Christian Missionaries through their religious preaching and attacks on native religious practices such as idol- worship, caste system, sati etc. and by their educational activities and social work. The introduction of the printing press, the launching of journals in English and Bengali, the translation of the Bible and other religious books into Bengali and later in other Indian languages, led to the beginning of a process of social change, which is frequently labeled as the renaissance. Further the orphan children and destitute men and women were kept in the boarding houses run by the Christian Missionaries. Soon, this example was followed by some of the Indian social reformers like Sasipada Banerjee, Jotirao Govindrao Phule, Pandita Rama Bai, D.K. Karve, Kandukuri Veeresalingam and others who started widow homes in different parts of the country. During the last quarter of the century, organistaions like Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and Ramakrishna Mission began to provide a variety of welfare services for famine- stricken destitute, orphans and widows. By the 20th century many sectarians, religious or caste associations in different comers of the country began to provide similar institutional welfare services. The establishment of the Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work (now known as Tata Institute of Social Sciences) by Christian Missionaries with financial help of the House of Tata in 1936, provided an evidence of the new social awareness and a vehicle for translating new ideas into action. Initiatives by Central and State Governments: After Independence The post-Independence era witnessed a major shift in ideologies, concepts and approaches in social work profession. Here, emphasis was given to link the social 24 Origin and Development of Social Work in India work profession with the present need and challenges. With the expansion of the welfare activities, economy, service sectors, the field of Social Work practice also became wider to cater to the all the spheres. Now we will discuss in this chapter how the concept, approach and practice of social work being translated and developed along with the development of the nation in terms of expansion of welfare services through both state and central government.

Initiatives in the Field of Labour Welfare After Independence the states began relating their social responsibilities towards the weaker sections of the society. The Government of India took an important step for the welfare of the laborer by enacting Factories Act, 1948. Sec-85 of the Act empowers all the states to extend all or any provisions of the Act to any premise. The provisions include health, safety, welfare, employment of young persons and children, hours of work for adult and child worker, holidays, leave with wages. The Royal Commission on Labour in 1831 recommended for appointment of labour officer with all the attributes matches with a social worker but for the first time appointment of a Welfare Officer became a statute under the factory Act.1948. Subsequently, in the plantations Labour Act.1951 and in the Mines Act, 1952 provisions were made for appointment of a Welfare Officer where in 300 or more and 500 and more workers were employed respectively. In all the three legislations the qualification for the same was a degree in Social Science, Social Work or Labour Welfare. It was an important landmark where a professional social worker was given due recognition of in the field of labour welfare. Embodying the Directive Principles, it is stated in this chapter that the state shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by security and protecting as effectively as History of Social Work: State Initiatives 25 possible a social order in which justice, social, economic, and political, shall inform all the institutions of natural life. All the five year plans have witnessed welfare and development initiatives for the huge labour force. In the First Five Year Plan (1957-1956) welfare of labourers by extension of welfare facilities was given due attention. The Plantations Labour Act, 1951, The Mines Act, 1952, the Employees Provident Fund Act, 1952, were enacted during this period. At the same time the state governments enacted various laws related to housing facilities for the labourer. The Bombay Housing Board Act, 1948 was a milestone in this movement. The Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) focused on better working conditions. Few enactments were brought in the Motor transport field of housing by state government. Motor transport workers and seamen were also covered in new legislations during this period. In 1961, Dock workers (Safety, Health and Welfare) were drawn up as a comprehensive scheme. During this period various state governments took initiatives at different level. The Government of Assam enacted The Assam Plantations Employees Welfare Fund Act. in 1959. A new Plantation Labour Housing Scheme was launched in April 1954 to provide certain amount of loan to the workers for construction of their houses. Effective implementation of various statutory welfare provisions was given importance during the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66). It spoke about the improvement of working conditions. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, Apprenties Act, 1961, Iron ore Mines Labour Welfare Cess Act, 1961 and The Payment of Bonus Act, 1965 were few initiatives taken by the central government during this period. In the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969- 74), the Employees State Insurance Scheme covered shops and commercial establishment. It provided medical facilities to the family of insured persons. 26 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Economic benefit for the labourers was given prime importance. Many of the attempt in this line were enactment of the Contract Labour (Regulation and Abolition) Act, 1970, the Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972, Employees’ Family Pension Scheme 1971 were passed. The plan directed all the state government to provide welfare centers, holiday homes, and recreational centers. It also stressed on effective enforcement of labour laws. The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) stressed on setting up safety cells in various states for promoting industrial safety. Equal remuneration Act, 1976 and the Inter State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment) and Conditions of Service Act, 1979 were the important legislations enacted in this time. The Six Five Year Plan (1980-85) focused on effective implementation of legislative measures. The state governments were advised to provide benefit to agricultural labourer, artisans, handloom weavers, fishermen, leather workers and other unorganized workers in rural and urban areas. The Seventh Plan (1985-1990) laid emphasis on improvement of working and living conditions of the worker in unorganized sector both in rural and urban areas. This was the time when government realizes the importance of education and awareness on programs and legal aid for the workers and consequently made provisions in that line. As regards to child labour, planning commission advocated for better working condition of child labour and their social acceptance. For the first time welfare of women labourer was thought of during this plan. The plan laid down certain major tasks for women labourer. They are: (i) to treat them as specific target groups in all rural development programmes, (ii) to ensure that in all asset endowment programmes, women have rights over assets and resources; (iii) to properly diversify vocational training History of Social Work: State Initiatives 27 facilities for women to suit their varied needs and skills, (iv) to encourage appropriate technologies, (v) to establish marketing estates at the state level,(vi) to increase women’s participation in trade; (vii) to increase women’s participation in trade unions and in decision making and(viii) to improve and enlarge the scope of the existing legislation for women worker. It witnessed the major shift in empowerment from development. Rehabilitation of bonded labour, welfare of women and children workers, workers education was stressed in Eight Five Year Plan (1992-97). It stressed on the importance of industrial relations in a healthy working condition. It also encouraged workers participation in management. After a long struggle Building and construction workers welfare cess Act, 1996 was passed during this period The Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) emphasized on strong enforcement of labour laws. The special feature was setting up National Employment Exchanges to register the job seekers. Here registration of some special groups of job seekers like physically handicapped along with demand for labour in specific industries like coal mines and the plantations were the special attempts made for the first time .To improve the skills and productivity new vocational training institutions were established and many of industrial units were promoted for imparting apprentice training. In the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007), efforts were taken to increase the coverage of labour market institutions. The essential condition for this was realized as making provisions of gainful employment to entire labour force. The emphasis on vocational training and skill building of labourers was the main focus in the plan. Many central trade union organizations like INTUCT (1947), HMS (1948), UTUC (1994), BMS (1955), CITU 28 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

(1970), and NLO (1969) emerged and helped the growth of labor welfare movement.

Initiatives in the Field of Tribal Welfare Integrating tribal people into mainstream was though extremely complex, became the major focus of the government after Independence. The preservation of their rich cultural and social heritage was at the heart of the government policy and planning after Independence. Nehru tried to shape govt.’s attitude towards the tribal people that they are significant part of Indian population and they have equal rights to be prospered. There were two basic parameters of the Nehruvian approach: the tribal areas have to progress and they have to progress on their own way. There should not be any imposition on them. Nobody should approach them with superiority and they should be recognized for their equal contribution in evolution of the common culture, social and political life of the country. It was a land mark period where the uniqueness of tribal people with their cultural and languages was recognized. They were given chance to work out their needs for their growth and progress. It clearly reflects the paraphrasing of Social Work approaches in the area of tribal welfare. To make India into a welfare State and shaping its policy suited to support the objectives of the nation, the foundation stone was put in the Indian constitution itself. It provides equality before every front, reservation in the education, service sector and in the political sphere as positive discrimination to mainstream them in the society. It is directed under Article 46 that the State should promote with special care the educational and economic interest of the tribal people and should protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation through special legislation. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 29

Following this, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 was enacted. To support this Act, the Central Government enacted rules as the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Rules, 1995. Under this Act, the governors of the states in which tribal areas were situated were given special responsibilities to protect their interests. Also, they were given power to modify state and central laws in their application as to suit the tribal life and to frame operational regulations for the protection of their rights on land and from moneylenders. Appointment of a Special Officer was talked in the rules. The duties specified for the Special Officer are: (i) providing immediate relief and other facilities to the victims of atrocity and initiate necessary measures to prevent or avoid reoccurrence of atrocity. (ii) setting up an awareness center and organizing workshop in the identified areas or at the district headquarters, to educate the persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes about their rights and protection available to them under the provisions of various central and state enactments or rules and schemes, etc. framed there in. Coordinating with the non-governmental organization and providing necessary facilities and financial and other type of assistance to non-governmental organizations for maintaining centre or organizing workshops. There is no where maintained that the special officer can be a professional social worker but certainly opens a scope for the professional Social Worker in the field of tribal welfare. As stated the preventative, curative and rehabilitative activities of the Special officer requires working knowledge on tribal life, their culture, needs, their legal rights, knowledge on networking with 30 Origin and Development of Social Work in India concerned organization, counseling and referral services, etc. These are moreover the attributes of a professional Social Workers who are trained to maintain these responsibilities. This shows the need and recognition of the approaches of the trained social workers in the field. The Fifth and Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals on the administration in both on Scheduled and Non-Scheduled States for their welfare and development. It speaks about setting of Tribal Advisory Counsels to advise on matters concerning the welfare of tribal. It seems the strengthening of Social Welfare Administration was the soul objective of Fifth and Sixth Schedule. In all the Five Year Plans focus and major allocation was given to the concerned departments for the welfare of the tribal population. The Central and the State governments created special facilities and organized special programs for the development of the tribal areas and the tribal people. The funding for tribal welfare significantly increased after 1971. The importance attached to tribal development is also reflected in the 20 Points Programs in 1986. The following points relate to their welfare and the Welfare Ministry was concerned mainly for them are providing justice, facilities of basic amenities like water, housing access to fire wood and forest produce, protection of federal rights. The tribal sub-plan (TSP) concept evolved and implemented during First Five Year Plan period continuous to be the main instrumenent for development of tribal people in the tribal areas. The Special Central Assistance (SCA) was initiated during the beginning of Fifth Plan as Social Assistance to these special categories of people for their further development. The purpose of the SCA was that it should be catalyst state governments and financial institution. It was the joint History of Social Work: State Initiatives 31 venture of both state and central governments on 50:50: basis. Initiatives in the Field of Rural Development The post-Independence era has seen many Central and State initiatives combined with voluntary efforts in the field of Rural Development. The Nilokheri Project got operational in 1948 as the Refugee Rehabilitation Project. Under this project vocational training cum production centres were started to give training and employment opportunities to the refugees. A new township Mazdoor Manzil was created with all facilities like hospitals, schools, vocational and technical institutions for training, agricultural extension and veterinary services and recreational facilities. Cooperatives were established, the School provided education on agriculture, animal husbandry and about the local craft. In 1952 Firka Development Scheme consisted of more than 250 villages in Madras Province. The Chief Minister was the project chief. The major achievement of this scheme was the building of infrastructure facilities and the initiation of people’s participation. In 1948, Etawah Project was launched by the government of Utter Pradesh. The project achievement was quite significant in terms of providing infrastructure facilities, like educational institutions, cooperative societies like educational institutions, unions and seed stores, provision for increased irrigation facilities and provision for public health and other amenities in the villages. The project was finally visualized as an extension programme which emphasizes local level planning, team work, communication and constant follow-up to respond to the local needs. After Independence, the Community Development Projects (CDP) were started with the positive influence of Etawah pilot project on a national scale for developing 32 Origin and Development of Social Work in India rural communities. The CDP was conceived as an instrument to transform the socio- economic life of the village community. Nehru appreciated the CDP as they seem to build up the community and the individual and make the better the builder of his own village centre and of India in the larger sense. It indicated that the CDP has able to create amongst the people ownness towards their community and their willing participation for their own development. This proves the Community Organization as the method of Social Work rooted in all the community development projects. It was lunched in 1952 with the objectives of (1) securing total development of the material and human resources in rural areas (2) developing local leadership and self governing institutions (3) raising living standards of rural people by means of rapid increase in food and agricultural produce and (4) ensuring a change in mental outlook of the people, installing them an ambition for higher standards. The CDP was administered at five levels — National, State, District, Block and Village. The village was taken as the unit of operation and the block was the development unit where BDO was the chief officer to assist 10 villages level workers (VLW) who responsible for looking after l0 villages and seven extension officers dealing with different fields (agriculture, rural engineering, animal husbanding, rural industry, education, panchayats and cooperatives. In the district level the District Collector, in the state level Development Commissioner and in National level the Prime Minister as the Chairperson responsible for CDP. There was a separate wing at the national level known as community project administration (CPA). The National Extension Service (NES) was launched 1953 and the developmental work proceeded on the basis of self help. After three years, the blocks covered under History of Social Work: State Initiatives 33

NES were converted into CDP block with some financial coverage. In 1957, the Ministry of Community Development was formed on recommendation of the Grow More Food Inquiry Committee (GMFIC). In the 1960s, the approach to the rural development led to the introduction of Intensive Agricultural Development Programme (IADP) lunched in 1964, Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP), and the high- yielding varieties programme. These programmes finally led to the “Green Revolution” in India. Consequently, special programmes like Draught Prone Area Programme (1976), Cash Scheme for Rural Employment (1971), Tribal Area Development (1972), Minimum, Need Programme (1975), Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA), and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Development Agency (MFAL) in 1971 were introduced. In Oct.1974, the Department of Rural Development came into existence as a part of Ministry of Food and Agriculture. In Aug.1979, the Department of Rural Development was elevated to the status of a new ministry of Rural Reconstruction. That ministry was renamed as Ministry of Rural Development in Jan.1982. The Ministry Rural Development was renamed in as Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment in 1995 and in 1999 it became Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment. The ministry is responsible for implementing programmes for poverty alleviation, employment generation, infrastructure development and social security. The Sixth Plan (1980-85) undertook poverty eradication as prime objective and consequently, programmes like National Rural Employment Programme,Rural Landless Employment Generation Programme (Later merged into Jawahar Rojgar Yajana), Training of Youth for Self Employment, Development of Women and Children in Rural Area and Integrated Rural Development 34 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Programme were implemented by the concerned ministry. During the Ninth Plan period, the anti-poverty programmes have been restructured to enhance the sufficiency of the programs for providing increased benefits to the rural poor. In 2002 “Swajaldhara” and in 2003 “Hariyali” as new initiatives launched to make the drinking water reach to every doorsteps and to implement watershed Development programmes respectively. In both the scheme, involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions was tacked. Bringing women into mainstream of development was a major concern for the government. Therefore, the programs of poverty alleviation have a women’s component to ensure flow of adequate funds to this section. Under 73rd Amendment, Act.1992, the constitution has placed enormous responsibility on the Panchyats to formulate and execute various programmes of economic development and social justice. A number of centrally sponsored schemes are being implemented through Panchayats. It has given new dimensions in the field of Panchayati Raj in terms of decentralization and devolution of powers to the PRIs, making it a third tire system and the bottom to top working approach, i.e. need based planning at the grassroots level by the people themselves and then going to the top level. The ministry of Rural Development provide financial assistance to state governments and UTs for capacity building of women elected members in Panchayti Raj institutions (PRIs). The need based approach in the development programmes, facilitating people’s participation in their welfare, helping them to identify and priorities their needs by themselves, mainstreaming the under privileged in decision making, and providing people History of Social Work: State Initiatives 35 friendly administration for their welfare were the main features of the Panchayati Raj system. It reflects that it works with the line of Community Organization, Community Development and Social Welfare Administration of the modern Social Work practice. The Ministry has three Departments such as (l) Department of Rural Development (2) Department of Land Resources and (3) Department of Drinking Water Supply. At present the important programme being implemented by the Department of Rural Development are: Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana, (lunched in 1999), Sampuorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana (lunched in 2001), DRDA Administration (introduced in 1999),Training schemes(NIRD is pioneer in imparting related training, promotion of voluntary scheme and social action programmes, organization of beneficiaries, advancement and dissemination of rural technology through CAP ART and monitoring mechanism(the PRIs and DRDAs are given responsibility). The major programmes of Department of Land Resources are: (1) Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), (2) The Desert Development Programme (DDP), (3) Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP) and (4) Land Reforms (LR). These aim at increasing the soil and moisture conservation and productivity of the wasteland of the degraded lands thereby increase the income of the people. The major programmes of the Drinking Water Supply Department are the Swajaldhara, the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) and the total sanitation programme (TSP).

Initiatives in the Health Sector Planning and implementing health facilities are a part of national development programme. It is necessary for 36 Origin and Development of Social Work in India economic utilization of material, manpower and financial resources. After Independence, the Government of India appointed a Committee on “Health Survey and Planning Committee known as Mudaliar Committee. It advised to strengthen the primary health centers and district hospitals so that they may effectively function as referral centers. Another committee was appointed in 1963 under the chairmanship of Dr. M,S Chadah, the then Director General of Health Services and studied the arrangements necessary for the maintenance phase of the National Malaria Eradication Programme. It recommended frequent home visits by health workers to monitor the situation. The primary Health Centers at the block level were given responsibility for that along with their additional duties of collection of vital statistics and family planning. In the year 1965, Mukerji Committee, by seeing the multiple responsibility of the health work limits the performance quality recommended to appoint separate assistants to undertake family planning duties. On the recommendation of the Central Council of Health held in 1966, the Mukerji Committee worked out that the basic health services to be provided at block level and the higher level administration should be strengthened. In 1967 the “Committee on Integration of Health of Health Services” talked about integrated health services for providing better health facilities. The Kartar Singh Committee in 1973, the Shrivastav Committee on 1975 talked about replacement of trained Family Health Workers and their proper training respectively. On the basis of the recommendation of all these committees the Governemnt in 1977, lunched Rural Health Scheme. The programme of training of community Health Worker was initiated during 1977- 78. The another big milestone in the field of health was, the health for all by 2000 AD which was strongly taken by working group on health History of Social Work: State Initiatives 37 constituted by Planning Commission in 1980. The whole planning process was later decentralized toward decentralized district planning by the year 2000 to achieve this broader goal. Recognizing “health as an important contributory factor in the utilization of manpower and the uplifting of the economic condition of the country, the planning commission gave considerable importance to health programmes in the five year plans. In the Five Year Plans the focus was given in the following programmes (1) control or eradication of major communicable disease, or strengthening of basic health services through establishing of primary health centres and sub centres (2) Population control (3) development of health manpower resources. The Health Schemes in India at the National level consist of (1) The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (2) Directorate General Health Services and (3) the Central Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Under the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare there are two departments, i.e. Department of Health and Department of family welfare created in 1964. The Directorate General of Health Services works as the principal advisor to the Union Ministry in both medical and public health matters. The Central Council of Health was set up by a Presidential Order in 1952 under Article 243 of the Constitution. It promotes coordinated and concerted action between the centre and the state in implementation of all the programmes and measures pertaining to the health of the nation. In the state level, the apex body in Health system are (1) State Ministry of Health and (2) State Health Directorate the establishment of which varies on states to states. In Bengal it was created in 1947 and Maharastra it was created in 1970. Gradually, in the 38 Origin and Development of Social Work in India medical and psychiatric field the need of a social worker in the health setting was realized. In rehabilitation, social welfare departments and many other departments in leading hospitals and later, in many other hospitals appointments of social workers were made to support the health social work part. The Psychiatric Social Workers are of special demand in the psychiatric field as the attributes, approaches and training of the social workers are recognized all over India. In a nut shell, we see closely in the development of health systems and families in India, a good Social Welfare Administration was given prime importance. Besides curative services, the preventive services were focused in every activities. Close supervision in terms of home visits and required referral services were being advocated in every programme. The Health initiatives however followed the basic discussed approaches to reach to the wellbeing which directly resembles with of todays’ Social Work Practice. We can conclude that, the Professional Social Work which we talk presently has been rooted in all the welfare approaches in our country.

Initiatives in the Field of Child Welfare The concept of Child Welfare Services has changed with the changing concept of social work. All children are special and hence, need help for their growth and development has been a recent phenomenon. In the post independent India the term ‘Child Welfare’ has assumed a broader meaning. It is not only concerned with the care of maladjusted, destitute and delinquents, but incorporates the social, economic and health services of both govt. and voluntary agencies, which secure and protect the welfare of all the children in their physical, emotional and intellectual development. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 39

1) Constitutional Provisions Article 15 says the state may make any special provision for women and children and cannot discriminate against any citizen on the ground of religion, race, caste, sex, and place of birth or any of them. Under Article 24, it is mentioned that no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any hazardous employment. Article 39 of Directive Principle, of State Policy speaks that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter vocations unsuited to their age or strength and that children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment. Article 45 says about the provision for free and compulsory education for all the children until they complete the age of fourteen years; and Article 47 states that it is the duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health, Enforcing for equality, justice, security, protection and care of Children in the constitutional provisions the Government promotes the all round growth and development of all the children.

2) Child Education Child Education being assisted by Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB). Voluntary agencies took active role in the field of pre primary education after Independence. There were about 5000 Balwadies in 1961. Setting up balwadies was a part of Community Development Programmes in rural areas. The Education Commission Report (1966) says that there were only 3500 pre-primary schools with 6500 teachers in that time. The CSWB 40 Origin and Development of Social Work in India and Community Development Administration organized 20000 Balwadies in rural areas with an enrolment of 6, 00,000 children. In 1965 the primary education was extended and there were 37 million children in lower primary stage and 13 million in the higher primary stage. Under the Third Five Year Plan six training centers were set up for Bal Sevikas (the trained Child Welfare Workers)working in rural areas. Through the Constitution says for free and compulsory education for the children up to the age of 14 years, it found many practical difficulties in implementation in the initial years. In the Second Five Year Plan it was realized to provide basic facilities for the education of all children in the age groups of 6-11 Years. In the Fourth and Fifth Five Year Plan, the entire age group of 11 to 14 years was followed by extension education. But still found difficulties in brining girls to school in sufficient numbers; high drop out of children as soon as they are able to contribute to family income etc. Gradually special institutions were established in different parts of country to cater to children’s need for special care. Kanyashrams, Hostel facilities for girl students, Stipend for children of marginalized families, accommodating and special allowances to women teachers, appointment of trained qualified teachers, improvement in the teaching, providing holidays to coincide with harvesting and sowing seasons were the initiatives taken by the state and central governments. It is seen that the need based approach was gradually adopted in the field of child education to get success.

3) Child Heath The Planning Commission in the First Five Year Plan recommended to open adequate number of properly equipped Maternity and Child Welfare Centres. Numbers of Public Health Centers were established in rural areas. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 41

The numbers of maternity beds were increased to double its strength in order to accommodate more delivery cases and to give post natal care for a long period. The post natal clinics were become an essential feature of all hospitals. In the rural areas in each Community Development Blocks Maternity and Child Health Centres were opened as part of primary and secondary Health unit centres. Govt. lunched DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas) and other many Child Development Schemes based on health immunization and nutrition for the development of Children. Now in rural areas Anganwadi workers under ICDS projects are engaged in providing direct or indirect health services for pre-natal and post-natal care. In the urban area School Health Services gain momentum. Mainly the municipal and corporations in towns and cities made attempt to conduct annual physical examination of children. The Third Five Year Plan suggested to provide clean drinking water and sanitation facilities in schools, arrangement of medical inspection, instruction to teachers in health education. Addressing the root cause and helping for one’s welfare is the working strategy of social workers and is even seen in the child health services being provided by the Center and State.

Initiatives in the Field of Youth Welfare Youth welfare has assumed importance in recent years since Independence. Both the Union Ministry of Education and Departments of Education and Social Welfare at the state level have shown their concern. They focused on promoting youth leadership, sports, training camps, students study tours and non students youth club and centres. 42 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

To integrate physical education at school level the Union Ministry launched an integrated programme named National Fitness Corps. This includes physical education, National Discipline Scheme and Auxiliary Cadet Corps. The High schools and middle schools were covered under this programme during Fourth Five Year Plan. The neglected rural youth were covered under the community development movement which aimed at altering the social scheme in the villages. The youth clubs started meeting educational and social needs. The rural higher institutes started benefiting the young people from villages who wish to take rural services as a career. The central social welfare Board and a voluntary organization, The Kasturba Gandhi Memorial Trust took lead role in welfare of young women and girls. The Young Women’s Christian Association started running hostels for working girls. The Young Men’s Christian Association and many other associations provide opportunities for games, recreation and social activities. The all India Sports Council extended its services for the youth. Youth Festivals were organized to bring about social contacts and understanding. It is seen that the Social Work Principles and approaches in terms of believing on people’s capacity building their skills, promoting their leadership helping them to realize their potential, confidence building and facilitating them to work actively for their wellbeing were transparent in all the youth Welfare Programes.

Initiative by Ministry of Rehabilitation To assist a large number of victims of Partition and migrants from Pakistan in 1947, the Ministry of Rehabilitation was set up. The purpose was to rehabilitate them physically, socially, and economically. The Ministry gradually worked in the direction of providing livelihood History of Social Work: State Initiatives 43 options by means of economic assistance; housing and education facilities. Also, an important scheme was implemented to rehabilitate refugees from East Pakistan in the bordering states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. In the initial years the education and related matters of the children of victims were dealt by the ministry but later on it was shifted to the Education Ministry.

Initiatives by Ministry of Education Financial assistance was given by Ministry of Education to promote and establishment of schools of social work at different places. The ministry also has established a separate section to study and develop the social education methods. It promotes different scholarship to the students of social work including other developments for research and higher studies. The ministry also took special responsibility of strengthening and promoting education of blind. It promotes researches, development of special literature of braille, publication of special literature and braille etc.

Initiatives by Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) The Social Work Principles signify building of people’s capacity for their welfare and are to be taken as valuable resources in the society thus, efforts should be taken for their all round development. Our country too realized the integrated development of its citizen, beginning with childhood and going right through their life. In pursuance to find out instruments and agencies contributing to or responsible for this growth to ensure all round development, a New Ministry was created as Ministry of HRD, on 26th Sep 1985, through 174th Amendment to the Government of India. Allocation of Business Rules 1961. Currently the Ministry has two 44 Origin and Development of Social Work in India developments namely; (i) Department of School Education and Literacy; and (2) Department of Higher Education. Under the Department of School Education and literacy, the important features of the commendable work the ministry are Sarva Shiksha Abhiyana, Promoting Girls education, establishing Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya, Mahila Samakhya Scheme, Mid- day Meal Scheme, strengthening teacher’s education, Right to Education Bill-2005 and Jan Sankhya Sthirata Kosh. For improvement in Secondary Education, National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) was established as an apex organization to assist and advise central and state governments on academic matters related to school education. CBSE, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan, Navodaya Vidyalaya, Central Tibetan School Administration, National Institute of Open Schooling, National Foundation for Teachers welfare etc. are the important bodies under the Ministry of HRD. Directorate of Adult Education also started working under Ministry of HRD. The main players of higher education system are University Grants Commission, which is responsible for coordination, determination and maintenance of Standards and release of grants; and Professional Councils such as All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Distance Education councils (DEC) Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), Bar Council of India (BCI), National Council for Teachers Education (NCETE) Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI), Medical Council of India (MCI), Pharmacy Council of India (FCI), Indian Nursing council (INC), Dentist Council of India (DCI), Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH) and Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM). History of Social Work: State Initiatives 45

Presently there are 18 Central Universities and 99 institutions which have been declared as deemed to be Universities. The state governments were taken responsibility and opened State Universities and Colleges.

Initiatives by Other Ministry After independence, Welfare of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, correctional services and prison administration, juvenile delinquency suppression of immoral traffic, programmes of after care, moral and social hygiene were the responsibilities entrusted to the Ministry of Home Affairs. But now the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment is entrusted with the welfare, social justice and empowerment of disadvantaged and marginalized section of the society viz, Scheduled Cast, Backward Classes, persons with Disabilities, Aged Persons and victims of Drug Abuse etc. Welfare of Women and Child Welfare were gradually looked after by the Ministry of Women and Child Welfare The government faced various practical difficulties in implementing polices and programmes and hence, started promoting welfare agencies to take over the responsibility of implementing need based facilities. The government recognized efforts of welfare organization and recognition of trained Social Workers in the field of Social Welfare gain momentum. This was the time when the field of Social work was vastly enlarged to serve all the section of the population

Central and State Social Welfare Board The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was established in August 1953 with the objectives to promote social welfare activities and to implement welfare programmes for women and children through 46 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Voluntary Organizations. The CSWB is unique in the sense that it was the first organization in post- Independence era to achieve people’s participation for implementation of welfare programmes. Community Organization as a method of Social Work which we advocate today is based on realization of people about their own needs and their confident participation in the welfare activities. The specific programmes and activities of CSWB are: 1) Giving grants to voluntary organization to conduct condense courses and provide vocational training to needy people. These activities were started in 1958 and 1975 respectively; 2) Creating awareness among rural and poor women on various social issues; 3) Financial assistance to Voluntary Organizations to take up variety of income generating activities which was initiated in 1958; 4) Promoting support services like creches and day care services to children of low income group families who are working or ailing and establishing working women’s hostels; 5) Providing preventive and rehabilitative services to women and children who are victims of family maladjustments and atrocities and establishing of Family Counseling centers; 6) Mahila mandal programme started in 1961-62. It is a decentralized programme being run by the State Social Welfare Boards; 7) Providing Nutrition to Balwadi Children; 8) extending services such as pre-primary school education, craft activities for women, maternity services and recreation facilities in rural areas under welfare extension projects. It has set up State Social Welfare Boards at the state level to manage the activities at the state level. Apart from all these, it has supported various economic programmes under urban family welfare projects, welfare extension projects, after care programmes etc. History of Social Work: State Initiatives 47

The CSWB publishes two monthly periodicals “Social Welfare” and “Samaj Kalyan” which were started in 1954 and 1955 respectively. This covers welfare initiatives, stories of human interests, awareness of social issues etc. All the three services provided by Social Workers such as preventive, curative and rehabilitative are being attempted to be given under the CSWB for the welfare and development of the marginalized people.

Social Welfare Departments Setting of Welfare Departments itself seems the recognition of basic concept of social work, social service and social welfare services, Government realized besides the basic immediate facilities, special categories of people specifically the underprivileged sections should get special kind of services which will mainstream them in the society. Health and Education received prime importance. To expand the constitutional provision of free and compulsory education children up to the age of 14 years, schemes and provisions were made. The expansion of medical services were initially managed by lady Dufferin Fund but now the state Government and the municipal boards have taken responsibility. After Independence, the government has taken active responsibilities in providing welfare services to individuals and special groups. Under different departments the government has now started funding to various welfare agencies to work effectively for their development. To review the programmes of social welfare, the committee on plan projects appointed a study team on social welfare with Smt. Renuka Ray as its head in 1959. On the recommendation of the committee, a separate Division of Social Welfare was setup in the Ministry of Education. In 1964 Department of Social Security an independent department was created to devoting special attention to welfare activities. Labour 48 Origin and Development of Social Work in India welfare, welfare of backward classes and general social welfare were the main activities of this department. In 1966, Ministry of Labour and Employment took over the responsibility of labour related matters. Later, the department of Social Security was redesignated as Department of Social Welfare and started looking after child welfare, women welfare, welfare of physically and mentally handicapped and backward classes. But now there are separate departments to look after the welfare activities independently.

State Social Welfare Departments In the state, the welfare work received a new impetus in the post-Independence period. In some cases the departments, which were working previously were strengthened and in some states new welfare departments were established. It differs from state to state. The welfare department in two states took over the responsibilities of promoting welfare agencies in the state for implementing welfare activities. In the state of UP, Harijan Welfare Department was set up to see the welfare of Harijans. The Labour Department took up the responsibility of the labour welfare activities in the states. For smooth implementation of community development activities in rural areas the Development Commissioner for Community Development were appointed in many states. The Department of Prisons took over the responsibility of correctional services and probation activities.

Shift in Ideologies In 1964, Ms. Yasas made efforts to apply Gandhian Philosophies to Social Work. In the same year, a working group entitled ‘Concepts Contents and Approaches of Professional Social Work and Gandhian Constructive Work’ was appointed by Gandhian Institute of Studies History of Social Work: State Initiatives 49 in order to evolve an integrated ideology of Social Work in India. In this exercise, Professional Social Workers realized that Social Work should not confine itself to ameliorative work, but should aim towards Social Action to fight the roots of social malaise and to change the social order. It was countered by the UGC Sponsored First Review of Social Work Education in Indian Union in 1965. They published the First Review Report in Social Work education, which was welfare oriented. Association of Schools of Social Work in India (ASSWI) organized a seminar in 1966 on the Role of Social Work Profession in Social Reconstruction. The seminar finally suggested a shift in emphasize of Social Work Education from a remedial rehabilitative approach to a preventive developmental approach. The Second Review Report on Social Work Education published in 1980 was development oriented. It strongly differentiated the need of Social Work in India and the west. According to the report ours is an imperial one but based on the Indian values and tradition. The report pointed out that the major problem in India is to assist the greater part of the population and not a tangential group. It suggested on the global need to emphasize the teaching of Social Action, Social Policy and Social Administration. Emphasizing Social Action is an important method to be practiced in India, three major works came up during the 80s, i.e., Social Work and Social Action (Siddiqui, 1984), Social Action through Law (Gandhi, 1985) and a chapter on Social Action in the Encyclopedia of Social Work in India (Dasgupta, 1987) the scope of social work practice was in debate in 1980. Thus, the ideologies of Indian Professional social work seem to have developed as a combination of modern professional values, values 50 Origin and Development of Social Work in India from Indian religion and social ideologies and values of Gandhian Sarvoday movement.

Social Work Education Initially the concept of social work was meant to helping the economically dependent persons. The definitions given by various social scientists prove this fact. For the first time in 1947, the then premier of Bombay Shri B.G. Kher in the All-India Conference of Social Work remarked that “The aim of social work, as generally understood, is to remove social injustice, to relieve distress, to prevent suffering of society to rehabilitate themselves and their families and, in short, to fight against the five giants: 1) Physical want, 2) disease, 3) ignorance, 4) squalor, and 5) idleness. Prof. Sushil Chandra says, “social work is a dynamic activity undertaken by public or private effort in the implementation of social policy, with a view to raise the standard of living and to bring about social economic, police, and cultural well being of the individual, family and grow within a society irrespective of its stage of social development.” The first professional institution, the present Tata Institute of Social Sciences by Christian Missionaries with financial help from the House of Tatas to provide training for a career in Social Work was established in 1936 in Bombay. After Independence, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi and College of Social Service, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Ahemedabad were established in 1947. In 1948, Delhi School of Social Work, (DSSW) came under auspices of North YWCA of India with assistance from Foreign Division of American YWCA. It is the pioneer institution offering two years post graduate course leading to Master’s degree. In 1947 University of Delhi granted affiliation to Delhi School of History of Social Work: State Initiatives 51

Social Work and took up management of school in 1961. The first school as part of the Department of Social Work, Lucknow University was established in 1949. Madras School of Social Work was established in 1952. The Matru Sewa Sangh Institute of Social Work, Nagpur was established in 1958. At present more than hundred institutions offer Bachelor’s and Master’s degree and some others offer certificate course in Social Work. Some Colleges offer Ph.D. Programmes. The state of Maharastra itself has more than fifty Colleges, which provide Social Work Education. The University Grants Commissions appointed the First Review Committee for Social Work Education in 1960 and the Second Review Committee in 1975 for the promotion, maintenance of standards of education, coordination of social work education, training, research and practice. The important recommendation of the review committee was to establish National Council in Social Work Education for the promotion and development of social work education in India. The third review committee in 2001 spoke the need of relating social work education to the social realities. It recommended the curriculum to be divided in three sets. These are: 1) Core set includes the philosophy, ideology, values, ethics, theory and concepts. 2) The supportive set deals with knowledge and skills to assist the core set. 3) The interdisciplinary set includes theories, concepts from other disciplines which relates with social work according the students choice. IGNOU as a National University became pioneer in providing distance education in Bachelor degree in social work since 2004. It has developed a curriculum which includes both contact class and field work. It has also provided some level of flexibility suited to the students who are even working on full time basis. The syllabus 52 Origin and Development of Social Work in India is developed in consultation with the universities and organization practicing social work in field. Conclusion

In this Unit we have attempted to learn that welfare has been the way of life in Indian society. We find instances of welfare administration before the invasions of Aryans. The duties of the king and people were part of set rules. We collected the welfare initiatives of the state like poor relief, protecting families and dependants, sound administrative policies, strict jurisdiction and developmental activities accomplished by the rulers of India. The colonial state had introduced a new pattern of thinking based on rational thinking, democracy and liberalism. The colonial state had extended their activities and outlook to the education of masses, the care of the sick and the feeble, the employment of labour on rational lines, female education, widow remarriage, removal of caste restrictions, enactment of legislations, and such other matters. Further the rationalistic way of thinking of the Christian Missionaries, linked with modern science, had a great appeal to the Indian intellectual. Moreover the impact of western education affected the Indian mind. When the Indian reformers learned about liberal ideas and equality of rights among sexes in European countries they were much affected by their social system. As the new knowledge spread, more and more thinking Indians introduced to a new sense of values and felt uneasy over the social customs which the new sense of values condemned. After independence, the expansion of welfare services in every dimensions were seen in all the national planning and development programmes. Accordingly, the approaches and fields of Social Work Profession also History of Social Work: State Initiatives 53 have changed and became wider to cover all integrated activities require to meet the present challenges. Hence, we can say that the Social Work Profession took endeavor to relate with the ground realities of the nation in currents times. As discussed in this chapter that all the concepts and approaches of the modern Social Work Practice are deep rooted in all our efforts of Indian planning and development programmes.

References

Banerjee, G.R (1972), Paper on Social Work: An Indian Perspective, TISS, Bombay. Chopra, B.N; Das, M.N. and Pradhan, A.C. (2003), A Comprehensive History of India: Ancient India, Vol. 1, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi. Chopra, B.N; Das, M.N. and Pradhan, A.C. (2003), A Comprehensive History of India: Medieval India, Vol. 2, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi. Majumdar, R.C. (1982), Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi. Deasi, M. (2002), Ideologies and Social Work, Rawat Publications, Jaipur. Sharma, R.(2003) Prachin Bharat Me Rajnitik Vichar Evam Sansthaye, Rajkamal Prakashan Private Limited, New Delhi. Bhatia, B. M. (1974), History and Social Development: Elites in Modern India, Vikas Publishing House, Delhi. Crown Publications (1988), British India Analysed, Crown Publications, New Delhi. Rachana (1997), Bharat Ka Sankshipt Itihas, Rachana Prakashan, Jabalpur. 54 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Patahk, S. (1981), Social Welfare: An Evolutionary and Developmental Perspective, MacMillan India Limited, Delhi. Wadia. A.R. (1961), History and Philosophy of Social Work in India, Allied Publishers Private Limited, Bombay. Mathur, R.B. (2007), Modernisation of Social Work: Planning and Administration, Book Enclave, Jiapur. Arya, R.P. (2007), Training for Social Work and Rural Development, Mangalam Publishers & Distributors, Delhi. Paul Chowdhry, D (1995), Introduction to Social Work, Atma Ram & Sons, Delhi Sachdeva, D.R. (2000), Social Welfare Administration in India, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad Chandra, B. etal (ed), (1999), India After Independence (1947-2000) Penguin Books, New Delhi Wadia, A.R. (ed), (1968), History and Philosophy of Social Work in India, Allied Publishers Private Limited, Bombay. Pant, S. K. and Pandey J. (2004), Social Development in Rural India, Rawat Publications, Jaipur Sharma, A..M. (1999) Aspects of Labour Welfare and Social Security, Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. Madhya Pradesh Bhoj (Open) University, Bhopal, History and Development of Social Work, MSW-01 IGNOU, (2004) Introduction to Social Work: Emergence of Professional Social Work, BSWE-001 IGNOU, (1991) Rural Development Series. 55

2 History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives

*Bishnu Mohan Dash

Introduction

The social work is not a new thing in India. It has always been done, as it still is, as act of charity by the priest, the king, the lawyer, the doctor as well as by the reformers. The social work in India is an out growth of earlier forms of social activities in India. In ancient India, the nature of social service was that of charity. The social welfare activities were performed as yagnas. Buddhism had also laid great emphasis on charity. Charity was seen not only as a means of alleviating the sufferings of the materially poor, but also as the giving of the gifts especially to the Sangha. Ashoka had developed a comprehensive system of social welfare which included women’s welfare, rehabilitation of prisoners, rural development, free medical care, regulation of prostitution and provision of public utilities like roads for travelers, wells etc. During the Gupta dynasty, the Samudra Gupta had established well governed empire and the people were happy and prosperous. Welfare of the people was the main aim before him. Humayun was the first Muslim king who had made a bold attempt to prohibit the sati system. Akbar was the great ruler, who not only brought many reforms in Indian society but also abolished slavery in 1583. He introduced equality among all people

* Dr. Bishnu Mohan Dash, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, Delhi. 56 Origin and Development of Social Work in India irrespective of their class and religion. But the significant individual initiatives for social reform were taken after the establishment of Bramho Samaj by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. He has laid the foundation stone of individual social reform movements in India. Many of the volunteer workers developed an abiding interest in charity and philanthropic activities and thus, moved steadily forward towards the building of philosophy of social work. In response to an instinct of sympathy benevolent individuals made generous contribution for alleviating the sufferings of the destitute, poor, and other weaker sections of the society. In India, the year 1936 had marked a watershed in the history of professional social work when the Tata Institute of Social Science was established by Missionaries in Mumbai. But, the roots of professional social work values, ethics is found in the initiatives of early social reformers of India. Social Reformers of India Before Independence

Jyotiba Phule (1827-90) Jyotirao Govindrao Phule occupies a unique position among the social reformers of Maharashtra in the nineteenth century. While other reformers concentrated more on reforming the social institutions of family and marriage with special emphasis on the status and rights of women. Jyotirao Phule revolted against the unjust caste system under which millions of people had suffered for centuries. In particular, he courageously upheld the cause of the untouchables and took up the cudgels for the poorer peasants. He was a militant advocate of their rights. He boldly attacked the strange hold of the Brahmins, who prevented others from having access to all avenues of knowledge. Jyotirao gave protection to pregnant widows and assured them that the orphanage History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 57 would take care of their children. It was in this orphanage run by Jyotirao that a Brahmin widow gave birth to a boy in 1873 and Jyotirao adopted him as his son. Jyotirao had formed the Satya Shodhak Samaj (society of seekers of truth). The main objectives of the organization were to liberate the sudras and Ati-sudras and to prevent their exploitation by the Brahmins. Phule opposed idolatry and denounced the chaturvarna. According to him, both men and women were entitled to enjoy equal human rights on the basis of sex. He stressed the unity of man and envisaged a society based on liberty, equality and fraternity. Throughout his life, Phule fought for the emancipation of the downtrodden. Phule had used various techniques of social work practice particularly social action, community organization for preventing the untouchables from the exploitation of the Brahmins. In particular all his actions were directed for empowerment of the dalits and protection of their rights which aims at allowing people to live with dignity which are important concerns for social work profession.

Chattrapati Shahu Maharaja (1874-1922) Shahu Maharaja was one of the important figures in the history of social work in India Shahu Maharaja was a sagacious statesman who, within the limits imposed by their treaties with the British Government, made genuine efforts to promote the cause of social reform. The Maharaja of Kolhapur was the earliest Indian Prince to have taken interest in the social and religious reforms for the so-called backward classes. He tried his best to break the shackles of caste system and open the gates of education and public offices to all irrespective of caste distinctions. After assuming office, he issued a directive abolishing the system of forced labour. He tried to restrict child marriages and encourage widow 58 Origin and Development of Social Work in India remarriage .His greatest work was in the direction of education. He started a number of free schools in Kolhapur and built a number of hostels where the children of the poor would be housed free of charge. He was determined to provide equal opportunities to the backward classes. He realized that people belonging to other castes could not compete with the Brahmins successfully because of lack of educational facilities and equal opportunities. One of the measurers which he supported whole heartedly was the establishment of student’s hostel on the basis of caste. He closed the separate schools for the untouchables and made them study in the schools along with the students belonging to the upper castes. He favored western liberal education. He was a follower of the Arya samaj which, he believed, offered the right solution to social problems. A born Maratha, the maharaja championed the cause of non- Brahmins. He was the first among the Indian princes to take the courage to ban untouchability in his state. He soon became the leader of the non-Brahmin movement and united the Marathas under his banner. Shahu Maharaja had undertaken various social legislations for the social inclusion of the various disadvantaged sections of the society which are important concerns for social work practice. The strategies undertaken by him are based on social work values of charity, welfare for the empowerment of the downtrodden sections of the society.

Sri Narayan Guru (1845-1928) He was a great social reformer of Kerala who was famous for his relentless fight against the caste system and its consequences. His work lay in the upliftment of the backward classes in Kerala, especially the Ezhava community in Kerala. Sri Narayan Guru established a new identity for the Izhavas of Kerala based on a History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 59 reinterpretation of orthodox Hindu families. He denied the existence of plurality of Gods, religions and castes. He argued against the criterion of birth as the basis of differential access to the highest forms of spiritual knowledge and demonstrated the efficacy of training in gaining this knowledge. He established a set of beliefs, rituals, temples and priests which was parallel to those of the upper castes through which Izhavas were able to claim a new identity with honour, esteem and self respect. This movement was basically known as self respect movement. He installed the Siva idol at Aravipuram in 1888. The Aravipuram pratistha was a unique event of historical importance because a person of the lower caste, forbidden from entering the temple had himself consecrated the Siva image in a temple. On the wall of the temple he inscribed the following words. “Devoid of dividing walls of caste, of race or hatred of rival of faith, we all live herein brotherhood”. For millions of people, Shri Narayan Guru became a saint, seer, philosopher, poet and Social reformer. Sri Narayan Guru had used various methods of social work particularly community organization and social action for preventing the ezhavas from deprivation at the hands of the upper caste people. He has worked through out his life for the empowerment of the weaker sections of the society, which is an important task before the professional social workers.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a great social and religious reformer. He is known for his great reforms. He has established the Bramho samaj. Raja Ram Mohan Roy has initiated the following significant reforms. He organized a movement to bring an end to the practice of sati as this practice was inhuman and degrading. He cited the authority of the oldest sacred books and showed 60 Origin and Development of Social Work in India that the Hindu religion at its best was opposed to this practice. It was much because of his efforts that sati was abolished by Lord William Bentinck. He propagated the widow remarriage and encouraged intercaste marriage. He strongly opposed the caste system because that created disunity and hindered the feeling of patriotism. He actively opposed the child marriage and the polygamy. He tried his level best to persuade the British government to abolish the child marriage. He opposed the worship of so many gods and believed in one omnipotent God. He preached against useless practice, costly sacrifices and superstitions. He vigorously attacked the caste system and declared it as inhuman. According to him, it has been the source of want of unity among us. He believed that the caste system was doubly evil, it created inequality and divided the people and deprived them of patriotic feelings. He was a great champion of women’s rights. He stood for equal rights for women and made a demand for granting the right of property and inheritance to them for raising their social status. He also advocated the right to widows for remarriage. To do away with meaningless religious evils, he greatly condemned idolatry and worship of so many gods and goddess. He founded the Brahma samaj, especially to preach monotheism or worship of one almighty God. He favoured the introduction of the western education to enlighten the people. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had used various techniques of professional social work like social action, social advocacy for the abolition of social evils which is one of the important goals of professional social work. His reform movement particularly aimed at empowerment of the widows, destitute as well as removal of social evils which is still now important goals before the professional social workers. History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 61

Mahadev Govinda Ranade Mahadev Govinda Ranade was the social reformer, who dedicated his life for the upliftment of women and oppressed classes. He was the founder general secretary of Indian Social Conference, founded in 1875 A.D. which campaigned for reforming and modernizing the Indian society. Under his leadership the work of social reform was extended all over the country and it touched almost all aspects of the society. He worked for intercaste marriage and raising the marriageable age, abolition of caste, widow remarriage, women’s education, discouragement of polygamy, improvement in the conditions of outcastes and settlement of all religious disputes between Hindus and Muslims through Panchayats. Ranade had spent throughout his life for the social reconstruction of the society. He had worked for the empowerment of the weaker sections of the society particularly on women’s empowerment. He had used community organization method of social work for conflict resolution between Hindus and the Muslims.

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) Swami Vivekananda’s is pre-monastic name was Narendranath Dutta. He was one of the most famous and influential spiritual leaders of India. He was the chief disciple of Ramakrishna Paramhansa. He founded Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission. He is one of the very important figures in the history of Hindu Reform Movements. He stressed on social action and proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions and condemned any narrowness in religious matters. He believed that only in uplifting the masses lay the vitality of the nation. He urged people to imbibe spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking and wanted a social order based on equality and freedom. He was the champion of emancipation of women and was of the view that no 62 Origin and Development of Social Work in India social progress is possible without improving condition of women, who were most important instrument of social change. He condemned the caste system and the Hindu rituals and superstitions. In 1987, he founded the Ramakrishna mission to carry on humanitarian relief and social work. Belur became the head quarters of his mission and matha. The practice of social case work, group work and community organization method is always practiced in working with the clients in the Ramakrishna Mission. He was in favour of giving liberty, equality and freedom and above all fulfillment of human rights of the people which is a crucial aspect of professional social work.

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar Vidyasagars greatest legacy is the result of his unflinching campaign to better the situation of Indian women. Vidyasagar almost single-hand introduced the practice of widow remarriage to mainstream Hindu society. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar reforming mind has found most concrete expression in his socio-religious thoughts. He raised questions about early marriage, polygamy, widow remarriage, and many other ills stifling social developments. Vidyasagar was instrumental in founding several schools for girls. The enactment of the act of 1856, legalizing widow remarriage and the Civil Marriage Act of 1872, restricting bigamy and child marriage and encouraging widow remarriage, owed a great deal to Vidyasagar, whose writings and activities has helped to create public opinion in favour of these issues. He had made a lot of contributions to the making of modem India. He was deeply interested in the education of women and started a girl’s school in Calcutta. The Bathune School was also the result of his efforts. Soon a great many schools for girls came up in different parts of the country as a result of his efforts. History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 63

He strongly preached against child remarriage. He prepared public opinion for widow remarriage. Through his efforts, the British Government had to pass an act legalizing the widow marriage in 1856 A.D. He introduced the study of western thought in the Sanskrit college and also opened its gates for non-Brahman students. Vidyasagar could successfully mobilize the widows for remarriage through the effective use of social case work techniques. Through the social case work method, he could develop the confidence, courage among the widows for remarriage. The effective use of community organization method generated awareness among the community to understand the different evils prevailing in the Hindu society which needed immediate reforms.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati He was the one of the greatest social reformers who had founded the Arya Samaj in 1875 A.D. Dayanand Saraswati founded Arya samaj to promote social service. Arya Samaj postulates in principle of equal justice for all men and all nations, together with equality of the sexes. It repudiates a hereditary caste system, and only recognizes professions or guild, suitable to the complementary aptitudes of men in the society. The Arya samaj unequivocally condemns idol worship, animal sacrifices, ancestor worship, pilgrimages Priestcraft, offerings made in the temple, the caste system, untouchability, child marriages and discrimination against women on the grounds that all these lacked Vedic sanction. The Arya Samaj discourages dogma and symbolism and encourages skepticism in beliefs that run contrary to common sense and logic. Dayanand’s immense contribution was his championing of the equal rights of women-such as their rights to education and reading of Indian scriptures. Swami Dayanand made the following contributions to introduce social and 64 Origin and Development of Social Work in India religious reforms in Indian society. He strongly opposed the caste system and propagated against the practice of untouchability. He strongly condemned the practice of sati and child marriage. He worked actively for the upliftment of women and spread of education. These institutions, known as D.A.V. schools or colleges, work even upto this day. He condemned the idol worship and useless religious rites and repudiated the authority of the Brahmins. The work of Swami Dayanand Saraswati reveals that he had always followed for the rights based approach of social work for securing equal rights for both men and women. His work particularly for raising the status of women in the society reflects that he was always interested in gender main streaming which is an important goal of professional social workers. The establishment of various schools across the country for the education of the girls and boys reflects his philanthropic approach towards the welfare of all. Social Reformers of India During Independence

B.R.Ambedkar (1891-1956) Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is remembered in India as the chief architect of the Indian Constitution and the liberator of the Scheduled Castes. Ambedkar spent his life fighting against the system of untouchability and the Indian caste system. A leader of the depressed classes throughout his life, he worked for the moral and material progress of the untouchables. In 1924, he founded the Depressed Classes Institute and in 1927, the Samaj Samata Sangha to propagate the gospel of social equality among the untouchables and caste Hindus. He launched a number of movements for securing equal status for the lower castes. In March, 1930, he organized the non-violent struggle for entry History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 65 into the Kala Ram temple at Nasik. He was appointed the law minister in the interim government and also chairman of the constituent, Assembly Drafting Committee. He is credited for having sparked the Dalit Buddhist movement. Ambedkar has been honoured with the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award for his highest degree of national service. Ambedkar was responsible for the various constitutional provisions for the welfare of untouchables including the policies of reservations. Dr. Ambedkar had used various methods of social work particularly community organization. Through community organization method he had been able to mobilize the untouchables to fight for their material and moral progress. He had been able to use social action method and had organized a non-violent struggle with the untouchables for entry into the temple. Through out his life he worked for the empowerment of the untouchables/depressed which is still an important goal of professional social work.

Mahatma Gandhi Perhaps there is no other Indian who made so great contribution as Mahatma Gandhi to the achievement of Independence for India. He dominated the scene of Indian politics from 1919 to 1947 A.D. He united all the elements of Indian national movement under his banner. Actively participating himself in the struggle for freedom, he guided other leaders as well. He made the powerful and strong British government yield by the use of his peaceful weapon of non-violence. He did not make use of any violent means to achieve freedom or Independence but employed the peaceful movements of non- cooperation, Satyagraha, boycott of foreign goods and embracing swadeshi. For this purpose he laboured hard to keep the Hindus and Muslims united so that the British policy of divide and rule should not succeed. 66 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

He did a lot for the upliftment of the harijans and laboured hard to get them a respectable position in the society. Infact, Gandhi was always ready to sacrifice his all for the sake of his countrymen and his motherland. It was he who made the Congress movement a mass movement. Till 1917 A.D. the freedom movement of India was restricted to the upper and the middle classes. But it goes to the credit of Mahatma Gandhi that under his leadership even the common peasants and workers began to take an active part in the national movement. He had led the Champaran Movement, Indigo Revolt and Khaira Satyagraha for protecting the interests of the farmers. The Gandhian approaches, particularly the use of non-violence, Satyagraha, democratic decentralization are used by professional social workers. Gandhiji’s vision of a just and peaceful social order based on equality, liberty, freedom is always given utmost importance in professional social work. Gandhiji had worked a lot for the empowerment of the harijans and peasants. His strategies of peaceful demonstration is adopted by contemporary professional social workers.

Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel (1875-1950) In 1918 Vallabhabhai Patel entered politics with his participation in the Kheda Satyagraha to secure exemption for the cultivators from the payment of land tax for the crops that had failed. In 1922 he launched another peasant movement in Bardoli Taluka of Gujrat, popularly known as Bardoli satyagraha. In recognition of his great success in organizing the movement Gandhi called him Sardar. He actively participated in all the movements launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The crowning achievement of his political career was the integration of some 562 princely states and domains into the Indian Union. Patel had worked throughout his life for the empowerment of the poor History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 67 particularly the peasants. It reveals from his contribution that he was a very successful community organizer.

Thakkar Bapa (1861-1941) Amrutlal.V.Thakkar commonly known as Thakkar Bapa, was a friend, guide and philosopher of Adivasis and downtrodden sections of society, condemned to untouchability. He had set up cooperative societies for sweepers and scavengers in Pune and schools for the children of labours in Ahemadabad. Statutory provisions in the constitution for safeguarding interests of harijans is the fruits of his labour. He was a tireless member of the servants of the Indian society and did splendid and selfless work for the upliftment of the aboriginal hill tribes of Panchamahals. He was a leading Gandhian social worker and freedom fighter, who made a pioneering contribution to tribal welfare. He was the general secretary of the Harijan Sevak Sangha. During 1933-34, he undertook a Harijan tour along with Gandhiji. He was a devoted member of the Servants’ of Indian Society. He did a lot of work for tribal welfare and founded the Gond Sewa Sangha, now called the Vanavasi Sewa Mandal in Mandala District in Madhya Pradesh. Thakkar Bapa had worked relentlessly for tribal welfare which is still one of the important fields of social work practice. He had performed various roles of a social worker like educator, motivator, community organizer, and had successfully organized a Harijan tour for generating awareness against the exploitation of the Harijans.

Vinoba Bhave Vinoba Bhave was one of the great spiritual leaders and reformers of modem India, whose work and personal examples moved the hearts of countless Indians. He 68 Origin and Development of Social Work in India devoted his life to social welfare. After India achieved her Independence, Vinoba started out on his extraordinary Bhoodan (land-gift) movement. Over a period of 20 years, Vinoba walked through the length and breadth of India persuading land owners and land lords to give land to their poor and downtrodden neighbors. Sarvodaya or welfare of all was the great ideal before him which is one of the important values of social work profession. He toured almost the whole of India on foot for his Bhoodan mission. He covered over 50,000 miles and collected more than 36 lakh acres from landlords all over India. The birth of the voluntary land gift movement popularly known as Bhoodan began while Gandhian leader Vinoba Bhave was on a walking tour of Telengana. In Ponchempalli village, landless peasants told him they needed 100 acres of land. Bhave asked the landlord Ramachandra Reddi to donate 100 acres and met with success. Vinoba Bhave had successfully used social case work techniques with the land lords and was able to motivate them to donate land to the poor. Later on he had successfully used community organization method with the villagers and could convince them for donation of gram (village) known as gramdan.

Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan He did a lot for the upliftment of the Muslims in the religious and social spheres. The movement he started to achieve these aims is known as the Aligarh Movement. He strongly recommended the western education and knowledge for the Muslims as he believed that they could make progress like other Indian communities only by receiving western education. He believed that their social ills can only be removed with the light of western education, so he laid emphasis on acquiring western scientific knowledge. As an official he opened various History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 69 schools in several villages and towns to encourage modern education. Above all he founded the Mohammedan Anglo oriental college, Aligarh, in 1873 A.D. to promote western scientific knowledge, culture and education among the Muslims for the improvement of the religious and social life. He founded institutions like Desh Bhagat Sangathanh and Upper Indian Muslim Security Organization for the upliftment, unity and organization of the Muslims. He strongly advocated the removal of the purdah system and spread of education among the Muslim women for raising of social status. He strongly condemned the social evils of polygamy and divorce which were prevalent in the Muslim society. Thus, more than any body else, Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan was much responsible for the awakening of the Muslims.

Swami Sahaianand Saraswati (1889-1950) He was a lifelong sanyasi, freedom fighter, and a kisan leader from Bihar. He actively participated in the Non- cooperation movement as well as in civil disobedience movement. In 1928, he fought relentlessly for the emancipation of the peasantry from feudal oppression. The central theme of his programme of agrarian reforms was the abolition of the Zamindari system, and the creation of peasant proprietorship. He took up the burning issues of feudal oppression such as forced labour, illegal extractions, evictions etc. for organizing kisan resistance and struggles. In 1929, he founded the Bihar Kisan Sabha under his leadership. He also presided over several sessions of All India Kisan Sabha. For his devoted services to the peasants, he came to be addressed as Kisan Pran (life of kisans). Swami Saraswati was an ardent follower of Mahatma Gandhi and had practiced Gandian strategies for protecting the poor peasants from the exploitation of zamindars. He had successfully used community organization 70 Origin and Development of Social Work in India technique in organizing kisan struggles for agrarian reforms. Social Reformers After India’s Independence

Baba Amte Baba Amte was born in Hinganghat located in Wardha District of Maharashtra state of India. He was from a wealthy family of jagirdars. Trained in law, Baba Amte started a lucrative practice at Warora but, moved by the poverty he saw around him, he decided to dedicate himself to social justice. Murlidhar Devidas Amte or Baba Amte, as he is fondly known is one of India’s most revered social and moral leaders. Baba Amte was a social worker associated with rehabilitation of leprosy victims and making efforts at national integration. Baba Amte had devoted his life to the care and rehabilitation of leprosy patients, even allowing his body to be used for experiments to grow leprosy germs. His community development project at Anandwan (Forest of Bliss) near Nagpur in Maharashtra, India, is recognized and respected around the world and has done much to dispel prejudice against leprosy victims. Baba Amte also launched the Bharat Jodo (Unite India) movements from Kanyakumari to Kashmir in 1985 and Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh in 1988, with the mission of establishing peace and raising environmental consciousness. He continues to serve as a source of inspiration to others in the “anti-big dam” movement, not only in the Narmada valley, but also around the world. Baba’s legacy has lived on through the tireless work of his two sons and their wives, who in their own ways have contributed significantly to furthering Baba’s vision. Dr. Vikas Amte ran an NGO known as Maharogi Sewa Samiti and coordinated operations between Anandwan and satellite projects. His wife Dr. Bharati History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 71

Amte runs a hospital at Anandwan and his brother Dr.Prakash Amte and his wife Dr. Manda Amte run the school and hospital at Hemalkasa. Baba Amte had successfully used various methods of social work like social case work, community organization in dealing with leprosy victims. He had worked for the sustainable development of the community at Anadavan. He is regarded one of the successful social case workers in the contemporary India. He was a successful community organizer. His community development programmes at Anadavan has become an ideal example for the students of professional social work.

Mother Teresa Mother Teresa was a Catholic nun of the Albanian ethnicity who founded the Missionaries of Charity and had won the Noble Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work. For over forty years, she ministered help to the poor, sick, orphaned and dying in Kolkata. Her Mission of Charity has also expanded to other countries under her leadership. Mother Teresa was awarded the Noble Peace Prize for taking care of the poor in the slums of Kolkata and dedicated the prize money of Rs.15, 20,000 for the cause of the downtrodden. She has served the poor a long time and is known as “saint of the gutters”. In 1950, she founded a religious Order in Calcutta called the Missionaries of Charity. The Order provides food for the needy and operates hospitals, schools, orphanages, youth centers, and shelters for lepers and the dying poor. It now has branches in 50 Indian cities and 30 other countries. Following her death in 1997, she was beatified by Pope John Paul II and given the title Blessed Teresa. Mother Teresa, an internationally acclaimed social worker, had worked throughout her life for the welfare of the disadvantaged sections of the population. She is internationally famed as a humanitarian. She 72 Origin and Development of Social Work in India had successfully used case work technique/community organization in working with the sum dwellers for their rehabilitation. Rehabilitation of the disadvantaged sections of the population is always a top priority of professional social work.

Medha Patkar Medha Patkar, known and loved by millions of villagers and city-folk of India and the world over is the founder of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and the National Alliance of People’s Movements. Prior to being a social activist, Medha did her M.A. in Social Work from Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) Mumbai. She left her position on the faculty of TISS as well as her unfinished Ph.D, when she became involved in the tribal and peasant agitations in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, which eventually led to the organization of the Narmada Bachao Andolan. She has faced police beatings and many jail terms on the way, but she continues to believe in the best of people and the democratic system. She has won over police and even government officers through her simple faith in justice and comprehensive analysis of the facts. Linking the Narmada Bachao Andolan with hundreds of peasant, tribal, dalits women and labour movements through India, Medha Patkar is a Convener of the National Alliance of People’s Movements a non-electoral, secular political alliance opposed to globalisation and liberalization based economic policy and for alternative development paradigm and plans. She has served as a Commissioner to the World Commission on Dams, the first independent global Commission constituted to enquire on the water, power and alternative issues, related to dams, across the world. Medha Patkar has received numerous awards, including the Deenanath Mangeshkar Award, Mahatma Phule Award, Right History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 73

Livelihood Award, Goldman Environment Prize, and Green Ribbon Award for Best International Political Campaigner by BBC, and the Human Rights Defender’s Award from Amnesty International.

Sunderlal Bahuguna Sunderlal Bahuguna is a noted activist and an environmentalist who had fought for the preservation of forests in the Himalayas as a member of the Chipko Movement. One of his important contributions to that cause, and environmentalism in general, was his creation of the chipko slogan “ecology is the permanent economy”. Sunderlal is most famous for his work to stop the creation of the Tehri dam for years, although construction and flooding are nearby completed. Sunderlal Bahuguna has contributed globally through awareness raising measures concerning deforestation, the negative effects on liquor on mountain life. The simplicity and sincerity of Sunderlal Bahuguna helped to the success of the Chipko Movement to a large extent. The Chipko Movement has been successful in forcing a fifteen year ban on commercial green felling in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, in stopping clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas, and in generating pressure for a national forest policy which is more sensitive to people’s needs and to the ecological development of the country. Sunderlal Bahuguna has successfully used the community organization techniques of social work practice in motivating and mobilizing the community for protection of environment. He was able to organize people for non-violent method for securing the rights of the people as well as protection of ecology.

Sandeep Pandey Dr. Sandeep Pandey is one of the founders of Asha for Education, has been awarded 2002 Ramon Magsaysay 74 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Award in the Emergent Leadership category for his work towards the upliftment of the poor and the underprivileged in India. His objective is to empower the marginalized so that the poor can have a voice. His actions from education to grass roots democracy to peace to promoting local ownership of resources, are all guided by that basic philosophy, which governed by an ideology that is Gandhian and humanitarian. He has also founded Asha Parivar that focuses on strengthening democracy at the grassroots. At the Asha Ashram in Lalpur, he has created a learning environment where students live and study among working communities of artisans and learn trades. The Ashram works to overcome caste barriers that dalits face, publicizes official corruption in the local areas, and develop appropriate technologies for the rural region. He leads national Alliance for people’s movement which happens to be the largest network of grassroots’ people’s movements in India. He and his fellow activists undertook the Karachi (Pakistan) to Delhi (India) friendship March. During the march he had initiated discussions at villages on issues related to peace between India and Pakistan. An offshoot of this work has been a group actively working on visa free borders between India and Pakistan. In 1999 he walked over 1000 km from Pokhran, the spot of India’s nuclear tests to Sarnath, the site of Buddha’s first teachings, creating awareness of the impact of nuclearisation. In 2002, he marched from Cheroots to Ayodhya in the aftermath of the Gujarat carnage, to give the message that the common citizens are religious but not communal. He is working for sustainable development of the poor and ensuring good governance, which is an important objective of professional social work. He has successfully used community organization method in his entire endeavor. History of Social Work: Individual Initiatives 75

Arvind Kejriwal Arvind Kejriwal is a renowned social activist and crusader for greater transparency in government. He was awarded Magsaysay award in 2006 for activating India’s Right to Information Movement at the grassroots and social activities to empower the poorest citizens to fight corruption by holding the government answerable to the people. While he was in Indian Revenue Services, he realized that severe corruption is prevalent in government due to lack of transparency in the process. He found that the common people are at the mercy of the government functionaries who suppress information, extort money and favours in exchange for basic services and thus violate the basic rights of citizens. So, he resigned from his post and founded Parivartan, a Delhi based citizen’s movements, trying to ensure just, transparent and accountable governance. In 2006, he spearheaded an awareness campaign for RTI across India. He was instrumental in the passing of the Right to Information Act, 2006. He has achieved a volume of success stories to demonstrate that direct engagement in local government can make a real difference in people’s lives. His work has empowered Indian citizens to fight corruption and resulted in community led efforts that have uncovered massive laundering of funds and corruption in various government projects. Conclusion

In this Unit, the individual initiative of various leading social reformers of India has been discussed. These reformers are always remembered as they had contributed significantly for the socio economic transformation of the Indian society. This chapter basically highlighted the use and adoption of social work methods and values by various social reformers. It has 76 Origin and Development of Social Work in India particularly highlighted the use of specific methods of social work practice particularly social case work, community organization and social action method used by various reformers in mobilizing and organizing the community as well as social work interventions taken by them. This chapter has brought into light the roots of professional social work tradition in early nineteenth century India. So, this chapter is of immense value to the students of social work because it underlies the roots of professional social work values and ethics in the activities of the early social reformers of India.

References

Bakshi, S.R. and Mahajan, C. (2000) Social Reformers of India (ed.) Deep and Deep publications, Delhi. Suda, J.P. (1963) Main Currents of Social and Political Thought in Modem India, Vol I, Jaiprakash Nath and Co. Educational Publisher, Meerut. Phadke, Y.D. (1975) Social Reformers of Maharashtra, Maharashtra Information Centre, New Delhi Natarajan, S. (l959) A Century of Social Reform in Indin, Asia Publishing House, Bombay. Heimsath, C.H. (l964) Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform, Oxford University Press, Bombay 77

3 History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements

*Bishnu Mohan Dash

Introduction

The Indian society for centuries suffered from so many social evils. The chief among them are caste system, deplorable condition of women, illiteracy, child marriage, idol worship, the sati system, polygamy, the dowry system etc. The various reform movements like Arya samaj, Ramkrishna Mission, Indian Social Conferences, Mohammedan Literacy Society, Aligarh Movement, Ahmadiya Movement were started to combat the above ills. No doubt, it was because of their continuous efforts and hard labour that many of the above social evils were rooted out. These movements put a great pressure on the British Government to pass various laws from time to time to abolish the social evils. Definitely, certain social evils were so deep rooted that it was not easy to get rid of them in a short time. Some of them like the dowry system, illiteracy, etc. still continue and pose a great challenge to the modern reformers. Certainly, some new reform movements should be started to get rid of these social evils that still persist in India. The growth of western education and the India’s contact with western civilization awakened the Indian minds to the evils of social and religious practices. The liberation of thought fostered a spirit of enquiry and a rational

* Dr. Bishnu Mohan Dash, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, Delhi. 78 Origin and Development of Social Work in India approach to the socio-religious problems. Many Indians began to realize that social and religious reformation was an essential condition for the all round development of the country. The backwardness of the Indian society made a deep impression on the rationalist thinkers and religious and social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, Mrs. Annie Besant. Social reform movements in India were essentially products of renaissance and intellectual awakening. Renaissance thinkers were educated in the west, which gave them the opportunity to compare their own thought and social institutions with the thought and social institutions of the west. Therefore, naturally they felt an urgent need for social reform. Socio-political factors like western education, rise of nationalism, growth of Hindi literature, establishment of western political institutions, emergence of Indian national congress, rise of a new economic order and social legislations brought a new awakening. This awakening resulted in several social and political reform movements. The broad aims of these movements in the social spheres were caste reform and improvement in the rights and status of women and generally against social and legal inequalities. The religious movements also involved an attack on certain institutions and practices like child marriage, position and treatment of widows, seclusion and the denial of women’s right to property, education, the roots of which lay in the traditions of different communities. It was therefore that the movement for the social reform developed within the folds of each religion rather than as a unified movement for the transformation of society as a whole. The most important of these movements that developed within Hinduism were the Arya Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 79 Reform Movements Among the Hindus

Brahmo Samaj Raja Ram Mohan Roy is sometimes considered as the father of modern India as he had practically laid the foundations of all the principal movements which subsequently became an instrument for modernization of the country. As a social reformer, he denounced the abuses of caste, sati and idolatry. The widespread idolatry and dogmatism among the Hindus came to be viewed as retrogressive, which needed to be changed. Reacting these features of Hindu Society, Raja Ram Mohan Roy launched a reform movement in 1828 which came to be known as Brahmo Samaj. Its purpose was to purify Hinduism and to preach belief in one God. Brahmo Samaj movement was based on the twin pillars of reason, Vedas and Upanisads. It also incorporated teachings of other religions. Brahmo Samaj laid emphasis on human dignity, opposed idolatry and criticized social evils like sati and untouchability. Brahmo Samajists under the leadership of Raja Ram Mohan Roy organized agitations against sati and appealed to the reason and humanity and compassion of the people. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was also one of the earliest propagators of modern education and a pioneer of Indian journalism and used press as a medium for dissemination of modern ideas. He could convince the Governor General William Bentinck to pass legislation banning sati. The Brahmo tradition of Raja Ram Mohan Roy was carried after 1843 by Devendranath Tagore who also repudiated the doctrine of those Vedic scriptures which were infallible, and after by Keshab Chandra Sen. Brahmo Samaj was successful in bringing about general uplift of women including widow remarriage and abolition of sati. They also actively opposed the rigid caste system and practices of child marriage and contributed to the spread of modern 80 Origin and Development of Social Work in India education. He founded the Hindu College in 1816, the first academic institution of western learning. However, towards the end of the 19th century, Brahmo Samaj was weakened by internal dissensions. Moreover, its influence on the intellectual, social, cultural and Political life of Bengal and the rest of India in the 19th and 20th centuries remained strong. Raja Ram Mohan Roy had used various techniques of social work like social action, social advocacy for the abolition of social evils which is one of the important goals of professional social work. His work was particularly aimed at empowerment of the widows, destitute as well as removal of social evils, which is still now important goals before the Indian social workers.

Arya Samaj The movement of the Hindu renaissance sponsored by the leaders of the new reformist movements like the Arya Samaj and the Rama Krishna Mission projected the image of modern civilization of the west as over materialistic and soulless, shorn of all humanity and goodness. It attempted to idealize the glory of ancient India, the age of Vedas and the utmost tolerance of the Hindu religion. Swami Dayanand gave new ideas to the Hindu society; back to the Vedas and India for the Hindus. Arya Samaj movement was founded in Bombay in 1875 by Swami Dayanand Saraswati .Its prime object was to reform Hindu religion in northern India. Arya Samaj movement was revivalist in character because it drew its inspiration from the Vedas, which were regarded as infallible and as a foundation of all knowledge. Thus Swami Dayanand sought to reform Hindu religion by liberating it from the hold of ignorant priests and gave the call of going back to the Vedas, Thus, Arya Samaj, while freeing the individual from the tyranny of Brahmins demanded of him implicit faith in the divine History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 81

Vedas. However the Arya Samaj also proposed a programme of social reforms. It stood, however, for the four fold Varna system has to be determined by merit and not by birth. The Arya Samaj stood for equal rights of men and women in social and educational matters. The Arya Samaj opposed untouchability, caste discrimination, child marriage, and supported widow remarriage. Dayanand Saraswati opposed to idolatary, preiesthood and denounced infinite number of meanings, rituals and practices like untouchability associated with rigid caste system. Thus Arya Samaj had an egalitarian social outlook. Arya Samajist organized a network of schools and colleges for both boys and girls where education was imparted in mother tongue. The Dayanand Anglo Vedic College was founded in 1886, while the conservative section of Arya Samajists led by Swami Shadhanand started a Gorki near Haridwar to propagate the traditional ideals of education. Arya Samaj did inspire a large number of nationalists Indians and inculcated among them a spirit of social equality, self respect and self reliance. So much so that Arya Samaj later became one of the targets of political repression. Although Arya Samajists represented a form of national awakening of the Indian people, yet being restricted to a narrow Hindu basis it generated a negative attitude towards Islam and contributed to the communal divide. Shuddhi movement launched by Arya Samaj further contributed to the growth of communal outlook. As a result of which. Arya samaj couldn’t become a national or cosmopolitan movement since it demanded of its followers the recognition of the principle of infallibility of the Vedas. While in the early stage it played a progressive role by attaching the evil practices like untouchability, idolatry, ritualism, and domination of priests and also contributed to national awakening by inculcating a spirit of, self help and self reliance, yet, in the later phase it became a hindrance to the growth 82 Origin and Development of Social Work in India of secular nationalism because of its revivalist emphasis on Vedas and alienated the minorities like Muslims. The work of Swami Dayanand Saraswati reveals that he had always followed for the rights based approach for securing equal rights for both men and women. His work particularly for raising the status of women in the society reflects that he was always interested in gender mainstreaming which is an important goal of social workers. The establishment of various schools for the education of the girls and boys symbolizes his social work bent of mind towards charity, philanthropy and welfare.

Rama Krishna Mission The Rama Krishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1887 in memory of his teacher Swami Rama Krishna Paramhansa. Vivekananda propounded the teachings of his Guru and made him known all over the world. He demonstrated the greatness of the Hindu religion to the west, denounced the untouchability and advocated the upliftment of the masses. The mission has a net work of its centers all over the country and has developed into a world wide organization. The head quarters of Rama Krishna Math and Mission are at Belur, near Kolkata. The Rama Krishna Mission is an important social reform institution and runs a number of school, hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages and welfare centers, helping the poor and the afflicted in times of distress and natural calamity. Millions of women and men suffering from problems have been helped by the Mission. It has not only been doing a yeoman social service but also helped to foster a spirit of national consciousness in the minds of educated people. The Ramakrishna mission is still one of the exemplary social service institutions in India. It had practiced social case work, social group work techniques History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 83 for helping the clients suffering from distress and natural calamity. It has always worked for the rehabilitation of the weaker sections of the society particularly the orphans, widows, destitutes and had organized various schools, hospitals and orphanages for providing various curative and preventive services.

The Prarthana Samaj It was founded in the year 1867 and its objectives were almost similar to those of the Brahmo Samaj. Two of its great leaders were RG.Bandarkar, and M.G.Ranade. It propounded belief in one God, supported bhakti and opposed idolatry. Some of its leaders actively advocated the women’s cause. This movement asserted that the Hindu religious tradition was not the source of legitimacy for the pathetic condition of women. In order to end social evils it started many institutions like orphanages. It condemned ban on widow remarriage. With this end in view, it opened widow ashrams and supported the cause of widow remarriage. It also started a plan for adult literacy. It also argued that women folk should have their rightful place in society. The Mumbai Widow Reforms Association was formed which arranged the first widow remarriage. Many women’s organizations were formed like Women’s India Association in 1917 by Margaret Cousin, National Council of Indian Women in 1926 and All India Women’s Conference in 1927. Ranade has used social case work method in motivating the widows for remarriage. They had worked for the empowerment of the women, which is the important goal of social work. They have successfully used community organization method and had established a large number of women’s associations for the empowerment of the women. 84 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Satyashodak Movement It was founded by Jyotiba Fule, a “low caste” from Maharashtra who being aware of the degraded position of the untouchables and non-Brahmins waged a life long struggle against upper caste domination and brahminical supremacy. It was a powerful non-Brahmin movement and had challenged the supremacy of Brahmins. He founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj to carry out his crusade against the Brahmin hegemony. The Satya Shodhak Samaj besides being an anti- Brahmanism movement had a programme of positive action for women’s liberation, propagating education and or economic betterment. In 1854, he opened the school for the untouchables and had also started private orphanages to help widows. His two writings Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak and Gulamgiri became the source of inspiration for the common masses. Mahatma Fule used the symbol of Raja Bali as opposed to the Brahmins symbol of Rama. The middle castes, the Kunbis, Malis and Dhangars developed a sense of identity as a class against Brahmin who were thought of as the exploiters. The movement spread to the southern states in the first decades of the twentieth century. Kammas, Reddis, Vellas and Muslims also joined hands against the Brahmins. The Satya Shodhak Samaj had preached for empowerment of the Weaker Sections of the Society particularly the scheduled castes. Phule had successfully used various methods of social work particularly social action to challenge the supremacy of the Brahmins. He had used community organization method for organizing orphanages.

The Young Bengal Movement The Young Bengal Movement was initiated in the first half of the nineteenth century by the followers of Henry Louis Berozio, a professor of English language in History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 85

Calcutta. His followers mainly consisted of students of Hindu College, were deeply influenced by western literature, philosophy, and revolutionary ideas. Their appeal was to revolt against the superstitions and malpractices prevalent in Hindu society. The primary aim was to expose the corrupt priesthood and evil social customs, diffuse education especially among women, use freedom of the press to bring about radical social change, encourage patriotism, and improve conditions in the country. They publicized their views through several journals like Bengal Spectator, Parthenon, Hesperus, Inquirer, Quill, Hindu and Pioneer etc. They had been criticized as Anglicists and atheist’s. So, and the movement failed to develop a popular ideology and was petered out by the mid nineteenth century. But certainly, the movement was responsible for enhancing the country’s self respect movement and elevated the moral stature of the society. The Young Bengal Movement could not achieve success because of lack of people’s participation in the movement .So the movement could not mobilize and organize the community to actively participate in the movement. The young Bengal movement had relied on press to generate awareness among the masses. Owing to the absence of professional social work relationship which demands good interpersonal relationship between client and social worker, the Young Bengal Movement failed. Reform Movements Among the Muslims

Aligarh Movement Movements for socio-religious reforms were also strong among the Muslim community. From the very beginning, Sayyid Ahmed devoted himself to the upliftment of the Muslim community. He diagnosed the miserable plight of the Muslim to their innate conservation and their 86 Origin and Development of Social Work in India antipathy towards the western culture and education. Sayyid Ahmad set before himself the two-fold task of bringing about the rapprochement between the British government and his co-religionists and removing the orthodoxy by the magic touch of western education. Like Ram Mohan Roy, he fought against tremendous odds and ultimately triumphed over superstitions and orthodoxy. Aligarh movement was led by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan. He was tremendously impressed by modern scientific thought and worked all his life to reconcile it with him. Throughout his life, he struggled against blind obedience and irrationalism. He also interpreted Quran in the light of contemporary rationalism and science. He viewed, any interpretation of the Quran that conflict with human reason, science, or nature was in reality a misinterpretation. He urged the people to develop a critical approach and freedom of thought. He also warned against fanaticism, narrow mindedness, and exclusiveness and urged students and others to be broad indeed and tolerant. He believed that the religious and social life of the Muslims could be improved only by imbibing modern western scientific knowledge and culture. Therefore, promotion of modern education was given great priority by him. He founded schools in many towns and had many books of western countries translated in to Urdu. In 1875, he founded at Aligarh the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College, which later grows into Aligarh Muslim University. This college was run on secular principles in which Hindus, Parsis, and Christians were freely admitted. He had also undertaken various reforms in the social’ sphere like the abandonment of medieval customs and ways of thought by Muslims. In particular, he wrote in favour of raising the status of women in society and advocated removal of purdah and spread of education among History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 87 women. He also condemned the customs of polygamy and easy divorce. For all these views his ideas were strongly opposed by orthodox Muslim elements. He abandoned the attempts at religious reforms towards the end of his life and even accepted and encouraged separatist ideas. Among the followers who had helped Sir Sayeed Ahmed Khan and in his reform movement were Chirag Ali, the Urdu poet, Altaf Husain Hali, Nazeer Ahmed and Shibli Nomani, Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan had a positive attitude towards charity and welfare of women. He had worked through out his life for the empowerment of women, which is an important concern of professional social work. In his endeavor he had successfully used community organization method of social work.

Tabligh Movement Tabligh Movement was started by Mulanallyas in the late 1920, among the Meos of Northern India. The Meos were Hindus who had converted to Islam. But in spite of the adoption of Islam they continued to practice several Hindu social customs and beliefs. Even some of the Hindu religious festivals were celebrated by Meos along with their Hindus neighbours. Moulana Illys emphasized on religious orthodoxy and wanted to restore the purity of Islamic practices among the Meos. According to Marhah who studied the Talibagh movement, a crucial role was played by the Jammatis (group of propagators) who moved from village to village, propogating the precepts of Moulanallys. Moulanallys had laid down six precepts which framed the basis of the ideology of the Talibagh Movement. The consequences of the Tabligh Movement were to increase emphasis on islamisation to transform the Hindu social customs and practices which the converted had retained. This was heightened their Islamic identity but has weakened the traditional ties between the Meos and their Hindu neighbours. The 88 Origin and Development of Social Work in India talibagh movement has met with success only in the post Independence period in Mewat. The Talibagh movement is viewed as an attempt to bring about cultural unity among the diverse Muslim communities in India. The Talibagh Movement has successfully used community organization method for organizing and integrating the different Muslim communities in India. The Talibagh Movement reflects that an organized community is essential to bring any positive change in the society, which is an important aspect of community organization as a method of social work. Backward Classes’ Movement

Backward classes consist of mainly the lower castes and Haijans. Many social movements among the scheduled castes and other backward castes emerged in the nineteenth century and early 20th centuries. They utilized both religious and secular themes of ideology oriented towards reforms, emancipation and transformation of the established order of social relationships and values with the establishment of British rule and the spread of modern democratic, liberal and humanistic ideas, a new awareness had developed in India against the oppressive nature of caste system. The role of Christian Missionaries in promoting conversion among the lower castes and the growth of various socio-religious reform movements among the Hindus also accelerated the growth of awareness among the lower castes against the Brahminical domination and the oppressive nature of caste system in Indian society. These factors were responsible to the emergence of various backward class movements in early 20th century. The British government also lent support to these movements in order to weaken the freedom History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 89 struggle. Some of the important backward classes movements which grew in early 20th century were: 1) Dravidian Movement, 2) SNDP Movement, and 3) Mahar Movement According to M.S.A. Rao, these backward class movements were transformative in nature.

Dravidian Movement The spread of Christianity and western education generated awareness among the non-Brahmins in the Madras Presidency region and as a result resentment started among them against the domination of Brahmins and of other higher castes. The non- Brahmins believed that for making successful and bright careers, the dominance of the Brahmins in the professional and political life had to be first ended. The year 1914 witnessed a serious conflict between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins. The members of the non-Brahmin caste united themselves and a non-Brahmin manifesto was published in 1916 followed by the formation of the South Indian Association in 1917. After the Montague- Chelmsford reforms, South Indian Association was converted into Justice Party to counter the political influence of the Congress. Though the Justice Party had urban base, possessing members of middle class people failed to build a mass base. Soon after, the Self Respected Movement was founded in 1925 by E.V.Ramaswamy Naicker. The Self Respect Movement was an anti-Brahmin Movement, which got further impetus when E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, popularly known as Periyar, joined the anti Brahmin movement. The Self Respect Movement was based on—the Dravidian ideology to save the non Brahmins from the tyranny of Brahmins who were considered Aryans. The Self Respect 90 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Movement aimed at removing the control of Brahmins from the social and political levels and sought to wean the people away from the puranic, ritualistic Hinduism necessitating the presence of Brahmin priests. It considered the Brahmins as the symbol of all exploitation. His journal “Kudi Arasu” and his movement progressed from advocating weddings without Brahmin priests, forcible temple entry, the burning of Manusmriti to outright atheism at times. In fact, he tried to provide an umbrella movement to all non-Brahmins of South India, particularly of Tamilnadu. This movement was successful in appealing to the masses. Finally, the Self Respect Movement and Justice Party were emerged in 1944 to form Dravida Kazhagham, under Naicker. It adopted a militant mass agitational strategy and advocated an egalitarian ideology condemning the caste system. The Dravidian Movement was based on radical social work approach. The Movement used successfully social action and community organization methods for organizing the community who were socially, economically and educationally backward to bring reforms in the social structure of the society. In the present scenario, professional social workers also rely on radical social work to bring about positive reforms in the society.

SNDP Movement (Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Movement) SNDP movement is an example of a regional movement. The SNDP movement pertains to the Ezhavas of Kerala who were untouchables. The SNDP movement among the Ezahavas of Kerala is an example of conflict between the depressed classes and the upper non-Brahmin castes. The Ezhavas were a caste of toddy trapper in Kerala. Traditionally, Ezhavas were untouchable caste History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 91 and they had to stay away thirty four feets from the Namboodiri Brahmins. They suffered from many other disabilities both social and ritual. They were denied access to Hindu temples or to the bathing tanks of caste Hindus. Their women were not allowed to cover their breasts or to wear any foot wear. They were not allowed to build pucca house. In the later part of the 19th century with the spread of modern humanistic and secular ideas and also the spread of egalitarian ideas through Christianty, Ezhavas came to view their situation as one of the deprivation and exploitation. Under the charismatic leadership of Sri Narayan Guru they rejected Brahminical domination and developed a new ideology based on a new interpretation of Hinduism and on the basis of reinterpretation of Hinduism Ezhavas were able to claim a new identity with honour, esteem and self respect. According to M.S.A. Rao, they adopted the strategy of withdrawal and self organization. The new ideology was based on the principle of self respect, honour, and worth of individual. It was an ideology of protest against the Brahminical value system of hierarchy and pollution. S.N. Guruswamy established a parallel source of legitimacy by establishing new institutions like temples, priests, monks and monasteries. The ideology of the movement was formulated by Sri Narayan Guru Swamy. He formed a programme of action known as the SNDP Yogam. The Yogam took several issues including the right to admission to the public schools, recruitment to government employment, entry into temples, on roads, and political representation. The movement as a whole brought transformative structural changes which included upward social mobility, a shift in the traditional distribution of power, and a federation of backward castes into a large conglomeration. The new awareness created among the Ezhavas by this movement motivated them 92 Origin and Development of Social Work in India to take the modern education, which in the long run enabled them access to the modern occupations and professions which carried high rewards in terms of prestige and wealth. This was a historic victory against orthodox ideas of Pollution. Thus the leaders of the movement were able to achieve for their followers all the basic rights in the fields of religion, education, employment and politics. Thus, Ezhavas as community successfully raised their status in society. The SNDP movement represented one of the most successful attempts of the untouchable’s castes to alter the traditional power structure. The SNDP movement has successfully used the community organization method of social work .They had been able to organize the Ezhavas community and through social action, they had been able to raise the status of the untouchables. Still now abolition of untouchability as well as empowerment of the untouchables is an important task of professional social workers in India.

Mahar Movement Mahars were traditionally considered as untouchables. Normally they were allocated menial tasks like sweeping, digging graves, removing carcasses of dead animals, cutting woods and playing music on ceremonial occasions in the village. They were denied access to civic amenities like wells, schools and even services of Brahmins and barbers etc. In the early 20th century the Mahars started organizing themselves to fight against discrimination. They held conferences and insisted on recruitment to military and police services. They were helped by the leaders of non-Brahmin movement in Maharashtra especially by the Depressed Class Mission (1906) established by V.R. Shinde. The Mission started separate schools and hostels for the Mahars. The efforts made by Mahatma Gandhi for the History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 93 abolition of untouchability and the overall impact of freedom struggle created new social awakening among them. Later on, B.R. Ambedkar provided a new momentum and a radical turn to the Mahar Movement. He adopted aggressive protest and resorted to political action. He demanded separate electorates for the harijans and during late 1920s and early 30s several satyagrahis were held for gaining entry into Hindu temples and manusmitris was burnt to show their indignation against orthodox Hindus. Ambedkar was responsible for the various Constitutional provisions for the welfare of untouchables including the policies of reservations. Later on Ambedkar persuaded the Mahars to adopt Buddhism as it was based on egalitarian ideology because Ambedkar felt that it was not possible to improve the socio-economic situations of Mahars within the fold of Hinduism. However, Ambedkar was disillusioned about the possibility of the Mahars or Harijans in general, being able to improve their conditions within the fold of Hinduism. The Mahar Movement created a new awareness among the Mahars regarding their educational, economic and political rights. They took to modern education in large numbers, which enabled them to secure the new occupations in the urban areas. Thus the overall social status of the Mahars was raised. The Mahar movement had a positive approach towards charity and philanthropy. They had organized various schools and hostels for the education of the untouchables for their empowerment which is an important issue before professional social work. Ambedkar had successfully used community organization method of social work for organizing Mahers for various agitations .Through the use of social action method, the Mahars had been able to raise their social status. 94 Origin and Development of Social Work in India Peasant Movements Peasants’ movements occupy an important place in the history of social unrest in India though the aims and objectives of these movements differ in nature and degree from region to region. The Peasant’s movements were a consequence of British exploitation, increased pauperization, insecure land tenures, and forceful eviction and exploitation of money lenders in the country side led to such peasant movements. These movements were also aimed at the unification of the peasants of a region, development of leadership, and for development of peasant elite. The consequences of peasant movement were that it developed resistance to the suppressive nature of the landlords and brought unification among the peasants. The important peasant movements of India are briefly discussed below. The peasant movements belong to a distinct category of social movements with the ideology of class conflict as their basis. In the Indian context two opposite ideologies are associated with peasant movements—the bhoodan and sarvodaya approach of Vinobha Bhave and Jai Prakash Narayan, and the Communists. However, significant peasant movements such as Telengana, Naxalite and land grab have emerged on the basis of Communist ideology.

Naxalbari Movement The Naxalbari movement was started in 1967-71 in North Bengal. The peasants who had lost ownership on not only the land but other means of production which ultimately led to their perpetual bondage. This created lots of discontent among the peasants. This movement was chiefly launched by distinguished leaders such as Punjab Rao, Naresh Aich, Kanu Sanyal and Panchan Sarkar. The naxalbari movement aimed at the History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 95 transformation of Jotedari to Jotedari –Adhiary, caused tension between capital and labour. The communist tried through political socialization to make adhiars to understand this discontent. As soon as this took place, the Kisan Sabha, an organization by peasant came into action and agitated to get the peasants a better share out of their product. But Cham Majumdar adopted guerilla war fare to combat exploitative elements. The large masses of peasantry trained and brought up in open militancy and the entire power of directing the armed revolt went into the hands of urban leadership. Due to the arrest of important leaders like Kanu Sanyal, Panchanan Sarkar, Jangal Santhal, Punjab Rao and others were in jail and Krishak Sabha was declared illegal. The leaderless peasants found themselves in the dark about their prospective role. Thus the movement eroded the prospects and objectives of the movement. Nandigram movement Nandigram is situated West Bengal’s Purvo Medinipur District. Nandigram has always been a red bastion. It is one of the major areas that had witnessed the holistic Tebhaga movement launched by the united communist party in the undivided Bengal in the forties (its leader was such a legendary figure Bhupal panda) The Nandigram fiasco had its origin in a piece of information that sparked a local agitation. On January 3, an inopportunate notice sent by the Haldia Development Authority on its own initiative to the Block Development officer in Nandigram, to identify areas that may be required for setting up a chemical hub, elicited a violent reaction from the local people. The state government then gave a verbal assurance that no land would be acquired without the prior consent of the people. So, in effect it is the local left (CPI/CPM) members and supporters, sympathizers spearheaded the Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh Committee along with some local 96 Origin and Development of Social Work in India elements of the opposition parties including the Trinomul Congress and the Jamiat Ulema -e-Hindi. The people in the Nandigram were adamant and not ready to part with their land for the SEZ. Apparently fearful of this and scared of police reprisal, protesting villagers had blocked the entire areas by digging up roads and erecting barricades. The police ostensibly come to clear up the area and restore law and order when they were met with fierce resistance. It is then that the cops used tearless and the protesters were dispersed. A number of lives were lost and a large number of people were injured during the protest. As a consequence the proposal for an SEZ in Nandigram got cancelled. Now the Nandigram situation is coming to normalcy. The communication net work is being restored immediately. Roads that have been dug up, culverts broken are now under construction. The government is trying to ensure peace through a social aspect. This is definitely an achievement of the peasant movement in Nandigram. Of course this victory has been won at an exorbitant price with so much blood shed. This is the first time that a peasant movement has successfully scuttled an SEZ project in any part of the country. The success of the Nandigram movement was based on the successful use of community organization method of social work. It reflects that in the contemporary Indian situation social action is a desirable method of social work to bring about structural change in the social system as well as in modifying the social policy in favour of the weaker sections of the society.

Moplah Revolt The Moplahs were the Muslim tenants at the bottom of the tenurial structure. The Moplah revolt was organized against the exploitation of Namboodris who owned the land. They revolted because they suffered from rack History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 97 rentings, evictions, mounting debts, famine and spread of cash crop farming. This is why the revolt took the form of attack on the property of landlords and desecration of temples. The moplahs had revolted many times but these uprisings had a messianic character. The leadership was provided by Kunjahammad Haji, Ali Musaliar, etc. There were 28 out breaks of violence between 1836 and 1919. It is important to note that it lasted longer than any other peasant insurrection. Besides this, British rule was completely wiped out from Malabar region and an Independent Khilafat Kingdom was established. It was initially a rebellion against the landlords and imperialism but later assumed a communal character. The Madras government suppressed the revolt with severe hand. One of the impacts of the Moplah Revolt was that the Madras government proceeded to pass Malabar Tenancy Act and conferred permanent tenancy of land on a large section of peasants.

Indigo Revolt of 1860 This was the most militant and wide spread of the peasant movements. The indigo cultivators of Bengal launched the movement in 1859-60 as a protest against the policy of repression followed by Europeans against the Indigo cultivators. The revolt enjoyed the support of all categories of the rural population including the zamindars, money lender, rich peasants and even karmacharis of the indigo concerns. They were also supported by intellectuals of Bengal who carried on diligent campaign in their favour. It began in Govindpur village in Nadia and was led by Digamber Biswas and Bishnu Biswas. The strike, first of its kind by the peasant spread to other parts of Bengal. Alaramed by these developments, the European Planters appealed the government for assistance in quelling the revolt. The 98 Origin and Development of Social Work in India government not only refused to oblige the planters in crushing the strike but also appointed an Indigo Commission to look into the problems of the indigo cultivators. Its recommendations were embodied in Act IV of 1862. The Indigo strike of 1860 was an event of great significance in so far as it represented the first step in the direction of struggle against the British in Bihar.

Telengana Movement This movement was started in 1946-48 in Telengana in Andhra Pradesh. Telengana a collection of 9 districts was ruled by the Nizam, who was known for his enormous wealth. The movement was directed against autocratic feudal regime dominated by the Nizam of Hyderabad. The movement was based on communist class struggle ideology and a peasant guerrilla war was led by Communists. The peasants of Telengana began their struggle in 1946 on some economic issues such as the grain tax, forced labour, and eviction. The background was created by the Telugu Literacy movement, which introduced the idea of renaissance and was against Nizams establishment. Under the influence of Indian National Congress and Arya Samaj, The Telengana elites gave a new direction to the activities of Andhra Mahasabha in 1930, mobilized public for abolition of forced labour and other social evils and demanded for equal economic opportunity. In 1940, the Andhra Mahasabha spilt into two factions, Communists and Non-Communists. The consequences of the movement brought about social conditions better than the pre-movement stage. And consequently many progressive land reforms were enacted in 1950. The movement did bring about a change in traditional distribution of power, which M.S.A. Rao calls social transformation. The Telengana movement, Naxalbari movement and the Moplah Revolt were based History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 99 on the ideology of class conflict. They had followed peasant guerrilla war for the upliftment of the peasants. Their method of working doesn’t fall under the purview of the social work values and ethics of professional social work.

Kheda Movement or Kheda Satyagraha A peasant movement spearheaded by Gandhi to accept the demand of peasants to suspend revenue collection by Government in the wake of outburst of famine. Gandhiji exhorted peasants not to pay taxes and prepare to sacrifices and sufferings, if any. Kheda Satyagraha was chiefly directed against the government. In the spring of 1918, crop failure and drought brought misery to the peasants of Kheda in Gujurat. A “no revenue” campaign to press the remission of the state demand in case of poor harvest was started by Mohan lal Pandya, which was later taken up by Gandhi in 1918. Vallabhabhai Patel and Mahadev Desai joined the Kheda Satyagraha Government had to suspend the land revenue collection, because of Gandhiji’s non-violent Satyagraha method was successful. Gandhiji had successfully used the method of community organization to mobilize the masses to undertake various peaceful demonstrations. The use of social action method has helped for protecting the farmers form the exploitation of British government. The contemporary social worker like Medha Patkar is also following the same strategies of Mahatma Gandhi. Eka Movement The Eka Movement launched in 1921 was a peasant movement in Avadh, U.P. The movement was encouraged by the Congress and Khilafat leaders. The protest was against extraction of rents much higher than that recorded and the oppression of thekedars who were 100 Origin and Development of Social Work in India responsible for collection of rents. The Eka movement developed its own grass roots leadership in the form of Madari Pashi and other “low caste” leaders who were not particularly inclined to stick to the discipline non- violence. By March 1922 severe government repression followed and that was the end of it. Farazi Movement Muslim peasants of East Bengal agitated in 1838-1860 against British and zamindars’ rule and fuelled religious sentiments. It was started by Farazi Sect founded by Haizi, Shariatullah to purge Islam. Under British rule, the Indian peasant had problems in adjusting to the new economic forces. The life of the peasantry became difficult .The Faraizi movement led by Shariatullah who was under Wahabi influence, and later by Dudu Mian, was an attempt to organize the peasants to rise against the extraction and oppression of the zamindars and government authorities in East Bengal. It was essentially a Muslim movement with an Islamic flavour, in that an Islamic administration was sought to be established and it was more anti Hindu rather than taking up the general issues of the people. Environmental Movements

Before the advent of British rule in India, there was only a customary regulation of people’s rights over forest lands and produce. However, in 1965 an Act was passed to manage and preserve the government forests. Subsequently many Acts were passed by which, in the name of development, large scale deforestation took place. Due to increased exploitation of the forest, the forest communities have experienced a progressive loss of control over their habitat. In the seventies, people responded to this threat (to their survival) by launching ecological movements in various parts of the country History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 101 and made demands for the conservation of vital natural resources to ensure their use on a sustainable basis. Chipko Movement The meaning of Chipko, translated in Hindi, literally means “tree-huggers”. The Chipko movement is the contemporary expression of a continuing heritage of peaceful resistance by the people of Uttarakhand. The Chipko movement, are rooted in conflicts over forest resources and are similar cultural responses to forest destruction. Chipko’s demand is conservation of not merely local forest resources but the entire life-support system, and with it the option for human survival. The Chipko Movement began in 1971 as a movement by local people under the leadership of Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) to assert then rights over the forest produce. The Chipko movement itself was never an organized protest. It was largely a series of discrete protests by separate Himalayan villages like Reni, Gopeshwar and Dungari-Paitoli. But this amorphousness of the movement was given a unified vision and leadership by the Gandhian social worker, Chandi Prasad Bhatt. The simplicity and sincerity of the leaders like Shri Sunderlal Bahuguna also helped to the success of the movement to a large extent. The Chipko movement has been successful in forcing a fifteen year ban on commercial green felling in the hills of Uttar Pradesh, in stopping clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas, and in generating pressure for a national forest policy which is more sensitive to people’s needs and to the ecological development of the country.

Tehri Dam Movement The other popular movements of importance in India, which have environmental protection as one of their 102 Origin and Development of Social Work in India objectives, relate to major dams. Notable among them are Tehri Dam, Silent Valley Project and Narmada Valley Projects. The longest struggle among the anti-big dam protests was the opposition to Tehri Dam, being constructed on the river Bhagirathi in the Garhwal region. The Tehri Baandh Virodhi Sangarshan Samithi, committee for the struggle against the Tehri Dam founded by veteran freedom fighter Veerelldra Datta Saklani, has been opposing the construction for more than a decade. The major objections include, seismic sensitivity of the region, submergence of forest areas along with Tehri town, etc. Despite the support from other prominent leaders like Sunderlal Bahuguna the movement has failed to gather enough popular support at national as well as international levels and the government is determined to complete the project. Now the construction and flooding are nearly completed.

Silent Valley Project One of the early and complete successes of environmental movements was the abandonment of the Silent Valley hydro electric project in Kerala. This movement was organized by the Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishat (KSSP) in collaboration with wild life conservationists. In this project, however, there was no local people’s involvement as there was no displacement of people. The movement was fought primarily on environmental grounds and mostly at the intellectual level. The major concerns of this movement were the adverse environmental impact on Silent Valley, one of the last surviving natural tropical forests in India and protecting a rare breed of monkey, lion-tailed macaque. With the active support from the International organizations like World Wildlife Fund and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 103

Natural Resources the movement assumed International importance though it gained popularity and coverage, the ultimate success of the movement was attributed to the then Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s desire to enhance her image among the International Conservation Community. Narmada Bachho Andolan One of the most popular movement in the environmental history of India in recent years. Narmada Bachao Andolan associated with the Narmada River Valley Project. Though the movement started as early as in the 1970s, along with the clearance of the project, it received momentum only during late 1980s. This movement was centered around the issue of human rights. In fact, some of the main leaders of the movement at present like Medha Patkar were working toward proper rehabilitation programmes for the dam displaced. Their demands included complete stopping of the dam, resettlement and rehabilitation benefits to the oustees. The movement, however, gained wider public attention with mobilization and organization of oustees (mostly tribal’s) and the joining of the eminent social workers like Baba Amte, Sunderlal Bahuguna and Medha Patkar. Though its wider public attention is due to its coverage (impact) in three states, the most notable feature of this movement is the international support it has received. The environmental movements in India reflect the use of various social work methods like community organization and social action for protection of ecology and protection of human rights. The non-violent struggle led by Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna generated immense pressure for the formulation of national forest policy which aims at ecological development of the country. The environment leaders 104 Origin and Development of Social Work in India like Medha Patkar, Sunderlal Bahuguna had been able to successfully mobilize the community for social action for protecting their interests. These social workers have promoted the protection of human rights which is an important concern of professional social work. Conclusion In this Unit various kinds of social movements like socio- religious reform movements, backward class movement, peasants’ movements, and environmental movements have been discussed. These movements are of great significance as it had ushered in social reforms by way of social mobility of the disadvantaged sections of the society. These movements have been responsible for the formulation and enforcement of various legal provisions for the protection of women, children, untouchables as well as poor peasants. So these movements are of immense significance to the students of social work to understand the roots of these social movements and how they had played a significant role in Indian society. It also describes the use of various methods of social work practice by different reformers in mobilizing and organizing the community. The section also describes briefly the Nandigram movement, which is a very recent movement in present context. The Nandigram movement is one of the most successful peasant movements in India which signifies that organized efforts, collective mobilization, social action can bring positive change and can resist change in our social structure. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 105 References

Rao, M.S.A. (2000) Social Movements in India. Manohar Publishers, Delhi Natarajan, S. (1959) A Century of social Reform in India, Asia Publishing House, Bombay Desai, A.R. (1979) Peasant Struggles in India, Oxford University Press, Bombay Farquhae, J.N. (1967) Modern Religious Movements in India, Munhiram Publishers, Delhi Heimsath, C.H. (1964) Indian Nationalism and Hindu Social Reform, Oxford University Press, Bombay Sebasti, L.R. and Chowdhury, A.R. (1998) Contemporary Social Movements: Achievements and Hurdles, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi Das Gupta. B. (1974) The Naxallite Movement, Allied Publisher, Calcutta 106 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

4 History of Social Work in India: Initiatives by NGOs

*K.K. Singh, Nita Kumari

Introduction

Social work is a professional discipline, and at present, social work is being practiced in numerous settings across the globe. Social work emerged as a profession early in the 20th Century and today is the profession charged with fulfilling the social welfare mandate of promoting well-being and quality of life of people across the board. The philosophical and historical bases of social work and social welfare form the backbone of the profession. A historical perspective gives us insight into how social work services find its root in UK, USA and in India in the form of different institutions, charity houses NGO’s etc. In the primitive society mutual aid served as the means of protection for family or tribe against the hostile world. The role of the family head was that of protector. As religious practice became organized, priests assumed leadership in providing protection for the sick, widows, orphans, and the helpless. Religious devotion became a powerful incentive for benevolence and charity. In the medieval period in England like other European countries, it was the pious duty of the church to help and protect the poor. People gave alms to the destitutes, handicapped, blind and poor out of religious sentiments. The decreasing authority of the church and the

* Mr. K.K. Singh and Ms. Nita Kumari, Consultants, IGNOU. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 107 increasing tendency of shift in responsibility to governmental authorities gave rise in England to a series of measures which culminated in the famous Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601. This law distinguished three classes of the poor i.e. the able-bodied poor, the impotent poor and the dependent children. It established the principle that the local community, namely the parish, had to organize and finance poor relief for its residents. Social Welfare services existed in USA since the establishment of the original thirteen colonies on the eastern sea board in the seventeenth and eighteenth century. The English people, who settled here, brought with them their customs, laws and ideas. Elizabethan poor law served as the basic pattern in need. The first alms house was established in Massachusetts in 1662. It started functioning in 1685 both as an alms house for the disabled and as a work house for the able bodied paupers. These alms and work houses also took care of their health problems. Associations for the function of charitable aid or mutual benefits were also formed on the basis of national origins and church affiliations. During the first two decades of the twentieth century the following major social welfare programmes were developed: 1) The rise of the philanthropic foundations devoted to health, education, science, research, international peace, social welfare etc. 2) National services agencies were established for the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and Camp Fire Girls Programme and the Boy’s Club movement. 3) Special wartime programmes which were developed during the First World War (1914 – 18) included the home service and programme of the American Red Cross and Services promoted by a number of 108 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

national agencies, including the National Recreation Association. 4) The period saw the establishment and growth of state and local departments of public health, development of general hospitals as a basic method of care for the well to do as well as the indigent sick, special hospitals and sanatoria for the T.B. patients, convalescent and rest homes, the beginning of hospital social service in 1905, health centers and infant welfare clinics, other programmes for the reduction of infant and maternal mortality; public health, nursing, social hygiene and sex education, special state and voluntary institutions for crippled children and state programmes for rehabilitation. There were improvements in state institutions for the mentally ill. Social service workers were being added to the staff of the mental hospitals and outpatient clinics. While making the systematic study of development of social work in India, we find that in ancient India, the nature of social service was that of charity. Social welfare activities were performed by yagnas. The Chhandogya Upanishad says that life is a succession of Yagnas or services for others. Charity is not merely a social duty but it is like prayer. One does it for its own sake, because on feels it is a privilege, because one is serving the Lord through it. The habit of giving alms was common and no house holder turned away a beggar empty handed as to do so was considered a sin. In nineteenth century a number of notable reformers, such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar, Sasipada Bannerjee etc. came forward and worked towards abolition of sati, widow remarriage, economic self-reliance, female and low caste people education etc. Modern social work was introduced in India by Christian missionaries at the beginning of the nineteenth century History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 109 when they started making houses for orphan children and destitute men and women. Indian social reformers like Sasipada Banerjee, Phule, Karve etc. started building homes for the widows. Some social organizations like Arya Samaj, Prarthna Samaj, and Ram Krishna Mission began to provide a variety of social welfare services to the needy. Religious associations also played significant role in providing institutional welfare services in India. Since then number of NGO’s have initiated programmes in various developmental fields like health, nutrition, rural development, recreation and education. Large numbers of these organizations are also silently engaged in rendering welfare services to women, children, handicapped, rural poor and others in direct need. These NGO’s have been giving its direct as well as indirect services to the needy sections of the society. At the direct level they are making intervention at individual level, at the family level and at the group and community levels. Indirect services in social work have been provided by making intervention at the Organizational and Institutional level and at community level. The history of social work is clearly reflecting how it is growing and inspiring from philanthropist, religion and NGOs. Here we have taken NGO’s because they follow the similar values, ethics and principles of social work. No doubt these organizations have been working towards the mainstreaming of the disadvantaged and marginalized section of the society. The objective is to empower the target groups through their educational, economic and social development and to bring them on par with rest of the society. Several of them NGOs employ social workers to cater the needs of the organisations through professionalism. Here we are presenting the working of different organizations for different sections of the society. 110 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Efforts have been made to document information about the several well known voluntary organizations, engaged in various fields of welfare, development and empowerment. Encyclopedia of Social Work in India, and directories of welfare agencies published by Central Social Welfare Board and Directory of Voluntary Action published by AVARD and all India directories of welfare agencies brought out by National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development are some of the major sources of information on voluntary agencies in India. These publications have made valuable contributions in dissemination of vital information about voluntary organization across the country. The following table will provide an insight about the status of well known NGOs on the country. Table 1: Rural Urban distribution of NGOs

Total Number of NGOs 1.2 million Rural Based 53% Urban Based 47% Unregistered 49.6% (Source: Invisible, Yet Widespread: The Non-Profit Sector In India, December 2002, PRIA)

Table 2: Dominant activities preformed by NGOs in India

Type of Activities Percentage of NGOs Religious 26.5% Community/Social Service 21.3% Education 20.4% Sports/Culture 17.9% Health 6.6% Others 7.5% Source: Ibid History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 111

Identification of NGOs This unit attempts to cover existing information about some of the major voluntary organizations with regard to their objectives, organizational structure, programmes and services, beneficiaries, major achievements, problems and difficulties, and future plans. Almost all organizations are working in more than one field. Profile of Major NGOs

All India Women’s Conference The All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), one of the oldest voluntary organizations in the country, was founded in 1927 by Margaret Cousins, an Irish Lady, who had made India her home. Its original concern was women’s education but gradually it took up various social and economic issues concerning women, such as purdah, child marriage, trafficking, women’s property right etc. The main objectives of this organization are: to work for a society based on principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights and opportunities and secure recognition for the inherent right of every human being and to work and to secure the basic essential of life, such as food, clothing, housing, education and other social amenities in the belief that these should not be determined by accident of birth or sex. It also makes women aware of the fundamental rights conferred on them by the Constitution of India. The AIWC is represented on various committees and commissions on Social Welfare set up by the Government of India from time to time. AIWC literacy campaign was intensified in 1996 by initiating non-formal education programs in primary education for school dropout girls and condensed courses in education for adult women. Since 1989 the 112 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Government of India has also identified this organization as the Nodal Agency, to implement the National Project on improved Chullah (NPIC) and the National Project of Bio-gas Development (NPBD). AIWC was awarded the UNEP Global 500 Roll of Honor for the NPIC Program in Habitat II at Istanbul in 1996 and the IREDA award for outstanding work in NRSE in 1997. This organization is also instrumental in bringing several legislative reforms for the benefit of women and children.

Indian Council for Child Welfare (ICCW) ICCW is a pioneering NGO in the field of child welfare. Established in 1952, the Council is engaged in implementing programmes for the benefit of children, particularly from weaker sections of society. Each District has District Council for Child Welfare with the Collector/District Magistrate as Chairperson and non- official and official members. It has various programmes in the districts such as crèches for children of working women, Programmes for child labour, prevention of female infanticide and Girl Child development programmes etc. has set up a Children’s Disaster Relief Fund to help children affected by the disaster. Its major objectives are to ensure the basic human rights to survival, physical, mental and social development, protection of the child against neglect, abuse and exploitation, betterment of families and communities to enhance the quality of life for children and undertake aid directly or through district councils or institutional members and initiate schemes for enhancement of child welfare/development. The Council also strives for dissemination of information and education of public on child welfare/development on a scientific basis and enactment of legislation-related matters concerning children and their welfare and implementation of the same. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 113

Some of the important contributions in recent years have been in following areas:

● National Plan of Action for Children (NPAC), 2005 ● The Commission on Protection of Child Rights Bill, 2005 ● A Parliamentary Forum on Children ● National Consultation on Children in India: Priorities for 11th Plan ● Regular Annual Events like Organization of National Bravery Award etc.

SOS Children’s Villages of India SOS is a non-profit, non-government, voluntary organization committed to the care of children – orphaned or homeless. Its activities are financed by donations from individuals, companies, land gifts and scholarships of children. In 1964, founders started with a dream to reach out and help as many children as possible. This dream was realized with the establishment of the first “SOS Children’s Village” at Greenfield in Faridabad. Many good people – a large number of dedicated and loving mothers, hundreds of co-workers and thousands of good friends came together and worked together for making it possible to continuously strive ahead, so as to achieve goals. Slowly the SOS reach has covered almost every part of the country. Every SOS Village has 10 to 20 family homes. The family unit consists of 9 to 10 children who share their lives as brothers and sisters and grow together under the care of their mother – like any family. Children attend local schools and keep close contact with neighbouring families. Over the years children have grown up and become engineers, teachers, doctors, nurses, social workers, technicians, management and IT professionals and journalists. Many have joined services while others 114 Origin and Development of Social Work in India are self-employed. Many SOS children are today independent, married and well settled. As a member of the working group on National Guidelines for Foster Care, SOS India contributes technical inputs for the development of national and State level guidelines. The organization is an active member of the sub-group on “Child Protection” of the Ministry of Women and Child Development, GOI and the “Working Group” set up by Planning Commission (Women and Child Development). SOS is also an active member of the India Alliance for Child Right (IACR). Mission of the organization is nurturing today for a promising future.

Voluntary Health Association of India Voluntary Health Association of India (VHAI) is a non- profit, registered society formed in the year 1970. It is a federation of State Voluntary Health Associations, linking together more than 4000 health care institutions and grassroots level community health programs spread across the country. The primary objective is to make health a reality for the people of India by promoting community health, social justice and human rights. Its activities are carried out with support of several benefactors and donor agencies. This organization has also initiated certain income-generation activities so that its activities can go on uninterrupted and can respond effectively to emergencies and natural calamities. VHAI since its inception has a Division of Community Based Health and Development which is an exemplary movement at the grassroots for the voluntary sector to help realise VHAI’s objective of developing and maximizing efficiency, strengthening skill and enhancing capabilities of individuals. Activities of this Association were initially focused more on MCH, training of health workers in antenatal care, safe child birth etc. Gender concerns, the need for policy advocacy, History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 115 revamping of training in medical colleges, NGOs and other organizations followed. The needs for greater gender sensitization, gender responsibility as well as implementation of the legal provisions to safeguard women’s interest are some of its areas of concern. Ramakrishna Mission Though it is true that Swami Vivekananda started the Ramakrishna Mission on 1st May 1897. His disciples later constituted the Mission as monks or as householders. Discipline, Sri Surendranath Mitra. The Mission’s special task was to set up ashrams in different parts of the country, preach Vedantic religion and educate the masses. The mission began to sent trained members of the order abroad to start centres for preaching of Vedanta and Indian culture so as to bring the East and the West closer. The aims and the ideals of the Mission is purely spiritual and humanitarian. For the mission service does not mean just providing food and clothes and doling out some money to the poor and needy. Service becomes real worship when these are rendered with selflessness. Shri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) propagated the equal validity of all religions, the potential divinity of man, and service to man as a way of worshipping God. Sri Ramakrishna’s chief disciple, Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), carried far and wide these teachings which constitute the core of India’s oldest philosophy, Vedanta. The Ramakrishna Mission, besides teaching Vedanta, gives concrete service to the community through the establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals, orphanages, etc. Its developmental activities are in the areas of water, health, education, environment, nutrition, hygiene, women and child development, handicapped, rural development, employment generation, and promoting training in agriculture to 116 Origin and Development of Social Work in India farmers and government officials and functionaries. It has rendered yeomen service in case of emergencies likes flood, earthquakes, drought etc. Most of its services are managed and delivered by a dedicated band of volunteers who are well versed in different disciplines such as education, science, technology, social work etc. Mission has also created a cadre of volunteers at the grassroots level to enlist people’s participation and support.

National Service Scheme The involvement of students of colleges and universities has been drawing the attention of Government of India (GOI) since independence. Initially, emphasis was placed on generating among students a sense of dignity of labour through “Shramdan”. The National Service Scheme (NSS) was launched during the Birth Centenary of Mahatma Gandhi (1969) as a student youth service programme. The objectives of NSS are to arouse social consciousness of the youth for their personality development through community service. The involvement mainly is of undergraduate students on a voluntary basis in various activities of social service and national development so that students may understand problems of the community, appreciate them, awaken social consciousness and inculcate in them a sense of dignity of labour. NSS is an educational experiment in community service. The motto of NSS is “Not me, but you”. Programmes include a special camp for 10 days and regular activities (community work) for about 120 hours. Some of the major activities are:

● Improvement of campuses ● Tree plantation ● Constructive work in adopted villages and slums History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 117

● Work in welfare institutions ● Blood donations ● Adult and non-formal education ● Health, nutrition, family welfare, health awareness campaigns ● Sustainable development with emphasis on wasteland development and wasteland management. One of the thrust once is to organize a 10 day duration camp every year in adopted villages/slums on specific theme. One NSS unit comprises 100 student volunteers led by a teacher called “NSS programme officer”. NSS maintains positive and meaningful links between campus and community as also knowledge and action. This scheme is operational in all the states and union territories. Each state has a Liaison Cell to monitor the NSS programmes in the State.

Gandhi Peace Foundation The leadership which initiated the establishment of Gandhi Peace Foundation (GPF) included Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India and Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru. The principal objective of the Foundation is to carry out studies and research on the teachings and practices bequeathed to us by Mahatma Gandhi and to determine their relevance with respect to problems that mankind faces in day today life. Since problems get changing over a period of time, it is natural that our attention also keep shifting on a regular basis. The prominent tasks of GPF at this juncture may be broadly classified into three parts:

● Applicability of non-violent alternative: Study of the violence caused to nature and her environment as a result of modern development plans and study of development in science and ecology which indicate the possibility of a new holistic world view. 118 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

● Publications: Gandhi Marg (a quarterly in English and Hindi) and preparing case studies based on use of non-violence in resolving current conflicts and generation of ideas to different aspects of modern problems such as economics, environment, disarmament, social conflict etc. ● Field work: Application of Gandhian solutions to society’s problems which include the efforts made in the Chambal Valley which resulted in the surrender and rehabilitation of dacoits; special contribution in the field of environment awareness through publications; a field experiment in the area of “natural or organic farming”, camps on Gandhian themes, and providing fellowships and educational programmes to promote Gandhian ideal. This Foundation is keen to involve young citizens to debate their past, present and future in order to acquire a sound understanding of peace. It utilizes the ideals of Gandhi as a vehicle for their introspection. It also works to make young generation realize the value of peace as an enabler to people for leading a richer and fuller life. This organization engages in rooting out violence and terrorism in the world. GPF is actively associated with the world peace and disarmament. It has also a Sarvodaya Press service, which has access to 400 different newspapers and many periodicals in different Indian languages. GPF’s peace initiatives in Nagaland, Assam, Punjab and Kashmir are well known and provides the much needed enthusiasm to professional social workers. Indo-Global Social Service Society Indo-Global Social Service Society (IGSS) was established during the year 1960. It functions as a development support organization seeking to reach out to the most marginalized and vulnerable communities of the Indian History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 119 sub-continent. The main objective of the Society is to make a difference in the lives of these sections by promoting meaningful partnership with grassroots NGOs and communities. The vision of the society is a human social order based on truth, justice, freedom, equity and integrity of the whole creation in which basic human rights and the dignity of every individual are upheld. This vision focus to strengthen the family as a basic unit of the community wherein power, resources and fruits of development are shared by all. This has also been reflected in the mission of the society such as raising and maintaining IGSS on the principles of truth, justice, freedom, equality and plurality in solidarity with the poor and marginalized and vulnerable sections like dalits, tribals, minorities, women and children. Organization supports sustainable movements and capacity building programme initiatives, which are relevant, and innovative. It also enhances the capacity of human resources in terms of integrity, attitude and orientation. The society also offers scholarships to the poorest of the poor and focuses on strengthening of local self-governance and empowerment of women. In the Northeastern states, IGSS was one of the first support agencies to focus on HIV infected and affected women in Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland. Medical aid provided by it helps to subsidize expensive life saving treatment for heart disease, kidney problems/transplant and cancer or surgery for economically poor and needy. IGSS is the only agency in India known to be promoting social work education through its scholarship and loan scheme for BSW and MSW students for several decades.

Caritas India Caritas India is a member of the confederation of Caritas Internationals. Caritas India is the official national organisation of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of India 120 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

(CBCI). It was established in 1962 to assist NGOs in India in their efforts to eradicate poverty, reach relief and rehabilitation in times of disasters and organize communities for self-advancement. During the last four decades of its humanitarian and development efforts, this organization in India has served the poor and marginalized, without any distinction of caste, creed and ethnicity. The word Caritas comes from Latin, which means, Charity/Love. The name connotes the Church’s efforts to bring Compassion and Love to Humanity, as Mother Theresa aptly put it, Charity is Love in Action. Caritas exists to bring Solidarity and Social Justice across the world. It uphold human dignity everywhere and at all times, and combats the de-humanizing poverty through option for the poor by strengthening the capacities of the local partners and protects the Unity of the Family through formation of positive values. It also builds and strengthens solidarity and partnership globally and locally. It has contributed its mite to major national disasters by way of providing relief assistance at doorsteps to the victims. In almost all major natural calamities of the past decades this, organization along with its local partners was among the first to reach the disaster spot with its relief materials. However, rescue and relief operations are only the primary stage of assistance to disaster victims. Caritas respect the dignity of the human person, aims at executing its disaster management programs by fostering the dignity of the victimized. The following were some of the recent landmarks in disaster response in the history of Caritas India:

● Bangladesh Refugee Relief in 1970s, ● Maharashtra Earthquake Rehabilitation (1993- 1998) ● Andhra Pradesh Cyclone Relief and Rehabilitation (1996-1998) History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 121

● Orissa Super Cyclone Relief and Rehabilitation (1999-2003) ● Gujarat Earthquake Relief and Rehabilitation (2001 onwards). Caritas India recommends the employment of professionally qualified social workers in all its programmes and offices. It also promotes in-service training programmes for various functionaries particularly the social workers.

People’s Union for Civil Liberties Civil liberties, civil rights, or human rights are terms which are often used interchangeably. In early 1936 Jawaharlal Nehru wrote to several political leaders and intellectuals about his idea of the need of a non-political and broad based civil liberties organisation for purposes of collecting and disseminating information and educating the masses. This culminated in the founding of the Indian Civil Liberties Union (ICLU) on August 24, 1936. This was followed by the formation of Unions at Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, and in Punjab as its units. Rabindranath Tagore was the first Honorary President of the ICLU and Sarojini Naidu the president. However, formation of Congress governments in some provinces resulted in a decline of initiatives of the Congress workers and slowly the first chapter of civil liberties movement in India came to a close. The 43rd amendment to the Constitution, drastically curtailed the rights and liberties of the people and the powers of the courts, in the name of national crisis. Mr. Jaya Prakash Narayan founded an organisation by the name of the Citizens for Democracy on April 13, 1974. He also founded the People’s Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCLDR), in 1976. PUCL tried to find the causes of communal riots and 122 Origin and Development of Social Work in India tried to create amity amongst various sections of society. PUCL also organizes observer teams at the time of Elections in sensitive constituencies. This organization has also been active on environmental issues, especially for the rights of those affected adversely by ‘development’ projects. It has, from time to time, taken up issues to courts at various levels. The PUCL maintains fraternal relations with many national and international organisations concerned with Human Rights and exchanges literature with them. Some of these important international organisations are the Amnesty International, the World organisation against forture, the Human Rights Watch, the Netherlands Institute of Human Rights, the UN Centre for Human Rights, the Lawasia and the Asian Human Rights Commission.

Rajiv Gandhi Foundation The Rajiv Gandhi Foundation (RGF) was established on 21st June 1991 to commemorate Rajiv Gandhi’s vision for India. The RGF aims to work in areas, which were of deepest concern to Rajiv Gandhi, and to act as a catalyst in promoting effective, practical and sustainable programmes in areas of national development. The foundation has established its presence virtually in all the States and Union Territories of India. Among its programmes RGF accords top priority to literacy which is considered a pre-requisite for implementing the developmental programmes. Rather than aiming to duplicate large scale efforts of national literacy mission RGF supplements and strengthens the areas which may qualify for closer attention by working closely with NGOs, individuals and concerned State Governments. Foundation encourages collective experience sharing and exchange of ideas by providing support to voluntary agencies engaged in advancement of literacy and/or elementary education. The Foundation History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 123 endeavours to evolve innovative projects involving women and children in the development process. It also utilizes their traditional knowledge base to make development projects more efficient and ecology friendly. Foundation’s role is that of a catalyst and initiates innovative projects which are potentially replicable in other parts of the country. Several social workers are involved in various projects initiated by RGF.

M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) This Foundation was registered during the year 1988 as an autonomus non-profit trust. The goal of the organization is to impart a pro-nature, pro-poor and pro-women orientation to a job, promote economic growth in rural areas by way of harnessing science and technology for environmentally sustainable and socially equitable development. It is conducting research in five areas: coastal systems research, biodiversity and bio- technology, ecotechnology, training and capacity building. The Foundation operates through agricultural and rural development: conservation and enhancement of natural resources, promotion of sustainable livelihoods, gender equity and voicing the voiceless and information skill development. It also promotes public understanding of science through media practitioners. It has adopted bottom up participatory approach which places people before technology. It was started at a time when people were facing serious ecological and social problems in terms of growing damage to the basic life support systems of and water, forests, bio-diversity and atmosphere; increasing poverty, social and gender inequality, rapid growth of population combined with high rates of unemployment beating to jobless economic growth. Its research agenda are in terms of sustainable development, rooted in the principles of ecology, social and gender equity, employment generation and economic viability. 124 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

During the last 10 years its functions were based on the principles of partnership with rural and tribal men and women. It has also considered the tribal and rural families working with young staff as partners and innovators and not as “beneficiaries”. A new social contact has been created between scientists and the economically and socially underprivileged sections of rural society. MSSRF has established linkages with industries, adopting the triple helix model of partnership involving industry and business, resource – poor farm women and men and scientists. It has also prepared a project support document at the request of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Another noteworthy project is on strengthening rural livelihoods through agro-industries with specific reference to tribal and rural women jointly taken with the Central Food and Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore. Under coastal systems research the different aspects being considered are conservation, revitalization and sustainable use of bio-resources, community empowerment and benefit sharing. Numerous village level volunteers spend their valuable time and expertise to the Foundation.

Missionaries of Charity Missionaries of Charity are a Roman Catholic religious order established by Mother Teresa of Kolkata in 1950. The mission was to care for (in Mother Teresa’s Words): “the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have became a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone”. These Missionaries provide care and support to refugees, ex-prostitutes, the mentally ill, sick and abandoned children, lepers, HIV/AIDS victims, the aged and the convalescent. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 125

They have schools run by volunteers to educate street children; they run soup kitchens, as well as many other services as per each target groups need. They have numerous homes in Kolkata alone which include homes for women, orphaned children, the dying, a school for street children, and a leper colony. These services are provided to people regardless of their religion, east, age and sex. Across the country the Missionaries of charity have several projects and programmes which has the approval and appreciation both government and other social and development agencies.

Bosco Reach Out Bosco Reach Out (BRO), is a non-profit, non political and non-religious organization which was established in 1983 by Dr. George Palamattom. BRO is registered under the Societies Registration Act. (SR/BRO – 226/ 83 of 1983). It is committed to the integral and holistic development of the human beings in the society. Bosco Reach Out visualizes a self-sustaining, self reliant and dignified community where people live with responsibility, striving for just equal and harmonious society. BRO seeks to achieve integral development through empowerment of people by enabling them to build people’s organizations and enhancing their capacities to utilize their resources optimally and have their rightful place in the society.

Goals of BRO BRO strongly believe that people themselves have the capacity to develop on their own and fight for their rightful place in the society. BRO has the following goals:

● To sensitize the people about the need for self-help for development and organize themselves in SHGs, 126 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

gradually shaping it as a people’s movement. ● To increase income through improved production and marketing of agricultural produce, development of skills and promotion of farm and non-farm based micro-enterprises. ● To build capacities of people particularly of women so as to achieve greater gender equality in the society. ● To ensure food security through conservation and processing of food products. ● To facilitate the establishment of linkage between SHGs and health institutions with a view to adopt measures for improved health, and ● To provide support to other NGOs and their communities through training and liaison for finance so that the development of grassroots communities may be facilitated in an efficient and effective manner. BRO has emerged as an important NGO in the North- east operating in four states and making interventions following social work principles, methods and values.

Confederations of NGOs in Rural India (CNRI) CNRI is registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. It commenced its activities from February, 2005 onward with its Headquarters at New Delhi.

Vision of CNRI CNRI is an Apex Body of NGOs of Rural India established with the specific objectives of strengthening, coordinating and facilitating their working at the grass- root level for the integrated development of rural India. Its aim is to emerge as a think-tank as well as a consultative body at the national and international level. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 127

Some of the major objectives of CNRI are:

● To serve as a platform to provide critical inputs to public policy on major issues concerning rural economy. ● To interact closely with the various ministries of Central and State Governments and other funding organizations at the national and international level for implementation of projects and activities covering different target groups. ● To organize and conduct promotional training programmes to equip NGOs and the Self Help Groups towards capacity building, enhancement of their expertise in different directions, particularly in new technology initiatives and productive enterprises. ● To mobilize at the time of natural calamities necessary support and inputs and undertake and participate in disaster management and rehabilitation activities. ● To drive home the message that the task of NGOs does not stop at the stage of Right to Information only, but also extends to Right to Involvement, implement and monitor programmes of benefit to people at the grass roots level. The idea of a Confederation of NGOs of Rural India owes its origin to the various deliberations of the Planning Commission and the Ministry of Rural Development in the 80s and 90s and endorsement of the same by various high level committees of the Parliament at different points of time. The need for such a Confederation has been voiced at the level of the NGOs themselves, particularly those working at the grass root level with no all-India Umbrella type organization to safeguard their interests or provide them a common platform for articulating their aspirations. 128 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

As an apex forum of NGOs of Rural India, CNRI has been established to promote, develop, protect, aid, foster and empower, directly and indirectly, the constituent member-NGOs working at the grass root level for integrated development of rural India and to emerge as a think-tank as well as a consultative body at the National and International level. The membership of the Confederation is open to any NGO who subscribes to the objectives of the Society.

Christian Medical Association of India The history of CMAI dates back to 1905 when a group pf missionaries serving in India, set up the Medical Missionary Association (MMA), a forum for supporting each other professionally and spiritually. In 1926, it was renamed as Christian Medical Association of India (CMAI), and has grown in strength by keeping pace with the changing healthcare needs in this country. CMAI has done pioneering work in several areas, including leprosy, tuberculosis, malaria and HIV/AIDS. CMAI has a fellowship of doctors, nurses, administrators, chaplains and allied health professionals and work on various fronts, in diverse sectors, to bring relief from pain and the joy of health among India’s poorest and most deprived sections of society. The objectives of the association include prevention and relief of human suffering irrespective of caste, creed, community, religion and economic status; promotion of knowledge of the factors governing health; coordination of activities for training doctors, nurses, allied health professionals and others involved in the ministry of healing; implementation of schemes for comprehensive health care, family planning and community welfare; rendering health in calamities and disasters of all kinds. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 129

Catholic Health Association of India (CHAI) The Catholic Health Association of India (CHAI) the world’s largest non-governmental organization in the health sector has over 3000 member institutions. Its beginning in the pre-independence period is a landmark in the Catholic Church’s involvement in promoting health. The organization is working for the promotion of physical, psychological, social and spiritual health of people irrespective of caste, creed and sex and rendering service, education and research. CHAI was founded on 29th July 1943, by Sr. Mary Glowrey, in association with 16 nuns. The association was named the ‘Catholic Hospitals Association of India’. The overall goals of the association in 1944 were: to play an enhanced role to increase the quantity and equality of medical service available to people of India, to increase the strength of nursing and medical staff in Catholic Hospitals and to uphold Catholic and ethical values in medical work. By 1961, the vision of the Association had widened. Improving the standards of hospitals and dispensaries in India by promoting and safeguarding higher ideals in religions, moral, medical, nursing, educational, social and in all other phases of hospital endeavour, as well as printing, publishing and circulating matter relating to the aims and objectives of the Association were the wider goals. The members of the Association also decided to decided to change its name to the Catholic Hospital Association of India. The of the first periodical that CHAI began as part of its new mission was ‘Catholic Hospital’. It was renamed Medical Service later. This periodical was to become a full fledged independent magazine called Health Action in 1988. CHAI has been running various Comprehensive Community Health Programmes, providing Communicable Diseases – Continuing Medical Education and focusing on enabling and equipping the members with adequate knowledge, skill and attitude 130 Origin and Development of Social Work in India to handle emergency situations effectively by providing holistic health care and network with other like-minded GOs and NGOs. CHAI has a department dedicated to the promotion of Alternative for dealing with projects related to Communicable diseases including HIV/AIDS. For effective implementation CHAI has established a District Health Action Forum which is operated in 15 states of India. CHAI has also taken up initiatives at the time of different natural calamities in India such as Latur Earthquake in September 1993, Super Cyclone in Orissa October 1999, Gujarat Earthquake January 2001 and Tsunami Relief Work. CHAI played a very crucial role during these calamities by organizing various relief operations and providing psychological support to the affected. As on 2002 CHAI membership include:

Category No. Leprosy Care Centres 52 Health Centre (nil beds) 1223 Health Centres (1-6 beds) 565 Health Centres (7-10 beds) 163 Hospitals (1-25 beds) 217 Hospitals (26-50 beds) 157 Hospitals (51-100 beds) 61 Hospitals (101 beds and above) 62 Schools of Nursing 142 Associates 305

Care India CARE is one of the world’s leading humanitarian organizations fighting global poverty. CARE is an independent, non-sectarian and non-governmental History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 131 organization which began its working in India in 1950. Much of CARE’s work is focused on developing lasting solutions to poverty by strengthening the most vulnerable populations. CARE works hand in hand with vulnerable families, especially women and girls. CARE helps women to vanquish poverty by helping them confront and resolve unequal power relations and discrimination, especially gender discrimination, in all spheres of their lives. Care also works with poor women and girls to expand and deepen their participation in local governance. This provides women with the opportunity to determine their own development choices, and to confront inequalities through formal channels, and influence the policies and programmes that affect their everyday lives. It also works with organizations and institutions to address gaps in critical national policies, programs and services, with special emphasis on ensuring that they benefit more vulnerable groups, especially women. Profile of National Institutes

Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) The RCI is a statutory body set up under the Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992. The Council is responsible for regulating the training policies and programmes for various categories of professionals in the area of rehabilitation and special education. Apart from this RCI is involved in the following: 1) Recognize institutions/universities running degree/diploma/certificate courses in the field of rehabilitation. 2) Maintain Central Rehabilitation Register of persons possessing the recognized rehabilitation qualification. 132 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

3) Research in the areas of special education. 4) Bridge courses for teachers and other professionals. 5) Orientation of PHC doctors. 6) Training of teachers through distance mode. 7) RCI has developed and standardized 70 long term/ short term courses. 8) 139 institutions have been recognized by RCI to run their course.

Institute for the Physically Handicapped The Institute for the Physically Handicapped (IPH), located in New Delhi, was set up on 12th November, 1976 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The main objectives of the Institute are to develop manpower in the field of rehabilitation and also to serve the orthopedically handicapped of all age groups. The Institute conducts various courses and runs outpatient services for persons with disabilities like Paraplegia, Hemiplegia, Arthritis, Cerebral Palsy, Post Polio Residual Paralysis, Congential Anomalies etc. There is a special education school which is meant for children with severe orthopedic handicaps. The school provides education up to the primary level. The aim of the Special School is to provide education and physical rehabilitation facilities, simultaneously.

National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped The National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped (NIMH) located in Secuderabad, Andhra Pradesh, is committed to develop models of Care for persons who are mentally handicapped. It also conducts research in the area of mental handicap, promote human resource development and work with mentally handicapped persons in the country. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 133

Some of the major objectives of the Institute are:

● Develop appropriate models of care and rehabilitation for the mentally retarded persons appropriate to Indian conditions. ● Development of manpower for delivery of services to the mentally handicapped. ● Identify, conduct and coordinate research in the area of mentally handicapped. ● Provide consultancy services to voluntary organizations in the area of mentally handicapped and to assist them wherever necessary. ● Serve as a documentation and information center in the area of mental retardation. ● Acquire relevant data to assess the magnitude/ courses, rural-urban composition, socio-economic factors, etc. of mental retardation in the country. The Institute is offering running various Degree/ Diploma Courses, Refresher Courses, Short Term Courses and Research and Development Projects.

Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped (NIHH) is located in Mumbai. It was established on 9th August, 1983 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.

The Major Objectives of the Institute are:

● Development of manpower by undertaking or sponsoring the training of trainees and teachers, employment officers, psychologists, vocational counsellors and such other personnel as may be deemed necessary by the Institute for promoting the education, training or rehabilitation of the hearing handicapped. 134 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

● To conduct, sponsor, coordinate and subsidize research into all aspects of the education and rehabilitation of the hearing handicapped. ● To develop model services for rehabilitation of the hearing handicapped. ● To serve as an apex information and documentation centre in the area of hearing handicapped. The Institute has its regional centers in Calcutta, New Delhi and Hyderabad and a State Collaborated Center in Bhubaneshwar. In addition to this, the Institute also runs a training center for the Adult Deaf in Hyderabad.

National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped (NIOH), Calcutta National Institute for the Orthopaedically Handicapped (NIOH) was established in Calcutta in 1978 taking over from the Government of West Bengal the land and building of the erstwhile Kumar P.N. Roy Group of Hospitals. It was registered as autonomous body in April 1982 under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. The main objectives of the Institute are to undertake manpower development, provide services to the orthopaedically handicapped, develop model services for the orthopaedically handicapped, conduct and sponsor research and provide rehabilitation services to the orthopaedically handicapped.

National Institute for the Visually Handicapped This Institute located in Dehradun, was established in 1979 by upgrading the National Center for the Blind. It was registered as a society in 1982 under Societies Registration Act, 1860 under the administrative control of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. The Institute has its regional center in Chennai to History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 135 provide rehabilitation services in the southern states of the country. It renders vocational training at par with NIVH. It also provides rehabilitation services to rural- based visually handicapped persons through its Community Based Rehabilitation Services. Apart from providing vocational training and other activities the Institute has a Model School for the visually handicapped which provides education to blind, partially sighted and low vision children from nursery to class X.

National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research, Cuttack The National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research (NIRTAR) conducts UnderGraduate/ Postgraduate Courses, Short term Orientation Courses, and Continuing Medical Education Courses for rehabilitation professionals, along with awareness programmes for the functionaries of Government and Non-Government persons with disabilities and their relatives. It also conducts rehabilitation camps in rural, remote and interior areas of various states. The main objectives include:

● To undertake, sponsor or co-ordinate the training of personnel. ● To conduct, sponsor, co-ordinate or subsidise research on bio-mechanical engineering leading to the effective evaluation of the mobility aids for the orthopaedically disabled persons or suitable surgical or medical procedures or development of new aids. ● To promote education and rehabilitation therapy of physically handicapped. ● To undertake vocational training, placement and rehabilitation of the physically handicapped. 136 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

● To promote and disseminate information on rehabilitation in India and abroad, etc.

National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities is located at Muttukadu, Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu. The Objectives of the Institute are:

● To undertake development of human resources for management, training, rehabilitation, education, employment and social development of persons with multiple disabilities. ● To promote and conduct research in all areas relating to multiple disabilities and to develop Tran disciplinary models and strategies for social rehabilitation to meet the needs of diverse groups of people with multiple disabilities. ● Empowering persons with multiple disabilities by strengthening the social agencies. Conclusion

The above profile of different NGO’s and institutes clearly describes how these welfare agencies play important roles in social welfare and development sector such as education, health and other welfare services for the weak, underprivileged and handicapped sections of the society. These services are aimed at the social development of people in terms of a change in their physical, intellectual, emotional, social and moral composition. These organizations have been employing well educated professionals including social workers and activating the underprivileged and down-trodden masses to develop themselves economically and socially. History of Social Work: Initiatives through Social Movements 137

Mahatma Gandhi, Vinoba Bhave, Jayaprakash Narayan and many such prominent social thinkers and activists have often expressed their faith in voluntary action in social development. The Balwant Roy Mehta Committee (1957) observed. “Today in the implementation of various schemes of community development, more and more emphasis is laid on non-governmental organizations and on the principle that ultimately people’s own local organizations should take over the entire work”. The fifth and seventh five year plans relied heavily on voluntary agencies for social welfare programmes and assistance from the state was given to them for this task. Thus, voluntary agencies equipped with necessary technical expertise, can be useful agencies of social and economic development. This statement can be proved by analyzing the vision, mission and activities undertaken by above mentioned NGO’s, institutes and donor agencies. In short, voluntary organizations and welfare institutes have been playing a significant role in providing welfare services to the poor and the marginalized. It is rightly said that there is no paradise except where people work together for the welfare of all mankind and hell is where no one even thinks of service to humanity.

References Steve W Witt, ed. (2006), Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries. Hilhorst, Dorthea (2003), The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books. Smillie Ian and Larry Minear (2004), The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press. 138 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Thomas Ward, (2005), Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House. Teegen, H. (2003), International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments, Journal of International Management. Teegen, H., Doh, J. and Vachani, S. (2004), The importance of Non Governmental Organisation in Global Governance and Value Creation: An International Business Research Agenda, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol (6) Washington. Kamat Sangeeta (2002), Development hegemony: NGOs and the State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press. Sunga, Lyal S. (2005), NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations, New York. 5 Hinduism and Social Work

*Manju Kumar

Introduction

Hinduism, one of the oldest living religions, with a history stretching from around the second millennium B.C. to the present, is India’s indigenous religious and cultural system. It encompasses a broad spectrum of philosophies ranging from pluralistic theism to absolute monism. Hinduism is not a homogeneous, organized system. It has no founder and no single code of beliefs; it has no central headquarters; it never had any religious organisation that wielded temporal power over its followers. Hinduism does not have a single scripture as the source of its various teachings. It is diverse; no single doctrine (or set of beliefs) can represent its numerous traditions. Nonetheless, the various schools share several basic concepts, which help us to understand how most Hindus see and respond to the world. Ekam Satya Viprah Bahuda Vadanti — “Truth is one; people call it by many names” (Rigveda I 164.46). From fetishism, through polytheism and pantheism to the highest and the noblest concept of Deity and Man in Hinduism the whole gamut of human thought and belief is to be found. Hindu religious life might take the form of devotion to God or gods, the duties of family life, or concentrated meditation. Given all this diversity, it is important to take care when generalizing about “Hinduism” or “Hindu beliefs.” For every class of

* Ms. Manju Kumar, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, Delhi. 140 Origin and Development of Social Work in India worshiper and thinker Hinduism makes a provision; herein lies also its great power of assimilation and absorption of schools of philosophy and communities of people, (Theosophy, 1931). Many Hindus call their tradition santana-dharma, the eternal law that governs everyone irrespective of belief. It is believed that these truths regarding the universal law were divinely revealed to ancient sages. For many eons they were passed down orally and only later written down. Hinduism is a synthesis of religion and philosophy; as also a way of life. Sacred Texts of Hinduism

Hindu religious literature is divided into two main categories: ‘Shruti’ and ‘Smriti’; Shruti – that which has been heard (revealed truth); and Smriti that which has been remembered (realized truth). Shruti consists of unquestionable truth and is considered eternal. It refers mainly to the Vedas themselves. Smriti is supplementary and may change over time. It is authoritative to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti. If Shruti is ‘direct experience’, Smriti is ‘tradition’ – the experience remembered.

The Shruti The Sruti is composed of the four Vedas – the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sarna Veda and Atharva Veda. The Vedas form the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.

The Vedas The term Veda comes from the root Vid, i.e., to know. The word Veda means knowledge. When it is applied to scripture, it signifies a book of knowledge. Each of the four Vedas may be divided into two sections: The Mantra portion, also called the Samhita, is a collection of hymns Hinduism and Social Work 141 to be used in Vedic sacrifices; the Brahmanas portion contains specific rules and regulations for the sacrifices as well as prose commentaries explaining the meaning of the mantras and rituals.

Upanishads The Upanishads contain highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between, the soul (atman) and Brahman. The Upanishads are often referred to collectively as Vedanta (lithe end of the Vedas”), not only because they appear physically in the concluding pages of each Veda, but also because the mystical truths they express are seen by many as the culmination of all the other Vedic knowledge.

The Smriti: Post-Vedic Hindu scriptures The books that appeared after the Vedas were called Smriti. Smrti literature includes Itihasas (epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata), Puranas (mythological texts), Agamas (theological treatises) and Darshanas (philosophical texts).

The Epics The Mahabharata and Ramayana are the national epics of India. The Mahabharata, attributed to the sage Vyasa, was written down from 540 to 300 B.C. The Mahabharata tells the legends of the Bharatas, a Vedic Aryan group. The Ramayana, attributed to the poet Valmiki, was written down during the first century A.D., although it is based on oral traditions that go back six or seven centuries earlier. The Hindu philosophy reflected in the epics is the doctrine of avatar (incarnation of God as a human being). The two main avatars of Vishnu that appear in the epic are Rama, 142 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the hero of the Ramayana, and Krishna, the chief protagonist in the Mahabharata.

The Puranas Puranas contain a narrative of the history of the Universe, from creation to destruction, genealogies of the kings, heroes and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmolog philosophy and geography. There are many texts designated as ‘Purana’. The most important are Mahapuranas. There are 17 or 18 canonical Puranas, divided into three categories, each named after a deity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.

Darshanas Darshanas: Darshanas represent six schools of Hindu Philosophy. Blavatsky (Theosophy, 1931) calls these six schools ‘Demonstrations’. They are like the six fundamental points; each of them presents but one view of truth; not one of them in itself is complete. Each of these six schools demonstrates completely the whole of the world-process from one particular angle of vision. The same universe, the same world-process, the same panorama is looked at from one side and then another.

The Dharmashastras The Dharmashastras (law books) are considered by many to form part of the Smriti. From time to time great law- givers (e.g. Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parashara) emerged who codified existing laws to ensure that the Hindu way of life was consistent with both the Vedic spirit and the changing times. Manu Smriti (The Laws of Manu) is a body of rules for ritual and daily life compiled probably between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200. Hinduism and Social Work 143

The Bhagawad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (literally: Song of the God), usually considered part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata (dating from about 400 or 300 B.C.), is a central text of Hinduism, a philosphical dialogue between the Lord Krishna and the warrior Arjuna. This is one of the most popular and accessible of all Hindu scriptures. The Gita discusses selflessness, duty, devotion, and meditation, integrating many different threads of Hindu philosophy; it is a microcosm of Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and even Tantric thought of the Hindu fold. It speaks not only to Vaishnavas but to all people, and it is accepted by the members of all Hindu streams as an influential text. Indeed, the “tag line” of each chapter of the Bhagavad Gita refers to the book as the “Gita Upanishad” and as a “scripture of yoga,” thereby establishing that in this text, Lord Krishna speaks the truths of yoga and the Upanishads for all.

Important Hindu Virtues Following are some of the important qualities listed in the scriptures: 1) Ahimsa (non-violence) – based on the concepts of a/man and reincarnation 2) Sam yam (control of mind and the senses) – considered essential for any form of morality 3) Tolerance – of different beliefs, opinions, religious traditions and persons. 4) Hospitality – demonstrating magnanimity, and the value of service 5) Compassion – based on notions of atman; an ability to feel for others as we feel for ourselves 6) Protection – giving shelter to others, especially those less fortunate 144 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

7) Respect – for all living beings; for sanctity of life 8) Wisdom – knowledge is contrasted with ignorance; ability to sift out right and wrong 9) Austerity – Practical wisdom and discipline in addition to theoretical knowledge 10) Celibacy – important for spiritual life; only one of the four ashramas – grihasthya-permitted sexual gratification 11) Honesty – to avoid self-deception; essential to build trust within relationships. 12) Cleanliness – includes external hygiene and inner purity 13) Charity – “Charity given out of duty, without expectation of return, at the proper time and place, and to a worthy person is considered to be in the quality of goodness.” (Bhagwad Gita, 17.20) A Tenfold system of virtuous duties was prescribed by Manu Smriti: (1) “Contentment; (2) Abstention from injury to others, active benevolence, and returning good for evil; (3) Resistance to sensual appetites; (4) Abstinence from theft and illicit gain; (5) Purity, chastity, and cleanliness; (6) Coercion of passions; (7) Acquisition of knowledge; (8) Acquisition of Divine Wisdom; (9) Veracity, honesty and fidelity; and (10) Freedom from wrath and hatred;” – Manu, vi, 92. Social Concern in Hinduism

While one need not believe in a personal God or follow an organised religion, and yet be good compassionate, humane and socially-sensitive a large number of people are still influenced and motivated by religion. Historically, religion has shown enough evidence of having rich potential for motivating and inspiring social concern. Hinduism and Social Work 145

Social Concern at Doctrine Level The concepts of soul (atman) and God highlight the concept of equality among all living beings, humans as well as animals and plants. God dwells in all living beings and, therefore, every living being deserves respect. This makes all life sacred. God is perceived as ‘patit paavan’ and ‘deenbandhu “ Le., One who is a friend of the meek and the poor and One who redeems the fallen. Serving only one’s own self amounts to hypocrisy and selfishness, but serving others especially the needy is serving God, as he is ‘antaryaami’ who dwells within us all. Since human beings are gifted with a sense of discrimination (unlike other living beings), He seems to prefer to act through humans. The law of Karma is essentially a moral law, intended to motivate social responsibility. The law does not mean destiny or fate. It simply means that, whatever I do has consequences not only for others, but also for me. If I see a person in pain and do nothing to alleviate his or her pain believing it to be his / her karma, I incur the bad karma of losing an opportunity of helping and failing in my moral duty or ‘dharma ‘. I should help as my duty and leave the result to the person’s karma. Hindu scriptures are clear that our good deeds do count for the Law of Karma as ‘purrya “ and a good deed means acceptance of social responsibility (Nadkarni, 2007). Social commitment comes under dharma, an entirely ethical concept constituting the core of Hinduism. Practice of dharma does not mean observance of rituals, but living a life of truth, nonviolence, compassion and equal regard for others and their welfare, reflected in selfless service to society. A key verse relevant here is from Bhagavad-Gita (the Gita): “He who judges pleasure and pain in others by same standard as he applies to 146 Origin and Development of Social Work in India himself, that ‘yogi’ is the highest” (chapter 6, verse 32). This verse constitutes a forceful call for equality and social justice. The highest dharma is considered to be non-violence (‘ ahimsaa paramo dharmah ‘) in a wider sense. It is not, just non-killing, not even mere tolerance, but more. It is compassion, forgiveness, selfless help, peace and harmony. The ultimate test of what is moral is what promotes the welfare of all. “What is ultimately good for the welfare of all beings is what I consider as Truth” (Shanti Parva 329-13). The earnest prayer everyday is sarveshcha sukhinah santu, sarve santu niraamayaah, sarve bhadrani pashyantu, maa kaschit dukhamaapnuyaat (“let all be happy, let all be free from illness, let all find security, may no one face sorrow”). The stress is on ‘sarve “ i.e., all. Freedom is valued in a broad sense and is prayed for not merely for one’s own self, but for the whole group or community, as reflected in Rigveda (VIII 68.12). The prayer is not for ‘moksha’ or liberation from the cycle of births and deaths. It is for freedom in this very world, including freedom from deprivation. Mahabharata subordinates what is traditionally regarded as the ultimate goal, viz, moksha, to dharma of compassion – “I desire no kingdom, no heaven, not even moksha for myself; I desire only that beings afflicted by sorrow be relieved of it” (Nadkarni, 2007). The concept of maaya (illusion) highlights the value of clear perception of reality. Instead of promoting ‘otherworldliness’ as it is claimed by some philosophers, it emphasizes need for analysis and reflection on dynamic relationship of purusha and prakriti – the spirit and matter; the nature and purpose of the world; the cyclic nature of creation; and the real identity of the soul (atman). This concept encourages human beings not to get trapped in narrow social identities, prejudices Hinduism and Social Work 147 and misconceptions about self and others but to perceive all beings as capable of realizing their Real and Divine nature. Compassion and help to others in need is a highly cherished value in Hinduism right from the Vedic phase. ‘Daan’ (charity) was recognised as the most potent way of earning punya (merit qualifying entry to heaven). The call to help others and not be selfish comes out clearly in Rigveda (X 117.6). Padmapuranam declares, “those who always feed the crippled, the blind, children, the old, the ill, those helpless and pinched by penury, will enjoy bliss in heaven; there is no end to the punya accumulated by constructing wells and tanks, where aquatic animals and those moving on land drink water when they desire, for life is centred on water”. The Gita not only values generosity and charity, but also adds that it has to be without any contempt towards the beneficiary. A gift, given with contempt to the receiver, is ‘taamasik’. It is much lower in status than the selfless gift given with humility, considered as ‘saatvik’. The poor are to be regarded in Hinduism as ‘Daridra Naraayana’ (those among whom god is present), who should be served with respect and love (Nadkami, 2007). The well known Saint Narsi Mehta reflects the same in his famous song’ Vaishnav jan to taine kahiye je peer parayi jaane re’ – call that one a true Vaishnava (devotee of Lord Vishnu) who empathizes with the suffering of others, and who relieves others’ pain with humility. The concept of ‘yajna’ as ritualistic offering of food in sacrificial fire or even animal sacrifice is based on sharing with others what one has. The philosophy is that we have received everything that sustains us from god, and we repay our debt to god through yajna, by sharing with others what we have with us - be it food, wealth, knowledge, or simply labour or work. 148 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Though origins of Bhakti can be traced to Rigveda itself, Gita formally recognised Bhakti as a valid path of god realisation, along with ‘jnaana’ (knowledge) and karma (selfless work). The significance of Bhakti was that unlike jnaana and karma, it could be practised by all, lowest of the low, meekest of the meek. At one stroke, Bhakti took the poor and the deprived within its scope. Like the Gita, Thirukkural believed to be written in the early part of the first millennium. in Tamil laid emphasis on compassion to all, helpful nature, humanism, truthfulness, hospitality and so on.

Social Concern in Practice Social Concern of Hinduism in Practice is reflected in day-to-day behaviour of the people and in activities of religious institutions.

Early Vedic Period Early Vedic period is normally characterized by a collective way of living where property is· under common ownership of the tribes. Whatever was collected or hunted had to be done collectively in large groups (Gana). The collective labour that was undertaken by Vedic Aryans was termed Satra which means a session, implying collectivity. Thus the supportive practices of distribution and consumption were also performed collectively. There was a life of complete mutuality and reciprocal assistance whether the needs were basic or special, arising out of vulnerable situations like disease, external danger. The fireplace was the nucleus of the tribal society. The yagna ritual re-creates all aspects of primitive tribal collective life. The concept of ‘yajna’ as ritualistic offering of food in sacrificial fire or even animal sacrifice is based on sharing with others what one has. The philosophy is that we have received everything that sustains us from god, and we repay our debt to god Hinduism and Social Work 149 through yajna, by sharing with others what we have with us – be it food, wealth, knowledge, or simply labour or work. In the tribal way of life whether during war or peacetime the share (havi) of every member of the tribe was distributed in a function called the Havana. The practice of charity or ‘daan’ involving a giver and a recipient was not relevant at that stage of social evolution. The term daan is used in Vedic literature to describe the act of distributing wealth among members of a tribe.

Later Vedic Period An agrarian system of society developed towards the end of Vedic period. Private property and occupation based class system emerged. Extended families (kul or clan) inhabited separate hamlets. The warrior class (kshatriya) became responsible for protection of the community. The leader of the warriors was called the king. The proceeds of war and later on the proceeds of tributes and taxes came into the hands of the warriors and the king. It now came to be looked upon as rajasva, literally meaning that which belongs to the king. The practice of distributing wealth thus accumulated among the kingdom’s of populace continued. This distribution was looked upon as daan. There was, however, no formal law that made it compulsory for the king and noblemen to observe this custom. Daan, thus acquired a voluntary character which was looked upon as an act of piety and merited punya for the doer. There are numerous references in Upanishads to the merits of giving daan and the correct manner of doing so, e.g. giving with humility and with due respect to the recipient. Upanishads held that life is a succession of Yagna or service for others. Charity was not merely a social service but it was like a prayer. One did it for one’s own sake, because one felt it was a privilege as he/she was serving 150 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Lord through it. The habit of giving Alms was common and no household should turn away a beggar empty handed as it was considered a sin.

Post Vedic Period During the post Vedic era, the Hindu society and polity were, by and large, supposedly governed by texts called shastras, especially Manusmriti (MS) and Kautilya’s Arthashastra (AS). Despite commitment to the caste system and patriarchy, the shastras were not totally devoid of social concern and sense of fairness and justice. MS and AS, both, emphasize promoting the welfare of people through good governance. (MS - 1. 111 and 112; Naarada Smriti; AS - I 19.34) Though MS is generally condemned as anti-women, according to both AS and MS, destitute women were to be given special attention by the king and were to be helped with raw material for handicrafts or given other help. Such of those women who were disabled from going out, had to be provided with help at their doorstep. The wife had an absolute right of maintenance against the husband. Kautilya (Chanakya) was the counselor of King Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Dynasty. His expositions in AS lay down the guiding principle for kings – “In the happiness of people lies the king’s own happiness, in their welfare his welfare; he should follow what promotes peoples’ welfare, and not just what pleases him”; provide public services and infrastructure; and ensure the rights of women, consumers, borrowers, wage earners, patients and even prisoners (AS - I 19.34). During the entire period of Mauryan Empire, Reign of Ashok, the Buddhist Emperor; and subsequent Gupta Empire, there has been emphasis on charitable acts. Hinduism and Social Work 151

Welfare of people was the main task of the kings, who devoted their life for the same. It is worthwhile mentioning here that in the Gupta period, the workshops for amelioration and training of handicapped persons were established for the first time in India. The kshatriyas (warrior class) along with the vaishyas (the trading class) offered charity not only to the brahmins but also to the community at large. Construction of wells, tanks, canal etc., plantation of trees in forest, garden, construction of temples, dharamshalas (inns), schools, hospitals and the like were intended for service of the people and dedicated as prayer of God. It was believed that working for the welfare of others lead to accumulating of punya. Daan constituted of charity for alleviating the suffering of materially poor as also giving of gifts to social service institutions. Families were enjoined upon to look after their sick and the handicapped. The workers’ guilds (shrenis) looked after the interests of their worker members. Respective caste punchayats addressed to the welfare needs of their members. Nandi Purana mentions construction of hospitals wherein sick person were given medicines free of cost. In the wake of establishment of the feudal system, employers of shudras had duties towards them, ensuring that they were adequately fed, clothed and sheltered; looking after them in emergencies like illness and death and contingencies like marriage in their family; and to see that their hard work was properly rewarded (MS - X 124). The epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, show that recipients of help were not necessarily poor or the sick. Ram and Arjun received counsel to overcome their dilemmas. Rishi Vashishtha and Lord Krishna respectively acted as counselors to help Ram and Arjun make decisions within their dharma. In fact, brahmins 152 Origin and Development of Social Work in India often acted as kulgurus (counselors of the family) – as an anchor in stress for kshatriya and vaishya families; conducted yajna for their prosperity and welfare; helped in conflict resolution within the family; acted as educators for the client families (yajman) and received dakshina in return for their services. These brahmins / priests were scholarly; skilled in rituals; maintained humility; led pure and austere life, and were highly respected. The British Rule: Reform Movements The nineteenth century during the British Rule was the pivotal period that brought about an enormous transformation in the religious, social, economic, political and cultural spheres. Reform and Revivalist Movements like Brhmo Samaj, Prarthna Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission along with numerous individuals brought about a major turnaround to revive the Hindu ideals. A number of sanyasis (ascetics) led people’s movements to overthrow exploitative systems. Several Hindu religious leaders took up the cause of the poor, not just by way of charity, but by mobilising them to end their exploitation. Shri Narayan Guru (1854- 1928) in Kerala lifted a whole untouchable caste Ezhavas, into the mainstream in this way, quite within the framework of Hinduism. Welfare Work by Institutions and Individuals: Contemporary Scene Today, some reform movements like Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission are still actively involved in spiritual guidance along with welfare of the people. They are making significant contribution in the fields of education and health care. Needy students are given scholarships, the elderly, the sick and the destitute are provided shelter and support. Other areas of operation include education of girls, clinics and opening of libraries. Hinduism and Social Work 153

Vivekanand Kendra following Swami Vivekananda’s belief “Serve man, serve God,” runs an impressive number of social welfare projects. Some programmes are for the purpose of propagating yoga; others use education to develop the personality. There are rural development programs to channellise the energies of the people toward national reconstruction, and natural resource development programs to convey ecological technologies to rural areas. Medical centers located in 26 places cater to 100 surrounding villages in Tamil, Nadu. “The Kendra is actively involved in several social developmental activities based on the ideas and values taught by Sanatana Dharma. These include education for the tribal children of Assam, Arunachala Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur and Andaman and Nicobar Islands; rural development projects in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, etc.” To strengthen the fibre of the younger generation the Kendra has initiated the Clean India for Cleaner Life project during the Vivekananda Decade .... (1993 to 2002) (Hinduism Today, April 1983). The trend has gained momentum as more institutions like the Brahmakumaris, ISKCON, Swami Narayana Mission, and the Art of Living are also in the field and working not only for Hindus, but also others. Apart from social service, these organizations and their workers strive to elevate the moral and spiritual level of people, dissuading them from drugs, alcohol and smoking, and making them derive greater happiness and joy from simply being better human beings at peace with others as also with their own selves. Traditional matts and temples started giving more and more attention to social service, to such an extent that practically every math is now engaged in social service. The famous temple at Tirupati was in the field of social service right since the 16th century by developing 154 Origin and Development of Social Work in India irrigation works in a drought-prone region The temple has, in the modem age, branched out in the field of education (from primary to university) and health care. A Saivite organization founded in Madras (Channai) in 1983 with a broad manifesto to include making hospital visits to console the disabled and suffering; feeding the poor once each month after temple worship; providing emergency services, including disaster relief from draught, fire, flood and personal misfortune among various religious activities. The modem age gurus like Sri Sathya Saibaba, Mata Amritanandamayi, Sri Sri Ravishankar and others are known now for their social service in many countries of the world in almost all continents through their vast institutional network, catering to the spiritual as well as mundane needs of Hindus and non-Hindus alike, and spreading the message of peace and love (Nadkarni, 2007). The Swaminarayan Mission (the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha –BAPS) is based in Gujarat. Their large corps of volunteers donate millions of hours annually, giving BAPS the ability to operate a prodigious list of socio-spiritual activities including a campaign against addictions such as smoking, drinking and drugs. Large exhibitions in temple complexes, as well as mobile exhibitions displayed in schools, factories, village squares, fairs, railway stations and private functions, explain Hindu philosophy and the adharma of addiction and contribute greatly to the long lasting success of these campaigns around the world. Hindus in contemporary Indian society continue to conduct yajnas, praying for the prosperity of the doer and kalyan (welfare) of all; offer charity to the poor and the indigent, feed the destitutes and offer voluntary Hinduism and Social Work 155 service for social causes. The ideals and virtues mentioned above continue to be held in high esteem; and guidance is sought from spiritually enlightened persons who are deeply revered.

Hinduism and Professional Social Work

Having made an effort to comprehend the core values and concepts that drive or influence the Hind psyche in the context of altruistic attitude and behaviour, it is time to recapitulate our understanding of Social Work – its mission, responsibilities; assumptions and core values. It is hoped that juxtaposing the two sets of beliefs and values, we will be able to perceive affinity, if any, between the two.

Social Work Schools of Social Work commonly teach that the origin of the profession lies in the humanistic principles of the many world faith traditions. However, a large number of social workers, regardless of their personal religious affiliations, are trained to think that their religion has no relevance for their everyday professional practice (Ram A. Cnaan, 2004). Professional Social Work is claimed by many practioners in India to be an alien concept that has been brought to here from the West. The very notion of getting paid for service offered to the needy is alleged to be antithetical to our basic values and culture. The following discussion is aimed at identifying affinity, if any, between Hindu Philosophy and beliefs and values and concepts believed in by professional social workers. Social work emerged as a response to common human needs which include physiological, psychological and developmental. The practice of social work creates an 156 Origin and Development of Social Work in India atmosphere where these needs are met satisfactorily. As a helping process it concentrates its efforts to develop better adjustment between individuals, their subsystem and larger system. This is done through interaction of client and the worker. Social Worker tries to bring about social change with a better balance between client and environment. The worker is expected to internalize certain values, undergo certain discipline; and acquire necessary knowledge and skills for comprehending the concerns of the clients and helping them deal with the same. The emphasis is on building / mobilizing client’s own inner and external resources so as to empower the client to deal with future challenges in life. According to the Code of Ethics developed by the National Association of Social Workers (USA), the mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of core values. These core values, embraced by social workers throughout the profession’s history, are the foundation of social work’s unique purpose and perspective: ● service ● social justice ● dignity and worth of the person ● importance of human relationships ● integrity ● competence. This constellation of core values reflects what is unique to the social work profession. Hinduism and Social Work The affinity between Hinduism and modern Social Work becomes immediately apparent in the light of the foregoing discussion. 1) The Hindu Philosophy and Traditions are replete with the importance accorded to the spirit of service Hinduism and Social Work 157

and compassion; and sacrifice of personal gain in favour of others less fortunate. 2) The Hindu concepts of social conscience and social concern emphasize the fact that one’s welfare is entwined with that of others. The mutual aid and mutual interdependence have been in practice right from the ancient times. 3) However paradoxical it may seem, the concepts of God, Soul and maaya provide the foundation for social justice. Hindu Philosophy holds all living beings equal with similar capacity to realize their real potential; to achieve divinity. It discards all social ranks and differences as illusory (maaya) and temporary and denounces all discriminatory practices as sin. 4) Like professional social work, Hindu philosophy believes that human beings can and do change towards self-actualization-the goal of life. It is strongly believed that soul’s natural inclination is towards self-realization – realization of its divine nature. The religious and spiritual activities with the help of gurus help them move towards their goal of life. The spiritual and religious activity involves emotional and mental well-being; acquiring rational and clear perspective and removing misconceptions; getting connected to reality and realizing one’s Self. 5) The concept and practice of dharma is closely linked to the concept of social functioning as we know it in social work literature. Doing what is expected of us in a given station in life role; doing it well and getting satisfaction out of it has been considered the basis of mental well-being. Dharma as linked both with social position (occupational or social) and with different stages in life covers social functioning concept in all of its connotations. In- 158 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

depth understanding of the concept of dharma can help Social Workers provide effective professional service. 6) Relationship between the worker and the person requiring professional help is a vital component in social work practice. Among various principles of professional relationship, the principle of acceptance is the most basic and held almost as an absolute value. Hindu belief in the divinity of man makes it compatible with this principle. Having faith in the fact that all human beings are striving towards self- actualization makes it possible to maintain non- judgmental attitude towards even the so-called worst criminals. Hindu scriptures contain numerous examples of criminals, prostitutes and cruel people getting redeemed because God who dwells in all is perceived as patitpaavan, the redeemer of the fallen. As the goal of life is seen to be merging in God, the qualities of forgiveness and compassion are seen as divine and thus desirable to inculcate in one self. The practice of ahimsa, further, underlines an absence of hatred towards or blaming of the person in need of rehabilitation or reform. The principle of controlled emotional involvement has been very adequately expounded in the Gita. The images of sthitaprajna and sthit dheer present a person who has achieved high emotional stability, has clear perceptions, high degree of self-awareness; is socially conscious, remaining detached feels compassion for his fellow beings. Controlled emotional involvement does not preclude empathy, compassion, kindness and positive regard for the person in need of help. 7) Frequently professional literature has reflected critically on the power and authority inherent in worker – client relationship by the very fact that Hinduism and Social Work 159

client feels inadequate and looks upon the worker as an expert capable of helping him or her and as one having control on necessary resources. Hindu scriptures maintain that the giver is not superior to the receiver. The same divinity is operating in both the receiver and the giver. The giver should rather be thankful that the receiver has accorded the giver an opportunity to merit punya for the good deed. That the two are intrinsically equal, mutually helping each other comes quite close to the assumptions and practice principles held by feminist therapists. 8) The dignity of human beings upheld as a core value in Social Work is actually the foremost belief in Hinduism. The belief that one’s true identity is defined not by physical and social attributes but by its divinity is drawn from the concept of Atman. All human beings have to be respected as they all have the same spiritual core. The recognition of innate dignity of human beings is a given in Hindu Philosophy. In the words of Swami Vivekanand, “Have faith in man, whether he appears to you to be a very learned one or a most ignorant one. Have faith in man, whether he appears to be an angel or the very devil himself.”(The Common Bases of Hinduism) 9) The ‘strength perspective’ that the social workers have begun emphasizing, rather than focusing on the deficiencies or problems, surfaces in Hinduism, almost effortlessly. That all human beings have the innate strength and tendency to realize self is a matter of faith. The call of the spiritual gurus is to draw forth the inner resources of all human beings - to start with what each one has rather than highlighting what one lacks. The fact that one has lost direction, is emotionally disturbed, is unable 160 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

to carry on one’s duty (dharma), is quite understandable because of the very nature of life in the world of maaya (illusion). But the person in need of help is not completely ‘helpless’. 10) The concept of innate worth, further, supports the principles of self-help and self-determination. The worker primarily enables or even facilitates client’s mobilization of his own inner and external resources. A well worn definition of social work, “Social work helps people to help themselves” bears this point out. The client has to take ownership of his own change process. The spiritual guidance by the gurus and scriptures is founded on this requirement of the devotee taking ownership of his desire to achieve self-realization. The gurus do not impose their will on the devotee. 11) The concept of reincarnation coupled with the law of karma states that each human being despite having a common divine spark is born with a unique destiny. This is in alignment with professional assumption that each person is unique, irrespective of the fact that he or she shares certain common characteristics with those in the same social group. 12) The law of karma further helps in keeping the process of help focused on the ‘present’. Consequences of our actions (including thoughts, speech and deeds) as occurring in the present have significance for us and those around us in our milieu. The concept of duty helps us in getting over our defense mechanisms. 13) Development of the professional self is the cornerstone of the training of professional social workers. The social worker learns to believe in certain assumptions, like each human being is unique; inculcates certain core values and develops some important qualities like compassion, Hinduism and Social Work 161

controlled emotional involvement, respect for all human beings etc.; acquires high degree of self- awareness; achieves emotional stability; offers help without seeking to satisfy his / her own needs through the helping process; acquires necessary knowledge; becomes a citizen sensitive social conscience; strives continuously towards self- actualization; and finally becomes a role model. The ideal of nishkam sewa (the Gita) is not working without remuneration; it is working without self gain or praise; it is working with compassion but with detachment, without imposing own will or views and letting the person in need of help move at his or her own pace. The worker may act as a listener, an enabler, a facilitator or more actively be a teacher, coordinator, mediator, or an advocate; but very often, he / she acts as a catalyst, bringing about a change just by being – being the Professional Self. In fact, the people hold professional social workers in India “to be on God’s side, regardless of workers’ personal spiritual and religious beliefs. Social workers are held responsible as social workers to live up to humankind’s nearly universal image of a higher power: we are to do good as God does good, we are to uphold truth as God up-holds truth, we are to stand for justice as God stands for justice, we are to protect freedom as God protects freedom, we are to pursue peace as God pursues peace, and we are to show kindness as God shows kindness.” (Rabbi Moshe ben Asher).

Conclusion

The above exposition will, hopefully, bring out various points of affinity between Hinduism and professional social work – the former an ancient value system still influencing the lives of a vast majority of Indian 162 Origin and Development of Social Work in India population and the latter, an allegedly alien concept transported to Indian soil by some social work educators. It is hoped that the discussion above will demonstrate that modern ‘professional’ social work need not be seen as entirely irrelevant to Hindu psyche; that there are numerous meeting points; that Hindu beliefs and values can be drawn upon to enrich and strengthen the humanistic and rational approach to social work practice.

References

Nadkarni, M V: Hinduism: A Gandhian Perspective, Ane Books India, New Delhi, 2006. Nadkarni, M V: Does Hinduism Lack Social Concern? Economic and Political Weekly May 19, 2007. Kalyanaraman, Srinivasan, Dharma: Universal Ordering Principle from Vedic to Modern Times, April 03, 2006; http://www.india-forum.com/ indian_culture/61.html Birodkar, Sudheer: Yagna, Dana and Gotra – Our Ancient Customs (Part –1) http://www.hinduboks.org/ sudheer_birodkar/hindu_history Swami Vivekananda: The Religion We Are Born In, Lecture at Dacca, 31st March, 1901 http://www. geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/5208/vedanta/ religion.html Swami Vivekanand, The Common Bases of Hinduism, http:// www.geocities.comAthens/Olympus/ 5208/vedanta/hinduism.html The Vedas, http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index. htm#upan Ancient Landmarks: India-The Alma-Mater, Theosophy, Vol. 19, No.9, July, 1931 Hinduism and Social Work 163

Himalayan Academy: How to Become a Hindu, 2nd Edition, Himalayan Academy, 2000 www. himalayanacademy.com/resources/books Bhatta, Panduranga, C.: Holistic Personality Development through Education: Ancient Indian Cultural Experiences, Paper presented at the International Cultural Research Network and University of Strathclyde Conference on “Exploring Cultural Perspectives in Education” held during May 3-6, 2007 at Glasgow, Scotland. Asher, Moshe ben Rabbi: Spirituality and Religion in Social Work Practice, Social Work Today, Oct. 29, 2001 Cnaan Ram A. et al.: Teaching About Organized Religion in Social Work: Lessons and challenges, Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work, Volume 23, Number 3,5 August 2004, pp. 67-84(18), Haworth Press National Association of Social Workers: Code of Ethics, Approved by the 1996 NASW Delegate Assembly and revised by the 1999 NASW Delegate Assembly, USA Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, World Wide Web Edition, 1999, The Divine Life Trust Society Bannerjee, Gauri Rani: Papers on Social Work: An Indian Perspective, TISS Series No.23, Tata Institute of Social Sciences Websites http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/ http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/overview.htm http://www.hinduismtoday.com/archives/1983/04/ 1983-04-04.shtml http://www.hinduismtoday.com http://www.hinduism.co.za http://hinduism.iskcon.com/concepts/100.htm 164 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

6 Islam and Social Work

*M.Z. Khan

Introduction

As the origin of the discipline of Social Work is often traced to religious ethos and compassion, it would be relevant to examine the contribution of Islam to Social Work philosophy, in general, and to its practice in India, in particular. May it be noted that the present form of Islam originated in Arabia early in the seventh century A.D. It was introduced to the Indian subcontinent first by sea-faring Arab-Muslim traders who settled on the Malabar Coast in north Kerala. Later on, beginning with 812 A. D., by invading Muslim chieftains taking the mountainous Hindu Kush route in the north. Apparently segments of invading armies and of their entourage preferred to stay on and settle down. Gradually, the faith gained acceptance and spread to the four corners of the subcontinent. Over the centuries, adherents of Islam have grown in number and, at present, India has a substantial Muslim population (13 per cent), and is estimated to have the third largest Muslim population in the world. This apart, Islamic values and practices have profoundly influenced Indian social tradition. Certain writers (see, for example, Singh, 1973) consider the process of Islamization as an important modernizing influence on the Indian social tradition. Has it also influenced Social Work and its practice in India? It may be restated that Social Work

* Prof. M.Z. Khan, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Islam and Social Work 165 profession deals with individuals, singly and collectively. Its main concerns are” ... the creation of those conditions within the society, and the development of those capacities within the individual, that increase the probability of a more satisfying way of life for the members of that society” (Bisno, 1952). For its applicability and effectiveness, it is heavily dependent upon the social organization and cultural ethos (Aptekar, 1961), including faith and religion. Given this, the possibility of Islam having an impact on Social Work practice is strong. May it be kept in view that Islamic tradition is determined mainly by three sources: (a) Holy Qur’an, (b) Sunnah – sayings and practice of Prophet Mohammed, and (c) Fiqah or Ijtihad – interpretation given by the knowledgeable on emergent or disputed issues. In a way, these also determine the ‘world view of Muslims’. From an Islamic perspective, the world is a collection of multifarious but inter-connected realities which have and continue to come into existence through the will of God (Behishti and Bahonar, n. d., p. 54). In Islam, racial groupings, caste grades, or social classes have no place. All people have been created alike and, irrespective of their lineage, they stand in one row. In principle, whole world is based on equity and justice. Further, the believer has eiman (faith in Islam) which, in turn, brings several social obligations (Behishti and Bahonar, n.d., p. 41). Given this perspective, it would be highly relevant to study Islamic values and practices in relation to those of Social Work. Islam and Social Work Values

While a value-base is necessary for all professions, it is crucial for Social Work (Gutierrez, 1999). It gives form and substance to professional ethos. It provides a 166 Origin and Development of Social Work in India direction and focus, and lends professional authority to multi-layered Social Work practice. At one and the same time, the value-base of Social Work provides for stability and change in social organization and functioning (Dominelli, 2005). Moreover, pay attention to Social Work mission, practitioner-client relationship or intervention methods – all are found to be linked or even dependent upon societal values. Indeed, the value-base of Social Work is informed by numerous historical-cultural forces including religious ideologies. Let us examine Social Work values and Islamic values – and the overlap between the two. The nature of individual: By the very fact of his or her existence, every individual is unique, has worth and dignity and has common human needs as well as individual needs (see also, Bisno, 1952). Individual behaviour is the outcome of interaction between the biological organism and its surrounding physical and social environment. Man is amoral and asocial at birth, and interaction with the social environment develops social and ethical perceptions, attitudes and behaviour patterns. Further, human suffering in all forms is undesirable and should be prevented. As far as possible, individual should be involved and participate in the intervention programme meant for the self-betterment or development (Reamer, 2005). This is what is going to have an enduring impact and to ensure sustainability. From an Islamic perspective, man is neither a predestined being (Qur’an 75: 36)* nor has he been allowed a free reign to pass an aimless life (23: 115). Every individual has been endowed with dispositions and capabilities, accompanied by a sort of inner direction and innate guidance (91: 7-8). A bundle of instincts,

• Holy Qur’an is divided into surahs and ayuts – all are numbered and universally recognized. In this presentation, the first number in a Quranic citation indicates surah number, and the second, ayut number. Islam and Social Work 167 urges and desires, all individuals have human dignity and self-esteem (Behishti and Bahonar, n.d., p. 187). They have an inalienable right to life, right to livelihood, right to privacy, right to have family and right to religious affiliation (Umri, n. d., pp. 12-16). While they are to make efforts at their own to resolve their problems and to achieve prosperity and salvation, they may not be, in the hour of exigency, left to fend for themselves (Behishti and Bahonar, n.d., p. 194). It would be thus seen that the Islamic view of man or individual has a noticeable similarity with the values Social Work attaches with the individual. Interpersonal and group relations: Needless to state, Social Work rejects the doctrine of laissez faire. The rich or the powerful are not necessarily ‘fit’, and the poor or the weak are not necessarily ‘unfit’. Social Work stoutly stands for socialized individualism (see, Bisno, 1952) which is largely instilled in individuals through the group process. It is a common observation that most of the engagement, awareness-generation and education of an individual come from group interaction (Gutierrez and others, 1999). Through this, rugged persons are moulded into socialized individuals. What is the position of Islam with regard to these value-assumptions? As is known, Islam places a premium on group living. All adult males are expected to perform their prayers five times a day with jamaat (congregation of believers). Usually this is done in a mosque where the prayer is led by imam (meaning, group leader, not a priest but a learned person in the group of devotees). Besides, the Qur’an lays emphasis on interpersonal tolerance, “ ... those who control their wrath and are forgiving towards mankind, Allah loves them” (3:134). The sacred book ordains, “Help one another unto righteous and pious duty” (5:2). It also underlines (49:11) mutual respect, “O ye who believe! Let not a folk judge the other ... nor 168 Origin and Development of Social Work in India insult by nicknames” (quoted by Ahmed Moulvi, 1979). Prophet Mohammed, the messenger of God, has directed his followers, “Behave towards other people as you like them to behave towards you” (Behishti and Bahonar, n. d., p. 325). The stance of the messenger is equally clear in respect of cordial interpersonal relations, “As my Lord has commanded me to perform my religious duties, in the same way He has ordered me to be friendly with the people” (Behishti and Bahonar, n. d., p. 337). Islamic tradition, likewise, abounds with references that enrich precepts commonly associated with group process and group living. Community living: Generally speaking, community is viewed as a complex of social unity in which individuals and groups have shared interests and values, customs and activities. It may also be thought of as a network of interconnected, interrelated and interdependent groups. Individuals and groups living in a community have ‘a core of common attributes’, and an under-pinning of mutual understanding, camaraderie, equity and justice. Communities are characterized by value-structures that transcend their form, size or location. In a community, individuals and groups cooperate and collaborate with each other for the fulfillment of their common needs. By doing so, on the one hand, they promote we-feeling among themselves and, on the other, they reinforce community’s cohesion and identity. Keeping the foregoing in view, let us turn attention to Islamic edicts in this regard. May it be noted that Islam attaches great value to concerned and conscientious community living. For the annual festival of Eid, all the believers in the community are expected to foregather and offer prayer in one congregation. This ritual apart, the Quran ordains individuals and groups to shun vanity (in the land), to Islam and Social Work 169 enjoin kindness towards others, and to eliminate inequity (31:13). Behishti and Bahonar (n. d.) cite the prophet as pronouncing: He who sleeps satiated while his neighbour is hungry is not dear to Allah (p. 328). Muslim has been a revered companion of the prophet. He cites the prophet as directing his people to gladly accept meal invitation from the neighbour, as it promotes understanding and solidarity (Ansari, n. d.). As mentioned earlier, Islam totally forbids discrimination on the basis of colour, caste, creed or position. The concept of brotherhood or fraternity permeates all Islamic rituals, customs and community living. Flowing from this is the concept of ‘justice’ - an inseparable part of Social Work values. In Islam, this concept comes up repeatedly and forcefully (Umri, n. d.). “When you judge between people”, lays down the Qur’an, “you should judge with a sense of justice” (4:58). That justice is the bedrock on which social order and civil society rests, is unequivocally reiterated by the sacred book, “Believers! Adhere to justice and bear witness before Allah, even though it be against yourselves, your parents or your relatives” (4:135). Assuredly, these concepts have influenced not only Social Work values but also jurisprudence globally. Islam and Social Work Practice

The approach underlying Social Work practice has undergone marked changes in response to changed social conditions. In modern times, the elitist paradigm of social welfare faces several philosophical and operational reservations. While residual provisions that target socially excluded needy individuals and groups are retained, much emphasis is, at present, laid on their capacity-building and empowerment. In this, due importance is given to those social values, usages and 170 Origin and Development of Social Work in India practices that do not conflict with the basic tenets of social justice. Secondly, Social Work practice aims to have both social stability and social change, in consonance with the prevailing social, economic and political conditions. Towards this, it adopts essentially an evolutionary approach. Thirdly, apart from its value- base, Social Work practice draws upon a distinctive set of methods, techniques and fields of practice. Lastly, more often than not, Social Work practice is required to deal with a multilayered context, and to adopt multiple methods to have an efficacious intervention (Dominelli, 2005). It would be hence interesting and appropriate to examine as to what extent Islam has influenced Social Work methods and prioritized its practice areas. There is no denying the fact that, at the time when Islam was manifested, the concept and practice of Social Work, as is understood in modern times, did not exist. However, the religious ideology did set out many approaches and practices which clearly overlap with this ‘helping profession’. Islam recognizes that there would be many individuals who face a plethora of problems which they cannot overcome or circumvent unaided. They need to be helped by the knowledgeable and experienced persons (Behishti and Bahonar, n. d., p. 503). In spite of the concepts of equity and justice, a section of the population would remain under-privileged or even marginalized. They certainly deserve the attention and generosity of well- to-do and prosperous persons: In their wealth, there is a share for those who ask for help and those who are under-privileged (Qur’an 51: 19). All the believers are called upon to give away to the needy and indigent khairat (alms), sadqua (khairat for the well-being of loved ones), fitrah (thanks-giving alms for ramadhan), and zakat (one- fortieth value of a Muslim’s annual savings in cash or kind). As a matter of fact, zakat is one of the five Islam and Social Work 171 mandates which every Muslim is expected to carry out. Here, a clarification needs to be offered, lest it is taken that Islamic philanthropy encourages begging or breeds ‘social parasites’. Islam lays down as who are eligible to receive khairat, fitrah and zakat, and who are not. It also prescribes the purposes for which these doles can be or cannot be used. For example, none of these can be utilized for building or furnishing a mosque. Furthermore, the prophet is reported as saying: If the giver would know how much sawab or good is there in giving away, he would never refuse a beggar and, if the beggar would know how much bad or harm is there in begging, he would never stretch his hand for alms. Islam has also conceptualized, and has put in place the system of ‘public assistance’ to the socially handicapped and under-privileged. In accordance with their needs, they would be provided assistance from Bait-ul-Mal or public exchequer (Ahmed Moulavi, 1979). During early caliphates, Bait-ul-Mal would also accept zakat to be subsequently disbursed among the deserving and destitute. As is known, 1400 years ago, when Islam was manifested in Arabia, the peninsula was inhabited mainly by tribes, many of them nomadic tribes. Almost perpetually, these tribes would be in conflict with each other on issues big and small (Prophet Mohammed himself was constrained to engage in quite a few battles). This apart, from the very beginning, Islam attracted persons and groups from distant lands who widely differed in their racial, ethnic and lingual attributes. Given this diversity, appropriate strategies had to be worked out and implemented to evolve and strengthen a unified and coherent group identity and community feeling among the believers. In this regard, Qur’an mandates: Cooperate with one 172 Origin and Development of Social Work in India another for virtue and heedfulness, and do not cooperate with one another for the purpose of vice and aggression (5: 2). Towards this, the modality evolved was post-prayer meetings, especially after Friday noon prayer (see also, Irving and others, 1992). Among other things, the congregation in the mosque would take up and discuss issues of group and community concerns, and necessary action would be initiated. The tradition continues to this day all over the Islamic world, though the focus and concerns of such meetings have undergone a perceptible change. Islam also recognizes social intervention fields. To illustrate, older persons have been given a special place. The elderly have, in the prime of their life, contributed to society’s growth and development and, in the evening of their life, they cannot be left to fate and to face hardship and privation. While some of them would need economic or financial assistance, others may require just psychosocial support. What is the position of Islam on the issue? “We have enjoined on man kindness to parents” (Quran, 29:8). Prophet Mohammed calls upon the believers to respect the elderly and to be kind to the young. Imam al-Sadiq, a renowned Islamic thinker, proclaims: Respect for an aged person is a part of the respect for Allah (Behishti and Bahonar, n. d., p. 347). Needless to state, geriatric-care has, in modern times, emerged as a major area of Social Work practice. On the other hand, Islam comes down heavily on individual and group vices. Pay attention to the habit of gambling. Since pre-historic time, it has wrecked and ruined persons, families and even kingdoms. Islam is totally opposed to the practice. There is great sin in gambling, says the Qur’an (2: 219). Islam declares intoxicating and habit-forming substances (cannabis, opiates, etc.) as makrooh or abominable, which all should avoid and detest. Furthermore, it comes down Islam and Social Work 173 heavily on the drinking habit. Alcohol use is pronounced as a gunah-e-kabirah, that is, a major sin (2: 219), and the user would never be forgiven. It may be noted that both substance abuse and alcoholism are, in modern times, a priority concern of welfare workers in most societies.

Muslim Community’s Contribution to Social and Welfare Services

As mentioned earlier, Islamic influence started flowing into India more than thirteen hundred years ago. Muslim chieftains and adventurers invaded intermittently northern parts of the country. Perhaps attracted by its salubrious climate or by the bountiful natural resources, some of them also settled down. For nearly seven centuries, different parts of the country have been ruled by Muslim emperors, kings, nawabs or rajahs. In between, there have been scores of saints, sufis and auliyas who have worked among and with the people to improve their living condition. This has led to a prolonged and intense cultural interchange between Muslims and other population groups in India (see also, Mujeeb, 1967). Besides, over the years, Islamic community has made a significant contribution. For discussion purposes, it may be divided into two broad groups. a) Social Services: Indeed, services like roads, hospitals and schools are critically important. These provide people a progressive basis to change and develop and to improve their quality of life. Quite a few Muslim rulers and potentates have devoted attention and resources to infrastructural development in the land. In this connection, one name that readily comes to mind is that of Sher Shah Suri (1472. 1545) who ruled a 174 Origin and Development of Social Work in India large part of north India. He was a visionary ruler and introduced many military, civil and social reforms. He coined and introduced terms like rupayya (rupee coin), pargana (district or subdivision) and munsif or magistrate (see Hussain Khan, n. d.). These terms are in currency even now. In his empire, he built a network of roads, with sara is (inns) at regular intervals where wayfarers and their steed could rest and recoup. Some of these facilities survive even to this day. Several rulers have also paid attention to health-care. Sher Shah Suri is reported to have posted hakims (practitioners of unani medicine) at many sara is to provide health-care to wayfarers as well as to general public (see Pathak, 1981). Allauddin Khilji, early in the fourteenth century exercised social control over essential commodities, regulating supply and prices – a measure which greatly helped lower and lower-middle class people (Fuller and others, 1967). Emperor Firoz Tughlak (1309-1388) had organized Diwane-e-Khairat which also supported facilities for the treatment of the sick and the affiicted (Majumdar, 1961). However, a more substantial contribution to health-care and treatment of diseases came from hakims engaged in private practice. While they were patronized and recompensed by kings, nawabs and rajas, they would treat ailing public usually free of cost. Emperor Akbar and several other rulers are reported to have given land-grants to hakims (Chand, 1978). Although the concept of mass-based schooling and education was not there in the medieval period, a chain of maktabs and madrasas had come into existence. Often attached with mosques, these madrasas imparted instruction (mostly to boys) on Qur’an, sunnah, and elementary subjects. Most of these madrasas used to enjoy the support of the ruler in the form of land grants (Pathak, 1981). To this day, the practice of mosques Islam and Social Work 175 having attached madrasas has continued, though it is unclear that these have sufficiently updated themselves in approach and educational technology. b) Welfare Services: Rendering help to the less fortunate and to the under-privileged has been an essential feature of Islam (Majumdar, 1961). This is evident from the elaborate system of khairat, fitrah and zakat which all believers are required to take out and pass on to the needy and indigent. At times, the needy would comprise not only beggars and mendicants but also middle class persons facing financial stringency. Diwane-e-Khairat set up by Emperor Firoz Tughlak (1309-1388) granted financial assistance to deserving persons for getting their daughter married out (Majumdar, 1961). Such persons were (and are) also eligible to receive fitrah so that they and their family could, for example, celebrate and enjoy the festival of Eid. Emperor Akbar (1542-1605» had set up a fund, Madad-i-Maash (Abul Fazl, 1972). Among other things, the fund provided famine relief, and the affected would be provided ‘food for work’ (Pathak, 1981). In Lucknow, Bara Imambara, a large imposing complex, completed around 1783, is supposed to have been built through ‘food for work’ programme during a prolonged and devastating famine in the region. Some accounts show that even middle class persons facing stringency due to famine participated in the ‘lowly’ construction-work and availed benefits from the ‘food for work’ programme. Although, in medieval India, begging hardly existed as a significant social problem, there would be persons, perhaps victims of calamities or circumstance, needing succour or relief. Firoz Tughlak (1309-1388) is reported to have allotted 1, 00,000 maunds (about 40,000 quintals) of wheat and rice for this purpose. (Pathak, 1981). Similarly, at one point of time, Sher Shah Suri (1472-1545) had organized ‘free kitchens’ at various 176 Origin and Development of Social Work in India drought-stricken places in his empire, and spent 500 Asharfis (a gold coin usually weighing about 10 grams) on them daily (Hussain Khan, n. d.).

Islamic Institutions and Non-Governmental Organizations

Over the years, several Islamic institutions have come up which may be briefly described. As mentioned earlier, Unani system of medicine has been vastly popular among Muslims. They also have had, among them, several famous hakims (practitioners of unani medicine) who have, from time to time, set up matabs or clinics. Usually located in cities and towns, these matabs would cater to the health needs of the people in the area. Further, these would render services to the low-income persons free of charge. A few among these matabs also paid attention to institutionalize their system and managed to create a niche for themselves. The example that could be readily cited is of the Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories, Delhi, which is regarded as the largest producer of unani medicine in the world. Apart from this, there are tibbia (unani medical) colleges which offer educational programmes leading to a graduate degree in unani medicine and surgery (e.g. Tibbia College, a constituent college of Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh). These colleges provide consultation as well as hospital services at no or nominal charges. In the field of education, the role of maktabs and madrasas has already been underlined. Apart from this, quite a few Islamic institutions have come up in response to changing social and political conditions which need to be mentioned. In 1875, Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College was set up at Aligarh with a view to promoting learning and education among Muslims with an English or Western approach. Islam and Social Work 177

Converted into Aligarh Muslim University, in 1920, this institution has, over the years, made a notable contribution to the educational and cultural development in the country. Yet another institution is Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, which was set up, in 1920, as a nationalist institution, in the wake of freedom struggle, and in response to the call for indigenizing education in the country. Subsequently, in 1988, it was made a ‘central university’ through an act of Parliament. As at present, it caters to the educational needs and aspirations of young and talented people regardless of their colour, caste or creed. The contribution of this institution in promoting generic as well as professional education in the country is regarded highly. India has yet another unique Islamic institution, namely, wakfs. For long, well-meaning citizens have bequeathed immovable properties (land, residential house, commercial shops, etc.) to ‘trusts’ – Sunni Wakf Board or Shia Wakf Board – in towns and cities almost all over the country. Between them, these Wakf Boards control properties worth thousands of crores of rupees. These provide financial support for the maintenance of mosques and madrasas. A few also have organized vocational training centres for imparting technical skills and generating self-employment among young people. Subsequently, in 1964, Government of India had set up Central Wakf Council to facilitate the development of waif properties in cities and towns into revenue- generating assets, and to extend loan to minor development projects conceived by non-governmental organisations. Doubtless, these Wakf Boards have an immense potential for doing welfare and development work for the Muslim community. As is well-known, Islam prohibits usury. It implies that the lender must not levy any charge on cash or kind borrowed by persons for their personal or family use. In 178 Origin and Development of Social Work in India view of this injunction, several Muslim countries have evolved interest-free banking. In India, too several regional non-banking financial institutions have come up which pay to their depositors dividend instead of fixed interest, and accept share in profit from their borrower In southern and western India, quite few self- help groups have come up which extend interest-free micro-credit facilities to the members. Indeed, these self-help groups need to be further popularized. At this juncture, a mention may be made of yatimkhanas or orphanages, mostly located in areas having a concentration of Muslim population. Having been on the social scene for centuries, these provide shelter, food and clothing to parentless children, who are mostly victims of nature-made or man-made calamities. Some of these institutions also impart instructions to resident- children in religious learning. Usually, these yatimkhanas are managed through donations, sadqua (alms in the name of loved ones), and zakat (specified share in the savings of a Muslim). Some of them also have the waif support to themselves. It might be added that the yatimkhanas provide a useful social service, although the services they render could be further improved and standardized. Conclusion

In this presentation, we have noted that Social Work philosophy and practice and religious ideologies have much in common. This is abundantly clear when we turn attention to Islam. Social Work considers every individual to be endowed with worth and dignity, as well as having physical and psychosocial needs. Further, Social Work aims to enable individuals to overcome their suffering or limitations. Islam, too, views man almost from a similar standpoint: All individuals possess human Islam and Social Work 179 dignity and human rights; but they are not predestined or expected to pass an aimless life. Many among them would require guidance and help. As we know, Social Work recognizes that, in making a person into a socialized individual, group process and community living has a critical role. Likewise, there are specific pronouncements in Islam stressing on collective living. This is evident from modes of worship and rituals. It emphasizes on happy and cordial neighbourly relations. Equity, fraternity and justice are a pre-requisite for and a driving force behind group process and community living. Indeed, these happen to be the recurring themes in Islamic philosophy. Contemporary Social Work practice pays attention to welfare needs as well as to developmental needs of individuals and groups. On the other hand, Islam urges upon individuals and groups to make effort, but it recognizes that there would be several among them who cannot do this unaided. It has also devised a ‘public assistance’ programme. Similarly, it has identified certain issues which are key concerns in present day Social Work practice. Over the years, Muslim community has substantially contributed to such social services in India as roads, sorais, health care and education. It has provided succour to the indigent and to the victims of famine and drought. As at present, several Muslim institutions have come up in health, education, micro-credit and care of the orphans which have catered to the needs not only of Muslims but also of other communities. Thus, the commonalities between Social Work and Islam are many and varied – and which could be gainfully exploited to have a better and more effective Social Work practice, and to improve the quality of life of the people. 180 Origin and Development of Social Work in India References

Abul Fazi (1972) : Aln-I-Akbari, Vol. I , New Deihl: Oriental Book Reprint Corp. Ahmed Moulvi, C. N. (1979) : Islam: A Comprehensive Study, Calicut: Paras Printing & Publishing Works Ltd. Ansari, M. I. (n. d.) : Musalman Khawind (Hindi), Delhi: Farid Book Depot. Aptekar, H. H. (1961) : Modern methods in social work and their adaptability in India. InWadia, A. R.: History and Philosophy of Social Work In India, Bombay: Allied Publishers. Behishti, M. H. and Bahonar, J. (n. d.) : Philosophy of Islam, Salt Lake City: Islamic Publications. Bisno, Herbert (1952) : The Philosophy of Social Work, Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press. Chand, Tara (1978) : The Influence of Islam on Indian Culture, Allahabad: Wheeler & Co. Dominelli, Lena (2005) : Social Work, Cambridge, UK: Polity Press Fuller, A. R. and Khallaque, A. (1967) : The Reign of Allauddin Khilji, Calcutta: Pilgrim Publishers. Gutierrez, L. M. and others (1999) : Empowerment in Social Work Practice, Pacific Groove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Hussain Khan (n.d.) : Sher Shah Suri, Lahore: Ferozsons Irving, T. B., Ahmad, K. and Ahsan, M. (1992): The Qur’an: Basic Teachings, New Delhi: Markazi Maktaba Islami. Majumdar, R. C. (1961) : Social Work in ancient and medieval India. In Wadia, A. R.: History and Philosophy of Social Work in India, Bombay: Allied Publishers. Islam and Social Work 181

Mujeeb, M. (1967) : The Indian Muslim, London: George Allen & Unwin. Pathak, S. (1981) : Social Welfare, New Delhi: Macmillan Reamer, F. G. (2005) : Social Work Values and Ethics, Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Schimmel, Annemarie (1980) : Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden-Koln: E. J. Brill. Singh, Yogendra (1973) : Modernization of Indian Tradition, New Delhi: Thompson Press. Smith, W.C. (1947) : Modern Islam in India, Lahore: Ferozsons Umri, J. U. (n. d.) : Islam and Human Rights, New Delhi: Markazi Maktaba Islami. 182 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

7 Sikhism and Social Work

*Ushvinder Kaur Popli

Introduction Sikhism, the youngest and the fifth largest world religion was founded about 500 years ago by Guru Nanak in Punjab district (of what is now India and Pakistan). Sikhism is based on Guru Nanak’s aching and those of the nine Sikh Gurus who followed him. There are about twenty million Sikhs in the world, and most of them live in India. It emphasizes the belief in one Supreme Being ‘the Creator’. It offers a simple straight path to eternal bliss and spreads a message of love and universal brotherhood. The Sikh faith is a distinct religion based on the teachings of the 10 Gurus, the first of who was Guru Nanak Devji. In 1708 the tenth and the last human Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singhji, vested spiritual authority in the Holy Sikh Scriptures (Guru Granth Sahibji) as he declared that the line of personal/human Gurus to an end, and installed the Granth Sahib as the Guru, the symbolic representation of the ten Gurus. Sikhism has various aspects and values that are closely associated with social work. Like social work, it believes in liberty, universal brotherhood and welfare (Sarbat Ka Bhalla). It gives women a very high status. It believes in worth and dignity of the individual. The unit is aimed at helping to understand that Sikhism did contribute to the evolution of social welfare and

* Dr. Ushvinder Kaur Popli, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. Sikhism and Social Work 183 modern social work. The present unit has been divided into two parts i.e. Basic ideals of Sikhism and linkages of Jainism with philosophy. Basics of Sikhism

Key Beliefs Sikhism is a way of life; something to be lived according to a pattern. Its main virtue is simplicity. There is no supernaturalism or mythology on which it rests. It does not believe in devils or angels or heavenly spirits. Sikhism is opposed to all ritualism and formalism. Sikhism does not enjoin blind faith. Blind obedience to an external authority is discouraged. Sikhism is a faith of hope and cheer. Though it affirms Karma, it recognizes the possibility of the modification of one’s Karma with the grace of the Guru or God. It does not lead to despair and defeatism. Sikhism is a democratic religion which emphasizes social and sexual equality. Sikhs strictly believe that there is One God, who is Nirgun (transcendent) and Sagun (immanent). While being absolute and beyond human comprehension, God can be realised and experienced through contemplation and service. A Sikh’s way of life is guided by the following principles which are to a great extent in line with Social Work: Sikhism stresses the importance of doing good actions rather than merely carrying out rituals.

Importance of Letter ‘Five’ in Sikhism The numeral panj (five) itself has a symbolic significance in Sikh usage. It holds a special mysticism in the Sikh faith. Physical bodies, it is believed are made of five elements; there are five khands (regions or stages) in the ascent to the joint point of realization of the highest spiritual truth; the traditional village council, panchayat, 184 Origin and Development of Social Work in India consists of five members in the popular belief that where five panches have assembled together (for the sake of administering justice), there God Himself is present; it is panj piare (the Five Beloved Ones) who prepared and administered amrit (the holy initiatory water) to novitiates; five banis (scriptural texts) are recited as amrit is being prepared; the Sikh did sow five takhts as the seats of the highest religious authority and legislation; and traditionally for the daily religious devotions a regimen of five banis is laid down. Their homeland is Punjab – the land of five rivers. Bhai Gurdas (1636) Records: As one Sikh is sufficient to announce his identity, two of them make up the holy congregation. Among five of them God him-self is present. The most prominent and distinguishing marks of the Sikhs, especially of the members of the Khalsa brotherhood, are the panj kakars, (panj = five; kakar = symbols). They are known as 5K’s because their names start with the letter “K.” The Five K’s (Articles of Faith) are: 1) Un-cut hair (Kesh), a gift from God representing spirituality; 2) A wooden comb (Kangha), symbolizes cleanliness; 3) A steel bracelet (Kara), represents self restraint and link to God; 4) A short sword (Kirpaan), an emblem of courage and commitment to truth and justice; 5) A type of underwear knickers (Kachhehra), represents purity of moral character.

Some Important Aspects of Sikhism Guru Granth Sahib: (Guru = spiritual teacher; Granth = book or volume; Sahib, an honorific signifying master or lord) is the name by which the holy book of the Sikhs is commonly known and is the living Guru for the Sikhs. Sikhism and Social Work 185

The eleventh Guru, The Holy Book is the centre of all Sikh usage and ceremony. It has the potential to inspire all and talks to the person ‘you’. Kirtan: (from Skt. Kirti, i.e. to praise, celebrate or glorify). A commonly accepted mode of rending devotion to God by singing His praises. It is a necessary part of Sikh worship Music plays a significant role in most religious tradition. In Sikhism it is valued as the highest form of expression of adoration and counts as the most efficient means of linking the soul to the Divine Essence. Turban: It is a long scarf wrapped around the head: The daastar (turban) is an essential accompaniment, which is worn to maintain the sanctity of Kesh (hair) and is treated with utmost respect. The religious significance of the headdress (a male turban or a female scarf) should be respected, because it is a covering for one of the 5K’s (Kesh) and is also a symbol of a Sikh’s honuor. Langar (community Kitchen): Close to the principles of social work based on worth of an individual, acceptance and equality is the philosophy behind the Langar (Guru’s kitchen-cum-eating-house). Places of Worship: The Sikh place of congregational worship is called a Gurudwara, meaning “Doorway to the Guru” or “House of God”. The prayer hall represents God’s court. Sikhs give utmost respect to the Holy Guru Granth Sahib.There is no hereditary priestly caste among the Sikhs. Even a layman who can read the Granth Sahib can perform religious ceremonies, though ‘granthis’ or priests are employed in most of the Gurudwaras. Basic Articles in Sikhism i) Unity of God: There is but One God-Ek-Omkar. He is unborn, omni-potent, infinite, formless, all- knowing and all-pervading. 186 Origin and Development of Social Work in India ii) Simran and Sewa form the essence of Sikhism. Simran means to remember and Sewa means to give voluntary help without any external reward. Simran and Sewa can be done by performing the following (three golden rules of Sikhism) duties: 1) Kirat Karna: means to earn an honest livelihood. To work with one’s own hands. 2) Naam Jaapo: Naam Jaapo means to remember God always in our minds at all times. 3) Vand Chhako: means to share our earnings with others. Sikhs should give charity to the needy and care for the needy. iii) Equality: Sikhism emphasizes equality for all human beings. All human beings are equal and alike in front of God. They all should be loved, respected and treated equally. No distinctions have to be made on the basis of gender, race, religion, wealth, caste or creed. iv) Character Building: If the mind is impure, it cannot deserve union with Divinity. The development of character is the only foundation on which the edifice of disciple-ship can be raised. Conquer of the five deadly sins – lust, anger, greed, attachment and pride is must. Morality is the foundation of Sikh religion. v) Sikhism Values: 1) Love – Love of God is given high importance by the Gurus. We can love God only when we cease to love ourselves. We must first destroy the ego (haumai). 2) Humility – In complete humility and humbleness all selfishness disappears; one has no ego and the soul no longer lives for its own self. Sikhism and Social Work 187

3) Compassion – In Sikhs, Guru demand a high level of compassion; one should help and serve others in words and deeds. Service to mankind is service to the God. 4) Contentment – It is an important virtue for Sikhs. It is to abide by the will of God with happiness. The soul of a such a person is satisfied and linked to God. By devoting one’s life to service, one gets rid of ego and pride. 5) Truth – Truth means truthfulness of mind, body and action. Guru Nanak preached, “Truth is higher than all things but higher still is the truthful living.” vi) Faith: One must have perfect faith in the Guru. Sikhism literally means the way of the disciple. The disciple must follow the Guru’s word. Sikhs believe in the Guru Granth Sahib – “the Living Guru” or the Sikh holy book. Sikhs do not believe in idols or idol worships or rituals. Social Work Ideals Inherent in Sikhism

In the previous section we have come across concepts such as social and sexual equality, community kitchen, sewa, charity and care of the needy, compassion, contentment and truth which are familiar terminologies or values inherent in professional social work. The Sikh Gurus were concerned with the total personality of man. There was an integrated approach to human and social problems which are also in time with social work ideology.

Liberty Sikh view of life includes a concern for freedom of the individuals and people. Guru Teg Bahadur (the ninth 188 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Guru) offered his head but did not compromise his commitment to freedom of conscience. Ideal of liberty can be built on the premise of the moral standard postulated by the Sikh Gurus. In Sikh thought every human being is an end unto himself. The man is made the ultimate judge of the worth or desirability of every social and political institution like in social work. In reality all social institutions and associations are intended to help the individual attain the main object of his life; self realization or the development of the best in him. But to achieve this, the society must be organized on a healthy basis of justice, fellow feeling, liberty and equality and must be free from oppression of any kind. In Sikhism liberty becomes real only when : (a) man is freed from the bondage of superstitions and oppressive social practices and beliefs; (b) economy is un- exploitative; (c) rulers are just and responsible; (d) freedom from fear is firmly ingrained in the minds of men; and (e) popular sovereignty is institutionalized.

Justice A Sikh is supposed to live and die for justice and whoever does wrong has to suffer at the hands of dispenser of justice. The operative principle of justice in Sikhism is then an appropriate system of reward and punishments. In economic field, Sikhism condemned usurping the other man’s right and acquiring the things which do not rightfully belong to a person and it believes amassing of wealth involves commission of sinful act. Squandering away the resources of nature in wasteful manner is also condemnable. Eating without working and living like parasites has been strongly disapproved. Beggary is degrading and this dehumanizing practice is thought to be the result of greed of the rulers and inhumanity of the rich. Sikhism and Social Work 189

In the administrative field, corruption, graft, lack of impartiality constitutes unjust practices. The root cause of all these social, economic, administrative and political ills is the ignorant, lethargic, indifferent, frightened and listless populace. Sikhism envisages a society wherein justice forms all its activities and institutions.

Universal welfare and brotherhood According to Sikhism, affectionate, sweet and respectful attitude towards fellow human beings and commitment to the welfare of all is the hall mark of the social conduct of a religious person. Like social worker he must be companionate and considerate towards others and to be so one is required to exercise restraint over ones desires and cultivate temperate life style. According to Sikhism, God blesses those who take care of the lowly. Sikhs fight the battle for the downtrodden but these are in the interest of total society in the sense that these help remove the sick and unhealthy parts of the body politic and give it a new momentum to move in the right direction. Universal love for the mankind is emphasized in Sikh’s daily prayer for the well- beings of all humanity.

Sewa (Voluntary Service) Sewa (voluntary service) is one of the key concepts of social work and is a prominent part of Sikh religion. Sewa comes from Sanskrit root sev (to serve, wait or attend upon, honour, or worship), is usually translated as ‘service’ or ‘serving’ which commonly relates to work paid for, but does not convey the sense in which the term is used in the Sikh tradition. Traditionally in the Indian (Hindu) society, sewa in the sense of worship (of Gods) has been the preserve of the high-caste Brahmans. In the Sikh sense, the two connotations seem to have merged together for the reasons: first, because of its 190 Origin and Development of Social Work in India egalitarian meaning (Sikhism does not recognize caste distinctions and hence no distinctive caste roles in it) and second, God in Sikhism is not apart from his creatures. In Sikhism, illustrative models of voluntary service are organized for imparting training, in the Gurdwaras. Its simple forms are: sweeping and cleaning the floors of the Gurdwara, serving water to or fanning the congregation, offering provisions to and rendering any kind of service in the common kitchen-cum-eating house, dusting the shoes of the people visiting the Gurdwara, etc. Sewa in Sikhism is imperative for spiritual life. Three varieties of sewa are sanctioned in the Sikh lore: that rendered through the corporal instrument (tan), through the mental apparatus (man) and through the material wherewithal (dhan).

Ahimsa (non-violence) The term ahimsa is formed by adding the negative prefix a to the word himsa which is derived from the Sanskrit root han, i.e. ‘to kill’, ‘to harm’, or ‘to injure’, and means not killing, not-harming, not-injuring. Sikhism accepts ahimsa as a positive value, and there are numerous hymns in the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Scripture, advising men to cultural and the ethical values of daya (compassion) and prem (love). It however, does not accept ahimsa as a mere absence of himsa or violence. Love, justice, equality, self-respect and righteousness are some of the overriding social values being promoted by Sikhism. The positive value of ahimsa that is similar to that of social work values like compassion, love, universal brotherhood, freedom and self-respect, must prevail in Sikhism. However, if these are violated, man must resist. When all peaceful methods for such resistance are Sikhism and Social Work 191 exhausted, the use of sword, so says Guru Gobind Singh, is lawful.

Sikhism and Service for Community Sikhism emphasizes on Sangat, Pangat and Langar. Sangat is the congregation of Sants holy people or people gathered together for Naam Simran. It is the gathering together of the men and women of poor community to praise the Name of the God. Pangat forms the integral part of the ‘Guru Ghar’ as the people irrespective of caste, creed, wealth, sex and religion and sit together in a line. Langar is the common kitchen room in the Gurudwara where everyone irrespective of their caste, class, creed, religion and sex sit together and eat from the common kitchen. It is not for the person only. Community services of the Sikhs are identical to the community work concept inherent in social work.

Sikhism and Health Sikhism values the sciences and the knowledge of healthcare practitioners, and Sikhs are not prohibited from using any medical procedures. They believe that smoking cigarettes and drinking alcoholic beverages deters a person’ from God’s way of life, so they are urged to avoid these practices.

Sikh Perspectives on Health Care ● The sanctity of life is an injunction, therefore; – Assisted suicide and euthanasia are not encouraged. – Therapeutic genetic engineering is accepted. ● Organ transplants and blood transfusions are accepted. If need be on medical grounds consult the patient and family before procedures requiring the removal of hair. 192 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

● Maintaining a terminal patient on artificial life support for a prolonged period in a vegetative state is not encouraged. Most Sikhs will probably specify a period of time during which they would prefer to be kept on life support. ● There is no contradiction to autopsies. ● Cleanliness is part of the Sikh way of life. Daily bathing and personal hygiene should be provided unless advised otherwise by the attending physician due to a medical reason. Washing and conditioning of hair, including male facial hair, with shampoo or soap should be done as frequently as needed.

The Healing Power of Naam Divine name is the medicine for all ailments. The Gurus have stated that any ailment which cannot be cured by innumerable remedies, vanishes with the application of Naam. It is firmly believed that the recitations of Jaapji Sahib, Sukhmani Sahib and Dukh Bhanjni Sahib cure ailments of all kinds. It is fully effective for removing all mental, physical or spiritual pain and suffering. Hearing the true bani dispels sufferings, ailments and agonies. It is important that funeral and cremation arrangements be made in advance in consultation with the family and according to the wishes of the dying or deceased patient, if possible. With minimum delay, the body is to be removed to the funeral home for expeditious cremation, unless the family is waiting for a close relative to arrive. Provide routine post-mortem care. The body should be covered with clean linens and shrouded. If the person is wearing any of the 5K’s, they should remain with the body. Allow the family and Sikh Granthi, to follow Sikh traditions for preparing the dead body for funeral. The Sikhism and Social Work 193 dead body should be given the same respect as during life. For hospice care, the family may wash and clothe the body immediately after death.

Sikhism and Education Education has a definite role to play in the process of social change, which will have to be planned and engineered in such a way that the people adapt to the constantly changing society and culture. Education is to do acculturation, socialization and to cultivate spiritual, moral, social and ethical values. All these points have been properly and relevantly understood by Sikh Gurus. Sikh Gurus used education as a tool to bring the social change and at the same time cultivate ethical, moral, spiritual and religious values. They did not allow the process of change to slow down.

Educational Values of Sikhs Sikh Gurus lived at a time when there was political instability, social backwardness, cultural lag, administrative corruption, moral degradation, factual illusion, religious dogmas, spiritual ignorance, moral and cultural bankruptcy. Jogies (saints) exploited the masses and above all the women folk were not only ill treated but considered sub-humans. Guru Angad, the second Guru stressed mental as well as physical development through education, and Sports and discipline as the important characteristics of a Sikh. “Salvation can only by gained by education and knowledge and not by futile acts or rituals like piercing ears etc.”

Education – A Tool for Social Change In order to bring all these changes in vertical and horizontal perspective of social set up, Sikh Gurus made 194 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the use of the tool of education. Education in those days was rigid, narrow and non-productive. It was non- committal and non-compatible to the inclusion of human values and virtues and be in tune to human perfection. However out of many methods, Sikh Gurus, had chosen the path of education and sharpened it. All these values, however, acted as educational instruments to bring social change and Gurus made use of it to the maximum for this purpose.

Sikhism and Caste System A total rejection of caste system is a typical feature of the Sikh tradition. Sikhism in fact originated as a voice of protest against the many prevalent ills of contemporary Indian society. The caste system was most damaging and debilitating of them. Guru Nanak , the first Guru condemned caste and caste ideology as perverse, and rejected the authority of the Vedas and supremacy of the Brahmins .The Gurus rejected the aspect of Hindu dharma and issued their own new version of dharma , which was at least as far as caste was concerned, completely at variance with the Hindu Mores. They made the Dharma perfect and universal by blending the four castes into one. Besides denying the authority of the Vedas and Shastras the Guru took some practical steps to impart an egalitarian thrust to the nascent Sikh Community. The twin institution of Sangat (company of the holy) and Pangat (commensality), where no discrimination on the basis of caste, birth and social status was observed, went a long way in inculcating in the Sikhs the spirit of equality, brotherhood and humanitarianism as in social work. It must be born in mind that there is vital distinction between caste and caste system -– Jatts and Khatris Sikhism and Social Work 195 among the Sikhs are in reality occupational classes and not castes as under the Varanasrama Dharma. Distinctions wherever noticed are not ethnic but economic. There has been no discrimination against anyone while attending religious gatherings or dining in Guru - Ka- Langar i.e. community kitchen. Sikh values condemn the caste system and preached equality of all. So much so that Guru Nanak and other Sikh Gurus happily linked themselves with the low castes “The lowest of the lowly, lowest of the low born, Nanak seek their company, the friendship of the great is in Vain.”(A.G.P.l5). Sikh Gurus did not try to bring this change only by their writings, but did so in their actions, by giving them respectable place in Guru Granth Sahib. He entered the Bani of Ravidass the shoe maker, Sadhana the Butcher and Namdev the Chhimba in Adi Granth. Sikhism and Women At the time of the Gurus, women were considered very low in society. Society regarded women as inferior and a man’s property. Women were treated as mere property whose only value was as a servant or for entertainment. They were considered seducers and distractions from man’s spiritual path. Men were allowed polygamy but widows were not allowed to remarry but encouraged to bum themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre (sati). Child marriage and female infanticide were prevalent and purdah (veils) was popular for women. Women were also not allowed to inherit any property. The transformation the Sikh Gurus brought in woman’s status was truly revolutionary. The concept of equality of woman with man not only gave woman an identity of her own but tended to free her from all kinds of fetters to which she was bound in the Hindu society. Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith, raised his voice 196 Origin and Development of Social Work in India for justice to women and provided the scriptural basis for equality which was not to be found in the scriptures of other India born religions. Women were no longer considered a source of sin. They came to be respected as equally good members of the society. In the medieval India, the practice of sati (immolation of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband) was common. Guru Amar Das carried out a vigorous campaign for the abolition of this inhuman and barbarous practice. He also sought amelioration of the position of women by deprecating the custom of purdah (veil) and by encouraging widow remarriage. No woman could come to the congregation in purdah. He also spoke against the practice of polygamy and preached to have only one wife. He condemned female infanticide. Issues, problems and empowerment of women are some of the important areas of intervention by professional social worker. Several hundred years before the advent of social work discipline, Sikhism promoted these aspects and strived to provide equality to women in every sphere in life. Concepts, Values and Practices Common to Sikhism and Social Work

1) Compassion, Love and Charity Compassion towards suffering brethren is an inherent part of human nature. It is an innate human urge. It is because of this impulse that people have always come forward on their own will and accord to provide help to persons in distress. People want not only means for survival, but also love, affection, autonomy, respect, recognition, self-actualization, moral and spiritual development. Generally it is out of their natural feeling of devotion and dedication to serve the mankind or at Sikhism and Social Work 197 least the members of their own society that people extend their helping hand to the needy. People generally do it because of their desire to go to heaven after death or to get rid of the cycle of birth, death and rebirth (for example in Hindu religion) by attaining salvation through charity or other forms of help to the oppressed and suppressed in the society. When we look into history of social work, we can find that social work started with charity. Both compassion and charity can be seen in Sikhism and Social work as well.

2) Universal Brotherhood and Welfare Both Sikhism and social work believes In universal brotherhood and welfare. Both believe that an individual should have affectionate, pleasant and respectful attitude towards fellow human beings. An individual should not be selfish; he/she should think about the welfare of all and battle for the downtrodden as well as for the best interest of whole society.

3) Equality and Liberty Both Sikhism and social work talk about equality for every individual in the society without discriminating on the basis of caste, creed, religion, gender, wealth and race. Everyone is equal and alike in front of God. They should be given love, respect and equal treatment. According to Sikhism man is made the ultimate judge of the worth or desirability of every social and political institution while social work also holds the same view. Both give emphasizes that everyone in the society has liberty to take his/her decisions. Sikh Gurus brought the transformation to the status of women which is also an area of social work concern. Women are to be respected as equally good members of the society. The Guru (Guru Amar Das) denounced Sati as an infliction of unforgivable cruelty on women and tried hard for the 198 Origin and Development of Social Work in India emancipation of women from this forced brutal social practice. He condemned female infanticide. Such opposition had been made by many social reformers in the past and professional social work also promotes same values.

4) Justice In Sikhism an individual has to live and die for justice and whoever does wrong has to suffer at the hands of dispenser of justice. They believe that persons should be far away from sinful acts. Beggary was not considered to be good. Corruption, graft, lack of impartiality constitute unjust practices. Sikhism envisages a society wherein justice forms all its activities and institutions which is identical with modern social work. In social work, social workers are engaged changing the unjust societal conditions. They are particularly sensitive to the most vulnerable members of the society. For this, social workers are committed to promoting public understanding of the effects of such oppression and encouraging an appreciation of the richness to be gained from human diversity.

5) Voluntary Service (Sewa) Voluntary service is one of the key concepts in the profession of social work. Many social workers give their services in the field of education, health and so on. Most of the voluntary organizations provide their services voluntarily in times of emergencies such as famine, flood and in such similar situations. Similarly, in Sikhism, voluntary services are inherent in the form of sweeping and cleaning the floors of the Gurudwara, serving water to or fanning the congregation, dusting the shoes of the people visiting Gurudwara. Such practices from the place of worship motivate the Sikhs to extend the same to the larger community. Sikhism and Social Work 199

6) Social Responsibility Sikhism emphasizes that a Sikh should give charity to the needy and should care for the elderly. Social work’s values also teach an individual that he/she should be socially responsible towards oneself, the family and the society. This value cautions the social worker not to neglect himself/herself, his/her family and the society in which he/she is living while he/she is discharging his/her professional duties.

7) Non-violence and Truth Non-violence and speaking truth are inherent to both social work and Sikhism. In fact non-violence was one of the models of social action practiced by world leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and freedom fighters in South Africa. Social work has imbibed such methods, values and practices over the years from various religions, national leaders and social movements.

8) Langar (Community Kitchen) In the practice of community kitchen, individuals develop the feeling of community togetherness and participation for a common purpose, self help, co-operation and coordination which is similar to the community organization method of social work. Langar is the common kitchen room in the Gurudwara where everyone irrespective of their caste, class, creed, religion and sex sit together in a pangat and eat from the common kitchen. In social work also a social worker is taught to respect an individual’s racial and ethnic background, culture and religion and to avoid discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, sex and religion.

9) Education and Empowerment of Women The Indian society has accorded differential status to women throughout the history. Both Sikhism and social 200 Origin and Development of Social Work in India work also give importance to education, which is a tool for social change and empowerment of women. In the words of the former President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, “Empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation; when women are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is essential as their thoughts and their value systems lead the development of a good family, good society and ultimately a good nation”. Education and the empowerment of women are both essential and indispensable for a prosperous nation. The approach of Sikhism to empower women and to give them equal status is in line with the principles and values of social work. Opposition to Caste System Opposing to caste system can be seen in both Sikhism and social work. Emphasis has been given to non- discrimination on the basis of caste, and social status. In Sikh religion, there is no discrimination against anyone while attending religious gatherings or dining in Guru-ka-Langar i.e. community kitchen. Similarly in social work, it is expected that a social worker does not discriminate anyone on the basis of one’s caste, sex, age, creed, colour and social status.

Conclusion In this chapter on Sikhism, we have tried to understand one of the religions of India i.e. Sikhism and its various concepts and values related to social work and also examined the key beliefs and basic articles of Sikhism. The discussion covering various aspects clearly indicate the traces of social work values, philosophy and code of ethics enshrined in the Sikh religion. While studying the origin of social work values and principles, it is essential that a student of social work is familiar with the social work ideals inherent in the Sikh religion. Sikhism and Social Work 201 References Jayaram, V. 2001. Sacred Scriptures of Sikhism: The Guru Granth Sahib. http://www.hinduwebsite.com/ sacred scripts/sikhscripts/Gurugranth_index.html. Dated: 24/7/2007 Delhi Sikh Gurudwara Management Committee. Directory, February 9, 2007, New Delhi. Davis, T.W. Rhys (1964), “Ahimsa” in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Ed. James Hastings. Edinburgh Bhatia, J.M. (2004). “Sikh Perspectives on Healthcare.” Multicultural Health Series, UMHS, PMCH, Cultural Competency Division. Andrews, J.D. (2005). “Sikhs.” Cultural, Ethnic, and Religious Reference Manual for Health Care Providers. (3rd edition). JAMARDA Resources, Inc. Winston-Salem, NC. Sikh Patient’s Protocols for Health Care Providers. (2001) Websites http://www.sikhwomen.com/health/ care/protocol. http://www.sikhnet.com 202 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

8 Jainism and Social Work

*Gracious Thomas, Ashutosh Pradhan

Introduction

Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is a religion and philosophy originating from BC Centuries of South Asia. In the 21st Century, Jainism is a minority religion in India with growing communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa and elsewhere. Jains have contributed to sustain the ascetic tradition. Jainism has significantly influenced other religions, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millennia. Jainism gives stress on the spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on non-violence which is one of the strategies being promoted by social work profession in several countries. Self control is the means by which Jains attain Moksha.

Vardhamana Mahavira The Jain order, has four components: monks, nuns (sadhvi), lay men and lay women (shravika). The founder of Jainism was Vardhamana (C. 599-527 BCE), later known as Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar. A wandering ascetic teacher, who recalled Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith, and lived in Magadha, presently known as Bihar State. Traditionally if we look, Lord Rishaba is regarded as the first to realize the truth, ultimately followed by Lord

* Prof. Gracious Thomas, IGNOU, New Delhi. * Dr. Ashutosh Pradhan, Jain Vishva Bharati University, Ladnun. Jainism and Social Work 203

Parshwa (877 - 777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman - Mahavira. Mahavira was contemporary of Siddhartha Gautam Buddha (C. 566-486 BCE), and like the Buddha he was the son of the king of a politically powerful clan. He was educated as a prince, married and fathered a child. Despite his royal upbriging, he left his home to pursue a life of asceticism in search of spiritual salvation, at the age of thirty. Mahavira taught for thirty years with the patronization of kings and finally died of selfimposed starvation at the age of seventy-two. Mahavira stressed in his teaching the need to fight passions and bodily senses to purify the soul and gain omniscience. Many of his followers also became renouncers and abandoned worldly pleasures. The body of believers was divided into two groups. The first group was of renouncers, composed of both monks and nuns. The second group was lay practitioners, whose position was subordinate to the renouncers. Basic Ideals of Jainism

Jain Dharma: An Overview Mahavira serves the religion as an illustration both of spiritual realization and social reconstruction. This religion is also utterly humanistic in its approach, and spiritualistic in its depth. Though humanistic, yet it is wider than humanitarianism, for it embraces all the sentiments of beings from one-sense to all the five senses. Jaina formulation of ethical theory is grounded in Jaina metaphysics. It argues that conceptions of bondage and liberation, punya and paap, heaven and hell, pleasure and pain and the like, loose all their relevance and significance, when we exclusively recognize either their permanence as constituting the nature of substance. Its strong ethical discipline constitutes a distinct 204 Origin and Development of Social Work in India importance in Jainism. The Jain ethics tend to translate the fundamental principle of ahimsa into practice. So far as the Jain community is concerned it is one of the ancient communities of our country. It is scattered throughout the length and breadth of India from hoary antiquity to the present day. Jains are also found in small numbers in various continents. Jainism being an independent religion, have its own vast sacred literature, distinct philosophy, particular outlook on life and special ethical rules of conduct based on fundamental principles of Ahimsa. The Jains principles of Ahimsa was accepted and promoted by several Kings and heads of State throughout Centuries. World leaders of modem times including Mahatma Gandhi and Nelson Mandela promoted Ahimsa and non-violence while fighting for restoring freedom for India and South Africa respectively. Jain scriptures were written over a long period and the most cited is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by Umasvati (or Umasvami), the monk-scholar, more than 18 centuries ago. The primary figures in Jainism are Tirthankars. Jainism has two main divisions, which began around the second century BC and was finalized in the first century CE, formed the Digambers (“Sky Clad”), or naked ascetics, and the Svetambaras (“White Clad”), who wear a simple white garment. Both the sects believe in ahimsa (or ahinsa), asceticism, karma, sansar and jiva. Jainism promotes compassion for all human and non human life. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment and to kill any person, no matter what crime he/she may have committed, is unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. The values for human Jainism and Social Work 205 life promoted by Jainism is very relevant to the discipline of professional social work. Jains are remarkably welcoming and friendly towards other faiths. Several non-jain temples in India are administered by Jains. The Jain Heggade family has run the Hindu institutions of Dharmasthala, including the Sri Manjunath Temple, for eight centuries. Jains willingly donate money to churches and mosques and usually help with interfaith functions. Jain monks, like Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar, actively promoted harmony among rival faiths to defuse tension. In fact the great contributions made by Jain Monks down the centuries to promote harmony among different groups of population are lessons for social work profession which is mandated to help people to help themselves in different problem situations. Influence and Role in Indian Society Jainism has existed continuously in India for over 2,500 years. Jain beliefs, particularly ahimsa, have had a significant influence on India’s Culture. Asoka (B.C. 238), who became a Buddhist Emporer, stressed the practice of ahimsa in his reforms. In the twentieth century Mohandas (Mahatma Gandhi 1869-1948) was influenced by the concept of ahimsa when he developed his policy of nonviolent resistance in India’s struggle for independence. The same strategy was followed by the freedom fighters of South Africa, particularly Nelson Mandela who was also awarded Nobel Peace Prize. Aans Saan Su Kyi of Myanmar is yet another world leader of the 21 st Century who is following the non-violence path to restore democracy in that country. Ethical Principles Jainism has its own philosophy, values and principles that are very much in line with social work values, 206 Origin and Development of Social Work in India philosophy, principles and code of ethics. Jain monks practice strict asceticism. On the other hand the laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible in this lifetime. Following strict Jain ethics, the laity choose professions that are highly regard and protect life and totally avoid any violent ways of earning a livelihood: The Jain ethical code is taken very seriously. Five vows are followed by both laity and monks/nuns, which are 1) Non-violence (ahimsa, or ahinsa) 2) Truth (Satya) 3) Non-stealing (Asteya) 4) Chastity (Brahma-charya) and 5) Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (Aparigrah). For laypersons, ‘Chastity’ means confining sexual relations within marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Non-violence involves being vegetarian and some choose to be vegetarian. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word and deed, towards humans and every living creature. While performing holy deeds, Svetambara Jains wear cloths over their mouths and noses to avoid spittle falling on texts or revered Images. Along with five vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will towards others and practice forgiveness. Their belief is that Atma (Soul) can lead one to become Prmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one’s inner self. No Jiv can give another the path to salvation, but can only show the way. In social work too, the worker is a guide and philosopher to the client who only shows the way and the final decision/act is left to the choice of the client. Jainism and Social Work 207

The 18 Sinful Activities Jains refrain from all types of violence (Ahimsa) and have isolated 18 types of sinful activities that which, if eradicated, can eventually lead to liberations. These sins are violence; untruth; theft; unchastity; possessiveness; anger; arrogance; greed; deceit; attachment; hatred; arguing; accusation; gossip; criticism; predilection and disliking; malice; and wrong belief. Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by this Jain emphasis on peaceful, protective living and made it an integral part of his own philosophy. Gandhiji’s ideology was fully based on non-violence. He urged his followers to speak the truth, and give utmost importance to the dignity and worth of an individual. He believed in the dignity of labour and the right of all people to earn a livelihood. He did not impose his views on other people, but showed understanding and love for them. Jainism, its methods and values are in line with practices, goals, philosophy and methods in the profession of social work. Of the five ethical principles prescribed by Mahavira to his followers, Ahimsa is considered to be the most important. It is a positive philosophy of love contained in the ethics of non-violence. Jainism emphasizes on complete absence of ill-will. In case of truth, householders are not insisted to observe it strictly. The spirit of the principles is that: Ahimsa is the most important virtue to be followed; all the virtues are to be rigidly followed in such a way that the principles of non-violence are not broken. Some exceptions were made in regard to these and avoidance of falsehood in regard to all other aspects was all that was advocated as constituting of Satya. Asteya signifies the strict adherence to one’s own possession, not even wanting to take hold of another’s. All the evil practices observed in trade and commerce such as adultering the materials and not giving others their money, not weighing or measuring properly and 208 Origin and Development of Social Work in India indulging in black marketing constitute Asteya. Carefully and scrupulously avoiding such malpractices constitutes the observance of the Asteyavrat. Householders are expected to relative observance of this principle. Living a life of Brahmacharya for a householder is being completely faithful to one’s wife (or husband) as the case may be. Even thinking of other women (or man) would be doing damage to the principle. It is also synonymous to sex purity and it helps the individual in securing for him/her and for others domestic happiness. It is also a determent against sexually transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS etc., which is being propagated extensively today throughout the world. The principle of AP ARIGRAHA (non-possession) means necessarily to renounce all his/her property and wealth before taking to the “order”. Thoughts about his/her former possessions may still linger on with him/her in his/ her mind. The ascetics have to combat this tendency to retrospect about what he/she no longer “possesses”. Though, this reference is mainly made to property or wealth, strictly. Speaking the principle is extended to cultivation of a particular type of attitude towards life. Man’s attachments towards his/her home and people as also money and other things relating to them becomes so much that it will not be an exaggeration to maintain that he/she considers them all as his/her possessions. Amongst Jains, Digambaras hold the view that women are not entitled to Moksha in this life. On the contrary Svetambaras believe that women can reach Nirvana in this life. However, even a small community of Jains is divided into more than 100 castes. Each caste is formed of very small groups. Since all these castes are endogamous, many have necessarily to be constrained to remain unmarried and as such their population seems to be fast declining. There are nearly sixty sub-castes whose population is estimated to be less than 100. Jainism and Social Work 209

Contribution to Indian Culture Though the Jains constitute only 0.4 per cent of the Indian population, their contributions to Indian culture and society have been considerable and remarkable. Jains are among the wealthiest of all Indians and also among the most philanthropic. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. In contrast to some religious groups, Jains encourage their monks to go for higher education and to get involved in research. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups, and parallels the Christian priests and nuns. According to the 2001 census, the Jains are India’s most literate community. India’s oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions.

Values of Jainism Inherent in Social Work

The Jain Community and their Social Organisation The Jain community is small in demographic size because of which they are a very closely knit group. Though there is no strong evidence of social service being done by this community in the past, however in the recent years the Jain community have come forward and have established various types of social institutions for providing social services for the Jain community in particular and also to the general population. Charity among the Jains extends to the rest of the animal and plant kingdom also i.e., cows, birds, insects. 210 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Institutions of Charity Promoted by the Jains The Jain institutions can be broadly divided into two categories, namely, charitable institutions run for the general populace and those exclusively for the Jains. It is obvious that the Jains are in a position to maintain a large number of institutions because they are a relatively rich community. By running institutions of the first type they have secured the good-will of others and through the institutions of the second type they have tried to protect their religion and stabilise their community for all these years. The Jains are inclined to start charitable institutions for the benefit of all people irrespective of religion, caste or creed because Jainism has enjoined upon its followers to show compassion to all living beings and especially to the needy. Further, it is one of the six daily duties of a Jaina layman to give something in the form of gift to others. The gifts have been classified into four kinds, namely, gifts of food (ahara-dana), protection (abhaya- dana), medicine (ausadha-dana), and learning (sastra- dana). Institutions established for the general public are in the form of dharmasalas or rest houses, anna- chhatralayas or aIm-houses, at pilgrim and other centres for the benefit of poor people; educational institutions like schools and colleges, public libraries, vocational training centres for development of skills in specific trades, ausadhalayas Le. dispensaries and hospitals, mobile medical units for providing free medical services through camps in poverty stricken, rural and remote areas. Other than these the Jains established and managed special institutions called Pinjarapola for the protection and care of helpless and decrepit animals and birds. It is evident that the practice of service was not limited Jainism and Social Work 211 only to the human beings that proves a point that Jainism has an ecological perspective. A strong belief in this concept will help in promoting and maintaining ecological balance and sustainable development.

Jain Associations and Charity Organisations Though people belonging to various Jain Sects have established their own institutions as per secretarian affiliation some organizations were established that cut across the Jains of all sects and sub-sects and have made concerted efforts in a more organised manner. Sucumbrella organisations have been carrying out various welfare activities in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and other parts of Bihar. In the second category of Jain institutions, those of a religious nature get prominence over those of social or educational in character. Such institutions are basically involved in the preservation of canonical literature, books and manuscripts that are rich in traditional wisdom and have high intrinsic value. Institutions named as Grantha-Bhandaras are often housed in the Jain temples. Of late these institutions have initiated the editing, translation and publication of these works in both print and digital form. These literature which are mostly in Prakrit, are being produced in English and other prominent Indian languages so that the inherent richness can benefit the society at large, both at the national and international level, and help establish a peaceful and just order. Composition of Jain Associations: The Jains have started various institutions of a social character for the betterment of their community. In the first place, they have organised a large number of associations with a view to bring the members together and to solve several social problems. A majority of such associations are 212 Origin and Development of Social Work in India formed by a particular caste or gaccha. Sometimes the associations are confined to the particular caste or gaccha members hailing from a certain locality. While others are formed on a regional basis which is technically open to all Jains of that region but in reality they are dominated and run by the members of one sect. Further, both the sects (Digambar and Svetambara) and practically all the sub-sects have their associations of an all-India character. All these small and big associations have tried and to a considerable extent succeeded in eradicating irreligious and bad practices of their members. Like members of other communities the Jains have recently launched some co-operative institutions for their benefit. The main form of cooperation is in the field of housing for providing affordable and cheap residential space.

A Culture of Giving Where they could not start such institutions on their own accord, they help such projects and programmes run by NGOs and voluntary organisations which are secular and non profit in character. This is done either by constructing buildings for them or by making substantial donations to them. The Jains of late have developed a culture of giving by providing donations in cash and kind for projects and programmes pertaining to social service, social reform, epidemics, relief and rehabilitation work at the time of natural calamities and disasters like floods, famine, earthquake, or the recent incidents like the tsunami, etc. The Jains have contributed liberally and unsparingly to relieve mankind affected by such natural catastrophes. Jainism and Social Work 213

Educational Institutions promoted by the Jains through charity or otherwise for promoting education Among the variety of institutions established by the Jains, educational institutions have found the maximum favour. Along with religious education, general education is also provided not only to the Jain community but also for the general population of society. For that matter gurukulas, regular and boarding/residential schools and colleges have been established by the Jain community in practically all big towns and cities all over India. Likewise, Hostels are also established for providing accommodation on nominal fee basis or for free to the children belonging to poor Jain families who are pursuing their education. The students residing in such hostels are free to join any institution for their education but they are compulsorily required to take some elementary religious education, for which provision is made by the authorities, and to lead a religious life.. The poor and deserving students are also provided with scholarships for the pursuit of education. Funds are constituted, in the name of Jain Tirthankaras or the religious heads, to provide for scholarships or loans to deserving students wherever they may be. Preference is given to those who opt for Jainism or technical/ professional courses. Such a provision has helped the spread of education among the Jain community. Higher Education: In the field of higher education and for the promotion of the high ideals and rich knowledge that is inherent in Jainism or Jain Philosophy the Jain community established the Jain Vishva Bharati University (JVBU), a Deemed-to-be University, in 1991 at Ladnun, Rajasthan. Though promoted by the Terapanth sect of the Svetambara Jain community it has been successful in representing the entire Jain community as such in terms of academic programmes, research and discourses. 214 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Lord Mahavira said 2600 years ago – ‘Nanassa Saram Ayaro’ i.e. “Right conduct is the essence of knowledge”. This spiritual voice is the motto of the University. Every programme and every activity is directed towards the realisation of this motto. The goal of the JVBI has been clearly spelt out in the preamble of the JVBI’s constitution which reads “The Jain Vishva Bharati University is an endeavour in the direction of putting into practice and to promote and propagate the high ideals of Anekant (non-absolutist outlook), Ahimsa (Non- violence), Tolerance and Peaceful Co-existence for the weal of mankind”. The JVBU has a resolve to constitute and establish itself as an Institute of Advanced Studies, Research and Training in Jainology in the context of comparative studies in Jainology, World Religions, Ahimsa (Non-violence) and World Peace.” The mission is to integrate modern science with ancient wisdom of the great spiritual practitioners and visionary seers. The institution seeks to interweave moral and spiritual norms and values with the materialistic and economic fibers of mankind to foster and develop universal human relationships for the peaceful co-existence of individuals, groups, communities, sects, races, religions and nations. The University offers post-graduate, under-graduate, diploma and certificate level programmes and courses in both regular and distance mode. The courses offered are in the field of Jainology and Comparative Religion and Philosophy; Prakrit and Jain Agam; Science of Living, Preksha Meditation and Yoga; Non-violence, Peace and Conflict Resolution Studies; Social Work; Computer Applications; and Education. The unique feature of all the programmes offered is the integration of Spiritualism, Science of Living, values and Ethics that are unique to Indian and Jain Philosophy. The programme in social work offered by JVBU has incorporated a separate and compulsory paper titled Jainism and Social Work 215

“Ethico-spirtual Approaches to Social Service” which is an innovation that was long due in the field of social work education and practice. The objective behind the introduction of this course is to enrich the social work curriculum with the rich philosophical, ethical and service components that religion has to offer to modern society which is grappling to find solutions to problems like social unrest, war, communal violence and conflicts, terrorism, intolerance, consumerism, crime, drug addiction, etc. The course covers the basic tenets of all important religions – their philosophy, mythology, symbology, methodology and institutional forms. It deals with the socio-cultural and political context and origin of various movements like Sufism, Bhakti movement, etc. and the contributions of religious and social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ramkrishna Paramahansa , Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi, Mother Teresa, etc.

Significance of Jainism from a Social Work Perspective Apart from involvement in religious work the Jain Acharyas true to the spirit of Jain philosophy have made indelible contributions by working incessantly for the welfare of mankind - eradicating social evils, reforming social customs, building up national character and educating the masses about the principles of non- violence, universal peace and brotherhood.

Establishment of Social and Economic Equality Jain egalitarianism rejects the Hindu division of society into higher and lower castes. It finds no basis for the idea that makes one caste superior to the other. On the contrary, it finds castism an evil based on hatred, pride, and deluded vision. 216 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

The most significant contribution of Jainism in the social field was the establishment of social equality among the four varnas i.e. classes prevalent in the society. Lord Mahavira succeeded in organising his large number of followers into a compact social order quite distinct from that of the Brahmanic social order of his time that was replete with inequality, discrimination and intercaste rivalry. His social order was such that provided for social mobility and did away with the criterion of birth for membership into any class. Another major contribution of Jainism is the principle of aparigraha or non-possession or non-acquisitiveness which means that one should abstain from the greed and worldly possessions. The vow of parigraha-parimana vrata i.e. the vow to limit one’s worldly possessions, is very relevant in the present age of consumerism and is noteworthy because it indirectly aims at economic equalisation by peacefully preventing undue accumulation of capital in individual hands. In addition to this the Jaina concept of chaturvidha-dana, i.e. four- fold gifts (giving food to the hungry and the poor (relief), saving the lives of people in danger, distribution of medicines and spreading knowledge) can help in providing relief to people who are in dire states and cannot fend for themselves.

Religious Emancipation of Women Another distinct contribution made by the Jain Acharyas in the field of social reform was in the direction of raising the status of women in India. In the latter part of the Vedic period women had practically been reduced to the status of Shudras. For example, they were debarred from the right of initiation and investment with the sacred thread. They were considered to have no business with the sacred religious texts. Jainism and Social Work 217

Since the days of Rishab the low position of women was definitely changed in many ways. They removed various restrictions imposed on women especially in the practice of religion including the study of the sacred texts and adopting ascetic life.

Impetus to Female Education The religious independence given to women had its repercussions in other fields also. Equality of opportunity was accorded to women in several social spheres of action. The importance of imparting education to females, along with males, was realised even in the ancient past by Rshabdev, the first Tirthankara, who had advised his two young daughters, Brahmi and Sundari, that “only when you would adorn yourself with education your life would be fruitful because just as a learned man is held in high esteem by educated persons, a learned lady also occupies the highest position in the female world.” According to Jain tradition women are expected to know 64 arts which include dancing, painting, music, aesthetics, medicine, domestic science, etc.

Inculcation of the Belief on Self-reliance Tirtankara Mahavira and the Jain Acharyas launched an intensive attack on the attitude of complete submission to God by the people for attaining their final objective in life, viz. liberation. They clearly proclaimed that nothing here or elsewhere depends on the favours of God but everything depends on the actions of the people. Divine dispensation was thoroughly rejected. This philosophical perspective of Jainism is co-terminus with the saying “Helping people to help themselves” that professional social work identifies with. Very recently Noble Laureate Amartya Sen’s ‘capability approach’ (Sen, 1990) that proposes for the building of capacities of 218 Origin and Development of Social Work in India individuals and communities infact advances the concept of liberation that Jainism promotes as said earlier.

Emphasis on Non-violence, Tolerance and Culture of Peace The major contribution of Jain Philosophy is on the emphasis on the observance of Ahimsa i.e. non-violence to all living beings to the maximum extent possible. In the present age that is replete with violence, terrorism, communal conflicts and war, the principles of non- violence as propounded in Jainism would come handy. A major cause of violence at the community, national and global level and among castes, classes, religions, regions, and nations is intolerance. The theory of Anekantvad or nonabsolutism i.e. belief in the others point of views is also significant or a respect to the view-points of the other as significant, will help in removing intolerance and help in fostering an environment of dialogue for peaceful co-existence. This will ensure in setting the pace for a culture of peace and a just social order.

Development of Balanced and Integrated Personality Literally Jina means a conqueror, that is, one who has conquered the worldly passions like desire, hatred, anger, greed, pride, etc. by one’s own strenuous efforts and has been liberated himself from the bonds of worldly existence. This concept of the human being is close too the one that a professional social worker has to strive for, that is, in terms of the ‘professional self who has to practice self restraint in terms of professional fees that he charges, refraining from counter-transference, etc. Meditation has been given a very important place in Jainism. Jainism and Social Work 219 Conclusion

Though the followers of this religion are found all over the country, they are concentrated mainly in the western part of India: Kamataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Historians have noted the fact that Jainism originated with kshatriya belonging to the gana-sanghas. This religion was associated with non orthodox thinking which rejected vedic authority, Brahmanic and the caste orders and founded orders comparising bhikkhus who renounced the world. In this Unit we have tried to outline the evolution of social work. A brief description about the history of this religion, its teachings and the values that are common to social work and Jainism have been given in this Unit. In a nutshell, the concept of Ahimsa or non-violence is the main contribution which has stood the time of test as far as Jainism is concerned.

References

Bryan S. Turner : Second Edition 1994, Religion and social control (p-l09-133), Religion and social theory, Sage Publication, New Delhi. Dharam Chand Shastri : Gateway of Jain Dharma; SURI Acharya Dharam Acharya Dharam Sruth Granthmala, Sangarainameh, Gaziabad Sangave, Vilas A. : 1999, Aspects of Jaina Religion, Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi Sangave, Vilas A. : 1980, Jaina Community – A Social Survey, Popular Prakashan, Bombay 220 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Sangave, Vilas A. : 1997, Jaina Religion and Community, Long Beach Publications, California Schubring, W. : The Doctrine of the Jainas, New Delhi Sen, Amartya (1990) : “Justice: Means versus Freedoms”, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 19:111- 121. S. Gopalan : 1975, Outlines of Jainism, Weekly Eastern Ltd., New Delhi Vilaya Sangave : 1997, Jain Religion and Community, Long Beach Publication, California, 221

9 Buddhism and Social Work

*Gracious Thomas, Nita Kumari

Introduction In Buddhism social welfare is considered as the work done in different forms intended for the benefit of mankind. Such a work ranges from simple individual acts of charity, teaching and training to organized service in different forms for the betterment of the community which are common areas of social work intervention. Buddhism is a very pragmatic religion. It believes that the world in which we live is sorrow-laden and that it is possible to transcend it. Buddhism, it may be said, is primarily concerned with ways and means to get rid of this sorrow. It is in this context that the idea of social service in terms of Buddhism becomes important. Before talking about Buddhism and Social Work, it may be worthwhile to know about the views of the Buddha on those issues that are directly connected to the concept of social work. Basic Ideals of Buddhism

Life of Buddha Historically Buddha Siddhartha Gautam, founder of Buddhism was born in the city of Lumbini and raised in Kapilavastu, near the modern town of Taulihawa, Nepal. After Siddhartha was born, his father, king Siddhartha, was supposedly visited by a wise man and

* Prof. Gracious Thomas, IGNOU, New Delhi. * Ms. Nita Kumari, Consultant, IGNOU, New Delhi. 222 Origin and Development of Social Work in India told that Siddhartha would either become a great king (Chakravartin) or a holy man (Sadhu). Determined to make Siddhartha a King, the father tried to protect his son from the unpleasant realities of daily life. So, he made arrangements in such a way that Gautama would never know worldly sufferings. Despite his father’s efforts, at the age of twenty-nine, he discovered the suffering of his people, first through an encounter with an elderly man and on subsequent gaps outside the palace where he encountered various sufferings of people such as a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. Gautam, deeply depressed by these sights, sought to overcome old age, illness and death by living the life of an ascetic. Gautama escaped from his palace, leaving behind the royal life to become a mendicant. For a time on his spiritual quest, Buddha experienced with extreme asceticism, which at that time was seen as a powerful spiritual practice: such as fasting, holding the breath, and exposure of the body to pain. He found, however that these ascetic practices brought no genuine spiritual reliefs. After abandoning asceticism and concentrating instead upon meditation and, according to some sources, anapanasati (awareness of breathing in and out), Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists call the middle way – a path of moderation that lies mid-way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. He accepted a little milk and rice pudding from a village girl and then, sitting under a pipal tree or sacred fig. (ficus religiosa), now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. His five companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he attained bodhi, also known as “Awakening” Buddhism and Social Work 223 or “Enlightenment” in the west. After his attainment of bodhi, he was known as Buddha or Gautama Buddha and spent the rest of his life by teaching his insights (Dharma). He died around the age of 80 in Kushinagara. Precepts in Buddhism There are eight precepts in Buddhism. Among them five precepts are not given in the form of commands such as “thou shalt not...”, but are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate as well. They are: 1) To refrain from taking life. (non-violence towards sentient life forms). 2) To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft). 3) To refrain from sexual misconduct (abstinence from immoral sexual behaviour) 4) To refrain from lying. (speaking truth always) 5) To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (refrain from using drugs or alcohol) In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the eight precepts are: 6) To refrain from eating at the wrong time (only eat from sunrise to noon) 7) To refrain from dancing, using jewelry, going to shows etc. 8) To refrain from using a high, luxurious bed. Buddha has also taught with clarity, how people should live with their family members and other members of the society, bringing happiness not only to themselves but also to the world. 224 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Condition for the Welfare of a Community The seven conditions for the welfare, prosperity, and happiness of any community, nation or country have been described in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Dighanikaya. These conditions must be considered before serving the people for their gradual development and welfare. The conditions include: 1) To assemble on occasion whenever necessary to discuss the affairs of the community. 2) To do everything by consensus. 3) To respect old traditions and not transgress them. 4) To respect and obey elders and superiors. 5) To respect, worship and honor all religions. 6) To honour and respect all holy people, irrespective of their caste, creed or gender. 7) To respect women in general.

Buddha and Buddhism The sixth century B.C. witnessed a great restlessness in the world and it was an era of awakening. During this period there was a spiritual and moral unrest too in the society. As a result, reformists raised their voices against the evils of existing social order in their respective countries and showed new ways to the people. This period of religious awakening prevailed not only in India but also in other parts of the world. As a result of this spiritual unrest in the 6th century B.C. many reformists’ schools, thoughts, doctrines, and streams sprang up. Of these, mainly Buddhism and Jainism survived and the rest either died out or got outlived. Gautam Buddha was the founder of Buddhism and one of the noblest and the greatest teachers of the world. Buddhism was based on the noble teachings of Buddha. Buddhism and Social Work 225

The Buddha himself wrote nothing but his teachings were handed down through his disciples. Buddhism was also one of the radical movements reacting to the dictatorship which arose in Asia during the later part of B.C. Buddhism is a psycho-ethical tradition which is manifested mainly in two paths as a process of thought of gradual pacification (Pariyatti) and a way of practical application in life (Patipatti). Thought unfolds the nature of reality, eradicates the ignorance and resents admonition for visualization of truth face to face. The only problem is the suffering of mankind. The solution is the attainment of a state of bliss and the path is the tri-stepped way, passing from one point to another. It is Dukh (suffering); the latter is Nibbana (Moksha or Nirvana) and the path, the Magga. Non-violence (ahimsa) is one of the main planks of the teachings of the Buddha. Non- violent attitude towards all living beings, which is the first precept in Buddhism, is based upon the principle of mutual attraction and rightness common to all nature. Buddha openly opposed the caste system as propagated by the brahmanas and according to him no person could be superior or inferior in society merely by reason of birth.

Buddhism and its Tenets Gautam Buddha clearly pointed out that the position of man depended on his conduct. This meant that it was a person’s attitude and behaviour (karma) which made a man superior or inferior. The Buddha had a very positive and revolutionary attitude towards women. The Buddha opened the doors of his Samgha and Dharma for the equal benefit of both men and women – a position that was exceptional for the time and was perceived as radical and dangerous by his critics. Adoption of such a position reflects an attempt on the part of the Buddha to locate 226 Origin and Development of Social Work in India virtue and spiritual potential beyond conventional gender distortions. A large number of women took advantage of such an opportunity. There is enough evidence to suggest that women not only were conspicuously present in the earliest community, but also seem to have held prominent and honored places both as practioners and teachers. It cannot be denied that the Buddha unfolded new horizons for women by laying the foundations of the Order of Nuns. This social and spiritual advancement for women was ahead of the times and, therefore, must have drawn many objections from men, including monks. Despite various forms of disadvantages and harassments, the combination of education in monasteries, free time, and a sense of personal moral superiority must have led many women into an organized life of unknown possibilities. Here, women were able to indulge in activities outside the home, including proselyte, development of organizational skills, and above all, an atmosphere where they could experience a sense of accomplishment. Another very interesting aspect of the teachings of the Buddha was that he preached nonwastefulness, simplicity, contentment, liberality, and generosity. This aspect of the teachings of the Buddha is very relevant in the profit-driven global economy which is guided by unbridled development and gigantism and nonwastefulness. By pointing out that the vulgar chase of luxury and abundance is the root-cause of suffering, Buddhism encourages restraint, voluntary simplicity, and contentment. Within this framework of Buddhist teachings, an attempt has been made to examine the theory and practice of social work in Buddhist tradition. The teachings of the Buddha, clearly indicate that early Buddhists were very much concerned with the creation of social conditions favorable to the individual cultivation of socially engaged values. In course of time, Buddhism Buddhism and Social Work 227 became a major religion and spread through most parts of Asia.

Buddhism and its Followers There were many followers of the Buddha in the ancient period. Menander I, also known as Milinda was an Indo Greek king who ruled in the middle of the second century B.C. He was famous as a great patron and supporter of Buddhism. He was a great benefactor that the community looked upon him as a saviour who took up social activities for their welfare. Kanishka was a Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity who ruled over the Northern part of the Indian subcontinent during first century B.C. A number of legends about Kanishka were preserved in Buddhist religious traditions. Along with the Indian kings Ashoka and Harshavardhana, he is considered by Buddhists to have been one of the greatest Buddhist kings. Along with social welfare related activities, he also encouraged Buddhist missionary activities abroad. King Harshavardhan is famous as one of the greatest Buddhist rulers of ancient India. He became a patron of Buddhist art and literature. He made numerous endowments to the University at Nalanda for spreading education. All these kings used Buddhist teachings for social and welfare work for public. In the modern period, Buddhism has spread to various countries of Europe, America, and Australia. Though Buddhism has been taking up social welfare activities since its inception but in the recent years, the involvement of Buddhist in social work has increased tremendously. A lot of Buddhist leaders are getting involved in social work. The Buddhist monks and nuns are coming out of the monasteries and do social service along with and for the common people. It is a new trend in the sense that the areas of interest are vast and extensive. 228 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s unique contribution in reviving Buddhism showed its relevance in the modern society. He adopted Buddhism formally in 1956. Dr. Ambedkar saw Buddhism as offering a basis for a just society. lIe believed that democracy requires an attitude of respect for one’s fellow citizens, and this requires that they have a moral sense. He saw Buddhism as training people in ethical responsibility and changes underlying attitudes. Various new and old buildings dedicated to the Buddhist religion are used by traveling or resident monks. The innovations in the Ambedkar movement for social work and justice in Buddhism represent their social unity in the face of continued inequality in society. Besides Ambedkar, there are also other Buddhist converts influenced by the Maha Bodhi Society of Anagarika Dharmapala who are involved in social work for mankind. ‘The Dalai Lama and his followers are working for the social welfare of the society. Tibetan Buddhists are pre-occupied with social work in various fields like education, hospice services, prison activities etc. In fact, the Dalai Lama was conferred the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.

Neo-Buddhist Movement in India Buddhism is against the caste based social inequality. Buddhism has been used as the instrument of eradication of ascribed social inequality. Hence the most significant Buddhist mass revival of the new age was led by Ambedkar in India. He found in Buddhism the message for the upliftment of the oppressed in India. He used and interpreted Buddhism as the ideology to bring social equality and justice for the oppressed mass, especially for the scheduled castes. After many years of spiritual search, he became convinced that Buddhism was the only ideology that could effect the eventual liberation of out castes in India. On 14th October 1956 Buddhism and Social Work 229 he performed a mass ‘Consecration’ of the Scheduled Castes to Buddhism in Nagpur, Maharashtra. The new converts were mostly from the Scheduled Mahars Castes (a Scheduled Caste) (Gamez, La. 1987:381). This mass conversion was aimed at the rejection of untouchability and for participation of the oppressed castes towards undertaking more social and political activities for their liberation from the exploitative forces. One aspect of conversion movement was to radically undermine the Hindu dominant culture by rejecting its basic tenets of hierarchy, purity and pollution. This understanding of Hindu culture created a tendency of negation among the Dalits of Maharashtra. This religion was very important in as much as it developed negative consciousness which drove the Dalits of Maharashtra to undertake more creative and organized political action for their emancipation. Ambedkar’s idea behind conversion was to make it a part of the larger political movement based on the material contradictions inherent in Indian Society (Guru, 1989: 419-420).

Linkages of Buddhist Ideology in Social Work

Buddhism and an Exploration of Social Action In Buddhism “social action” refers to the many kinds of action intended to benfit mankind. These range from simple individual acts of charity, teaching and training, organized kinds of service, “Right Livelihood” in and outside the helping professions, and through various kinds of community development as well as to political activity in working for a better society. It is clear from the evidence of the Buddha’s discourses, or suttas in the Digha Nayaka that early Buddhists were very much concerned with the creation of social 230 Origin and Development of Social Work in India conditions favourable to the individual cultivation of Buddhist values. An outstanding example of this, in later times, is the remarkable “welfare state” created by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka (B.C. 274-236). Buddhism arouse in India as a spiritual force against social injustices, against degrading superstitious rites, ceremonies and sacrifices; it denounced the tyranny of the caste system and advocated the equality of all men; it emancipated the woman and gave her complete spiritual freedom. (Rahula, 1978). Social Action and the Problem of Suffering Buddhism, however, is humanism in that it rejoices in the possibility of a true freedom as something inherent in human nature. The ultimate freedom for Buddhism is to achieve full release from the root causes of all suffering and social evils: greed, hatred and delusion. To weaken, and finally eliminate them in oneself as well as in society, is the basis of Buddhist ethics. Buddhism offers to the individual human being a religious practice, a way, leading to the transcendence of suffering. Buddhist social action arises from this practice and contributes to it. From suffering arises desire to end suffering. The secular humanistic activist sets himself the endless task of satisfying that desire, and perhaps hopes to end social suffering by constructing utopias. The Buddhist, on the other hand, is concerned ultimately with the transformation of desire. Hence, he contemplates and experiences social action in a fundamentally different way from the secular activist. In short, Buddhist social action is justified ultimately and above all by the existence of social as well as individual karma. Immediately it is simply concerned with relieving suffering; ultimately, in creating social conditions which will favour the ending of suffering through the individual achievement of transcendent wisdom. Buddhism and Social Work 231

Buddhism is, in one sense, something that one does. It is a guide to the transformation of individual experience. In the traditional Buddhist teaching, the individual sets out with a karmic inheritance of established volitions, derived from his early life, and certainly from his social environment, a part of his karmic inheritance. Nevertheless, the starting point is the individual experiencing of life.

Social Action: Giving and Helping Social action is an act of giving (dana), but there is a direct act which we call charitable action, whether it be the UNESCO Relief Banker’s Order or out all night with the destitute soup kitchen. “Whoever nurses the sick serves me”, said the Buddha. David Bradon, who has written on art of helping, reminds us that “respect is seeing the Buddha nature in the other person. It means perceiving the superficiality of positions of moral authority. The other person is as good as you. However untidy, unhygienic, poor, illiterate and bloody-minded we may seem, he is worthy of your respect. He also has autonomy and purpose. He is another form of nature” (Brandon, 1976). Teaching the Dharma is one of the most valuable sources of learning open to a Buddhist. Buddhism is a systematic self-help practice, in which the teacher can do no more than point the way and, together with fellow Buddhists, provide support, warmth and encouragement in a long and lonely endeavour. This is in fact very close to social work definition of “helping people to help themselves”. Buddhists always seek to cultivate a spirit of openness, co-operation, goodwill and equality in their relationships. Violence and Non-violence in Buddhism The first precept of Buddhism is to abstain from taking life. But it must be made clear that the Buddhist 232 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

“percepts” are not commandments; they are “good resolutions”, sincere aspirations voluntarily undertaken. They are signposts. Buddhists always try to avoid direct involvement in violent action or in earning their living in a way that, directly or indirectly does violence. Well known is Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent struggle against religious intolerance and British rule in India, and also the Rev. Martin Luther King’s black people’s civil rights movement in the United States. A familiar situation for many people today is the mass demonstration against authority, which may be conducted either peacefully or violently. Robert Aitken Roshi recalls the care of a friend who organized an anti-nuclear demonstration at a naval base passing through a small town in which virtually every household had at least one person who gained his livelihood by working at the base. Consequently, when the friend visited every single house before the demonstration he hardly expected to win the people over to his cause. But he did convince them that he was a human being who was willing to listen to them and who had faith in them as human beings. “We finally had our demonstration, with four thousand people walking through this tiny community, nobody resisted us, nobody threw rocks. They just stood and watched (The Ten Directions, Los Angeles Zen Center, I (3) September 1980).

Buddhist Spiritual Centers The Buddhist communities and centers of social outreach are the examples of good society. The activities of such communities/centers are: 1) Any healthy spiritual community, by its very existence, offers to the world a living example not only of the good life but also of the good society. Buddhism and Social Work 233

Certain spiritual values are made manifest in its organization and practice in a way not possible in print or in talk. 2) Such communities are commonly reaching and training communities. They offer classes and short courses and also longer periods of training in residence, in which the trainees become veritable community members. And it may be true in terms of the “openness” of the community to outsiders who wish for the present to open up their communication with the community through some participation in work, ritual, teaching, meditation. 3) The community might involve itself in various kinds of outside community service, development or action beyond that of teaching and the necessarily commercial services which may sustain the community’s “Right Livelihood”. For example, running a hospice for the terminally ill, providing an information and advice center on a wide range of personal and social problems for the people of the local community, and assisting and may be leading – in various aspects of a socially deprived local community.

Buddhist’s Community Services and Development Various community developmental activities have also been initiated by a non-residential “lay” Buddhist group, whose members as householders and local workers may have strong root in their town or neighbourhood. The Harlow Buddhist Society has recently opened Dana House, a practical attempt to become involved with the ordinary people of the town and their problems. The new....center has four regular groups using it. The first is an after-care service for those who have been mentally or emotionally ill. The center is there for those in need 234 Origin and Development of Social Work in India of friendship and understanding. The second group is a psychotherapy one, for those with more evident emotional problems. It is run by an experienced group leader and a psychologist who can be consulted privately. The third group is a beginner ‘meditation class based on the concept of ‘Right Understanding’. The fourth group is the Buddhist group, which is not attached to any particular school of Buddhism. “Peter Donahoe Writes: ‘we have endeavored to provide a center which can function in relation to a whole range of different needs, a place of charity and compassion where all are welcomed regardless of race, color, sex or creed, welcome to come to terms with their suffering in a way which is relative to each individual”. A very good example could be mentioned here of a Buddhist-inspired movement for community development, is the Sarvodaya Shramadana movement of Sri Lanka. “Sarvodaya” means “awakening of all” and “Shramadan” means “sharing of labour”, making a gift of time, thought and energy. This well describes what is basically a village self-help movement, inspired by Buddhist principles and founded in 1958 as a part of a general national awakening. It is now by far the largest non-governmental, volutary organization in Sri Lanka. Various village development projects are undertaken on the initiative of the villagers themselves. Action is focused initially on Shramdana camps in which villagers and outside volunteers work together upon same community project such as a road or irrigation channel, pre-school care for the under-fives, informal education for adults, health care programs and community kitchens, with cooperation with State agencies as appropriate. Essential to these community development programs in Sarvodaya Shramadana’s system of development Buddhism and Social Work 235 education program operating through six institutes and through the Gramodaya Centers each of which co- ordinates development work in some twenty to thirty villages. The movement also provides training in self- employment for the youth who comprise the largest sector of the unemployed. Although the main thrust of activity has been in rural areas, the movement is also interested in urban community and there is local interest.

Social Service Social service manifests as presence and dignity. It is an important means to promote and nurture sanity in society, environment, education, healthcare, home, relationships and the arts throughout the world. The practice and study of Sambhala Buddhist meditation engenders a deep understanding of tolerance and care. The Shambhala Buddhist are engaged individually and in groups in compassionate work all over the world. The Shambhala Prison Community (SPC) serves spiritual and educational needs of inmates in federal, state, country and municipal prison systems and jails. The SPC provides meditation instruction by qualified instructors; pastoral couselling; the distribution of books and recorded tapes; written correspondence; and newsletters, magazines and pamphlets relevant to the meditative path. Prison Dharma Network (PDN), is a support network transformation and rehabilitation facilities.

Buddhism and Social Work During the past few decades Buddhists have been re- examining the teachings of their Religion and finding a basis for social action, for confronting war, racism, exploitation commercialism, and the destruction of the 236 Origin and Development of Social Work in India environment. In practice, Buddhism is a Volitional effort of well being of others. The origins of the philosophy of social work can be found in Buddhist system and Indian culture. Thus social work in early Buddhist tradition is a psycho-ethical concept initiated for the dawn of complete harmony on the beings in the society with a happy blending and balancing of spiritual and material achievements. The principle of social work is directly connected with the idea of social order, conceived by Buddha. He conceived a social fabric and an order where there is a ground (Bhumi) of unalloyed love and affection, surcharged with the waves of universal friendliness, compassion, joy and equanimity. This was named as Bhrama Vihara by Buddha. As regards the training and orientation of social workers, it may be added that development of monastic establishments, each Vihara, with a sizeable habitation of monastic dwellers, turned into educational centres. A provision of two types of teachers namely Upajihaya and Acariya was made to provide training in the theory and practice of monasticism and social service respectively by each of them. During British and post independent periods in India Buddhism also tried to continue and adopt the welfare measures for the welfare of Buddhists and other fellows of different religions. Many voluntary agencies have come into existence apart from Viharas and Sanghas. These are in the form of Dharma centres, meditation centres, Vipassana international academy, youth Buddhist society and so on. Most of these organizations run free homoeopathic dispensary, schools for poor and needy children, ambulance service in the community, disaster management and emergency relief, free educational scholarship for handicapped children, canteen service, and free dispensary and so on. Buddhism has also welfare foundations which have constructed medical and health clinics. They also train public health educational trainers and volunteer Buddhism and Social Work 237 coordinators who set up network of community-based workshops to train local women in the basics of personal hygiene and water sanitation process. NGOs are also providing low-tech household, water sanitation systems and educational materials. Certain agencies are also working on HIV/AIDS and other communicable disease for women and children.

Socially Engaged Buddhism Interestingly, Buddhist social work has become very popular under the title of Socially Engaged Buddhism. Before proceeding further let us understand what we mean by Socially Engaged Buddhism. At its broadest definition, socially engaged Buddhism extends across public engagement in caring and service, social, and environmental protest and analysis, non-violence as a creative way of overcoming conflict, and right livelihood and similar initiatives toward a socially just and ecologically sustainable society. Socially Engaged Buddhism is a new form of Buddhist movement. It is obviously rooted in the very nature of Buddhism. It can be said, therefore, that socially engaged Buddhism is the reinterpretation and application of traditional Buddhist doctrines. For Buddhism, of course, the ultimate freedom is to achieve full release from the root causes of all suffering: greed, hatred and delusion, which clearly are also the root causes of all social evils. Their worst forms are those which are harmful to others. To eliminate these evils in oneself, and, as far as possible, in the society, is the basis of Buddhist ethics. And here Buddhist social work has its place. The experience of suffering is the starting point of Buddhist teaching and of any attempt to define a distinctively Buddhist social work. Buddhism offers to the individual human being a religious practice, a way, leading to the transcendence of suffering. Buddhist 238 Origin and Development of Social Work in India social action arises from this practice and contributes to it. Now engaged Buddhism is a global phenomenon, taking many different forms. The engaged movement cuts across the lay-monastic divide and includes Buddhists from traditional Buddhist countries as well as Western converts. As a matter of course, those movements have developed in some of the Buddhist countries of Asia. In many cases these movements have arisen as a heroic response to extreme conditions of invasion, civil war, and tyrannical government. Over several decades they have been inspired and led by several personalities outstanding for their integrity, steadfastness, and shared values. They include A.T. Ariyaratne of Sri Lanka, Thich Nhat Hanh of Vietnam, Ajahn Buddhadasa and Sulak Sivaraksa of Thailand and His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Noted Buddhist leaders from the Soka Gakkai Movement, the Taiwanese Fo Guang Shan and Tzu Chi Foundation, and the Korean Jogye Buddhist Order are some outstanding Socially Engaged Buddhists and Buddhist organizations in contemporary East Asia. So we see revival of Buddhism in this modernized global world and the terms ‘Humanistic Buddhism’ or ‘Engaged Buddhism’ are being used. It refers to active involvement by Buddhists in social work. Those who participate in this movement seek to implement and actualize the traditional Buddhist ideals of wisdom and compassion in the modern world. In other words, engaged Buddhism, applies these ideals to social issues of peace and justice, environmental degradation, human and animal rights, community-building and the provision of care to those in need. Thus, before concluding we can say that Social Work in Buddhism also reveals that as a minority community it was compelled to live and work with several Buddhism and Social Work 239 communities and was obliged by circumstances wherein self-interest and survival played a decisive role to adopt a change in their mode of life, involving long cherished beliefs, social relationships and patterns of living and behaviour including diet, language, even social status and religious rituals or ceremonies as in the case of Sanskrisation by the backward communities in India. Some of it may also be undertaken under compulsion or by enlightened or intelligent understanding of the changing time and circumstances and the necessity for appropriate change. Concepts, Values and Practices Common to Buddhism and Social Work

1) Social Welfare All civilized societies throughout the globe continue to work for the well being of mankind. In both social work and Buddhism, social welfare is considered as the work done in different forms intended for the benefits of humankind. Such work ranges from simple individual acts of charity, teaching and training to organized services in different forms for the betterment of the community, which are also common areas of social work intervention.

2) Precepts The precepts in Buddhism and social work values are very similar to each other. Non-violence; not committing theft; refrain from sexual misconduct; always speaking truth; and refraining from abusing drugs or alcohol are some of the common concerns. Gandhiji strongly propogated some of the values and teachings found in Buddhism such as self-sufficient villages, celibacy, non- violence and truth. 240 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

3) Social Services The Buddhist monks and nuns from the monasteries are doing social service along with and for the common people. Both Buddhism and social work provide social services to the members of the society to enable them to develop optimally and help them to function effectively and to lead a life of decency, dignity and liberty. These services have been rendered to all the members of the society, irrespective to their religion, caste, race, language, culture etc.

4) Social Work Values and Conditions in Buddhism Both social work values and Buddhism teach the individuals to understand their responsibility towards oneself, the family, and the society. Buddhism and social work values caution the social worker not to neglect himself/herself, his/her family and the society in which he/she is living while he/she is discharging his/her professional duties. Both Buddhism and social work teach the people to respect and obey elders and superiors; respect, worship and honour all religions; honour and respect all people irrespective of their caste, creed or gender; respect the worth and dignity of each individual and respect women in general.

5) Upliftment of Oppressed Upliftment of oppressed in society have been taken into consideration by both social work and Buddhism. Both are against the caste based social inequality and emphasized social equality and justice for the oppressed mass, especially for the scheduled caste. They are aimed at the rejection of untouchability and favoured the participation of the oppressed castes towards undertaking more social and political activities for their liberation from the exploitative force. Buddhism and Social Work 241

6) Compassion The Buddhist way of life is compassion, equanimity, tolerance, concern for self reliance and individual responsibility which are similar to social work. The social worker’s compassion is the prerequisite for effective social work practice. Both Buddhists and social workers empathize with others. They willingly join with and enter into the pains of those who are distressed or troubled. Both believe in self reliance; dignity of each individual; cultivate spirit of openness, co-operation, goodwill and equality.

7) Community Welfare Services Buddhist communities are reaching and training community members in general and running hospice for the terminally ill, providing an information and advice center on a wide range of personal and social problems for the terminally ill, for the people of the local community and assisting in various aspects of a socially deprived local community. Similarly, a number of professional social workers are engaged in providing welfare services to the communities. Various community developmental activities have been initiated by Buddhists. After care services have also been provided by Buddhist group to those who are mentally or emotionally ill.

8) Empowerment of Women and Development of Organizational Skills Buddhism and social work has a very positive and revolutionary attitude towards women. Both believe in equal benefits for men and women. Both in Buddhism and social work women are able to indulge in activities outside the home, including proselyte, development of organizational skills, and above all, an atmosphere where 242 Origin and Development of Social Work in India they could experience a sense of accomplishment. Buddhists have also made numerous endowments to the university at Nalanda for spreading education. Tibetan Buddhists are also pre- occupied with social work in various fields like education, hospice services, prison activities etc.

9) Buddhist Movements Several Buddhist movements were aimed at the welfare of the community. One of the Buddhist inspired movement for community development was the Sarvodaya Shramadan Movement of Sri Lanka. Similarly, social movements are highly significant for social work because they bring about desired changes in the social structure, eradicate social evils and prevent abuse and exploitation. Conclusion

In Buddhism we see that the teachings of the Buddha are as relevant today in the society as they were when the Buddha was alive. Social work has become a part and parcel of the Socially Engaged Buddhism. It may not be out of place to conclude in the words of the Dalai Lama, the greatest Buddhist personality of modem times: “I believe that the embracing of a particular religion like Buddhism does not mean the rejection of another religion or one’s own community. In fact it is important that those of you who have embraced Buddhism should not cut yourself off from your own society; you should continue to live within your own community and with its members. This is not only for your sake but for others’ also, because by rejecting your community you obviously cannot benefit others, which actually is the basic aim of religion” (Dalai Lama, 1976). Buddhism and Social Work 243 References

Bond, G. D., The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation, and Response. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina, 1988. Brandon, David, Zen and the Art of Helping, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. Dalai Lama, H.H.XIV, Universal Responsibility and the Good Heart, Dharamsala, 1976. Jones, Ken, The New Social Face of Buddhism: A Call to Action, Wisdom, 2003. Macy, 1., Dharma and Development: Religion as Resource in the Sarvodaya Self-help Movement, West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press, 1983. Rahula, Walpola, What the Buddha Taught, 2nd ed., Gordon Fraser, 1967. Saddhatissa, H., trans., Kalahavivada-sutta (Sutta- Nipata), “Buddhist Quarterly,” 11(1), 1978,1-3.. Gomez, L.a. Buddhism in India. The Encycloperdia of Religion, Macmillan P. Company: New York, 1987. Websites http://buddhism.about.com/library/bloudifesights2. htm “The Life of the Budd} four sights” http://www.angeifire.com/electronic/bodhidharma/ bodh i tree.htmllthebodhitree http://www.budhamind.info/leftside/arty/bod .leaLhtm -bodhileaf 244 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

10 Christianity and Social Work

*Suresh Pathare

Introduction

In order to have an understanding about the contribution of Christianity to social work profession, it would be appropriate to discuss the background information about Christianity in general and Christianity in India in particular. Therefore an attempt has been made to give a brief account of its origin, essential nature and chief characteristics. This unit is divided into three parts. In the first part of this unit we attempt to explain the Christian religion, its origin, history and present situation. Secondly, we try to summarize Christian beliefs, teachings, values, practices and its social vision. And lastly we will discuss the contribution of Christianity to social work profession.

The Meaning and Introduction to Christianity Christianity is the name given to that definite system of religious beliefs and practices, which were derived from the teachings of Jesus Christ in the country of Palestine, during the reign of the Roman Emperor, Tiberius. According to the accepted tradition, the day of Pentecost, in A.D. 29, is regarded, as the beginning of the Christian religion. Thus Christianity is a religion of the people who follow Jesus the Christ. In our effort to understand the meaning of Christianity, we examine three aspects: (1) A set of beliefs, (2) a way of life and

* Prof. Suresh Pathare, TISS, Tuljapur. Christianity and Social Work 245

(3) a community of people. Different Christian groups or denominations place different levels or provide varying degrees of importance on these three aspects, but they always involve all three. All the three aspects are based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who is also known as the Christ. (“Christ” was originally a title. It is the Greek form of the Hebrew word “Messiah”, meaning “anointed”.) Christian faith is centered on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christianity, for its first thousand years, was largely confined to the Middle East, North Africa, Europe and parts of India. However, it spread throughout the world during the second millennium mainly due to missionary work and colonization. Christianity is closely linked to Judaism. Jesus was a Jew. He lived between 3 BC to 36 AD. He lived and taught in Palestine, (although not exclusively) among fellow Jews. Christianity separated itself from the main body of Judaism for the reasons that Christianity came to regard Jesus as Son of God who died on a cross and rose from the dead. This was unacceptable to most Jews. The birth, death, resurrection of Jesus are historical facts recorded in the Bible. Bible is the religious scripture of Christians. It includes the Hebrew Bible (known to Christians as the Old Testament) and the New Testament (life and teachings of Jesus Christ and some of his disciples). In order to know more about Christianity it is suggested that you may read at least one of the Gospels in the New Testament. The Gospels contain the life and teachings of Jesus. Since Christianity is about following Jesus the Christ, there’s really no substitute for knowing about his life and teachings other than the Bible. If you want to read just one of the gospels, it is suggested that you read 246 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Luke as it contains very good narrative of Jesus’s deeds and teachings. Another book, which will help in understanding Christianity, is the Acts of the Apostles that gives a glimpse into the beginnings of Christianity.

Christian Denominations There is a diversity of doctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christians. These groups are sometimes classified under denominations. Christianity may be broadly divided into four main groupings: Roman Catholic or “Catholic Church,” which is in communion with the Pope of Rome; Eastern Orthodox Churches; Protestantism which was separated from Catholic Church in the 16th century under Martin Luther, and the Restorationists comprising of various unrelated Churches that believe they are restoring the “original version” of Christianity A brief History of Christianity in India

Christianity came to India in 52 A.D. St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew, the immediate disciples of Jesus Christ, brought it to India (Moraes 1964: 25-45). It is believed that St. Thomas preached the Gospel of Jesus in the Southern parts of India, especially in Kerala and Bartholomew in the Western parts of India, especially around Kalyan and Thana near Mumbai. A new era for Christianity in India began with the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 under Vasco da Gama. The Catholic Church was spread under state support and Churches were established wherever the Portuguese empire expanded (David 2001: 27). Fr. Robert de’ Nobili, a Jesuit priest from Italy was another person who played an instrumental role in bringing Christianity to India during 1605 to 1642. He preached Christianity mainly among the so called upper Castes people with the idea Christianity and Social Work 247 that conversion of the high-caste persons to Christianity would help in its spread.

Protestant Mission The first phase of Protestant Christianity had begun in Tamil Nadu in 1707 and it had been confined mainly to the South. In 1793, the arrival of William Carey, a Baptist missionary, at Calcutta marked the beginning of the second phase of the Protestant mission in India. As Carey, was not allowed by the East India Company to settle in Calcutta to do his missionary work, he was compelled to seek shelter at Serampore, a Danish colony, on the banks of the river Hooghli. Carey, Marshman and Ward launched into vigorous protestant missionary work by translating and printing the Bible in a few north Indian languages and by starting a printing press as well as schools. In 1813, the British East India Company passed the Charter Act, with which another chapter began for Christianity in India. This Charter had made provisions for imparting religious knowledge to the British subject. Prior to this charter East India Company opposed missionaries coming to India for evangelization. ‘The British East India Company was in India for eighty years before building a church even for its members, and for a period bitterly resisted the sending of the missionaries’ (Thekkedath 1984:381). Among the Eastern Indian states (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa) have the oldest Christian community (380 years). The first Christian establishment in the region was in 1620 by a Jesuit Missionary Simon Figueredo, under the invitation and patronage of Mughal Governor of Patna, John Maquirrum Khan. The Tibet- Hindustan Mission began in 1703 and Bettiah Mission in 1715. The presence of Christianity in north east 248 Origin and Development of Social Work in India states, was founded with the arrival of two Portuguese missionaries on 26th September, in 1626 in Assam.

The Christian Population and the Current Trends in India Christianity is the largest world religion with 2.1 billion adherents, a figure that includes those who may not be active members of an organized Church. Current trends show an increased membership in many parts of the developing world with a concurrent decline in membership and church attendance in much of the developed world. A few states of country like Kerala, Goa, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Manipur have notable presence of Christians while Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan and Gujarat have less than one per cent of the total population. In the North East, the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Manipur together have 13 per cent of Christians. In Goa, Christians constitutes 29.86 per cent of the total population. Elsewhere, Christians are much more scattered and they form just 0.44 per cent in Gujarat, 0.10 per cent in Haryana and 0.09 per cent in Himachal Pradesh. Over 31 per cent of Christian population in the country reside in Urban India. According to the census of 2001, the number of Christians in India is 2.13 of the total population.

Beliefs, Practices and Teachings of Christianity In order to initiate discussion on Christianity and social work we will briefly discuss the social teachings of Christianity in terms of its values, principles, beliefs and practices. Every religion has social teachings. It Christianity and Social Work 249 gets expressed through a variety of social concerns. The social vision of Christianity is arising from its scriptures, theology, social teachings and the historical development. The emergence of liberation theology in the latter part of the twentieth century took Christianity to concrete forms of social action for social transformation. The Christian life is centered around some essential aspects of the Christian religion. Among them the following are key ones: ● Fellowship with God ● Our relationship with others ● Obedience to God’s commands ● Discipline Christianity is built around the value of relationship: with God and with others. When Jesus was asked to summarize his teachings, he said that it was all about “loving God and our neighbour”. Everything else is a means to that end. One of the most important terms used in Christianity is “fellowship”. This term covers their life together in communion as Christians. This means first of all that they spend time together in family, in worship, work, service to others, and having fun. They hold community as a value; it is in and through community that they desire and achieve their life’s ultimate goal of salvation through Jesus Christ. The Bible refers to the Christian community using organic metaphors, such as a vine and a body. It talks about them sharing with each other and supporting each other. The Christians have their religious rules that are meant to regulate their behaviour and facilitate the modes of worship. Respect for others, regular prayer both individual and communitarian, discipline, self-less service to others and sharing of faith are some aspects of Christian life. As mentioned earlier, Christianity is 250 Origin and Development of Social Work in India about relationships: with God as father, with Jesus as the Son of God, with our family and friends, and even with enemies. Relationships are based on communication. Since prayer is the primary means of communication with God, it is the basis for our relationship with him. We are dependant on the all powerful God and we ask for his blessings in prayer. Receiving God’s blessings and mercy is the result of the deep relationship that we build with him in prayer. This is true even when dealing with other people. Often we can see something about a person. But until they’re willing to share with us about it, all that we might do is going to be somewhat impersonal, and not part of our relationship with them.

The Universal Prayer When his disciplines asked Jesus to teach them how to pray, Jesus taught them the famous universal prayer: “Our Father in heaven, holy be your Name, your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth, as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread and forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against us and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.” Christian values, ethics and principles for human relationship is clearly evident in this prayer which is also appreciated by people from various society and culture.

Repentance Another major component of Christian life is repentance. The term “repent” means “to turn around”. In repentance, Christians evaluate their lives in light of God’s message, and take the necessary corrective measures. In different Christian traditions, there are somewhat different ways of doing this. For Catholics, Christianity and Social Work 251 the sacrament of penance (or in more modern language: reconciliation) provides a structured environment where a priest helps the people review their actions and motivations. For Protestants and non-catholic Christians repentance is often done in the context of private reflection and prayer, although many also use small groups or partners to help provide some structure. This includes both things we did that we shouldn’t have, and thing we should have done and didn’t. As Jesus pointed out, these include not just physical actions, but words and attitudes as well. Avoiding sin in the future requires change. It may be changes in attitude, in approach, in behaviour, or simply avoiding certain kinds of situations where we know we are likely to fall into the old patterns of behavior. Christians are urged to forgive and forget.

The Ten Commandments Jesus advocated the Ten Commandments which were handed down by God to the Prophet Moses about whom we read in the Old Testament. They are: 1) I am the Lord your God; you shall have no other gods before Me. 2) You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain. 3) Remember to keep holy the Lord’s Day. 4) Honour your father and your mother. 5) You shall not kill. 6) You shall not commit adultery. 7) You shall not steal. 8) You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 9) You shall not covet your neighbour’s wife. 10) You shall not covet your neighbour’s goods. 252 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

The gist of the ten commandments is “love of god and love of one’s neighbours”. Although the first three commandments are related to god and the individual concerned the remaining seven commandments are very much in tune with the values, principles and ethics expected to be followed by people from every walk of life in the society including the social workers. Christian Discipline Living a disciplined Christian life requires planning and a consistent approach. There are certain precautions taken by Christians which are referred to as “discipline”. Christians generally set aside specific times each day for prayer and study, both individually and as a family. The traditional Catholic approach to accountability is individual confession to a priest. By involving another person, we make it less likely that we’ll slack off. Priests are also trained as spiritual counsellors. Thus they may provide guidance in dealing with any personal and spiritual problems, and in deciding how to bring about necessary changes. Christians are fundamentally committed to serving the needy. The primary way of judging someone’s spiritual state is by looking at what they do. It’s worth mentioning here that the Christian life includes everything that a Christian does. There are certain aspects of life that are specifically Christian, such as the way of worship and prayer. However the Christian life also includes the other aspects of life such as, doing your job honestly, and treating your friends and family respectfully. God knows what is best for us. Indeed most Christians believe that they have a specific purpose in life: “They have come from God and will go back to him”. Evangelism Jesus commanded his disciples to spread his message of love and service to the entire world. This is referred Christianity and Social Work 253 to as “evangelism”. Christians practice evangelism in many different ways, ranging from “friendship evangelism” to sending missionaries to other countries and places where the “word of God” has yet to reach. Evangelism is essentially combined with service and that is why the Christians often run education institutions and medical centers even in the most inaccessible areas. In a more comprehensive sense evangelization means the preaching and witnessing the love of God for us and our love for God. It includes fraternal love of all human being, pardoning others who offend, practicing self-denial and helping out those in need. It is also about touching their lives on the personal, social, community, family, national and international levels and making active efforts to do good and avoid evil. Keeping in mind rights and duties, peace, justice and progress, bringing about human advancement through development and liberation, to overcome the problems hunger, chronic epidemics, illiteracy, poverty and injustice. Christianity teaches embracing the whole person in all the aspects of life, viz., one’s material and spiritual needs. In short, the social teaching of Christianity is man, in his totality, his needs, his aspirations, and his relationships with other human beings in the society and with God (Jadhav Jeevendra: 2006, p. 24).

The Ultimate Assurance In chapter one of the book of Jeremiah it is written: “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I consecrated you”. In chapter 29:11 of the same book it is written: “I know the plans I have for you, says the Lord, plans for your welfare and not for harm”. Reiterating this promise, Jesus in John’s Gospel says: you did not choose me but I chose you. If you ask anything of the Father in my name, he will give it to 254 Origin and Development of Social Work in India you so that your joy may be complete. “This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you. No one has greater love than this, to lay down one’s life for one’s friends” (for more details you may read chapter 13-17 of St. John’s Gospel).

Christianity and Social Work Profession

As discussed above, the basic tenets of Christianity show compatibility with the cardinal values of social work. Moreover social work flows from the same premise of Christianity, which upholds the dignity of the human being. Christianity as a religion has certainly played a central role in the development of social work as a profession. While studying the history of social work we have studied that social work profession originated under the inspiration of the Judeo-Christian religious traditions of its philanthropic founders. The Charity Organization Society (COS) and the settlement house movement originated through the work of clergy. Later, the American Social Gospel Movement played a key role in supporting the development of public social services and a legislative remedy for social problems (Dubois 2004: 197). Midgley (1989) has given the detailed account of the role played by religiously inspired individuals and organisations in the emergence of social work in the Western industrial countries during the nineteenth century. A Scottish clergyman, Thomal Chalmers, is generally acknowledged to have formulated the basic principles of social visiting, which subsequently evolved into social casework (Young and Ashton, 1956). The clergy were well represented among the formative leadership of the Charity Organisation Society, and it was another clergyman, the Rev Stephen Gurtee, who first imported the Charity Organisation Society concept Christianity and Social Work 255 to the United States (Leiby, 1978). Yet another clergyman, Samuel Barnett, conceived the idea of the settlement house while serving in St. Jude’s Parish in the East End of London. Barnett was also known for his progressive, reformist activities and, aligned with the Fabians, he supported state intervention in the economy and in social affairs (Bruce, 1961). In this regard, his work paralleled the progressive reformism of the American Social Gospel movement which championed the creation of public social services, and the extension of legislative authority to remedy social problems (White and Hopkins, 1976). Christian religious ideas have also influenced the development of social work concepts, and particularly its values and ethics. Biestek’s (1957) exposition of social casework which emphasized compassion, love, understanding and acceptance is perhaps the best example of the infusion of Christian notions into social work. The welfare services during the initial period of the profession were more in the nature of amelioration, by and large carried out by semi-religious organizations and well-intended philanthropic citizens (Vakharia 1999: 8). Christian Contribution to Social Work Profession in India In India also the Christian religious organizations have played a major role in the development of social work. The major schools of social work in India were founded under auspices of Christian missionaries and they combined a religious orientation with secular professional education. Missionaries of American Marathi Mission established the first school of social work in Asia – Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) at Mumbai. It was Dr. Manshardt a Christian missionary of Marathi mission who conceived the idea, prepared 256 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the blue print of TISS and provided leadership during its formation stage. Among other schools, the Delhi School of Social Work (presently Department of Social Work) at Delhi University was founded by the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), Center for Studies in Rural Development, Ahmednagar was founded by the Missionaries of American Marathi Mission, Nirmala Niketan at Mumbai, Loyola College at Chennai and Trivendrum, Madras Christian College in Tamil Nadu, Rajgiri College of Social Work in Kerala, Indore School of Social Work in Madhya Pradesh and Stella Maris in Tamil Nadu are some of the prominent Institutes of Social Work started by Christians.

Contribution of Christianity to the fields of Social Work

It would be appropriate at this stage to present a brief account of activities undertaken by the missionaries in India. According to the information made available by the Catholic Bishops Conference of India (CBCI), the apex body of the Catholic Church in India, Christians are involved in education from pre-primary to college/ university level; health care including medical colleges, hospitals and health care clinics; care of orphans, widows, leprosy patients, AIDS victims, street children, destitute women, scheduled castes/tribes and other socially disadvantaged sections of the society. While the CBCI has a dozen commissions addressing issues of specific target groups, the non-catholic Christians are equally active across the country extending the much needed care and support to the needy. About 80 per cent of the services being provided by the Christian missionaries are in the rural sector. Christianity and Social Work 257 i) Contribution of Christianity to Social Reform in India Christianity certainly played a pivotal role in the social reformation of India. Its religious leaders and members have kept up a long tradition of systematic and disciplined work in bringing about social reform in the field of education, social service, research, social justice and so on. The contribution can be found in the pre- British era, during the British rule and the post- independence period. G.A. Oddie (1979:3) in Social Protest in India gives an account of missionaries’ involvement in social protest and agitation for social reform. He wrote: ‘The conditions and the situation in India were a crucial factor prompting the missionaries’ involvement in social protest. There was a great impact of Christian teachings on the progressive social thinkers and reformers like Jyotiba Phule, Mahatma Gandhi, M.G. Ranade, K.T. Telang, N.G. Chandavarker, Shahu Maharaj, Dr. B.R. Ambedker and others. Influenced by the dedication and missionary zeal of Catholic missionaries, particularly the Society of Jesus, veteran political leader Gopal Krishna Gokhale, referred to as the Guru of Mahatma Gandhi, drafted the constitution of the Servants of India Society on the lines of the constitution of the Society of Jesus (SJ). Christianity rejected caste structure as dehumanizing, helped to humanize the cultural ethos and structures of the Indian society. It protested against division, exclusion and exploitation. Christians raised voice against evil practice of child marriage and Sati. Pandita Ramabai holds a very unique place amongst the Christian social reformers who worked for social awakening of society in Maharashtra towards the end of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century. She was the first to start the home for child widows. She took initiative to mobilize support for the 258 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Marriage of Consent Bill in India. Until this Bill, physical relations maintained by a husband with his wife less than 12 years of age was accepted. William Carey, another Christian missionary pioneered the movement that led to the abolition of the dreadful practice of Sati. It has been pointed out that Christian missionaries have done far more for women’s education in India than the government or the native reformers. Christian missionaries were the first to initiate girls’ education in India. Later taking inspiration from Christian missionaries Mahatma Phule taught his wife Savitribai and started a school for girls. Christianity in India was a liberating force for the caste- ridden society, particularly to the oppressed and lower castes of the society. The Christian missionaries greatly expanded opportunities for dalits’ education in schools and they succeeded in bringing the situation of all dalits to the public’s attention and making it a matter of public concern. Historical evidences show that the missionaries had a consensus not only in condemning caste but also in trying to eliminate caste within the Churches. Christian Missionaries pioneered in mixing caste, including dalits, within their schools despite opposition from higher caste parents. And they took an active role, generally on behalf of lower caste and dalit converts, in trying to abolish some of the disabilities from which they suffered: prohibitions against the use of public roads and public wells and, in the South of the count against the practice of women wearing a “breast cloth” to cover the upper portion of their bodies (Webster, 1996:38). Another work that missionaries undertook was the conscientization of the dalits. ii) Christian contribution to the Modern Education The Christian missionaries laid down the foundation of the existing education pattern in India. The roots of Christianity and Social Work 259

Western education in India, invariably found to have been first introduced by the Christians. In the educations sphere, the contribution of Christian missionaries was in the form of opening of primary and high schools, colleges, adult literacy centers, technical training centers, etc. Educational service of Christianity has been recognized as highly valued service to the nation. The contribution and commitment of Christianity in the field or education can be well understood from the quality education provided till today. Alexander Duff, a Scottish Missionary played significant role in the foundation of Calcutta University. Another missionary of the Scottish missionary Society John Wilson, helped to establish Bombay University in 1857 and served as its vice chancellor in 1869. He was also a pioneer of education for the low castes. The early missionaries William Carey and his close associates William Ward and Hoshua Marshman were pioneers in missionary education. They played important role in giving education in English medium as well as in vernacular. The Church in India own and manage over 30,000 educational institutions including about 400 colleges, four universities, technical and vocational training institutions. Besides the schools and educational institutes, Christianity has also contributed in terms of scholarly work in the field of education. These include the contribution of Sanskrit scholar Robert De Nobili whose literary work is still available in Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit; Reverend William Carey who is known as the father of printing technology in India; Tamil Poet Constantius Joseph Beschi, author of Marathi epic Kristapuran, Fr. Thomas Stephens, Rev. Justin Edward Abbot, who authored 11 books in English and Marathi on the lives and works of the medieval Hindu saints of Maharashtra; Hindi Scholar and lexicographer Padam 260 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Bushan Fr. Camil Bulcke, who was founder member of Bihar Sahitya Academy and was appointed as member of many committees at the national level by the Central Government and he tried a great deal for recognition of Hindi as the national language; Rev. Baba Padmanjee who is well known as the first novelist in Marathi literature; Malayalam language scholar John Earnest Hanxleden alias Arnos Pathiri; Historian Fr. Henry Heras, who established the Institute of Indian History and Culture at Mumbai, Fr Stephen Fuchs a renowned Anthropologist who founded the Institute of Indian Culture, Mumbai, and the Jesusits who founded the Voluntary Health Association of India. iii) Social Service, Social Welfare and Social Action Christianity in India has a long history of social service and social welfare through its institutions and other social service organizations. Christian Missionaries’ involvement in social welfare activities can be seen right from the early part of Christian presence in the country. Their contribution in social service can be traced from the well known service of some of the missionaries like Pandita Ramabai, the pioneer of women’s emancipation in India who established the home for widows and destitute women; Mother Teresa, who served the people by starting homes for the poor, sick and destitute; Rev. Graham Staines, who served lepers in Orissa; Fr. Herman Bacher, a pioneer of rural development, etc. The missionaries established homes for the physically and socially handicapped, deaf, dumb and blind; rescue homes for the welfare of women, orphanages, etc. all over India. Liberating people from bondage of all forms of oppression has always been the main goal of the Christian Churches. Therefore the development schemes of the Church consist not only of providing food, clothing and Christianity and Social Work 261 shelter to the needy, but also helping people toward the achievement of self-reliance and dignity. The missionaries introduced various innovative methods of helping people. The Christian communities are the bases from where the missionaries reach out to all sections of the people through the services rendered to the poor and the needy. The Christian missionaries dared to reach to the un-reached by opening up service centers in remote areas and has been undertaking literacy work, education, relief work, social services, health care, etc.

Health Care Settings The missionaries have been providing medical services for the poor people especially women and children. Beside the hospitals every missionary was equipped with enough knowledge to give substantial practical medical assistance to people during the emergency and to meet the simple day to day requirements of the villagers. Today in India, there are about a dozen Christian medical colleges, two of which are over 100 years old. There are over 150 nursing schools, and about 10 medical and health care settings including hospitals, institutions of the disabled and leprosy patients founded and administered by Christians. There is an overwhelming presence of Christians in medical service sector (about 34% of health care professionals). When the Governments are facing difficulty in staffing the more remote hospitals with doctors and nurses, the Christian hospitals and organization have been able to recruit and retain committed senior staff. The Christian Medical Association of India (CMAI) is a forum of Christians working in hospitals and medical field. It was set up in 1905 by a group of missionaries serving in India as Medical Missionary Association (MMA) for supporting each other professionally and spiritually. In 262 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

1926 it was renamed and has grown in strength by keeping pace with the changing healthcare needs in this country. CMAI has done pioneering work in several areas including leprosy, tuberculosis, malaria and HIV/ AIDS. Today the association has 330 Institutional members. There are other Health Service Sector Organizations such as the Catholic Health Association of India (CHAI) with over 3000 institutional membership, Sister Doctors Forum (SDF) which is the largest forum of Catholic Nuns who are Medical practitioners in the world with over 600, members, and the Nurses’ Guild that have been rendering commendable services to those who are involved in the much needed health care. Relief work at the time of natural and manmade disasters like famine, epidemic, earthquake, riot, etc. is another significant contribution of the Christians. The Christians find themselves compelled to give attention to disaster- affected people. Many a time the Government has officially expressed appreciation of the services both of Christian Organizations and individuals in such work. Recently, the Christian Churches in India has been shifting its approach to social service and welfare. It is moving away from mere alms-giving, charity, help, service and poverty alleviation programmes to development, self-help, critical social awareness, organizing people at the grass roots levels to fight for their rights. The Christian Churches in India is involved in the issue of liberation, mobilization and conscientization and in the activities such as promoting and protecting children and women’s rights. Fighting for the rights of fishermen, Tribals, Dalits, as well as working on the issues of ecology and environment are also part of the Christian social involvement. Christianity and Social Work 263 Conclusion

The aim of this Unit was to help you to understand the Christian religion and its contribution to social service and social work. You are now familiar with the meaning and nature of Christianity. Also you know the background, history and the trends of Christian population in India. Being aware of the contribution of Christianity in professional social work, you will be able to describe the relation of Christianity and social work. The contribution of Christianity is found in most of the fields of social work in India. We discussed some of these important contributions. You are now equipped with the knowledge and understanding of the teachings and principles of Christianity. You will now be able to appreciate and apply some of the values and concerns of Christianity in the practice of social work.

References Chhaya Patel, (ed) “Social Work Practice: Religion- Philosophical Foundation”, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 1999. K.K. Jacob, “Social Work – A Christian Perspective,” Contemporary Social Work vol. XXII, April, 2006. Leonard Fernando, “Christianity in India ”, Penguin Publication, New Delhi , 2004. David, M.D., “Missions: Cross-Cultural encounter and Change in Western India”, ISPCK, New Delhi , 2001. Dubois, Brenda and Karla Krogsrud Miley, Social Work An Empowering Profession. Boston ; Allyn and Bacon, 2004. Parkhe, Camil, “Contribution of Christian Missionaries in India ”, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, Anand, 2007. Rewena Robinson, “Christians of India ”, Sage Publication India ltd, New Delhi, 2003. 264 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Midgley, James and Sanzenbach Paul, 1989, Social Work, Religion and the Global Challenge of Fundamen- talism. International Social Work, Sage 32:273-87. Jadhav, Jevindra, “Evangelisation through community building”, Social Centre, Ahmednagar, 2006. Leiby, J. A History of Social Welfare and Social Work in the United States. New York : Columbia University Press, 1978. Midgley, James and Sanzenbach Paul, 1989. Social Work, Religion and the Global Challenge of Fundamen- talism. International Social Work, Sage 32:273-87. Vakharia, Parin Forward in Chaya Patel (ed.) Social Work Practice- Religio-Philosophical Foundations, Jaipur and Delhi : Rawat Publications, 1999. White and Hopkins The Social Gospel: Religion and Reform in Changing America, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1976. Young, A.F. and Ashton, E.T. British Social Work in the Nineteenth Century, London : Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1956. Biestek, F.P. The Casework Relationship . Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1957. Bruce, M. The Coming of the Welfare State. London : Batsford, 1961. Oddie, G.A. Social Protest in India : British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms, 1950-1900, Delhi , Manohar, 1979. Webster, The Dalit Christians: A History, ISPCK, Delhi, 1996. Thekkedath, J. History of Christianity in India, Vol. II, Banglore: TPI, 1984. Moraes, G.M., A History of Christianity in India, Vol. I, Bombay; Manaktalas, 1964. 11 Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society

*S.R. Billore

Introduction

Professions are highly regarded by the society because they have been granted sanction to perform essential services that ensure survival and enhancement of the quality of life. They emerge from the society and take time to develop. They do not evolve in vacuum. For their survival as well as growth, they have to be in continuous interaction with the surroundings. A series of events affect their development and continue to shape them. The profession of Social Work is no exception to this rule. Being practiced all over the world, its process of indigenization is going on since its inception. It is due to this adaptation as per the socio-economic norms and culture of a particular society, that the Professional Social Work is surviving and flourishing. This is equally true in the Indian context. India has one of the longest and richest histories of social welfare. There are a large number of schools of thought and approaches in the field of Social Welfare. Some of these are secular in nature while the remaining is based on particular religious or political ideologies. Among these, Gandhian approach to Social Work is having one of the largest networks consisting of Gandhain institutions and workers. A professional Social Worker in India cannot afford to ignore it since it

* Dr. S.R. Billore, Bhopal University, Bhopal. 266 Origin and Development of Social Work in India is hundred percent indigenous, and is fully based on Indian philosophy, culture and traditions. There is tremendous scope of collaboration between these two approaches of Social Work in the country in terms of philosophy, experience in various fields, methods and techniques. The process has already begun and the enlightened and optimistic thinkers at the two sides are even sensing a remote possibility of fusion between these two approaches of Social Work in India. An understanding of Gandhian Social Work may enable a professional Social Worker to develop a deeper insight in the ethos and psyche of the Indian society resulting in better output of the services. Gandhi: An Emerging Social Worker and Activist Although Gandhi asserted emphatically that there is nothing like Gandhism and similarly he would have discarded the term “Gandhian Social Work” as well, but his way and style of Social Work is now accepted as Gandhian Social Work. It can not be understood properly unless we know the Social Work facet of Gandhi’s personality. Known as the Mahatma – The Great Soul, Father of The Nation or simply Bapu, he was a charismatic leader, having led the freedom movement of India, a Journalist, Advocate, Naturopath, a Socio-Political philosopher, a Reformer, Social Engineer and Therapist – all rolled into one. He invented some methods of social work, which have survived the test of time and have been used by the international dignitaries like Dr. Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandela. Acknowledging Gandhi’s debt, the Noble Laurite Dr. King wrote “the intellectual and moral satisfaction that I did not receive from the Utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill revolutionary methods of Marks and Lenin, the social contracts theory of Hobbes, ‘the Back to Nature’ Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 267 optimism of Rousseau and the ‘Superman’ philosophy of Niezche, I found in non-violence resistance philosophy of Gandhi. I came to feel that this was the only morally and practically sound method open to oppressed people in their struggle for freedom. In this small treatise, it is not possible to shed light on different facets of his personality. We will keep ourselves limited only to Gandhi as a Social Thinker and Social Worker. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi born on 2nd October 1869 in a middle class family of Porbander, Gujrat, got his schooling in India, went to England to study law and came back as a Barrister-at-Law in 1891. The Social Worker in him started emerging when he proceeded to South Africa in the year 1893 where he organized the Indian community and launched his crusade against apartheid. It was here that he became a journalist by launching the newspaper Indian Opinion. He started reading Shrimadbhagvadgita and Ruskin’s book Unto This Last which laid the foundation of his life as a socio- political leader. In Ruskin’s book, he found three fundamental principles: 1) The good of the individual is contained in the good of all. 2) A lawyer’s work has the same value as the barber’s in as much as all have the same right of earning their livelihood from their work. 3) A life of labour i.e. the life of the tiller of the soil and the handicraftsman is a life worth living. These three principles are reflected in Gandhi’s methodology and constructive program which he presented later before the Indian people. He also invented the word ‘Satyagraha’ in South Africa in 1906 and he started using this non-violent weapon from the very next year. He came back to India as a victorious leader in the year 1915, which is regarded as the 268 Origin and Development of Social Work in India beginning of Gandhian era in India and which lasted for a full period of 33 years until his assassination in the year 1948 on January 30th. There was hardly any field in the country, like politics, social welfare, rural development, journalism, even literature and films which remained unaffected from Gandhian influence. He struggled, no doubt, against the British regime but his ultimate goal was not merely the political independence of India. His ultimate goal was “Purna Swaraj” – the “total independence” which consisted of political, social and economic independence. His idea was to build a new society and he was very clear in his thinking of the means and methods of its realization. In the following pages, we are presenting Gandhi’s perception of ‘Man’ and his views on an ideal society. Gandhi’s Perception of “Man”

“Man” is a complex, multi dimensional organism consisting of different elements of matter, life, consciousness, and intelligence. The search on man is being conducted since centuries and is still on, from the angles of natural and social sciences. It would be interesting to know Gandhi’s thought on man, and also on his relationship to other human beings, i.e. the human society. The reader will find that they are quite similar to a professional social worker’s perception of the man.

Brutal Ancestry of Man Gandhi doesn’t discard man’s animal ancestry. In his own words, “I am prepared to believe that we have become men by a slow process of evolution from the brute.” At the same time he adds that it is more natural for man to be good than to be evil, though apparently descent might seem easier than assent. Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 269

Faith in Human Nature He further said that man will ever remain imperfect and it will always be his endeavor to be perfect. There is definitely the theoretical possibility of his further development towards the goal of perfection. For this, he is bestowed with infinite divine powers within him. Man is not merely a bundle of bones and flesh, but essentially, he is the “Soul” – a part of the divine power or almighty God himself. He often used to say that man is not God but neither he is different from the light of God.

Man and his Environment Gandhi recognizes the impact of environment on human personality and behaviour. According to him, despite the greatest effort for being detached no man can altogether undo the effects of his environment...... but man is not merely a creature of circumstances. It is his privilege to overcome adverse circumstances.

Change in Human Behaviour and Personality There may be several ways to bring about change in human behaviour and personality. One of them, according to Gandhi, is self-restraint. It is a positive factor in man’s life. The brute by nature knows no self restraint. Man is man because he is capable of, and only is so for as he exercises self-restraint, which implies control of the basic tendencies such as hatred and selfishness and improving the quality of life with goodwill and love.

Man’s Ultimate Goal According to Gandhi, although man was born with brute strength, but during this birth he was to realise the God who dwells within him and in everybody. That indeed is the privilege of man and it distinguishes him 270 Origin and Development of Social Work in India from the brute creation. It should therefore be ultimate goal of every human being to know the God dwelling in him, which is synonymous to self realisation. His every thought and action should be directed towards the ultimate goal of self-realisation.

Dignity and Equality of Human Beings The fact that every man has the divine element within him is the sufficient proof of dignity of man. Hence the question of discrimination among human beings on the basis of caste, creed, colour etc. does not arise – all men are equally related to God and therefore are equal among themselves. An Ideal Society: The Gandhian Model

McIver has defined human society as a web of social relationships. From Plato to Che Guevara, philosophers, social scientists and activists have tried to give this web an ideal shape—the blue print of an ideal society. Among innumerable models of the ideal society, Gandhi’s model stands apart at least in one respect- his model rests on the twin pillars of truth and non violence. No one else in the history has laid so much emphasis on these two values in the social context. He was aware that his critics would call it Utopia, but this label can be attached more or less to any other model available. In the absence of a clear-cut plan of an ideal society, in the literature of professional social work, the professional social worker may find Gandhi’s model interesting. Gandhi termed his ideal society as ‘Ramrajya’ i.e. the kingdom of god on earth. In his weekly ‘Harijan’, he wrote: “There will be neither paupers, nor beggars, neither high, nor low, neither millionaire employers nor half starved employees, neither intoxicating drinks nor Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 271 drugs. There will be the same respect for women as for men, and the chastity and purity of men will be jealously guarded…. where there will be no untouchability and where there will be equal respect for all faiths. They will be all proudly, joyously and voluntarily bread- labourers.”

The City: Not an Ideal Community for Human Dwelling Although Gandhi’s ideal society does have both cities as well as the villages, yet he was against the exploitation of villages by the town dwellers. He regarded cities as an evil, a snare, a useless encumbrance where people will not be happy to live — unfortunate for the mankind and the world. He felt that the English educated men and women from the cities have criminally neglected the villages of India, which are backbone of the country. In fact the blood of the villages is the cement with which the edifice of the cities is built…. the blood that is today inflating the arteries of the cities should run once again in the blood vessels of the villages. He hoped to see a reasonable wholesome balance, totally free of exploitation between industry and agriculture, city and the village.

The Rural Society: An Ideal Society It can therefore be inferred that Gandhi’s ideal society is predominately a rural society. Gandhi believed and repeated innumerable times that “India is to be found not in few cities but in its villages. The real India lies in the villages. If Indian civilization is to make its full contribution to the building up of a stable world order, it is this vast mass of humanity that has to be made to live again. I would say that if the villages perish, India will perish too. India will be no more India. Her own mission in the world will get lost.” Gandhi had full faith in the wisdom of the rural people. He opined that the age old Indian culture and wisdom 272 Origin and Development of Social Work in India still continues. “The moment you talk to them (Indian Peasants) and they begin to speak, you will find wisdom drops from their lips. Behind the crude exterior, you will find a deep reservoir of spirituality. I call this culture — you will not find such a thing in the West. In case of the Indian villager, an age old culture is hidden under an entrustment of crudeness. Take away the encrustation, remove his chronic poverty and illiteracy and you will find the finest specimen of what a cultured, cultivated free citizen should be.”

Gram Swaraj: Self Rule by the Village Gandhi’s rural society is based on the concept of ‘Gram Swaraj’, i.e., self-rule of the village, by the village and for the village. In his words, “My idea of village Swaraj is that it is a complete republic, independent of its neighbours for its own vital wants and yet interdependent for many others in which dependence is necessary. Thus every village’s first concern will be to grow its own food crops, and cotton for its cloth According to Gandhi a village is conceived as the strongest social unit that can give a good account of it, if it is well organized on a basis of self-sufficiency.

Village Structure It will have cottages with sufficient light and ventilation, built of a material obtainable within a radius of five miles of it. The cottages will have courtyards enabling the householders to plant vegetables for domestic use and to house their cattle. The village lanes and streets will be free of all avoidable dust. It will have wells according to its needs and accessible to all. It will have houses of worship for all, also a common meeting place, a theatre, a village common for grazing its cattle, a co- operative dairy, primary and secondary schools in which industrial education will be the central factor, and it Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 273 will have village Panchayats for setting disputes. It will produce its own grains, vegetables and fruit, and its own Khadi.”

Panchayat Non-violence with its techniques of Satyagraha and non- co-operation will be the sanction of the village community. There will be a compulsory service of village guards who will be selected by rotation from the register maintained by the village. The government of the village will be conducted by a Panchayat of five persons annually elected by the adult villagers, male and female, possessing minimum prescribed qualifications. These will have all the authority and jurisdiction required. Since there will be no system of punishments in the accepted sense, this Panchayat will be the legislature, judiciary and executive combined to operate for its year of office.

Industry Machinery has its place, it has come to stay. But, says Gandhi, it should not be allowed to displace human labour every improvement in Cottage Machinery is welcome…… Gandhi is not against machines, but against their indiscriminate multiplication which snatches away employment and thereby bread from poor people. The ideal society will be free from all destructive machinery and shall focus on such simple tools and instruments that save individual labour and lighten the burden of the millions of artisans. Gandhi pleads for that machinery which is helpful in removing India’s idleness and pauperism.

Defence Gandhi believes that “Any village can become such a republic today without much interference. I have not 274 Origin and Development of Social Work in India examined here the question of the relations with the neighbouring village and the Centre if any. The purpose is to present an outline of village government. Here is perfect democracy based upon individual freedom. The individual is the architect of his own Government. The law of non-violence rules him and his Government. He and his village are able to defy the might of the world. For the law governing every villager is that he will suffer death in the defence of his and his village’s honour. The villagers should develop such a high degree of skill that articles prepared by them should command a ready market outside. When our villages are fully developed there will be no dearth of men with a high degree of skill and artistic talent. There will be village poets, village artists, village architects, linguists and research workers. In short, there will be nothing in life worth having which will not be there in the villages. Today the villages are dung heaps. Tomorrow they will be like tiny gardens of Eden where highly intelligent folk whom no one can deceive or exploit would dwell.

A Horizontal Society In this structure composed of innumerable villages there will be ever widening, never ascending circles. Life will not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom. But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral units. Therefore, the outermost circumference will not wield power to crush the inner circle but give strength to all within and derive its own from the centre. I may be Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 275 taunted with the retort that this is all Utopian and therefore not worth a single thought. If Euclid’s point, though incapable of being drawn by human agency, has an imperishable value, my picture has its own for mankind to live. Let India live for this true picture, though never realizable in its completeness. We must have a proper picture of what we want before we can have something approaching it. If there ever is to be a republic of every village in India, then I claim variety for my picture in which the last is equal to the first, or in other words, none is to be the first and none the last. Value Base of Gandhi’s Ideal Society and Social Work Related Intervention

Dictionary of Sociology by Fairchild defines ‘Values’ as the socially desirable goals. Every social endeavour, movement or programme strives towards the achievement of the values set jointly by the people involved in such activities. Obliviously Professional Social Work (PSW) as well as Gandhian Social Work (GSW) have their own sets of values. Prof. Herbert Bisno, the Philosopher of PSW, mentions dignity of man, equality and welfare of the weaker as prime values, while the “International Code of ethics for Professional Social Workers” adopted by the International Federation of Social Workers general meeting held in 1976 at Puerto Rico has added self fulfillment and service above the self to this list. In the year 1996, SWEF (Social Work Educators Forum) in its conference on ethics for the Professional Social Workers held at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai extended this list by adding overall well-being of people, in the spirit of Sarvodaya, social, economic, political and legal justice, people centred development in the spirit of Swarajya, democracy and Ahimsa. This was a sincere step on the part of the PSW’s 276 Origin and Development of Social Work in India in India in the direction of bringing the two schools closer to each other, which is yet to be endorsed by the global fraternity of the PSW’s. Coming to the Gandhian framework of values, we find that these are 14 in number. Social philosopher Joseph H. Bunsel has classified values into two broad categories — internal or personal and external or social. But in the Gandhian set of values, there is no such clear cut demarcation. Out of these, 11 values have been beautifully condensed into a Sanskrit / Hindi verse by Acharya Vinoba Bhave. These values are as follows:

Gandhi’s 11 Vows Ahimsa Non-violence Satya Truth Asteya Non-stealing Brahmacharya Self-discipline Aparigraha Non-possession Sharirshrama Bread-labour Aswada Control of the Palate Sarvatra Bhayavarjana Fearlessness Sarva Dharma Samantva Equality of All Religions Swadeshi Use Locally Made Goods Sparshbhavana Remove Untouchability The other three are peace, equality and democracy.

Non-violence (Ahimsa) Not to hurt any living thing is no doubt a part of Ahimsa. But it is its least expression. The principle of Ahimsa is much broader in its thought and expression. It is violated by every evil thought, by undue haste, by lying, by hatred, by wishing ill to anybody. It is also violated by our holding on to what the world needs. Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 277

Without Ahimsa it is not possible to seek and find Truth. Ahimsa and truth are so intertwined that it is practically impossible to disentangle and separate them. They are like the two sides of a coin, or rather of a smooth unstamped metallic disc. Nevertheless Ahimsa is the means; Truth is the end. Means to be means must always be within our reach, and so Ahimsa is our supreme duty. If we take care of the means, we are bound to reach the end sooner or later. When once we have grasped this point, final victory is beyond question.

Truth (Satya) All our activities should be centred in Truth. Truth should be the very breath of our life. All other rules of correct living will come without effort, when this stage in the pilgrim’s progress is reached and obedience to them will be instinctive. But without Truth, it is impossible to observe any principles or rules in life. Truth is the right designation of God. Hence there is nothing wrong in every man following it. Indeed it is his duty to do so. Then if there is a mistake on the part of any one so following Truth, it will be automatically set right. The quest of Truth involves tapas -self-suffering, sometimes even unto death. There can be no place in it for even a trace of self-interest. In such selfless search for Truth nobody can lose his bearings for long. Directly he takes to the wrong path he stumbles, and is thus redirected to the right path. Non-stealing (Asteya) It is impossible that a person should steal, and simultaneously claim to know Truth or cherish Love. Yet every one of us is consciously or unconsciously more or less guilty of theft. It is theft to take something in the belief that it is nobody’s property. Things found on the roadside belong to the ruler or the local authority. 278 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

It is theft to take something from another even with his permission if we have no real need of it. We should not receive any single thing that we do not need. Theft of this description generally has food for its object. It is theft for me to take any fruit that I do not need, or to take it in a larger quantity than is necessary. We are not always aware of our real needs, and most of us improperly multiply our wants, and thus unconsciously make thieves of ourselves. If we devote some thought to the subject, we shall find that we can get rid of quite a number of our wants. One who follows the observance of non-stealing will bring about a progressive reduction of his wants. Much of the distressing poverty in this world have arisen out of breaches of the principle of non-stealing. Chastity Brahamacharya (Self-discipline) Brahmacharya (Self Discipline) Brahmacharya means control of all the organs of sense. He who attempts to control only one organ and allows all the others free play is bound to find his effort futile. To hear suggestive stories with the ears, to see suggestive sights with the eyes, to taste stimulating food with the tongue, to touch exciting things with the hands and at the same time to expect to control the only remaining organ, is like putting one’s hands in the fire and expecting to escape being hurt They are all interdependent. Mind on the lower plane is included in the senses. Without control over the mind mere physical control, even if it can be sustained for a time, is of little or of no use.

Non-possession (Aparigraha) Non-possession means that we should not hoard anything that we do not need today. The less you Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 279 possess, the less you want, the better you are. And better for what? Not for your enjoyment of this life but for enjoyment of personal service to your fellow beings; service to which you dedicate yourself, body, soul and mind. Possession implies provision for the future. A seeker after Truth, a follower of the law of Love cannot hold anything against tomorrow. God never stores for the tomorrow; He never creates more than what is strictly needed for the moment. If therefore we repose faith in His providence, we should rest assured that He will give us every day our daily bread, meaning everything that we require. Saints and devotees, who have lived in such faith, have always derived a justification for it from their experience. Our ignorance or negligence of the Divine Law, which gives to man from day to day his daily bread and no more, has given rise to inequalities with all the miseries attendant upon them. The rich have a superfluous store of things which they do not need, and which are therefore neglected and wasted; while millions are starved to death for want of sustenance. If each retained possession only of what he needed, no one would be in want, and all would live in contentment. As it is, the rich are discontented no less than the poor. The poor man would become a millionaire, and the millionaire a multimillionaire. The rich should take the initiative in dispossession with a view to a universal diffusion of the spirit of contentment. If only they keep their own property within moderate limits, the starving will be easily fed, and will learn the lesson of contentment along with the rich. When you dispossess yourself of everything you have, you really possess all the treasures of the world. In other words, you really get all that is in reality necessary for you, everything. 280 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Bread Labour (Shareer Shrama) Earn thy bread by the sweat of the brow — says Bible. Bread labour means that everyone is expected to perform sufficient body-labour in order to entitle him to his living. It is not, therefore, necessary to earn one’s living by bread labour, taking living’ in its broader sense. But everyone must perform some useful body-labour. The economics of Bread labour are the living way of life. It means that every man has to labour with his body for his food and clothing. If I can convince the people of the value and necessity of bread-labour, there never will be any want of bread and cloth. The idea is that every healthy individual must labour enough for his food and his intellectual faculties must be exercised not in order to obtain a living or amass a fortune, but only in the service of mankind. If this principle is observed everywhere, all men would be equal, none would starve and the world would be saved from a sin. In my view, the same principle has been set forth in the third chapter of the Gita, where we are told, that he who eats without offering sacrifice, eats stolen food. Sacrifice here can only be Bread labour.

Palate Control (Aswad) According to Gandhi, a man who wants to control his animal passions easily does so if he controls his palate, but this is one of the most difficult vows/values to follow. Unless we are satisfied with foods that are necessary for the proper maintenance of our physical health, and unless we are prepared to rid ourselves of stimulating heating and exciting condiments that we mixed with food, we will certainly not be able to control the over- abundant, unnecessary, and exciting stimulation that we may have. If we do not do that, the result naturally is that we abuse ourselves and become less than animals Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 281 and brutes. The diet should be healthy and well- balanced. The body is never meant to be treated as a refuse-bin. Food is meant to sustain the body.

Sarvatra Bhayavarjana (Fearlessness) Fearlessness means freedom from all external fear that is absence of all kinds of fear — fear of death, fear of bodily injury, fear of hunger, fear of insults, fear of public disapprobation, fear of ghosts and evil spirits, fear of anyone’s anger. Freedom from all these and other such fears constitutes fearlessness. Fearlessness does not mean arrogance and aggressiveness. That in itself is a sign of fear. Fearlessness presupposes calmness and peace of mind. For that it is necessary to have a living faith in God. Fearlessness is the pre-conditional quality for the growth of non-violence and other noble qualities like truthfulness and love. Gandhi shows the way to become fearless. According to him, all the fears revolve round the body as the centre and would therefore disappear as soon as one gets rid of the attachment of the body. To develop non- attachment one and all must conquer one’s own passions and internal foes. It requires a balanced state of mind or mental equipoise by means of content of passions.

Respect for All Religions (Sarvadharm Sambhav) Religions have been interwoven. One sees a special quality in every one of them. But no one religion is higher than another. All are complimentary to one another. Since this is my belief, the speciality of any one religion cannot run counter to another, cannot be at variance with universally accepted principles. For I believe in the fundamental truth of all great religions of 282 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the world. I believe that they are all God-given, and I believe that they were necessary for the people to whom these religions were revealed. And I believe that, if only we could all of us read the scriptures of the different faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths we should find that they were at bottom all one and were all helpful to one another. Religions are different roads converging to the same point. What does it matter that we take different roads, so long as we reach the same goal? In reality, there are as many religions as there are individuals. Even as a tree has a single trunk, but many branches and leaves, so there is one true and perfect Religion, but it become many, as it passes through the human medium. The one Religion is beyond all speech. Imperfect men put it into such language as they can command, and their words as interpretation, is to be held to be the right one. Everybody is right from his own standpoint, but it is not impossible that everybody is wrong. Hence the necessity of tolerance, which does not mean indifference to one’s own faith, but a more intelligent and purer love for it. Tolerance gives us spiritual insight, which is as far from fanaticism as the North Pole from the south. True knowledge of religion breaks down the barriers between faith and faith.

Swadeshi (Belonging to One’s Own Country) Swadeshi is that sprit in us which requires us to serve our immediate neighbours before others, and to use things produced in our neighbourhood in preference to those more remote. So doing, we cannot serve humanity to the best of our capacity; we cannot serve humanity by neglecting our neigbours. It is sinful to buy and use articles made by sweated labour. It is sinful to eat American wheat and let my Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 283 neighbour, the grain dealer starve for want of custom. Similarly, it is sinful for to wear the latest finery of Regent Street when I know that if I had but worn the things woven by the neighbouring spinners and weavers, that would have clothed me, and fed and clothed them. My definition of Swadeshi is well known . I must not serve my distant neighbour at the expense of the nearest. It is never vindictive or punitive. It is in no sense narrow, for I buy from every part of the world what is needed for my growth. I refuse to buy from anybody anything, however nice or beautiful, if it interferes with my growth or injures those whom Nature has made my first care. Swadeshi is that spirit in us which restricts us to the use and service of our immediate surroundings to the exclusion of the more remote and I should use only things that are produced by my immediate neighbours and serve those industries by making them efficient and complete where they might be found wanting. It is suggested that such Swadeshi, if reduced to practice, will lead to the millennium. Anti-untouchability (Sparsh Bhawana) Untouchability means pollution by the touch of certain persons in reason of their birth in a particular state or family. It is an excrescence. In the guise of religion, it is always in the way, and erupts religion. Removal of untouchability means breaking down of barriers between man and man, and between the various orders of being. We find such barriers erected everywhere in the whole world and thus merges into Ahimsa. Removal of untouchability spells the breaking down of barriers between man and man and between the various orders of Being. 284 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Gandhi considered untouchability to be a heinous crime against humanity. It is not a sign of self-restraint, but an arrogant assumption of superiority. Peace, Equality, Human Dignity and Democracy

Peace (Shanti) Gandhi advocated peace, both at the global as well as at the local levels. At the global level, he expected to play India a role of maintaining peace with the rest of the world — neither exploiting nor being exploited by others, having smallest army imaginable. He also believed that India has to play a major role in promoting world peace. At the local level, he suggested to deal with stressful social situations like riots etc. Through non-violence and presented a detailed plan of voluntary organization called “Peace Brigade (Shanti Sena)” to work at every village and town in the country.

Equality (Samanta) According to Gandhi, the forms of human beings are many, but the spirit is one. How can there be room for distinctions of high and low where there is this all- embracing fundamental unity underlined the outward diversity. They are not all of the same age, height, skin and intellect, but these inequalities are temporary and superficial, the soul that is hidden beneath this earthly crust is one and the same for all men and women belonging to all clients…. There is a real and substantial unity in all the variety. The word “inequality” has a bad odour about it and it has led to arrogance and inhumanities. Gandhi’s Perception of an Ideal Society 285

Gandhi believes in widening the circle of our love till it embraces the whole village, the village in its turn must take into its fold the district, the district the province, and so on till the scope of our love becomes co-terminus with the world.

Human Dignity and the Value of Non-condemnation Acharya Vinoba Bhave has added one more value to the list which he has called non-condemnation, having its roots in the value of human dignity. According to him, instead of looking for drawbacks and loopholes in others and then wasting time and energy in condemning them, we should have constructive outlook and should go for whatever virtues they have which is in the interest of the individual as well as the society at large.

Democracy (Prajatantra) Democracy must in essence mean the art and science of mobilizing the entire physical, economic and spiritual resources of all the sections of the people in the service of the common good of all. “The very essence of democracy is that every person represents all the varied interests which compose the nation. It is true that it does not exclude and should not exclude special representation of special interest, but such representation is not its test. In this context Acharya Vinoba Bhave’s thinking seems to go one step ahead. According to him the present day democracy is eclipsed by party – politics which has become power- oriented and not people-oriented. Hence the democracy should be steered not by “Rajneeti” but by “Lokneeti” which is the policy of the people by the people and for the people, in which decisions are taken not by majority but are taken unanimously. 286 Origin and Development of Social Work in India Conclusion In this Unit, we have mentioned the two great schools of social thought and action in India, namely Professional Social Work and Gandhian Social Work, the need of exchange between the two, Gandhiji’s perception of man and the ideal human society and their mutual relationship and the 14 fundamental values like truth and non-violence which should become the base, not only of human life and society but also that of social work. Both Professional Social Workers and the Gandhian Social Workers can get benefitted by studying each other’s theory, methods and techniques.

References

Bharathi, K.S. (1991), The Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi: Concept Publishers, N. Delhi. Bisno, Herbert (1982), The Philosophy of Social Work: Public Affairs Bureau Washington D.C. (1949) Dubey, Narendra (1973); Trusteeship: Siddhant Aur Vyavahaar (Hindi); Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan, Varanasi Encyclopaedia of Social Work in India (1987), Vol. 3, Publications Division, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Friedlander, W.A. (1963), Introduction to Social Welfare: Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. Gandhi, M.K. (Reprint 2007), An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth: Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Maclver, R.M & Page, Charles H (1949), Society: An Introductory Analysis: New Delhi, Rinehart. Mashruwala, K.L (2001), Gandhi: Vichar Dohan: Sasta Sahitya Mandal, New Delhi. Prabhu, R.K. and Rao, U.R. (1987), The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi: Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. 287

12 Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction

*S.R. Billore

Introduction

After discussing the ideal society as envisaged by Gandhi and the fundamental values on which the ideal society is to be based, it would be appropriate to go through the 19-point Constructive Program presented by Gandhi to be implemented for the realization of the ideal society. In the foreword of his book “Constructive Program: Its Meaning and Place”, Gandhi called it the program for construction of Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence by truthful and non-violent means… it is designed to build-up the nation from the very bottom, upwards. Complete independence through truth and non-violence means the independence of every unit, be it the humblest of the nation without distinction of race, colour of creed. This independence is never exclusive. It is therefore wholly compatible with inter-dependence within or without. Gandhi was aware of the criticism of this program. He wrote, “when the critics laugh at the proposition, what they mean is there crores of people will never cooperate in the effort to fulfill the program. No doubt, there is considerable truth in the scoff. My answer is, it is still worth the attempt. Given an indomitable will on the part of the band of earnest workers, the program is as

* Dr. S.R. Billore, Bhopal University, Bhopal. 288 Origin and Development of Social Work in India workable as any other and more so than most. Anyway, I have no substitute for it, if it is to be based on non violence. Gandhian Constructive Programme

Communal Unity All of us agree about the necessity of communal unity. But all of us do not know that unity does not mean political unity which may be imposed. The first thing essential for achieving unity is for every Indian, whatever his religion may be, to represent in his own person Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Zoroastrian, Jew, etc. Shortly, every Hindu and non-Hindu has to feel his identity with every one of the millions of the inhabitants of Hindustan. In order to realize this, every Indian will cultivate personal friendship with persons representing faiths other than his own. He should have the same regard for the other faiths as he has for his own.

Removal of Untouchability It is unnecessary to dilate upon the necessity of the removal of this blot and curse upon Hinduism. It is something indispensable, so far as Hindus are concerned, for the very existence of Hinduism. If Hindus take up the cause for its won sake, they will influence the so-called Sanatanis far more extensively than they have hitherto done. They should approach them not in a militant spirit but, as be befits their non-violence, in a spirit of friendliness. And so far as the Harijans are concerned, every Hindu should make common cause with them and befriend them in their awful isolation— such isolation as perhaps the world has never seen in the monstrous immensity one witnesses it India. I know from experience how difficult the task is. But its part of Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 289 the task of building the edifice of Swaraj as the road to Swaraj is steep and narrow.

Prohibition Gandhi had once said that if he is made Dictator of India only for one hour, he would shut down all liquor shops without giving any compensation. He further said that if we are to reach our goal through non-violent effort, we may not leave to the government the fate of lakhs of men and women who are labouring under the curse of intoxicants and narcotics. Medical men can make a most effective contribution towards the removal of this evil. They have to discover ways of weaning the drunkard and the opium-addict from the curse. Women and students have a special opportunity in advancing this reform. By many acts of loving service they can acquire on addicts a hold which will compel them to listen to the appeal to give up the evil habit. Lasting and healthy deliverance comes from within, i.e. from self-purification. Constructive workers make legal prohibition easy and successful even if they do not pave the way for it.

Khadi It connotes the beginning of economic freedom and equality of all in the country. “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” Let everyone try, and he or she will find out for himself or herself the truth of what I am saying. Khadi must be taken with all its implications. It means a wholesale Swadeshi mentality, a determination to find all the necessities of life in India and that too through the labour and intellect of the villagers. That means a reversal of the existing process. 290 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

That is to say that, instead of half a dozen cities of India living on the exploitation and the ruin of the villages of India, the latter will be largely self-contained, and will voluntarily serve the cities of India and even the outside world in so far as it benefits both the parties. This needs a revolutionary change in the mentality and taste of many. Khadi to me is the symbol of unity of Indian humanity, of its economic freedom and equality and, therefore, ultimately, in the poetic expression of Jawaharlal Nehru, “the livery of India’s freedom”. Moreover, Khadi mentality means decentralization of the production and distribution of the necessaries of life. Therefore, the formula so far evolved is, every village to produce all its necessaries and a certain percentage in addition for the requirements of the cities.

Village Industries These stand on a different footing from Khadi. There is not much scope for voluntary labour in them. Each industry will take the labour of only a certain number of hands. These industries come in as a handmaid to Khadi. They cannot exist without Khadi, and Khadi will be robbed of its dignity without them. Village economy cannot be complete without the essential village industries such as hand-grinding, hand-pounding, soap- making, paper-making, match-making, tanning, oil- pressing, etc. All should make it a point of honour to use only village articles whenever and wherever available. Given the demand there is no doubt that most of our wants can be supplied from our villages. When we have become village-minded, we will not want imitations of the West or machine-made products, but we will develop a true national taste in keeping with the vision of a new India Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 291 in which pauperism, starvation and idleness will be unknown.

Village Sanitation Divorce between intelligence and labour has resulted in criminal negligence of the villages. And so, instead of having graceful hamlets dotting the land, we have dung- heaps. The approach to many village is not a refreshing experience. Often one would like to shut one’s eyes and stuff one’s nose: such is the surrounding dirt and offending smell. A sense of national or social sanitation is not a virtue among us. We may take a kind of a bath, but we do not mind dirtying the well or the tank or the river by whose side or in which we perform ablutions. Gandhi regarded this defect as a great vice which is responsible for the disgraceful state of our villages and the sacred banks of the sacred rivers and for the diseases that spring from insanitation.

Basic Education This education is meant to transform village children into model villagers. It is principally designed for them. The inspiration for it has come from the villages. Work as who want to build up the structure of Swaraj from its very foundation dare not neglect the children. Foreign rule has unconsciously, though none the less surely, begun with the children in the field of education. Primary education is a farce designed without regard to the wants of the India of the villages and for that matter even of the cities. Basic education links the children, whether of the cities or the villages, to all that is best and lasting in India. It develops both the body and the mind, and keeps the child rooted to the soil with a glorious vision of the future in the realization of which he or she begins to take his or her share from the very commencement of his or her career in school. 292 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Adult Education If I had charge of adult education, I should begin with opening the minds of the adult pupils to the greatness and vastness of their country. My adult education means, first, true political education of the adult by word of mouth. Seeing that this will be mapped out, it can be given without fear. I imagine that it is too late in the day for authority to interfere with this type of education; but if there is interference, there must be a fight for this elementary right without which there can be no Swaraj. Of course, in all I have written, openness has been assumed. Non-violence abhors feat and, therefore, secrecy. side by side with the education by the mouth will be the literary education.

Women Woman has been suppressed under custom and law for which man was responsible and in the shaping of which she had no hand. In a plan of life based on non-violence, woman has as much right to shape her own destiny as man has to shape his. But as every right in a non- violent society proceeds from the previous performance of a duty, it follows that rules of social conduct must be framed by mutual co-operation and consultation. They can never be imposed from outside. Men have not realized this truth in its fullness in their behaviour towards women. They have considered themselves to be lords and masters of women instead of considering them as their friends and co-workers. It is the privilege of men to give the women of India a lifting hand. Women are in the position somewhat of the slave of old who did not know that he could or even had to be free. And when freedom came, for the moment he felt helpless. Women have been taught to regard themselves as slaves of men. It is up to men to see that they enable them to realize their full status and play their part as equals of men. Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 293

This revolution is easy, if the mind is made up. Let men begin with their own homes. Wives should not be dolls and objects of indulgence, but should be treated as honoured comrades in common service. To this end those who have not received a liberal education should receive such instruction as is possible from their husbands. The same observation applies, with the necessary changes, to mothers and daughters.

Education in Health and Hygiene The art of keeping one’s health and the knowledge of hygiene is by itself a separate subject of study and corresponding practice. In a well-ordered society the citizens know and observe the laws of health and hygiene. It is established beyond doubt that ignorance and neglect of the laws of health and hygiene are responsible for the majority of diseases to which mankind is heir. The very high death rate among us is no doubt due to largely gnawing poverty, but it could be mitigated if the people were properly educated about health and hygiene. “Mens sana in corpore sano” is perhaps the first law for humanity. A healthy mind in a healthy body is a self- evident truth. There is an inevitable connection between mind and body. If we were in possession of healthy minds, we would shed all violence and, naturally obeying the laws of health, we would have healthy bodies without an effort.

Provincial Languages According to Gandhi, our love of the English language in preference to our own mother tongue has caused a deep chasm between the educated and politically-minded classes and the masses. The languages of India have suffered impoverishment. We flounder when we make 294 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the vain attempt to express abstruse thought in the mother tongue. There are no equivalents for scientific terms. The result has been disastrous. The masses remain cut off from the modern mind. We are too near our own times correctly to measure the disservice caused to India by this neglect of its great languages. It is easy enough to understand that, unless we undo the mischief, the mass mind must remain imprisoned. The masses can make no solid contribution to the construction of Swaraj. It is inherent in Swaraj based on non-violence that every individual makes his own direct contribution to the Independence movement. The masses cannot do this fully unless they understand every step with all its implications. This is impossible unless every step is explained in their own languages.

National Language And then for all-India intercourse we need, from among the Indian stock, a language which the largest number of people already know and understand and which the others can easily pick up. This language is indisputably Hindi. It is spoken and understood by both Hindus and Muslims of the North. It is called Urdu when it is written in the Urdu character. In 1925, the common man’s language was called this all-India speech Hindustani. And since that time, in theory at least, Hindustani has been the Rashtra Bhasha. In 1920 a deliberate attempt was begun to recognize the importance of Indian languages for the political education of the masses, as also of an all-India common speech which politically- minded India could easily speak and which people from the different provinces could understand at all-India gatherings. Such National languages should enable one to understand and speak both forms of speech and write in both the scripts. Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 295

Economic Equality This is the master key to non-violent Independence that is, working for economic equality means abolishing the eternal conflict between capital and labour. It means the leveling down of the few rich in whose hands is concentrated the bulk of the nation’s wealth on the one hand, and the levelling up of the semi-starved naked millions on the other. A non-violent system of government is clearly an impossibility so long as the wide gulf between the rich and the hungry millions persists. The contrast between the palaces of New Delhi and the miserable hovels of the poor labouring class nearby cannot last one day in a free India in which the poor will enjoy the same power as the richest in the land. A violent and bloody revolution is a certainty one day unless there is a voluntary abdication of riches and the power that riches give and sharing them for the common good.

Peasants / Kisans The programme is not exhaustive, Swaraj is a mighty structure. Crores of hands have to work at building it. Of these kisans, i.e. the peasantry are the largest part. When they become conscious of their non-violent strength, no power on earth can resist them. They must not be used for power politics. I consider it to be contrary to the non-violent method. Those who would know my method of organizing kisans may profitably study the movement in Champaran when satyagraha was tried for the first time in India with the result all India knows. It became a mass movement which remained wholly non-violent from start to finish. 296 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Labour Ahmedabad Labour Union is a model for all India to copy. Its basis is non-violence, pure and simple. It has never had a set-back in its career. It has gone on from strength to strength without fuss and without show. It has its hospital, its schools for the children of the mill- hands, its classes for adults, its own printing press and Khadi depot, and its own residential quarters. Almost all the hands are voters and decide the fate of elections. They were also put on the voters list. The organization has never taken part in party politics. It influences the municipal policy of the city. It has to its credit very successful strikes which were wholly non- violent. Mill-owners and labour have governed their relations largely through voluntary arbitration. If I had my way, I would regulate all the labour organizations of India after the Ahmedabad model.

Tribes (Adivasis) Service of Tribes is also a part of the constructive programme. Though they are the sixteenth number in this programme, they are not the least in point of importance. Our country is so vast and the races so varied that the best of us cannot know all there is to know of men and their condition. As one discovers this for oneself, one realizes how difficult it is to make well our claim to be one nation, unless every unit has a living consciousness of being one with every other. Lepers Leper is a word of bad odour. India is perhaps a home of lepers next only to Central Africa. Yet they are as much a part of society as the tallest among us. But the tall absorb our attention though they are least in need of it. The lot of the lepers who are much in need of attention is studied neglectly. I am tempted to call it heartless, Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 297 which it certainly is, in terms of non-violence. It is largely the missionary who, be it said to his credit, bestows care on him.

Students Such as the students are, it is from these young men and women that the future leaders of the nation are to rise. Unfortunately they are acted upon by every variety of influences. Gandhi’s Code of Conduct for the students is as under: 1) Students must not take part in party politics. They are students, searchers, not politicians. 2) They may not resort to political strikes. They must have their heroes, but their devotion to them is to be shown by copying the best in their heroes, not by going on strikes. 3) They must all do sacrificial spinning in a scientific manner. Their tools shall be always neat, clean, and in good order and condition. If possible, they will learn to make them themselves. 4) They will be Khadi-users all through and use village products to the exclusion of all analogous things, foreign or machine-made. 5) They can enforce the message of the tricolour flag in their own persons and harbour neither communalism nor untouchability in their hearts. They will cultivate real friendship with students of other faiths and with Harijans as if they were their own kith and kin. 6) They will make it a point to give first aid to their injured neighbours and do scavenging and cleaning in the neighbouring village and instruct village children and adults. 298 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

7) They will learn the national language, Hindustani, in its present double dress, two forms of speech and two scripts, that they may feel at home whether Hindi or Urdu is spoken and nagari or urdu script is written. 8) They will translate into their own mother tongue everything new they may learn, and transmit it in their weekly rounds to the surrounding villages. 9) They will do nothing in secret, they will be above board in all their dealings, they will lead a pure life of self-restraint, shed all fear and be always ready to protect their weak fellow-students, and be ready to quell riots by non-violent conduct at the risk of their lives. They will be scrupulously correct and chivalrous in their behaviour towards their girl fellow-students.

Service to the Cow To Gandhi, the cow is a poem of pity. It is a purest type of sub-human life. Man, through the cow is enjoined to realize his identity with all that lives. Cow protection is one of the most wonderful phenomenon in human evolution…. It is gift of Hinduism to the world. Apart from religious sentiments, the role of cow in human development is unparallel. Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and cow happens to be the backbone of agriculture. All the cow products namely milk, cow-dung, urine, bullocks, even its bones, horns and skin have multifarious use for nutrition, health, hygiene, fuel along with making of footwear, manure and petty articles like buttons etc. it is a moving plant in itself which is sustainable through local resources. Cow slaughter and a sin, which should be banned totally and every measure should be undertaken to protect and develop the cow species. Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 299 Implementation of the Constructive Programme: Code of Conduct for the Agencies

Like the agencies of Professional Social Work, there is a very large number of agencies and their federations, functioning to implement Gandhian Constructive Programme. Of course, there are many followers of Gandhi who are engaged in Social Work in their individual capacity, but their number is relatively small. The network of these agencies, which were founded both during Gandhian and post-Gandhian era, is country- wide, some of them having celebrated platinum jubilees long back. Like Satyagrahis’ Code of Conduct / Ethics, Gandhi also formulated a Code of Conduct for the agencies engaged in the execution of the 19-point constructive programme. The code has a universal value and is still relevant for all the voluntary agencies / NGO’s in the country. It is reproduced below: Success of Organisation a) Success of any Institution depends on the following conditions: – Extreme authentic dedication and enthusiasm towards the realization of the objectives of the institution. – Not merely observance of the rules and regulations of institutions but also their spirit. – Feeling of brotherhood and unity among the management, members and subordinate staff. b) Despite having other favourable conditions the institutions would be lifeless even if a single condition is not followed out of the above mentioned three conditions. 300 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Director of the Organisation 1) The Director of an institution can be termed as the pivot of an institution. 2) The success of the institution depends on the Director’s dedication and devotion towards the objective of the institution, his observance of rules and regulations, his behaviour towards other members, his industriousness. 3) If the Director is conceited of his powers or indifferent or disinterested towards other members, it would be harmful for the institution. 4) The Director of the institution should behave in the same way as an efficient Commander-in-chief who is alert and strict about making others follow the rules and at the same time he cares to draw love and respect from his soldiers and feels proud of them. 5) Director should look into the smallest details of the institution. He should take care of the members and other fellow beings of the institute in the same manner as mother takes care of her child. 6) Director should exercise his rights according to the situation. He should consider his subordinates as an equal or his co-worker. He should consider junior most employee as his friend. He should believe that he got his post as a Director not because of his special capabilities but the respect shown to him by his co-workers. 7) He should listen to the suggestions of junior most employee with respect and should be ready to implement them if he agrees with them. If he does not think them proper he should try to make them see his viewpoint. Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 301

8) The Director should not be too credulous. He should not form adverse opinion about others in haste. He should take time to understand the person before forming any adverse opinion. In fact he should never form pejorative opinion about others in the absence of clever evidence. 9) He should not shower special favours on a particular person. He should not be partial to people. Also he should not praise one member to down the other. 10) It is not necessary to use the stern behaviour or harsh language to make others follow the rules systematically. The director who thinks the utility of these harsh measures to maintain the discipline displays his inabilities.

Members of the Institution 1) The institution cannot continue for a long if there is absence of the feeling of brotherhood and unity among the members. The differences and disputes are bound to occur and the members would indulge in fighting with each other forgetting the real objective of institute. 2) The institution cannot work for long whose members are not eager to follow their officer. Laziness and careless attitude would spread in the institute and the members would become victim to these vices. 3) There should not only be outward cooperation among Director and the members but also the mental cooperation. It means that it is not enough that the members should work according to the will and order of the Director. If they really agree to the will and order of the Director they should behave in a manner so as to show that they themselves want to do that work. 302 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

4) If the members do not believe in a particular rule or are not convinced about certain order they should discuss it with the Director until and unless they are convinced. They should not give wrong impression to their Director. 5) If the members come across any rule or order which, though, is not against truth and religion but only looks improper in the practical view, the members should follow it. But if it is against truth and religion the members should be ready to leave the organisation. 6) If a particular rule and order is not against truth and religion but it is difficult to be followed due to personal weakness it is better for the members to leave for the progress of the institute. 7) If there are mutual differences between the members; if there is doubt about the behaviour of any member; if a particular member is the cause for dissatisfaction or distress or doubt, the matter should be discussed with the concerned person in each and every case in the first place. If the issue is not resolved it should be brought to the notice of the immediate officer and the decision should be left to him. 8) The disputed matter should not be taken directly to the highest authority without having prior discussion with the concerned member, or intimating the immediate officer. 9) If you have any doubt about other member, it should be immediately cleared. If you keep it in your heart and do not discuss it with the officer it would lead to the accumulation of vices in the institute. 10) The institution cannot function properly if the weakness and faults of the member are talked about Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 303

in hushed tones but not disclosed to the officer or the matter is not discussed openly with the concerned member about whom the discussions are talking place. If the situation persists Institute would become lifeless because it would have become an abode of vice, conceit, untruth, vanity.

Economic Condition of the Institute 1) No real work could be delayed due to paucity of funds. 2) It is not appropriate to put the funds in the bank and spend on the interest of the capital. The Director of the institution should firmly believe that the institute is for the welfare of the people and they would get money for its sustenance. 3) The Director would have to work very hard till the people are convinced of the usefulness of the institute. But that hard work would be considered as part of penance and service. 4) After a period of time so much funds are accumulated but this accumulated money could also make the institute lifeless. Therefore, an ideal institution should not fall for the temptation of accumulation of money. 5) It is generally seen that the institute which get public funds to work, becomes careless in spending the money. This is one of the greatest problems before organisations. The voluntary organisations of a poor country like India should spend sparingly. 6) Proper care should be taken to maintain accounts of the institute. Even a single rupee spent should be accounted for and should be regularly audited by certified auditors. 304 Origin and Development of Social Work in India Conclusion

Gandhi called his 19-point constructive programme a programme for construction of total or complete independence (Poorna Swaraj) consisting of not only political, but social and economic independence as well, through truthful and non-violent means. Social scientists look at it as a programme of social reconstruction aiming at eradication / mitigation of social problems like untouchability alcoholism, unemployment (through khadi and village industries), backwardness of weaker sections such as small farmers, labour, tribes lepers etc (through specific programmes for them) and also aiming at bringing various sections of the society closer to one another (through programmes on communal unity, economic equality national language etc.) He also formulated a code of conduct for the agencies launched to execute these programmes, which is relevant in present day situations as well.

References

Gandhi, M.K., (Reprint 2005), Constructive Programme; Its Meaning and Place, Nawajeewan, Ahmedabad. Gandhi, M.K. (Reprint, 1954), Sarvodaya, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Gangrade, K.D. (2005), Gandhian Approach to Development and Social Work, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Gangrade, K.D. (2001), Constructive Programmes, Gandhi smriti and Danshan Samiti, New Delhi. Ganguli, B.N. (1973), Gandhi’s Sociol Philosophy, Vikas publishing house, New Delhi. Gandhi’s Charter of Social Reconstruction 305

Gupta, S.S. (1976), The Economic philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, Ashok Publishing House, Delhi. Kumarappa, J.C. (1951) Gandhian Economic Thought, Vora & Co. Bombay. Ray, Ramashray, (1985) Self & Society: A Study in Gandhian Thought, Sage Publication, New Delhi. Sharma, Rashhmi, (1997) Gandhian Economics: A Human Approach, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi. Singh, R.B. (2006), Gandhian Approach to Development Planning, Concept Publishing Co. New Delhi. 306 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

13 Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques

*S.R. Billore

Introduction

Every movement and profession has its own methods and techniques of working towards the decided goals. So is the case with Gandhian Social Work. Gandhi’s goal to create an ideal society and the basic values serving as the foundation of this society are very clear. It would be now appropriate to go through the methods and techniques propounded by Gandhi to achieve these goals. These methods are unique in the sense, that in the history of humanity they were never applied simultaneously in the fields of politics and social work in a specific time period and place.

Purity of Means and Goals A remarkable feature about them is Gandhi’s insistence that the means should be as pure and pious as the goal itself. According to Gandhi “The clearest possible definition of the goal and its appreciation would fail to take us there, if we do not know and utilize the means of achieving it. I have therefore concerned myself principally with the conservation of the means and their progressive use. I know if we can take care of them, attainment of the goal is assured, I feel too that our progress towards the goal will be in exact proportion to

* Dr. S.R. Billore, Bhopal University, Bhopal. Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 307 the purity of our means. This method may appear to be long, perhaps too long, but I am convinced that it is the shortest”.

Universal Application An important fact about these methods is that they are time-tested and have been used successfully all over the world, in the area’s of environment protection, eradication of apartheid, disarmament etc. by the world renowned leaders, social workers and activists like Dr. Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandela. These methods are being taught at the Institutes of Gandhian Studies in several parts of the country and World and there are many Institutes in several countries conducting research in peace, based on Gandhian principals.

Application at Macro Level Before going through Gandhain methods in detail, it is to be noted that owing to the need of the time most of them were to be practiced at the macro/mass or the community level. Gandhi’s peaceful crusade was not only against social evils like untouchability and alcoholism, it was also against the British rule. Therefore we find that Gandhi’s vast canvas of social reform and social activism did not permit him to work at the individual or group levels, although in some cases he did offer counseling to the victims of social evils either in personal sittings or through his periodical “Harijan”, but it can not be called Case-Work. Similarly it was not possible for him or his followers and colleagues to pay attention to scientific social research or social welfare administration. The methods of Professional Social Work which can be regarded closest to Gandhian methods are Social Action and Community Organization. As a matter of fact, the methods initiated and practiced by Gandhi can definitely add to the body of knowledge of 308 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the two methods of Professional Social Work. Here is a brief analysis of the method of Satyagrah and the techniques associated with it. Satayagrah: The Philosophical Base

Satyagrah is a Sanskrit word coined by Gandhi in 1906, when he was in South Africa. It literally means “Insistence on truth” but in reality, it is the practice of “Law of Love”. “Passive resistance” is also used to denote Satyagrah. According to Gandhi, “The doctrine of Satyagrah is not new, it is merely an extension of the rule of domestic life...... family disputes and differences are generally settled according to the law of love. The injured member has so much regard for the others that he suffers injury for the sake of principles, without retaliation and without being angry with those who differ from him. And as repression of anger and self-suffering are difficult processes, he does not dignify trifles into principles, but in all non-essentials readily agrees with the rest of the family and thus contrives to gain the maximum of peace for himself without disturbing that of others. Thus his action, whether he resists or resigns is always calculated to promote the common welfare of the family. It is this law of love which silently but surely governs the family for the most part throughout the world”……. It is a law of universal application beginning with the family, its use can be extended to every other circle”. According to Gandhi, the feats of the great dignitaries like Gautam Buddha, Socrates, Daniel, Jesus Christ and Tolstoy are glaring examples of application of the spirit of this method to socio-political and religious fields...... He further says, “This law of love is nothing but a law of truth. Without truth, there is no love...... Satyagrah has therefore been described as a coin, on whose face you read love and on the reverse you read truth. It is a coin present everywhere and has indefinable Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 309 value”. According to Gandhi, Satyagrah is not only insistence on truth, it is at the same time, a relentless search for truth and a determination to reach truth”. Like truth, Ahimsa or non-violence is another basic ingredient of Satyagrah. “It excludes every form of violence, direct or indirect, veiled of unveiled. It is breach of Satyagrah to wish ill-will to an opponent or to say a harsh word to him, or of him with the intention of harming him...... It is the direct opposite of compulsion. It was conceived as a complete substitute for violence”. Gandhi calls Satyagrah a “Dharmayuddha” also in which there are no secrets to be guarded, no scope for canning and no place for untruth, comes unsought; and a man of religion is ever ready for it. Characteristic Features of Satyagrah

1) According to Gandhi, before being a Satyagrahi a person must be able to visualize the truth for which he proposes to offer Satyagrah. 2) Satyagrah should create an atmosphere of love, goodwill and enthusiasm – and not that of terror. Satyagrah should be conducted for change of heart and mind and not for any personal gain. 3) A Clear victory of Satyagrah is impossible so long as there is ill-will. But those who believe themselves to be weak are incapable of loving. Let, then, our first act every morning be to make the following resolve for the day: ‘I shall not fear any one of earth. I shall fear God only; I shall not bear ill-will towards any one. I shall not submit to injustice from any one. I shall conquer untruth by truth and in resisting untruth I shall put up with all suffering. 4) A Satyagrahi bids good bye to fear. He is therefore never afraid of trusting the opponent. Even if the 310 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

opponent plays him false twenty times, the Satyagrahis ready to trust him the twenty first time, for an implicit trust in human nature is the very essence of his creed. 5) As a Satyagrahi I must always allow my cards to be examined and re-examined at all times and make reparation if an error is discovered. 6) A struggle which has to be previously planned is not a righteous struggle. In a righteous struggle, God Himself plans campaigns and conducts battles. 7) There is no time-limit for a Satyagrahi nor is there a limit to his capacity for suffering. Hence there is no such thing as defeat in Satyagrah. 8) In every great cause it is not the number of fighters that counts but it is the quality of which they are made that behave always stood alone. If a single Saytagrahi holds out to the end, victory is certain. 9) In the code of the Satyagrahi there is no such thing as surrender to brute force. Or the surrender then is the surrender of suffering and not to the wielder of the bayonet. 10) Satyagrah is a relentless search for truth and a determination to reach truth. 11) Satyagrah is utter self-effacement, greatest humiliation, greatest patience and brightest faith. It is its own reward. 12) It is a force that works silently and apparently slowly. In reality, there is no force in the world that is so direct or so swift in working. 13) Satyagrah is gentle, it never wounds. It must not be the result of anger or malice. It is never fussy, never impatient, never vociferous. It is the direct opposite of compulsion. It is conceived as a complete substitute for violence. Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 311

14) The Satyagrahi, whilst he is ever ready for fight, must be equally eager for peace. He must welcome any honourable opportunity for peace. 15) As a Satyagrah struggle progress onward, many another elements help to swell its current and there is a constant growth in the results to which it leads. 16) Once it (Satyagrah) is set in motion, its effect, if it is intensive enough, can overtake the whole universe. It is the greatest force because it is the highest expression of the soul. 17) To me it is one of the most active forces in the world. It is like the sun that rises upon us unfailingly from day to day. Only if we would but understand it, it is infinitely greater than a million suns put together. It radiates life and light and peace and happiness. 18) Since Satyagrah is one of the most powerful methods of direct action, a Satyagrah exhausts all other means before he resorts to Satyagrah. He will therefore constantly and continually approach the constituted authority, he will appeal to public opinion, educate public opinion, state his case calmly and coolly before everybody, who wants to listen to him, and only after he has exhausted all these avenues will he resort to Satyagrah. But when he has found the impelling call of the inner voice within him and launches out upon Satyagrah he has burnt boats and there is no receding. 19) My advice is Satyagrah first and Satyagrah last. There is no other or better road to freedom. 20) The conditions necessary for the success of Satyagrah are: (a) the Satyagrah should not have any hatred in his heart against the opponent. (b) The issue must be true and substantial (c) The Satyagrahi must be prepared to suffer till the end for his cause. 312 Origin and Development of Social Work in India Who Can Offer Satyagrah?

It is the essence of Satyagraha that those who are suffering should alone offer it. Cases can be conceived when what may be termed sympathetic Satyagraha may be legitimately applied. The idea underlying Satyagraha is to convert the wrongdoer, to awaken the sense of justice in him, to show him also that without the cooperation direct, or indirect, of the wronged and wrongdoer cannot do the wrong intended by him. If the people in either case are not ready to suffer for their causes, no outside help in the shape of Satyagraha can possibly bring true deliverance. Code of Conduct for Satyagrahis Gandhi has laid down very clearly the following code of conduct for the Satyagrahis: 1) A Satyagrahi must have a living faith in God, for he is his only Rock. 2) He must believe in truth and non-violence as his creed and, therefore, have faith in the inherent goodness of human nature which he expects to evoke by his truth and love expressed through his suffering. 3) He must be leading a chaste life and be ready and willing, for the sake of his cause, to give up his life and his possessions. 4) He must be a habitual Khadi-wearer and spinner. This is essential for India. 5) He must be a teetotaler and be free from the use of other intoxicants in order that his reason may be always unclouded and his mind constant. 6) He must carry out with a willing heart all the rules of discipline as may be laid down from time to time. Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 313 Techniques of Satyagrah

Techniques are particular or special ways of doing something. Under the umbrella of Satyagrah, we find eight techniques, many of them are age-old, adopted and given a new meaning, direction and shape by Gandhi and his followers. They are as follows: Persuation This is the mildest technique of Satyagrah in which appeal is made straight to the heart of wrong doer. “It is never the intention of a Satyagrahi to embarrass the wrong doer. The appeal is never to his fear; it is, must be, always to his heart. The Satyagrahi’s object is to convert, not to coerce, the wrongdoer. He should avoid artificiality in all his doings. He acts naturally and from inward conviction. Immediately we begin to think of things as our opponent’s think of them we shall be able to do them full justice. I know that this requires a detached state of mind, and it is a state very difficult to reach. Nevertheless for a Satyagrahi it is absolutely essential. Three-fourths of the miseries and misunderstanding of the world will disappear, if we step into the shoes of our adversaries and understand their standpoint. We will then agree with our adversaries quickly or think of them charitably. Our motto must ever be conversion by gentle persuasion and a constant appeal to the head and the heart. We must therefore be over courteous and patient with those who do not see eye to eye with us.

Auto-suffering In Satyagraha there is not the remotest idea of injuring the opponent. Satyagraha postulates the conquest of the adversary by suffering in one’s own person. 314 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

The hardest heart and the grossest ignorance must disappear before the rising sun of suffering without anger and without malice. Non-violence in its dynamic condition means conscious suffering. It does not mean meek submission to the will of the evil-doer, but it means the pitting of one’s whole soul against the will of the tyrant. Working under this law of our being, it is possible for a single individual to defy the whole might of an unjust empire to save his hohour, his religion, his soul and lay the foundation for that empire’s fall or its regeneration. The Satyagahi’s course is plain. He must stand unmoved in the midst of all cross currents. He may not be impatient with blind orthodoxy, nor be irritated over the unbelief of the suppressed people. He must know that his suffering will melt the stoniest heart of the stoniest fanatic. He must know that relief will come when there is least hope for it. For such is the way of the cruelly-kind Deity who insists upon testing His devotee through a fiery furnace and delights in humbling him to the dust. Fasting This was one of the most frequently used techniques by Gandhi. The records show that he used it 17 times: 3 against the injustice done by British government, 4 against untouchability, 3 against communal riots, 4 against violence, 3 for self-purification, penitence (prayashchit) and in the support of mill-workers, Three of them were observed for indefinite periods (fast unto death). The range of all his fasts was from one day to 31 days. According to Gandhi... “Fasting is a potent weapon in the Satyagraha armoury. It cannot be taken by every one. Mere physical capacity to take it is no qualification for it. It is of no use without a living faith in God. It Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 315 should never be a mechanical effort or a mere imitation. It must come from the depth of one’s soul. It is, therefore, always rare.” “There can be no room for selfishness, anger, lack of faith, or impatience in a pure fast... Infinite patience, firm resolve, single-mindedness of purpose, perfect calm, and no anger must of necessity be there. But since it is impossible for a person to develop all these qualities all at once, no one who has not devoted himself to following the laws of ahimsa should undertake a Satyagrahi fast.” “[Fasting] is... fierce and not altogether free from danger. I myself have before condemned fasting when it seemed to me to be wrong or morally unjustified. But to shirk a fast where there is a clear moral indication is a dereliction of duty. Such a fast has to be based on unadulterated truth and ahimsa”.

Fasts : Legitimate and Illegitimate Of course, it is not to be denied that fasts can be really coercive. Such are fasts to attain a selfish object. A fast undertaken to wring money from a person or for fulfilling some such personal end would amount to the exercise of coercion or undue influence. I would unhesitatingly advocate resistance of such undue influence. I have myself successfully resisted it in the fasts that have been undertaken or threatened against me. And it is argued that the dividing line between a selfish and unselfish end is often very thin, I would urge that a person who regards the end of a fast to be selfish or otherwise he should resolutely refuse to yield to it, even though the refusal may result in the death of the fasting person. If people will cultivate the habit of disregarding fasts which, in their opinion, are taken for unworthy ends, 316 Origin and Development of Social Work in India such fasts will be robbed of the taint of coercion and undue influence. Like all human institutions, fasting can be both legitimately and illegitimately used.

Fasts : Addressed To Almighty Ridiculous fasts spread like plague and are harmful. But, when fasting becomes a duty, it cannot be given up. Therefore, I do fast when I consider it to be necessary and cannot abstain from it on any score. What I do myself, I cannot prevent others from doing under similar circumstances. It is common knowledge that the best of good things are often abused. We see this happening every day. ...When human ingenuity fails, the votary fasts. This fasting quickens the spirit of prayer, that is to say, the fasting is a spiritual act, and therefore, addressed to God. The effect of such action on the life of the people is that, where the person fasting is at all known to them, their sleeping conscience is awakened.

Last Resort One general principle, however, I would like to enunciate. A Satyagrahi should fast only as a last resort when all other avenues of redress have been explored and have failed. There is no room for imitation in fasts. He who has no inner strength should not dream of it, and never with attachment to success. But if a Satyagrahi once undertakes a fast from conviction, he must stick to his resolve whether there is a chance of his action bearing fruit or not. This does not mean that fasting cannot or can bear fruit. He who fasts in the expectation of fruit generally fails. And even if he does not seemingly fail, he loses all the inner joy which a true fast holds.... Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 317

Fasting Unto Death Fasting unto death is the last and the most potent weapon in the armoury of Satyagraha. It is a sacred thing. But it must be accepted with all its implication. It is not the fast itself, but what it implies that matters. Fasting cannot be undertaken mechanically. It is a powerful thing but a dangerous thing, if handled amateurishly. It requires complete self-purification, much more than what is required in facing death with retaliation even in mind. One such act of perfect sacrifice would suffice for the whole world. Such is held to be Jesus’ example. Non-cooperation Gandhi considered non-co-operation to be such a powerful and pure instrument that, if it is enforced in an earnest spirit, it will be like seeking first the Kingdom of God and every-thing else following as a matter of course. People will then have realized their true power. They would have learnt the value of discipline, self- control, joint-action, non-violence, organization and everything else that goes to make a nation great and good, and not merely great. He further states, “There is no instrument so clean, so harmless and yet so effective as non-co-operation. Judiciously handled, it need not produce any evil consequences, and its intensity will depend purely on the capacity of the people for sacrifice”. He regards non-co-operation as much a duty as cooperation. No one is bound to co-operate in one’s own undoing or slavery. Freedom received through the effort of others, however benevolent, cannot be retained when such effort is withdrawn. In other words, such freedom is not real freedom. But the lowliest can feel its glow as soon as they learn the art of attaining it through non- violent no-co-operation..... 318 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Gandhi was quite sure that non-violent non-co-operation can secure what violence never can, and this by ultimate conversion of the wrong-doers. We in India have never given non-violence the trial it has deserved. The marvel is that we have attained so much even with our mixed non-violence. Although non-co-operation is one of the main weapons in the armoury of Satyagraha, it should not be forgotten that it is after all only a means to secure the co-operation of the opponent consistently with truth and justice. The essence of non-violent technique is that it seeks to liquidate antagonisms but not the antagonists themselves. In non-violent fight you have, to a certain measure, to conform to the tradition and conventions of the system you are pitted against. Avoidance of all relationship with the opposing power, therefore, can never be a Satyagrahi’s object, but transformation or purification of that relationship. Boycott Boycott, combining of people in breaking relations with a person, or group is not new to the Indian society. Boycott by the caste or village panchayat of a person on family has been one of the severest and most dreaded forms of punishment for thousands of years. The terms and conditions of cancellation of boycott were also very taxing. Gandhi used this age-old weapon against the British ruled and also for socio-economic of Indian society. Gandhi invoked people to boycott the three major agencies which were instrumental in the increasing strength of British rule in India, namely the assembly, courts of law and educational institutions, run by the government. As an alternative he gave the slogan of Swadeshi by saying “…Swadeshi is the use of all home- made things to the exclusion of foreign things, in so far Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 319 as such use is necessary for the protection of home- industry, more especially those industries without which India will become pauperized. In my opinion, therefore, Swadeshi which excludes the use of everything foreign no matter how beneficent it may be, and irrespective of the fact that it impoverishes nobody, is narrow interpretation of Swadeshi”. Consequently assembly elections were boycotted by congressmen, innumerable students and teachers left schools and colleges to join freedom movement. Lacs of people stopped purchasing articles imported from England and there were collective burnings of foreign goods, particularly the clothes. The boycott proved to be a very powerful weapon in attaining not only political but also the socio–economic freedom for India. Civil Disobedience Gandhi regarded civil disobedience as the purest form of constitutional agitation. In his own words, “I hold the opinion firmly that civil disobedience is the purest type of constitutional agitation. Of course, it becomes degrading and despicable, if its civil, i.e., non violent character is a mere camouflage. If the honesty of non- violence be admitted, there is no warrant for condemnation even of the fiercest disobedience, because of the likelihood of its leading to violence. No big or swift movement can be carried on without bold risks, and life will not be worth living if it is not attended with large risks. Does not the history of the world show that there would have been no romance in life if there had been no risks? Civil disobedience is the inherent right of a citizen. He dare not give it up without ceasing to be a man. Civil disobedience is never followed by anarchy. Criminal disobedience can lead to it. Every state puts down 320 Origin and Development of Social Work in India criminal disobedience by force. It perishes if it does not. A Satyagrahi obeys the laws of society intelligently and of his own free will, because he considers it to be his sacred duty to do so. It is only when a person has thus obeyed the laws of society scrupulously that he is in a position to judge as to which particular laws are good and just and which unjust and iniquitous. Only then does the right accrue to him of civil disobedience of certain laws in well-defined circumstances”.

Condition Precedent The first indispensable condition precedent to any civil resistance is that there should be surety against any outbreak of violence, whether on the part of those who are identified with civil resistance or on the part of the general public. It would be no answer in the case of an outbreak of violence that it was instigated by the State or other agencies hostile to civil resisters. It should be obvious that civil resistance cannot flourish in an atmosphere of violence. This does not mean that the resources of a satygrahi have come to an end. Ways other than civil disobedience should be found out. No Dharna, but Picketing Dharna is a Hindi-Urdu word which means, forcibly sitting at somebody’s premises has been clearly discarded by Gandhi as a barbarian method. “I call it barbarity for it is a crude way of using coercion. It is also cowardly because one who sits Dharna knows that he is not going to be trampled over. It is difficult to call the practice violent, but it is certainly worse…. If we fight our opponent, we at least enable him to return the blow. But when we challenge him to walk over us, knowing that he won’t, we place him in a most awkward and humiliating position… there must be no impatience, Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 321 no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If he wants to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one’s cause. But instead of Dharna, Gandhi has supported picketing as a non-violent method. This consisted of groups of volunteers, particularly women standing outside the shops of foreign goods and liquor, requesting the potential customers not to enter the shops. They boldly faced the wrath and violent attacks by the shopkeepers and the bullies hired by them, but did not budge from their non violent stand. Strikes Like all other techniques of Satyagrah, Gandhi emphasized that the strikes too – both general and Industrial should be based on the twin values of Truth and Non-Violence. His views on the nature and goals of strikes, arbitration, adjudication, and other issues related to general public, political parties and strikers are very clear.

Nature of Strikes 1) In no case can I be party, irrespective on non- violence, to a universal strike and capture of power. 2) There should be no strike which is not justifiable on merits. No unjust strike should succeed. All public sympathy must be withheld from such strikes. 3) Strikes for economic betterment should never have a political and as an ulterior motive. Such a mixture never advances the political end and generally brings trouble upon strikers, even when they do not dislocate public life, as in the case of public utility services, such as the postal strike. 322 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Strikes and Public 1) The public has no means of judging the merits of a strike unless it is backed by impartial person enjoying public confidence. Interested men cannot judge the merits of their own case. Hence, there must be an arbitration accepted by the parties or a judicial adjudication. 2) As a rule, the matter does not come before the public when there is accepted arbitration or adjudication. Cases have, however, happened when haughty employers have ignored awards, or misguided employees, conscious of their power to assert themselves, have done likewise and have decided upon forcible extortion. 3) Sympathetic strikes must be taboo until it is conclusively proved that the affected men have exhausted all the legitimate means at their disposal.

Role of Labour 1) I know that strikes are an inherent right of the working men for the purpose of securing justice, but they must be considered a crime immediately the capitalists accept the principles of arbitration. 2) The labour world in India, as elsewhere, is at the mercy of those who set up as advisers and guides. The latter are not always scrupulous, and not always wise even when they are scrupulous. The labourers are dissatisfied with their lot. They have every reason for dissatisfaction. They are being taught, and justly, to regard themselves as being chiefly instrumental in enriching their employers. And so it requires little effort to make them lay down their tools. The political situation, too, is beginning to affect the labourers of India. And there Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 323

are not wanting labour leaders who consider that strikes may be engineered for political purposes. 3) It does not require much effort of the intellect to perceive that it is a most dangerous thing to make political use of labour until labourers understand the political condition of the country and are prepared to work for the common good. 4) Strikes, therefore, for the present should only take place for the direct betterment of the labourers’ lot, and, when they have acquired the spirit of patriotism, for the regulation of prices of their manufacturers. 5) A strike should be spontaneous and not manipulated. If it is organized without any compulsion, there would be no chance for goondaism and looting. Such a strike would be characterized by perfect co-operation amongst the strikers. It should be peaceful and there should be no show of force. 6) Workers do not hesitate to injure the property of the employers, dislocate machinery, harass old men and women who would not join the strike, and forcibly keep out blacklegs. 7) The strikers should take up some work either singly or in co-operation with each other, in order to earn their bread. The nature of such work should have been thought out beforehand. It goes without saying that in a peaceful, effective and firm strike of this character, therewill be no room for rowdyism or looting. I have known of such strikes. I have not presented a Utopian picture. 8) What about the blacklegs, you may ask. Blacklegs unfortunately there will be. But I would urge you not to fight them, but to plead with them, to tell them that theirs is a narrow policy and that yours has the interest of the whole labour at heart. It is 324 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

likely that they may not listen to you. In that case you will tolerate them, but not fight them.

Role of Employer How should capital behave when labour strikes? This question is in the air and has great importance at the present moment. One way is that of suppression, named or nicknamed “American”. It consists in suppression of labour through organized goondaism. Everybody would consider this as wrong and destructive. The other way, right and honourable, consists in considering every strike on its merits and giving labour its due – not what capital considers as due, but what labour itself would so consider and enlightened public opinion acclaim as just.

Conditions for Success The conditions of a successful strike are simple. And when they are fulfilled, a strike need never fail : 1) The cause of the strike must be just. 2) There should be practical unanimity among the strikers. 3) There should be no violence used against non strikers. 4) Strikers should be able to maintain themselves during the strike period without falling back upon union funds and should, therefore, occupy themselves in some useful and productive temporary occupation. 5) A strike is no remedy when there is enough other labour to replace strikers. In that case, in the event of unjust treatment or inadequate wages or the like, resignation is the remedy. Gandhian Social Work: Methods and Techniques 325

6) Successful strikes have taken place even when all the above conditions have not been fulfilled, but that merely proves that the employers were weak and hand a guilty conscience. We often make terrible mistakes by copying bad examples. The safest thing is not to copy examples of which we have rarely complete knowledge, but to follow the conditions which we know and recognize to be essential for success. Conclusion

‘Satyagrah’ may be regarded as the collective name of all the methods and techniques of Gandhian Social Work, namely persuation, auto suffering, fasting, non-cooperation, boycott, civil disobedience, picketing, strikes etc. All these methods are based on Gandhian values and principles of truth and non-violence. Every Satyagrahi has to abide by the code of conduct for Satyagrahis. Gandhian Social Work makes use of strikes in a different way, and detailed discussions are available in relevant literature regarding roles of the employers, workers and the general public.

References

Bharathi, K.S. (1991), The Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi; Concept Publishers, New Delhi. Dharmadhikari, Dada (1962), Ahinsak Kranti Ki Prakriya (Hindi), A.B. Sarva Sevan Sangh, Varanasi. Diwakar, R.R. (1946), Satyagrah : Its Techniques and History, Hind Kitabs, Bombay. Diwakar, R.R. (1950), Satyagrah : The Pathway To Peace, Pustak Bhandar, Patna. 326 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Gandhi, M.K. (1951), Satyagraha : Non Violent Resistence, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Mashruwala, K.G. (1953), Practical Non-Violence, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Prabhu, R.K. and Rao, U.R. (1987). The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Pyarelal, (1969), Gandhian Techniques in The Modern World, Navajeevan Ahmedabad. Rai, A.S. (2000), Gandhian Satyagraha, An Analytical Approach, Concept Publishers, New Delhi. Santhanam, K. (1960), Satyagrah and State. Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay. 327

14 Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective

*S.R. Billore

Introduction

After going through the Gandhian model of an ideal society, the values on which it is to be based, the constructive programme to be executed for its achievement and the methods and techniques to be used, it would be interesting to know the origin and gradual development of Gandhian Social Work vis-à-vis the environment in which it was developed. Before we go through the historical development of Gandhian Social Work, it is to be noted that all Gandhian activities can be put into three categories –some of them were purely political in nature, such as attending round table conferences with the British Government and “Quit India” movement – it was the need of the era. Some of his other activities were purely social in nature, such as service to the Leprosy patients, rural health and sanitation etc. But the remaining activities, like promotion of Khadi or erradication of untouchability and alcoholism did have social as well as political connotations, where it is difficult to separate the two. In the following pages, we are leaving aside the political aspect of Gandhian endeavour, concentrating only on the latter two categories, in order to have deeper understanding of Gandhi, the social actionist and social worker.

* Dr. S.R. Billore, Bhopal University, Bhopal. 328 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

If one reads Gandhiji’s autobiography “My Experiments With Truth” with a social work angle, he will find that, it includes his experimentation with social philosophy and method as well; which continued throughout his life-time. It is also to be noted that Gandhi had repeatedly said that he had nothing new to teach the world, and “truth and non-violence are as old the hills, there is nothing like ‘Gandhism;”. He would have also said that there was nothing like ‘Gandhian Social Work’. But it is a fact that during his life time, Gandhi and ‘Gandhian Social Work’ had become synonymous. What he did for the social cause was followed and practiced by lacs of people. It gradually emerged as a unique School of thought and action in the field of social welfare and is now recognized by social scientists as ‘Gandhian Social Work’. Gandhi: A Social Activist

Gandhi’s evolution as a social activist began in South Africa in the year 1893 when ‘Barrister Gandhi’ was thrown out of the first class compartment by ‘white’ railway staff despite his having a valid ticket. Throughout his tenure in South Africa, he faced omissions and insults because of his coloured skin, but unlike other Indians in South Africa, he did not swallow them and developed a philosophical base and methodology to fight against apartheid (‘Dignity of man’ is the value insisted both by Gandhian and professional social workers). Pretty soon, Gandhi’s discontent with the existing conditions spread among the Indian Community in that country, which ultimately resulted in the foundation of Natal Indian Congress on 22nd May 1893. It functioned to ventilate Indian’s needs and grievances to stimulate their thoughts and to motivate them for community’s service. It also worked towards acquainting the English in South Africa and England Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 329 and people in India with the real state of things in Natal and South Africa. Needless to say, this approach is quite similar to that in the methods of professional social work namely social action and community Organisation in which discontent with the existing conditions is spread among people and they are motivated to form their own association to improve upon them. Gandhi also published tracts on the condition of immigrant Indian’s in South Africa in July 1896 he returned to India and continued educating the public about South Africa situation. He returned to South Africa after three months and continued his crusade against apartheid by writing to Indian and British public men, representing to Indian National Congress, colonial and imperial authorities, moving a resolution for the congress session held in the year 1900 in India. The struggling against apartheid lead by Gandhi in South Africa continued for a long period of about 21 years, till the year 1914 which included holding mass meetings, opposing the ‘Black Act’, which was based on social discrimination, organising passive resistance, (which was later known as ‘Satyagrah) imprisonment of thousands of Indian men and women, appealing the media to support the struggle, lobbying at the British parliament, publication of the newspaper (Indian opinion from June 1903) in support of the movement, negotiations with the authorities, strike in the mines by Indian labour and the ‘Great foot march’ by thousands of Indians from New Castle to Dundee, which took about 4 months. This is one of the classic examples of what the professional social workers call ‘Social Action’. Each and every technique of social action was used in that movement.

Development and Use of Social Techniques The scholars of Gandhian Social Work regard South Africa as Gandhi’s Socio-political laboratory, where he 330 Origin and Development of Social Work in India tested various techniques, which were later used on a very large scale to overturn British rule in India. It was here that Gandhi coined the word “Satyagraha”, became a journalist, a public orator and founded the ‘Ashram: the agency, which for Gandhian Social Work, serves as a place for group living and thinking, social education, training of human resources, publishing house and naturopathy clinic. Such Ashrams founded either by Gandhi or his followers are still active in large numbers all over the country.

Measures of Social Welfare Apart from his social action, movement in South Africa Gandhi alongwith colleagues and followers was indulged in welfare activities as well. In 1899, he raised ‘Indian Ambulance Corps’ to serve the victims of Boer war and was awarded war medal. Similarly in the years 1904 and 1906, he offered para medical services during the outbreak of plague and Zulu rebel respectively, and was awarded Kaiser-e-Hind gold medal by the British government in recognition of his social services.

Sarvodaya: Rise of all The year 1904 brought a revolutionary change in Gandhi’s life and thinking. During a train journey in South Africa he went through a book entitled “Unto This Last” written by the great western thinker Ruskin. The postulates of Ruskin’s theory as laid down in this book are : 1) The good of the individuals is contained in the good of all 2) A lawyer’s work has the same value as the barber’s, in as much as all have the same right of earning their livelihood from their work. Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 331

3) The life of labour, i.e. the life of the tiller of the soil and the handicraftsman, is the life worth living. Gandhi translated the book in Gujarati under the title ‘Sarvodaya’ which, besides Geeta, Tulsi Ramayan and works by great western philosophers like Tolstoy and Henry David Thoreau proved to be the base of Gandhian philosphy and actions.

Invention of ‘Satyagrah’ And it was in South Africa that one of the greatest discoveries in the history of Gandhian Social Work took place in the year 1908, when Gandhi replaced the word ‘passive resistance’ with another, more powerful and new word coined by him – a contribution to the dictionaries of social sciences. The word was ‘Satyagrah’ – recourse to truth – force or soul force. We have already discussed ‘Satyagrah’ in preceeding pages of this book. Giving Social Work a Secular Cum Spiritual Base When Gandhi left South Africa for good and finally came to India on 9th January 1915, he was already bearing the title ‘Karmaveer’ conferred on him by Indian people. With his arrival, began a new era in India, which lasted for about 33 years, affecting almost all walks of life including social work. No doubt, India has a very long and rich history of social welfare, but in British India, it was put in a religious garb, social work was being undertaken mostly by the followers of Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Zarathustrians, Jains, Sikhs etc. Gandhi gave it a secular cum spiritual base.

Welfare of Farmers, Labour and Students In the initial phase of his social work practice in India, we continue to see Gandhi as a social actionist. After 332 Origin and Development of Social Work in India founding Sabarmati Ashram on the banks of river Sabarmati in Ahmedabad on 20th May 1915, Gandhi proceeded to Champaran (Bihar) to protest against the tyranny and exploitation of the indigo farmers by the British planters. In 1918, he took the cause of textile labours of Ahmedabad and used fast as a non-violent weapon for the first time in India, to secure amicable settlement of the dispute. In the same year he initiated Satyagrah in Kaira in Gujrat in support of the farmers. The hidden journalist in him again came up and the publication of ‘Navjeevan’ in Hindi and Gujarati, and the English weekly ‘Young India’ was started in Sept. – Oct. 1919 to promote not only political, but social and welfare causes as well. Founding of Gujrat Vidyapeeth at Ahmedabad in Nov. 1920 was not only an attempt to replace Lord Macaulay’s slave – manufacturing educational system with a totally ‘Swadeshi’ system of higher education, but also to make it community – oriented. Similar institutes were founded later in other parts of the country.

Khadi for Socio Economic Independence As mentioned earlier, Gandhis concept of total freedom consisted of not only political, but social and economic freedom as well. For economic freedom he regarded ‘Charkha’ (the spinning wheel) as the most powerful instrument which could provide means of livelihood to crores of poor people living in villages and towns of India. With this purpose a target of setting up 20 lakh charkhas in the country was fixed and a country – wide compaign was initiated in 1921 to boycott foreign cloth and goods which deprived the poor artisans of their employment. The campaign was carried on by thousands of Gandhian social workers despite Gandhi’s imprisonment for about 4 years (1922-1924). This ultimately resulted in the founding of “All India Spinners Association “ in 1925. Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 333

Breaking Unjust Law and Reducing Social Distances The British policy of ‘Divide and rule’ is a historical fact which was executed to weaken the social fabric, by increasing the already existing social distances between the people, owing to religion, caste, language etc. Gandhi was aware of it and he took first step in this direction by observing fast for 21 days for Hindu-Muslim unity in Sept. October 1924. The year 1930 is another milestone in the history of Gandhian social work, when Gandhi decided to use the weapon of civil-disobedience to break the unjust ‘Salt Law’ through which the British Govt. wanted to impose tax on kitchen salt, making the lives of millions of poor Indians more miserable. In order to execute it, he undertook a march alongwith his followers from Sabarmati Ashram to the Coastal village Dandi, covering about 100 miles on foot in 25 days (12th March to 5th April 1930) and broke the law by picking natural salt from sea- shore. This journey is known as Gandhi’s ‘Dandi march’ and after his arrest at Dandi, a movement of civil disobedience, famous as ‘ Salt Satyagrah’ sprung up throughout the country. Nation wide strike was observed and over 1 lakh people were put in Jails. Ultimately the British Govt. was compelled to repeal the Salt law.

Social Action (Satyagrah) for Social Integration The power of Satyagrah was once again established when Gandhi, on 20th Sept. 1932 commenced fast unto death in Jail to secure abolition of separate electorates for Harijans. The separate electorates for Harijans were one more example of the British Government. British government adopted a policy to widen the gap between different communities – this time ‘Harijans’ and ‘Savaranas’. The fast was broken on 26th September on Government acceptance of his demands regarding Harijans. Within a week after his release from the jail, 334 Origin and Development of Social Work in India a huge public meeting was organized in Bombay under the chairmanship of Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, on 30th Sept. It decided to launch an All India Association against practice of untouchability. This organisation was later known as ‘Harijan Sewak Sangh’ and is still active in the country. The publication of periodicals ‘Harijan’ in February 1933 was a by-product of this Satyagrah which expressed Gandhi’s intentions to concentrate on the plight of Harijans and the social evil of untouchability. In July 1930 he even disbanded the Sabarmati Ashram and gave it for the cause of the untouchables. This Ashram is now managed by ‘Harijan Sevak Sangh’. The same year in August he went on fast on being denied to carry on anti-untouchability propaganda. He was arrested and then released unconditionally after about 28 days. Within a fortnight, he went on a country – wide Harijan upliftment tour, during which he held mass meeting in every State of India, attacking the social evil of untoucahbility and drawings the attention of caste – Hindus towards the plight of untouchables. During the tour, about 8 lakh rupees were collected for Harijan fund. The tour was discontinued only when a massive earthquake occurred in Bihar on 16th Jan. 1933. Gandhi rushed to the State and stayed there for about a month to help and guide the relief work.

The Turning Point: Away from Active Politics Hitherto many of the Gandhian social work activities had some political tinge, which was the need of the hour. But on 17th Sept. 1937, he took a historic decision, which proved to be a turning point in the history of Gandhi as a social worker. The decision was to retire from active politics and to devote all his time and energy to social work with the following priorities: (1) Untouchability eradication (2) total prohibition (3) Hindu- Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 335

Muslim Unity. (4) Khadi Gramodyog and Swadeshi and (5) Organization of 7 lakh villages in India. Although the situations in the country and people’s pressure compelled him later to review his decision, yet about 5 years that he devoted totally to social work, proved to be a boon to million of poor people, particularly the Harijans. On 26th Oct. 1934, he inaugurated. “All India Village Industries Association” which is still active as “Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)” aiming at giving employment to a very large number of people at their own places of living mostly in villages. On 30th April 1936 he shifted to the village Sevagram near Wardha (Maharashtra) which became the capital of Gandhian Social Work and still remains a source of inspiration for the Gandhian Social workers in the country and abroad. He also paid attention to the new theme of basic education which was in reality, a field and community oriented education. On 22nd October 1937, he presided over an All India Conference at Wardha to give a formal shape to this new system of education. Founding of ‘Go-Sewa Sangh’, an organization to protect and serve the cow in the year 1941 was another notable feature. The Charter of Social Reconstruction

Hitherto, Gandhi and his fellow social workers in large numbers had been working in various fields of welfare and development, like eradication of untouchability, prohibition, Khadi and rural industries, tribal welfare, cow protection etc. It was in the year 1941 that all such activities were codified by him and published in a consolidated form under the title “Constructive programme : Its meaning and place”. Gandhi called it the programme of construction of “Poorna – Swaraj” or complete independence by truthful and non-violent 336 Origin and Development of Social Work in India means. This 19-point programme of which the details are available in preceding pages, is popularly known as Gandhi’s 19-Point constructive programme and is still regarded as the Bible of socio-economic development by the Gandhian Social Workers in the country.

Women and Child Welfare The year 1942 was the year of ‘Quit India’ Movement and the circumstances again compelled Gandhi to be in the centre of the political stage. His wife Kasturba, his companion not only in worldly affairs, but in political and welfare activities as well for more than 50 yrs. expired on 22nd February 1944 in Jail. In order to pay homage to her, the nation raised more than 1 crore rupees towards Kasturba Memorial Trust and an all India Institute was founded at Kasturbagram, near Indore (M.P.), which is still active in the fields of development of rural women and children and rural sanitation. In the year 1945, Gandhi laid the foundation of C.F. Andrews Hospital at Shantiniketan (West Bengal) to promote the cause of rural health and sanitation and in 1946 he toured South India to support and bless campaign against untouchability and promotion of Hindustani as a national language.

War Against Alcoholism By this time, the dawn of independence was clearly visible on Indian horizon. Popular ministries were working in various States. Gandhi raised the issue of prohibition and asked the governments to do away with the revenue extracted from the sales of alcohol and other intoxicants. His expectations from the provincial Govts. were as under: Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 337

1) Enact laws for prohibition 2) Educate people on evils of intoxication 3) The liquor shops besides alcohol should be asked to sell books, news papers, sports goods. etc. to divert attention from drinking. 4) The revenue received out of the sale of intoxicants should be spent only to educate people on evils of intoxication and for other welfare activities such as child welfare.

Gandhi: The One Man Army for Peace and Social Reorganization But this dawn (of Independence) unlike natural dawn brought more fire and heat than light. The seed of communal hatred sown by the British was now producing bitter fruits of violence. It was the year 1946 which brought acid test to Gandhi’s conviction of non- violence and social fraternity. Riots between in Hindus and Muslims erupted in Calcutta, Noakhali (Bengal), Bihar, Delhi and several other places in the country like chain reactions. Leaving aside the jubilation of forth- coming freedom, he rushed to the riot stricken places many times, sometimes on foot, within a time span of about 1 year, beginning in Oct. 1946. In order to bring the two largest sections of the Indian society; Hindus and Muslims together, he put his life at stake, observed fasts, staying in the hearts of riot affected areas, and facing the wrath of the mobs. Ultimately, his Satyagrah was successful in stopping communal violence at many places in India. What happened in Calcutta was described as a miracle by the correspondent of London time”. Gandhi could not go to Punjab and there the military with a strength of more than 1 lakh Jawans using arms and ammunition was not able to control communal riots. Commenting on this, Lord Mountbatten, 338 Origin and Development of Social Work in India the last Viceroy of India, said that what could not have been achieved by even four divisions of army, was achieved by the inner power of Mahatma Gandhi. It can be cited as a classic example of social action. As it is said, to every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The success of Gandhian Principles and methods added fuel to fire among the antisocial and pro-communal elements. He survived two attempts on his life one before independence, on 28th June 1946 when the conspirators tried to derail the train, in which he was traveling, and the second after independence, when on 20th Jan. 1948, a bomb-blast took place in his prayer assembly in Delhi. And ultimately, the curtains were drawn on Gandhian era, encompassing almost all the aspects of public life in India, including social work, when he was assassinated on his way to prayer assembly in Delhi, by a Hindu fanatic on 30th Jan. 1948. As said earlier, we have tried to analyze the life and works of Mahatma Gandhi from the view point of social work, leaving apart his role as a national figure, sitting at the helm of public affairs for more than three decades in the Indian sub continent. Characteristics of Gandhian Social Work After analyzing Gandhi’s Social work activities for more than 5 decades, the following characteristics can be attributed to Gandhian Social Work. 1) A New Indigenous Model of Indian Society Gandhi is regarded as the first social thinker in India who presented a complete picture of an ideal Indian society, giving thought to every aspect, such as nature of the State and its administration, defence, health, sanitation housing, education, employment, development of weaker sections and eradication of various social Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 339 problems such as untouchability, alcoholism, poverty etc.

2) New Philosophy of Social Work Although Gandhi said that his values and principles are as old as the hills, yet the way in which he codified and presented them and made them the base of his social and political activities was unique. The code of conduct formulated for Gandhian social workers is also noteworthy.

3) A Practical Philosophy Gandhi was not an arm-chair thinker. He practiced what he proclaimed One can see consistency in his thinking and deeds. His 19-point constructive programme is an excellent example of a system converting theory, into practice.

4) Invention and Discovery of Methods and Techniques of Social Work Fasting, foot march, boycott etc. had been age-old practices in Indian Society, but mostly they were practiced at religious and caste levels. Gandhi gave them a new meaning and utility by applying them at mass – level to achieve socio – political goals. The concept of civil disobedience was borrowed from the great western philosopher Henry David Thoreau but Satyagrah can be regarded as an inventions hitherto unknown in social sciences. The Satyagrah practiced by him and his followers offers so many classic case studies for the students of Social Action.

5) From Social Reform to Social Development No doubt, Gandhi did start as a social actionist and social reformer — it was an era of social reforms in the 340 Origin and Development of Social Work in India country. But unlike many other social reformers, he did not stop at that stage, and proceeded further for the welfare and development of the victims of social problems. As a matter of fact, he did not believe in doing patch-work on severely torn and mutilated social fabric but aimed at constructing a new society.

6) National Net-work of Workers and Institutions In the last phase of his life, Gandhi had suggested dissolution of Congress party, creating instead “Lok Sevak Sangh” an organisation free from politics, and devoted fully to social work. Although the idea did not materialize yet he left a legacy of a nationwide net work consisting of large number of social workers, who are now known as Gandhian or Sarvodaya workers and the institutions which are still working on Gandhian Lines.

7) Secular Social Work Before Gandhi’s arrival, majority of social organizations in India were working under religions banners. Gandhi gave a secular, rather spiritual base to social work. Unlike modern concept of secularism, his social work did not keep away from the religions, but it picked up soothing and motivating elements from all the religions.

8) Research Training and Publications Like Professional Social Workers, there is provision of training for the Gandhian Social Workers as well. Ashrams, all over the country offering short term and long term courses as well as refresher courses for the workers. Institutes like Gandhi Vidyapeeth, Ahmedabad and Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi, which have now been awarded the status of deemed Universities in free India, are also active alongwith several other univiersities which have special chairs and offer dipoma/degree courses through formal and distance education mode, Gandhian Social Work: The Historical Perspective 341 on Gandhian studies. There are specific institutes like Institute of Gandhian Studies, Varanasi, which are devoted to research and organising seminars and conferences on Gandhian affairs. There is a network of Gandhi Bhavans all over the country engaged in similar activities. Journals and newsletters are coming out regularly and a good number of books are being published every year on Gandhian thoughts and deeds in India and abroad. Conclusion

In this Unit, we have seen the emergence of Gandhi as a social activist a reformer and a social worker which is synonym to the origin and development of Gandhian social work, first in South Africa and then in India. His impact would be seen in almost all the sectors of social work, such as welfare of farmers,. labour, students, spinners, weavers, women, children, leprosy patients, the untouchables and tribals etc. At the time of partition of India, he personally went to the riot-sticker villages and cities and was successful in establishing communal harmony, acting as a one-man army. The Gandhian Social Work in pre-independence period is characterised by its own model of an ideal society, a new philosophy of social work, shift from social reform to social development, a nationwide network of social workers and agencies, secularism and provision for its own kind of training research and publications.

References

Fischer, Louis, (1955), The Life of Mahatma Gandhi, Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay. 342 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Gandhi; M.K. (reprint 2007). An Autobiography Or The Story Of My Experiments With Truth, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Gandhi, M.K. (1950), Satyagraha In South Africa, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Gangrade, K.D., (2005), Gandhian Approach To Development And Social Work, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. Iyengar, A.S., (1950) All Through The Gandhian Era, Hind Kitab Ltd, Bombay. Majumdar, Annu Menon (1964). Social Welfare In India: Mahatma Gandhi’s Contributions, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi. Ostegaard, Geoffrey (1985) Non-Violent Revolution in India, Gandhi Peace Foundation, New Delhi. Pyarelal, (1985), Mahatma Gandhi : The Last Phase, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Radhakrishnan (1968), Mahatma Gandhi : 100 Years, Orient Longmas, New Delhi. Upadhyay, Haribhau (1969), Bapu-Katha, Sarva Seva Sangh, Varanasi. 343

15 Social Work in Post-gandhian Era

*S.R. Billore

Introduction

Gandhi’s assassination on 30th January 1948 had sent shock waves throughout the world. Paying homage to him, Albert Einstein, the greatest scientist of our times said, “Generations to come will scarcely believe that such a man as this, ever in flesh and blood, walked upon this earth”. The distinguished playwright, philosopher and Nobel laureate George Bernard Shaw described him as a phenomenon and the leading psycho- analyst Dr. Eric H. Erickson said, “Gandhi turned into the father of his nation and he extended the paternal feelings to mankind obviously he acted for the species”. Gandhi’s Relevance in Today’s World

Was Gandhi’s demise an end of the Gandhian philosophy and action? Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of free India answered this question in a different way by saying, “The light has gone out of our lives but I am wrong, for the light that shone in this country was no ordinary light and a thousand years later that light will be seen in the country and the world will see it. For the light represented the living truth.” Nehru had expressed these feelings immediately after Gandhi’s martyrdom, and today, after more than five decades, one can see that Gandhi is still alive as a thought and deed. People are still searching solutions in Gandhi for today’s

* Dr. S.R. Billore, Bhopal University, Bhopal. 344 Origin and Development of Social Work in India problems. Innumerable articles, research papers, books, debates, lectures, plays and films on Gandhi, analyzing, criticizing or praising him show that the Gandhian thought is still there and time has not been able to wipe out Gandhi from the memory of mankind.

Gandhi’s Impact on Statutory Efforts for Social Welfare and Development Now in free India, Gandhi’s impact could be seen at the statutory level as well. During the last phase of his life he had given a “Mantra” to Nehru to formulate and test the policies for the nation. He said to Nehru “I give you a Talisman (an object believed to be lucky for its bearer), try it whenever in doubt or when your ego overwhelms you. Recollect the face of the poorest and the weakest person that you have ever seen, and ask yourself, how far the step that you are thinking to undertake would help him. Will he get any benefit out of it? Will he be able to have some control over his life and destiny? In other words, will it enable crores of people with empty stomachs and discontented souls to have Swaraj? Then you will see that your doubt is vanishing and ego melting”. Today, according to many Gandhian thinkers and workers, India has deviated largely from Gandhian path, but in the initial phases of our freedom, impact of that Gandhian talisman can be seen on many statutory endeavours. The constitution of India has many articles particularly in the chapters on Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy, which are quite close to Gandhian thought. The constitutional provisions regarding untouchability, prohibition, equality, secularism, freedom of expression, weaker sections, cottage industries, village panchayats decentralization of power and wealth etc. need special mention in this context. Part of social legislation enacted after 1947 on Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 345 social problems and protection of the rights of weaker sections also bear Gandhian imprint to a great extent. The reflection of his ideology can be seen in the drafts of first few five year plans.

Continuation of the Constructive Programme in post-Gandhian Period The agencies established during Gandhian and post- Gandhian eras are still active for the implementation of 19-point constructive programme. Their relationship with the State has also undergone a sea–change, after independence. The British government looked at them with a sense of suspicion and hostility, but in free India. Barring a few exceptions, many agencies have coordination with and support, including financial support, from the central and State Governments. Central Government’s initiative in launching “All India Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)” is an example of statutory intention to support and develop Khadi and village industries throughout the country. The commission gives financial and technical aid to the Gramodyog Boards founded by State Governments, registered NGO’s and co-operative societies. The KVIC also provides margin money to poor beneficiaries to get loan from the Banks under its rural employment scheme. Similarly Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Commission was appointed by Central Government to suggest measures for the development of these two large weaker sections of the Indian Society which can be regarded as an extension of Gandhis mission started in 1930’s. Another important step taken was abolition of Zamindari and Jagirdari Systems which had hitherto been instrumental in exploitation of weaker sections particularly marginal farmers and landless agricultural labour. Similar steps were taken by various State Governments on the instruction of Central Government. 346 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Acts were enacted for Land Reform and Sealing in order to reduce inequality of income and property Commission for prevention of monopoly was appointed. Panchayati Raj Act was enacted for decentralisation of power. All these and other similar post independence statutory measures can be seen in resonance with Gandhian constructive programme. Parallel to Governmental programmes. Gandhian agencies and workers have also continued their work in the voluntary sector. Some of the prominent agencies are mentioned below. Gandhian Social Work in voluntary sector Adim Jati Sevak Sangh – for Scheduled Tribes Working as a federation, to which are affiliated all the Gandhian agencies in India, working for the betterment of tribals, the ‘Sangh’ provides guidance on policy matters and support, including financial support to all such agencies in the country. There is a countryvide network of ‘Ashram Schools’ for tribal students.

Harijan Sevak Sangh for Scheduled Castes The main activities conducted through its state units are organising foot marches and to use other means to create public opinion against untouchability, and in favour of “Bhangi (Sweepers) Mukti” ‘Ashram Schools’ are also run for scheduled caste students throughout the country.

Sevagram : A Complex of Gandhian Social Work Gandhi, on the request of Shri Jamnalal Bajaj, one of his close associates and disciples, sent Vinoba Bhave in 1921 to Wardha to start a branch of Satyagrah Ashram. There at a nearby village called “Segaon”, Meera Bahan, another disciple of Gandhi was already working. In the year 1936 the ashram was founded at the village Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 347

Segaon which was renamed as Sewagram and the Sewagram Ashram remained Gandhi’s headquarters for a pretty long time. Today Wardha has become a complex of a variety of constructive activities conducted on Gandhian lines. Mahila ashram and Brahma Vidya Mandir, Pavnar are working towards women’s liberation and empowerment. Institute of Gandhian Thoughts conducts research training and a Diploma Course on Gandhian principles. The institute at Dattapur works towards treatment and rehabilitation of leprosy patients. There are institutes working towards application of science and technology in the rural areas as per Gandhian principles.

Gandhi Memorial Trust and Gandhi Peace foundation – for Peace and Social Reconstruction After Gandhi’s assassination it was decided to found Gandhi Memorial Trust (Gandhi Smarak Nidhi) by his followers and admirers and Rs. 12 Crores were collected for this purpose. The trust promotes and supports research training and field work related to Gandhian Social Work. As the name is suggestive, The Gandhi Peace Foundation’s focus is on Gandhian concept of peace the related methodology and its application, ranging from local to global levels.

Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust – for Rural Women and Children As mentioned earlier, after the demise of Kasturba Gandhi in jail in 1944 Rs. 1 Crore was raised to create this Trust with its headquarters in Indore (Madhya Pradesh) The Trust, through its projects, being run all over the country is active in the fields of welfare of family, women and children and also health and sanitation in the rural areas. It specifically conducts training programmes for rural women. Thousands of such trained women are 348 Origin and Development of Social Work in India presently working in the rural areas to implement Gandhian Constructive Programme.

Other Prominent Fields of Gandhian Social Work Gandhi had established ‘Majdoor Mahajan Sangh’ to work among organized labour of Ahmedabad, Gujarat which is still functioning. Similarly “All India Charkha Sangh”, was founded for the welfare of Khadi spinners and weavers, “All India Gramodyog Sangh” to protect and develop cottage and village industries in Villages and the artisans. “The Committee on Prohibition” was constituted to organize campaigns for prohibition, which was helpful to some State Govts. to enact laws on prohibition. “Goseva Sangh” “Rashtrabhasha Prachar Samiti” and “All India Leprosy Foundation” have given valuable contribution in the fields of cow- protection, propogation of national language particularly in the southern states and welfare of leprosy patients respectively. Apart from these prominent agencies, a very large member of lesser known agencies / ashrams and individuals are engaged in various sectors of Gandhi’s 19-Point constructive Programme.

Sarva Seva Sangh: Co-ordination among Agencies It was Gandhi’s desire to bring all the Gandhian agencies under one umbrella and make some sort of federation to obtain the benefits of co-ordination. This could not be done in his life time. Later due to the inspiration of Acharya Vinoba Bhave, it was resolved in a meeting of the heads of various agencies to constitute such an organization under the title. “All India Sarva Seva Sangh”. Several agencies were merged into it. The Sangh is playing a major role in bringing co-ordination among remaining Gandhian agencies for social work in the country. Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 349

It can be thus said that Gandhian social work did not stop after Gandhi’s martyrdom and today, despite its limitations and shortcoming the work is in progress in all the 19 sectors of Gandhian Social Work. Sarvodaya Through Bhoodan and Gramdan

After Gandhi’s martyrdom an all India conference of Gandhian Social Workers was convened in March 1948 at Sevagram, Wardha, which was attended by a large number of followers of Gandhi, including stalwarts like Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Acharya Vinoba Bhave, Prof. J.B. Kripalani, Jaiprakash Narayan etc. It was resolved to form “Sarovday Samaj” an association based on Gandhian ideology. As mentioned earlier, the word “Sarovdaya” coined by Gandhi, literally means rise or welfare of all. The word connotes the greatest good of all and not that of greatest number alone. Anybody, above the age of 18 years could become the member of “Sarovdaya Samaj”. It was decided to maintain a register of the members and to hold its convention every year. Acharya Vinoba Bhave was entrusted with the responsibility to work as its informal convener, which again attracted the attention of the people even outside Gandhian Circles. Peoples curiosity again emerged, as it had come up earlier in the year 1940, when Vinoba was declared the first individual Satyagrahi by Gandhi, prior to the launch of ‘Quit India” movement of 1942. This had become the headline of the newspapers and people had started asking- who is Vinoba ? Vinoba : Towards Total Revolution Vinayak Narhari Bhave, who was later known as Acharya Vinoba Bhave, or simply by his popular name ‘Vinoba’, was born in a small hamlet of Maharashtra State in the year 1895. Passing his matriculation in 1913, he 350 Origin and Development of Social Work in India left home in 1916 in search of God and ultimately reached Gandhi’s ashram at Kocharab. His association with Gandhi lasted for more than 30 years, until Gandhi’s assassination. Under Gandhi’s guidance, he participated in freedom struggle and social work activities, and went to jail several times. A voracious reader, a scholar of Sanskrit, alongwith proficiency in several Indian and foreign languages, he authored books like ‘Geeta Prawachan’- talks on Geeta, which is still one of the best selling books in the country. Impressed by his qualities, once Gandhi wrote to him “Your love and faith fill my eyes with tears of joy. I may or may not deserve them. But they are sure to do you infinite good. You will be an instrument of great service”. During Gandhi’s life time, Vinoba was regarded as his heir in the fields of spirituality and social work. Rehabilitation of Refugees It was because of the faith and regard of leaders like Dr. Rajindra Prasad and Jawaharlal Nehru in Vinoba, that he was persuaded to come to Delhi in 1948 to work among the refugees from Pakistan. For their rehabilitation he went not only to Delhi, but also to several other places in India. However his work among refugees was only an external manifestation of his inner quest for a key to provide a strong and non-violent foundation to the Indian society. The Genesis of Bhoodan And Vinoba got the clue three years later, when he travelled on foot from Wardha to Shivrampalli, a village in erstwhile Hyderabad State (now Andhra Pradesh) to attend All India Sarvodaya Conference. After the conference he continued his foot-march in rural Telangana, including a village called Pochampalli, where he closely observed the problems of landless Harijans. They didn’t have any regular means of livelihood and Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 351 asked Vinoba if he could arrange for only two acres of land per family to keep their soul and body together. Vinoba was perturbed. It was difficult and time- consuming to persuade the Government for this purpose. Suddenly, in the evening prayer-meeting of the villagers of Pochampalli, he asked publically, if anybody could donate only 80 acres of land to 40 Harijan families. He couldn’t belive his eyes, when one Ramchandra Reddy got up with folded hands, from the audience and requested Vinoba to accept 100 acres of land to be distributed among Harijans. The day was 18th April 1951, now known for the beginning of the movements of Bhoodan and later Gramdan, a big step in the direction of reconstruction of Indian society based on Gandhian ideology. The Foot March for 14 Years Vinoba took it as a divine indication and resolved to start the foot march going from village to village, with the message, that like air and water, land is also God’s gift to all and therefore should be shared by all the human beings. His foot-march continued for 14 years, covering the length and breadth of the country, all the states and union territories and even Bangla Desh, which was then a part of Pakistan. In order to give a new impetus to Gramdan movement, Vinoba did not mind the use of vehicle. From the year 1965 to 1969 he launched the new, revitalized movement in Bihar which he called “Gramdan-Storm”. He travelled thousands of kilometers on foot and received more than 40 lakh acres of land in donation of which about 25 lakh acres were distributed among 5 lakh landless agricultural labourers. Vinoba’s next step was “Gramdan”— the donation of the entire village to the villagers by the villagers themselves and upto July 1971, about 1,68,000 villages were declared as ‘Gramdani’ Villages. 352 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

In order to regularize the re-distribution of land, State Govts passed Bhoodan Yagya Acts. The State Boards were created to look after redistribution. The allottees receiving Bhoodan lands were expected to start cultivation within three years otherwise, the land would be allotted to another eligible person. The person receiving land through Board had all the rights of cultivation, inheritance etc. but he can not sell, mortgage and lease it out.

Surrender of Dacoits and their Rehabilitation Perhaps, as a by-product of Vinoba’s Bhoodan movement, another important event took place, which was regarded as a miracle, even by his critics. The valley of river Chambal in Madhya Pradesh had been cursed with the problem of dacoity since centuries and could not be eradicated through violent efforts of the State. On the request of the then President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Vinoba entered Chambal- Valley in the year 1960 and invocated the dacoits to become normal citizens. Nobody knows, what caused the change of hearts of the dacoits of Mansingh gang-the biggest and most fearsome gang of the time. Looking perhaps their saviour and mentor in Vinoba, the gang surrendered before him, alongwith its arms and amunitions. The dacoits, whom Vinoba gave a new name ‘Bagis’ or rebels, admitted their offences in the court of Law. Most of them got life-time imprisonment, were released in due course of time and were rehabilitated on the lands received in Bhoodan. Similar incident occurred there in the year 1972-73 when about 500 dacoits surrendered before Jaiprakash Narayan, a close associate of Vinoba. The Sarvodaya workers are still active in the valley with the mission initiated by Vinoba. Around the year 1965 Vinoba settled in his Pavnar ashram, concentrating mostly on the spiritual activities Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 353 and breathed his last in 1982, but by then he had already added a new chapter in the socio-economic history of India through initiating Bhoodan, Gramdan and other related activities.

Philosphical Base of Bhoodan and Gramdan According to Acharya Vinoba Bhave and the Scholars on Bhoodan and Gramdan movements, the word ‘Dan’ should not be mistaken as charity, but here it means equal distribution. The Almighty or nature has bestowed mankind with air and water, which is free to everybody, without any monopoly or holding, so should be the case with land, which is equally a divine or natural gift to us and should be shared by all of us like air and water. This is the first step in Bhoodan movement through which the landowners are asked to donate voluntarily, part of their land to the landless. But the movement should not be regarded only as some programme of acquisition and redistribution of land. It is much beyond that. Following are its aims and objectives:

1) Abolition of Concept of Private Ownership Like natural gifts such as air, water and land, there are social assets or gifts like money, property, including intellectual property (such as knowledge, wisdom, skills experience, art etc.) which the individual acquires because of being a member of the society. Therefore he should not be regarded as the owner of these assets but only their care-taker or trustee. He should surrender his private ownership of all these assets. Their real owner is the society and they should be utilized for the welfare and development of the entire society. 354 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

2) To Promote Eternal Social Values The movement aims at eliminating the gap between ‘Haves’ and ‘Have nots’, thus promoting equality and social justice. Its purpose is to bring about change in attitudes of the people towards each other and the society at large, and to promote a sense of brotherhood among people at all the levels, namely rural, national and global.

3) To Replace ‘Baton’ Power with Peoples Power Like Gandhi, Vinoba also rejects violence in every form. According to him, the ultimate, power of the State lies in the military and police—the sources associated with violence. But in a democratic state, they receive the sanction of the people, hence power originating from these two sources should preferably be called ‘Baton Power’ instead of violent power. Bhoodan movement aims to replace this power with the power generated from the self-discipline of the people, making the outer discipline imposed through military and police redundant. This would be a great step in the direction of making a State less society.

4) To Replace ‘Rajneeti’ with ‘Lokneeti’ According to Vinoba, today State is being run and dominated by party – politics which is power – oriented and not people – oriented. The Bhoodan based society will be free from demerits of party – driven politics which is today synonym to “Rajniti” and will be conducted and run by people themselves as per “Lokniti”, i.e. the policy of the people made by the people, for people themselves.

5) Initiating Total Revolution By undertaking above mentioned steps, the society will definitely move in the direction of a socio-economic and political revolution through peaceful and non-violent Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 355 means or in the words of Vinoba, towards “Bhoodan based, village industries oriented non-violent revolution.” Mechanism of Bhoodan and Gramdan In the initial phase of the Bhoodan movement, the landowners were asked to donate at least one sixth part of their land, to be distributed among the landless people of the village. Pretty soon, Bhoodan developed into Gramdan and there emerged a complete picture of the new “Gramdan” village. Following are the terms and conditions for any village to become a “Gramdani” village. 1) A “Gramsabha” or village assembly shall be constituted with all the adults as its members. It will always work according to the decisions taken unanimously. 2) Ownership rights of al least 50% of the total land in the village shall be transferred by private land owners to the Gramsabha. 3) The farmer shall have the rights to cultivate, posses and inheritence of the land, but no right to sell it to an outsider. The ownership right shall vest with the Gramsabha. 4) All the landed persons shall donate 20th part or 5% of their land to the landless labours in the village. Thus nobody shall remain landless in the village. 5) A ‘Gramkosh’ or village chest shall be constituted, to which every farmer shall contribute 40th part of his yield, the labourer 30th part of his wages, and the money-lender and the employed people, 30th part of their income/salary. The amount thus collected shall be used for the welfare and development of the village. A Gramdan Village is supposed to be free from four evils – police and court, vices, interest and the bazaar. 356 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Criticism of Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements No human endeavor, individual or collective is totally perfect, so is the case with the Bhoodan and Gramdan movements. Critics have enumerated their following weaknesses: 1) Initially a target to collect 50 million acres of land was fixed, of which less than 1/10th or only 8.4% could be collected. 2) The redistribution of land is equally defective. Only 30% of the land received in donation has been distributed so far. 3) It leads to the division and fragmentation of already small and scattered fields, thus leading to uneconomic holdings, unsuitable for mechanized farming. 4) A major part of the land received in donation is barren, rocky, undulating, eroded, swampy or otherwise unsuitable for cultivation. 5) During the high tide of the movement, a large number of donors had agreed to donate part of their holdings, but later, either they themselves withdrew or their partners or heirs opposed it and the prospective receivers could not get their possession. 6) The Bhoodan boards, set up in various States to regularize land redistribution, are not working property due to several factors, such as legal intricacies, lack of financial and human resources and public’s enthusiasm and participation. 7) The structure of the Gramdani villages is still far away from the model of an ideal rural society envisaged by Gandhi, Vinoba or the Sarvodaya movement in general. Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 357

Achievements of Bhoodan and Gramdan Movements There is a popular saying that every conflict, ranging from an individual dispute to the great wars is caused by one or more of the three factors, namely land, money and woman. Human history is full of the incidents wherein innumerable people have been killed in all parts of the world in all the times due to these factors. But the Bhoodan and Gramdan movements, opine several social scientist and social workers, present a different facet of the human nature. No doubt, the original target to collect the land in donation could not be achieved. Only about 5 million acres were collected and so far only its one third has been redistributed. But there is no parallel example in world history, when only through persuasion; millions of people have voluntarily donated the land to millions of their poor fellowmen, without any bloodshed or force of law. This achievement becomes more impressive, when compared to the statutory efforts undertaken for the same purpose. Despite relevant legislation and the gigantic and powerful machinery to execute it, the Government, has been able to acquire only 2.2 million acres of land – about half of that collected through Bhoodan. Vinoba has mentioned clearly that merely redistribution of land or increasing agricultural production is not the ultimate goal of the movement. That would be only incidental. Its main objective is to widen man’s loyalty to entire society to bring about change in values and attitudes of the people. This has taken place to a considerable extent. The concept of abolition of private ownership in favour of the community by millions of people in Gramdan has never been realized in human history prior to this movement. The renowned American thinker and journalist Louis Fischer has described it as “the most creative thought coming out of the East” According to Jaiprakash Narain, “In the beautiful 358 Origin and Development of Social Work in India revolution of gramdan, ownership was not abolished by force of any kind, but freely surrendered to the community” To quote G. Ramchandran, the well known exponent of Gandhian Social Work “Gramdan means a large fund of unity of mind in the village, to make a sacrifice in favour of community..... a mental and economic revolution the re-assertion of modern world. Gramdan is a complete breakaway from the tradition of private ownership of land, which has been the rock upon which the life of the village in India has rested during uncounted centuries”. According to the noted educationist and ex-member of Planning Commission Prof. Shriman Narayan, Bhoodan and Gramdan movements are “revolutionizing the basic values of life and the method for achieving the objective through non- violence, democracy and conversion of hearts in place of class-war, hatred and violence.... moreover, the movements are able to touch the most backward and poorest sections of the population”. Like Gramdan, Community Organization, on of the core methods of Professional Social Work, also aims at working with people at the community level. It would be interesting for Professional Workers to examine Gramdan from the view point of Community organization. Prof. M.G. Ross, the renowned Professional Social Work Educationist and author of the book “Community Organization: Theory and Principles”, was perhaps not aware of Bhoodan and Gramdan, but going through his definition of Community Organization, one can find that the ultimate goal of community organization is “to extend and develop co-operative and collaborative attitudes and practices in the community”. The definition of Community Organization given by Sanderson and Polson in their book “Rural Community Organization” seems very close to the concept of Gramdan – “The aim of community organizations is to develop relationship Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 359 between groups and individuals that will enable them to act together in creating and maintaining facilities and agencies through which they may realize their highest values in the common welfare of all members of the community.” It can thus be said that both Gramdan and Community Organization ultimately aim at attitudinal change, spreading we-feeling and a sense of belonging and fraternity in the community – there is no basic difference between the two.

Epilogue The tradition of Gandhian Social Work which emerged in South Africa in nineteenth century and flourished in India has touched several aspects of the life of Indian people directly or indirectly, is now more than 100 years old. As regards its contribution to the field of social welfare, we find that it has given a new, different and compact set of values, principles and code of conduct for the social workers. The methods like Satyagraha are unique and range of fields of service is very wide, covering almost all types of weaker sections. Bhoodan and Gramdan movements have no parallel in the world history of social work and the time – testing methods and techniques of Gandhian Social work are being applied to meet new challenges all over the world. This school of thought and action is completely indigenous and can give a lot to the rest of the world. Conclusion

Gandhian Social Work did not stop after Gandhi’s martyrdom and the work is continuing not only in all the 19 sectors of the constructive programme but new avenues have been opened as per need of the time, such as rehabilitation of dacoits, Satyagraha against public display of obscenity through posters and media, 360 Origin and Development of Social Work in India improvement of quality of education through ‘Acharya Kul’, Protection of environment through ‘Chipko movement’ and strengthening the ‘Shanti Sena’, the peace brigade to fight against terrorism and disruptive forces in the country. Impact of Gandhian thought can be seen on statutory efforts as well, such as the Constitution of India, social legislation and five year plans. The most noteworthy landmarks in the history of Sarvodaya / Gandhian social work in the post-Gandhain period are the Bhoodan and Gramodan movements, launched by Gandhi’s disciple and his socio-spiritual heir, Acharya Vinoba Bhave. While Bhoodan movement invocate the landed people to donate at least 1/6th part of their land to the landless, the Gramdan is a movement for the restructuring of the village wherein the land owners in the village surrender their ownership rights in favour of ‘Gramsabha’ – the village assembly constituted by them. Land is redistributed in such a way that nobody remains landless in the village. The ‘Gramsabha’ with all the adults in the village as its members functions as the supreme authority to conduct and govern all the activities in the village. Despite its short comings, Vinoba and his followers wrote a new chapter in human history by collecting more than 5 million acres of land and receiving more than 1.5 million villages in Gramdan through non-violent methods Basically there is no difference between Gramdan and Community Organisation. Social Work in Post-gandhian Era 361 References

Bharathi, K.S. (1995) Thoughts of Gandhi and Vinoba, Concept Publishing Co., New Delhi. Kantouzky, Detlf (1980), Sarvodaya The other Development, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi. Lindley, Mark, (1998), Gandhi and the World Today – An American Wiew, Centre for Gandhian Studies, University of Kerala, Trivandrum. Majumdar, Dhirendra (1960) Samagra Gram Seva Ki Ore, A.B. Sarva Seva Sangh, Varanasi. Majumdar, Dhirendra (1961) Sarvodaya Andolan Ki Sameeksha, A.B. Sarva Seva Sangh, Varanasi. Mashruwala, K.G. (1971), Towards Sarvodaya Order, Navajeevan, Ahmedabad. Mishra, A.D. (1999), Gandhism After Gandhi, Mittal Publications, New Delhi. Pandey, Janardan (1998), Gandhi and Twenty First Century, Concept Publishing Co, New Delhi. Ram, Suresh (1962), Vinoba and His Mission, A.B. Sarva Seva Sangh, Varanasi. Vinoba (1957), From Bhoodan to Gramdan, A.B. Sarva Seva Sangh, Varanasi. 362 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

16 Growth of Social Work Education and Training

*Tushti Bhardwaj

Introduction While social welfare was not unknown in India through the centuries, social work education is not indigenous in origin. It was greatly influenced by the pattern of development of social work education in the USA. During the nineteenth century, social sciences increasingly used scientific methods to conduct inquires. Social work was also influenced by the scientific methods. It began to base itself on new knowledge and skills. Unlike the older charity movements, the Charity Organization Society (COS) practiced scientific charity which demanded knowledge, skills and as well as good intention. Therefore, the importance of perfecting the skills and knowledge was stressed. Paid agents conducted investigations and a volunteer ‘friendly visitor’ was appointed to bring about changes. Mary Richmond, who was the leader of Baltimore COS, played an important role in initiating conferences and training programs. Gradually the need for training social workers was felt in other areas, and training programs were initiated in various cities in US. In 1898, six week summer training program was started by New York Charity Organization Society to train a cadre of social workers. This was probably the first formal social work education program in the world. It was then called the New York School of

* Ms. Tushti Bhardwaj, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, New Delhi. Growth of Social Work Education and Training 363

Philanthropy. From 1904 this school began to offer a one year course and got itself affiliated to Columbia University and known as the New York School of Social Work since 1910. Social work gradually became a program of study in several colleges and universities around the world. In India social work education and training began in 1936 at Mumbai. Historical Development of Social Work Education

History of social work in India is as old as the settlement of civilized society. Social work in our country began as an activity aimed at providing relief to individuals and groups at the level of basic physical needs of food, clothing and shelter. In ancient India during Buddhist period and later in the Gupta period, the welfare programmes for the handicapped and destitute were organized. A number of health and sanitation measures were taken up by King like Ashoka who organized social services as well as showed concern for a clean and beautiful environment. During the Delhi Sultanate, a specialized department called Dîwan-e-Khairât (Department of Charity) was established by King Firoz Shah Tughlaq to look after the oragnisation of charities and public welfare. The philanthropic and religious charities of Kings and elites notwithstanding, the very structure of Indian society has provided the means for taking care of the needy and the destitute through the institutions of family, caste and community. The structure of Hindu society was such that the joint family used to look after the helpless members and the caste feelings created a strong bond of kinship. The institution of Panchayti Raj, apart from building up infrastructure, provided support system to the village community. 364 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Joint family system served as a useful device for taking care of the needy and destitute members; it protected child widows, the physically handicapped, mentally retarded, disabled persons and unemployed members of the family without any consideration of individual contribution. The caste system as an institution has grown and developed through many centuries and is firmly rooted in the Indian social structure. As caste values were based on the ideals of service, caste played a significant role in looking after the interests of its own members and in promoting their welfare. It has developed its own organizational structures, and provided social security to people belonging to ‘own birâdarî’. Another solid pillar of Indian social structure has been the village community, which, in the past, has enjoyed local autonomy through the ‘Village Panchayat’. It had both executive and judicial powers and its members were treated with respect by the king’s officers. The Panchayat also distributed the land, collected taxes out of the procedure and paid the government’s share on behalf of the village. Other religious communities like Muslims and Jews had the system of Zakat and Tithe respectively for providing the welfare services to the needy. In Hindu religion too, daan-dakshina, doles, construction of institutions like bridhashrams, dharamshalas, and the like were considered as religious obligations which were reinforced in myriad of ways. During the British period, Christian missionaries initiated the wave of social reform. The serampore missionaries were the first evangelical Baptist missionaries in India, who identified the need of a series of reform measures necessary within the Indian social structure. They opposed child marriage, polygamy and Growth of Social Work Education and Training 365 female infanticide, Kulinism, self-torture and Ghat murder. They worked for the abolition of sati and advocated the widow remarriage. Further, a few Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidhya Sagar, also emerged as great champions of the reform movement. The initiatives of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in abolition of sati system, Ishwar Chand Vidhyasagar in Widow remarriage, Sashipada Banerjee and Kesab Chand Sen in women’s emancipation from exploitation and discrimination along with M.G. Ranade, Jyoti Rao Phule, D. K. Karve, Gopal Hari Deshmukh and Tilak in addressing a variety of issues crippling the then Indian society, have been some of the efforts that led to social reform movement in India which later on converged with political freedom under the leadership of Gandhiji, about which you already have read in other blocks. The 19th century was not only the time of individual actions and protest, but it also saw the birth of movements of great vitality. Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramkrishna mission and the theosophical society were founded by the efforts of the then social reformers. While all of these were religious movements but they were also deeply interested in social reform. In the early part of the 19th century, social reform was linked firmly with religious change. But as the century progressed, reformers took a more liberal, intellectual and humanitarian approach. In late 19th and early 20th century, the social work approach was largely ameliorative. The main focus of welfare activities was on relief to the poor, care of the blind, the deaf and the dumb, and the establishment of charitable dispensaries, hospitals and institutions for widows and orphans. During the 19th century much of the leadership for improving the lot of women was provided by men. In 1917, two British women Dr. Annie Besant and Ms. 366 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Margaret Cousins were influential in establishing the Women’s Indian Associations in Madras. This was followed by the establishment of the National Council of Women in 1925. In the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi ushered in a social revolution, Sarvodaya movement to achieve the political transformation of rural India by initiating constructive work in the villages. He focused his attention on the problems of the total rural community as well as on specially disadvantaged groups like women and the untouchables. These programs gave large segments of the population their first introduction to organized social activities. Gandhiji emphasized upon the ‘Nai talim’ to educate, aware and mobilize people for building up the self-sufficient communities. Added to this, with the changing social ethos and social structure, the family ties and community belongings started getting weak. The needs of the individuals were no longer fulfilled and taken care within the family structure. Gradually the need of the third party intervention was required and we started looking forward to the western countries and opened up new vistas of learning from their experiences. All these social reform interventions have set the stage for collectivism and people’s participation in the welfare and development of their own-selves. It may be noted that till this period, social work has more often than not been related to voluntarism and not as a profession or a discipline to be learnt in a formal educational setting. Hence there was no need for training people in the same. In India, the professional training in social work was started with the efforts of Dr. Clifford Manshardt, an American Protestant missionary, who had graduated in theology from the University of Chicago. He came to Growth of Social Work Education and Training 367

India in 1925 through the American Marathi mission, a Protestant Christian organization. This organization decided to undertake work in slums and with that objective founded the Nagapada Neighborhood House in 1926 headed by Dr. Clifford Manshardt as its first Director. The agency was similar to Settlement House in its objective and activities. It was located in an area, which had many social problems including poverty, gambling and prostitution. Such problems were the result of the fast changing social structure, which weakened the family bond and community togetherness. Dr. Manshardt mooted the idea of developing a school of social work to meet the need for trained manpower to work in Indian conditions. With financing from the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, the first school founded in 1936 was known as Sir Dorabji Graduate School of Social Work later renamed as Tata Institute of Social Sciences in 1944. Because it was founded on the basis of American experience, it had three major characteristics of the same – it required bachelor’s degree for admission, was of two years duration, and it was called as ‘school’ much as in the American pattern. In the education of social work much emphasis is laid on practical training of the students apart from giving them theoretical inputs. As Social work is the human service profession, so the curriculum of social work has drawn heavily from a number of social sciences and humanities courses like psychology, sociology, political science, economics and management. Students are required to develop the sound skill base and appropriate attitude through the educational inputs. With the introduction of social work education, the concept of social work has undergone a change. The previously conceived notion of relating social work with charity, welfare and unorganized services on voluntary basis started diminishing and social work was seen as 368 Origin and Development of Social Work in India professional activity with specialized knowledge and skill base. Though social work in our country was started as postgraduate programme, but now a days we have institutions offering degrees in social work at graduation, post graduation, M. Phil, Ph. D and D. Lit level. At graduation level Social Work is mainly offered as Hons. Degree, but in few institutions it is also offered as part of B.A. programme. The initial syllabus was based on the curriculum of American Schools of Social Work with British pattern. In fact, several pioneers in social work education in India had their orientation to the profession in American establishments. Therefore there was little initiative to develop an India based curriculum for theory and practice. The whole efforts were directed towards trying and fitting the western content by adapting the curricula to suit the Indian social conditions. Prof Desai has mentioned that the first curriculum introduced in 1936 by TISS included methods of Social Casework, Administration and Research. Subjects related to sociology, economics, psychology and human development were also offered. Subject matter on target groups included the child, the family, juvenile delinquents and medical and psychiatric information. All these courses were compulsory and no provision for specialization was available. For ten years, the curriculum did not change and the subjects continued to be pretty much the same. Around the time of independence pressure grew on TISS to prepare personnel for specific agency related jobs, which paved the way for the introduction of specialization in medical and psychiatric social work for hospital based service providers, criminology and correctional administration for those involved in juvenile courts, probation field and other correctional settings and labour welfare and personal management for addressing the Growth of Social Work Education and Training 369 industrial concern, particularly to meet the growing need of personal managers and labour welfare officers. Today, Social work education in our country do not follow a uniform pattern, rather few institutions provide generic course in social work whereas others offer specialization in different fields. Let us have a look at the growth of social work educational institutions in India in some more detail. Growth of Social Work Educational Institutions The Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) established in 1936 is the first ever institute of postgraduate school of social work of national stature. The institute has been engaged in a continuous study of Indian social issues and problems and imparts education in social work to meet the emerging need for trained human power. This development set the tune further for social work education and social research in India. For almost a decade, TISS was the only institute to offer the social work educational programme and there was no other programme of social work education in the country. Delhi School of Social Work, now known as the Department of Social Work, is the second school of social work to be established in India. It was first to be recognized by a University for offering a program of instruction leading to Master’s degree in social work. The school was first founded as the National Y.W.C.A. School of Social Work at Lucknow. In the beginning, the school offered social work courses of varying duration. From 1950 onwards it started a two-year programme of training at the post graduation level. It was taken over by the University of Delhi in April 1961 as a post graduation Department in the Faculty of Social Sciences. The School now offers M.A., M.Phil and Ph.D degrees in social work. 370 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

In 1947, Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmdabad, and Kashi Vidyapith, Varansi established such programme. Gujarat Vidyapith was founded by Mahatma Gandhi on 18th October 1920 to literate Indian youths from the shackles of British colonial rule. Until 1930, Vidyapith imparted graduation level courses in languages as well in social sciences. The Vidyapith stopped functioning temporarily during the civil disobedience movements of 1930 and 1932 and the Quit India movement of 1942. The students and the faculty members participated actively in the freedom struggle, many of them courting arrest. The Vidyapith started functioning afresh from 1945 and in June 1947 the Mahadev Desai College of Social Work was established. The government of India declared the Vidyapith as a deemed university in 1963. The institute seeks to promote Gandhi’s ideals of social service – oriented education and seeks to inculcate a sense of commitment in its students for the reconstruction of the country. Likewise, Kashi Vidyapith was founded in 1920 during the Non-Cooperation Movement to provide alternate education arrangement. It soon became a center of national education. In 1947, Kashi Vidyapith started educational programme in Social Work. Subsequently several other schools came in including one in Baroda in 1950, Chennai and Lucknow in 1954 and Nirmala Niketan in 1955. The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda was the first institute to have gained the faculty status (in 1951, the institute was elevated to the faculty status). The M.S. Univestiy of Baroda offers post graduation degree and Ph.D in Social Work. The Madras School of Social Work was founded in 1952 by Mary Clubwala Jadav, under the auspices of Madras State Branch of the Indian Conference of Social Work (renamed as Indian Council of Social welfare) and the Growth of Social Work Education and Training 371

Guild of Services. The school offers MSW, M.Phil and Ph.D degrees. At the post graduation level the school offers specialization in Urban & Rural Community Development, Family and Child Welfare, Medical and Psychiatric Social Work, and Labour Welfare. In Lucknow University teaching and research in social work was started in the first phase of the development of professional social work education in India. J.K, Institute of Sociology, Ecology and Human Relations was established in 1948 under the inspiring leadership of the doyen of social sciences in India, Late Prof. Radha Kamal Mukerjee. As Director of the Institute, Prof. Mukerjee started the Diploma in Social Service in 1949. This was superseded by a two-year Master’s Programme in 1952. In 1954, the degree of Master of Social technique (MST) was awarded. In 1955, the nomenclature of MST was changed to Master of Social Work (MSW). In 1956, a composite Department of Sociology and Social Work was constituted by taking out Sociology from the erstwhile Department of Economics, and Social Work from the J.K. Institute of Sociology, Ecology and Human Relations. The composite Department was again bifurcated in 1972 to create an independent Department of Social Work. The Department of Social Work, Lucknow University offers a full sequence of Social Work courses from Bachelor to D.Litt. level. It has also the distinction of being the first Department in the country to start Ph.D. and D.Litt. degree programmes in Social Work, The College of Social Work, Nirmala Niketan was founded in 1955 by a band of valiant women known as Daughters of the Heart of Mary, whose mission was to readily respond to the felt needs of people according to the signs of the times. In the years following Independence in India, the founders realized that the nation’s struggle for development would be serviced not so much by 372 Origin and Development of Social Work in India sensitive social concern as by insightful committed action. This led to the conceptualization of a programme of Social Work education to prepare young people to understand and assist in resolving the existing social problems: widespread poverty, ill health, unemployment, illiteracy and social inequalities. The academic progamme was built on a vision of human dignity and social justice especially with regard to the underprivileged. The college offers Bachelor, Masters, Ph.D and Diploma programmes in Social Work. Till 1950s during the first 14 years of social work education in India only very few institutes were established. The result of the social work educational institutions made the government to recognize and realize the importance of social work profession. The first such initiative was in 1952, when under the leadership of Pt. J. L. Nehru community development programmes were initiated with the idea of mobilizing support of the people in the development process and building up self-sufficient communities. The Second Review Committee of the University Grants Commission on Social Work Education (UGC, 1980, p. 153) reported that there were 34 Schools / Departments of Social Work in India in 1975. India witnessed mushroom growth of Schools / Departments of Social Work during the last decade of twentieth century and during the first couple of years of 21st century. By the end of 2004, it is estimated that there are around 200 Schools of Social Work – most of them in the states of Maharashtra and the four south Indian states namely, Andhara Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. In Maharashtra, district Nagpur alone has around 25 institutions for social work education. The North east of the country comprising eight states including Sikkim has only two Departments of Social Work, one at Silchar with Assam University and the other at Aizwal in Growth of Social Work Education and Training 373

Mizoram with Mizoram University. Similarly, in Jammu Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, Departments of Social work have been established only recently: one at Jammu and the other at Shimla. With these developments only the state of Bihar now remains without any School of Social Work. Though we have so many Social Work educational institutions but the irony is that we do not have the uniform curriculum and modalities of teaching. Further majority of social work institutions are in urban areas, only very few are catering to students in rural areas. The discussion about the social work educational institutions in India will be incomplete without the mention of the initiatives taken by the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi. IGNOU began to offer the Bachelor Degree Programme in Social Work from 2004. The IGNOU has designed an indigenous curriculum, reading material, audio – video programme as well as use satellite communication network including teleconferencing sessions as teaching aids. Just as the TISS Programme had its origin from a Protestant missionary, the IGNOU programme too was initiated by the apex body of Catholic Church in India, namely, the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of India (CBCI). Professional Organizations

With the rising growth of social work educational institutions, the need of professional organizations was felt. In this section, we would be discussing about some of these professional organizations:

The Indian Society of Professional Social Work (ISPSW) The Indian Society of Professional Social Work (ISPSW) is the oldest association of professional social workers in India. It has been geared towards the goal of 374 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Empowering Society for Social Development. The Society was formally known as Indian Society of Psychiatric Social Work. It was established in the year 1970 as the Department of Psychiatric Social Work, in Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi. Later, it has been constantly upgraded to reach the current status of professional identity and recognition by the Department. of Psychiatric Social Work, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore. The present name of the Society was considered in the year 1988, because of an increased representation of the trainers, practitioners and researchers of all specialization of Social Work. The association primarily focuses on uniting the professional social workers to debate, discuss and develop conceptual frameworks and feasible indigenous interventions of social work for practice in India. In order to facilitate this purpose, the Society has so far conducted 24 annual Conferences and many seminars and symposia on various social issues, all over India. Many of the life members of this Society are representing various reputed National and International organizations, Universities and other agencies all over the World. The Society has regularly identified and felicitated many esteemed personalities from the Social Work and its related fields. Associations of Schools of Social Work in India (ASSWI) was established in 1959 at Baroda. The Schools of Social Work collaborated together to form the Association of Schools of Social Work in India. Few Individuals also took the lead and formed the Association of Trained Social Workers in India. This association is functioning through its state branches. However, its membership is voluntary and therefore very few (less than one–forth of the existing Schools / Departments of Social Work) became a part of it. Growth of Social Work Education and Training 375

National Association of Professional Social Workers in India (NAPSWI) NAPSWI is a non profit, non-political, national level organization dedicated to the promotion of standard and status of social work profession. The association received legal status as a society under the Society Registration Act XXI of 1860 on 9th September 2005. This national association comprises social work educators and practitioners from every state in the country. NAPSWI intends to fulfill twin purpose of promoting the social work profession across the country with the aim of improving the quality of services in the social welfare and social development sectors on one hand and to protect interests of social work professionals on the other hand. NAPSWI aim to advance excellence in education, training and practice of professional social work through — Education, Research, Training, Networking, Advocacy, Resource Development. Objectives of NAPSWI are as follows: ● Increase awareness about social work profession at various levels. ● Promote the highest professional standards and ethics in the practice of professional social work. ● Advance the knowledge and practice base of social work interventions that enhance quality of life and standard of living of persons, their family and environment. ● Faster communication and foster support among professional social workers. ● Promote social change, empowerment and liberation of people to enhance their well being adhering to the principles of human rights and social justice. ● Promote research, action and other forms of continuing education for knowledge up- gradation of members. 376 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

● Advocate for programmes and policies to meet the needs of social work fraternity and its various clientele groups. There are a few other regional associations namely – ● Bombay Association of Trained Social Workers (BATSW) ● Maharashtra Association of Social Work Educators (MATSWE) ● Karnatka Association of Professional Social Workers (KAPSW) ● Professional Social Workers Forum, Chennai (PSWFC) The activities of such regional organizations are limited to local level meetings, seminars and they have hardly any authority. Although the Second Review Committee of UGC on Social Work recommended the setting of a National Council for Social Work Education in India almost three decades back, it still has to see the light of the day. Critical Issues

Social work education in our country is about seven decades old. During this period it has attracted a large number of youth to complete their degree, develop human service values and work for the betterment of society. With the growing demand of students seeking the admission in social work course, we need to establish more institutes of social work especially in those places where we do not have any. Next, we need to standardize the quality of education and training that are provided by numerous schools of social work across the country. These social work educational institutions differ from each other in terms Growth of Social Work Education and Training 377 of curricula, generic course vs. specialization offered, activities, focus, duration, training inputs of fieldwork components and so on. There should be minimum standard of education and fieldwork training inputs provided to students in these institutions. It is also observed that most of the social work educational institutions are located in urban areas, students practice fieldwork in urban places and prefer jobs in cities and metropolis. However, social work professionals are most needed in rural areas as a huge majority of population lives in rural areas. Further we need to have national level council to maintain the uniform standards of education and give accreditation to institutions as well to practitioners. Efforts have been made to form National Council in the lines of Medical Council of India through discussions between eminent social work educators and practitioners at various fora. Since social work literature, modes of practice, approaches, theories, have been heavily borrowed from western countries, so we need to develop the indigenous approaches too. This requires that the academicians and practitioners must document their experiences so as to facilitate the process of developing indigenous approaches. With the change in social realities new client groups for social work intervention are emerging like People with HIV / AIDS, communities affected by displacement, SEZ, people losing opportunities of work because of global players coming into picture, social security, dealing with increasing violence and discontent, etc. As a result demand for the trained social workers is on rise so as to work with these areas with high sensitivity and appropriate attitude. 378 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

In the light of social change there is a fast emerging need to bring amendments in our curricula and training patterns, which requires updating at regular periods. Likewise, practicing social workers also need to be given refresher trainings from time to time. Low salary and job stagnation, high turn-over, easy burn- outs are some of the crucial issues that would be resolved if we are able to bring standardization in the social work teaching, and practice and at the same time portray a desirable and advantageous image of social work profession in the country. Conclusion

In this Unit, you have studied the historical development of social work profession in India. Initially, social reform movements set the stage for voluntary social work in India. Religious norms and traditions also reinforced charity, donations, helping fellow-beings, shram–daan in the form of social work. It, then, dealt with spread of social work education in India and pioneer institutions like TISS and DSSW. Various professional associations of social workers have been described in the unit. Lastly, some critical issues influencing social work education and training in India have been described.

References

Bhatt, S. & Pathare, S. (2005): Social Work Literature in India: A Critical Review. Supplementary reading material -, BSWE-002,IGNOU. Desai, A.S. (1987): Development of Social Work Education, Encyclopedia of Social Work in India, Ministry of Social Welfare, Government of India, Delhi. Growth of Social Work Education and Training 379

Patel C. (ed.) 1999: Social Work Practice – Religio – philosophical foundation. Rawat Publication, New Delhi. Singh, S. & Srivastava, S.P. (2005): Teaching and practoce of social work in India – relities and responses. New Royal Book Co, Luckhnow. Kumar H. (1994): Social work – an experience and experiment in India. Model DTP Systems Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Pathak, S. (1981): Socail Welfare. MacMillian India Ltd. Delhi. Pathak, S. (2000): Social Work Educators as Scholars: Some Animadversions. Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol. 61 (2), 212-220. Wadia, A.R. (1961): History and Philosophy of Social Work in India. Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 380 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

17 Social Work Literature

*Sanjai Bhatt

Introduction

Literature, in its widest sense, is a collective body of literary productions, embracing the entire results of knowledge and fancy preserved in writings also the whole body of literacy productions or writings upon a given subject, reference to a particular science or branch of knowledge, or of a given count period. In simple sense, the literature, as the body of written work produce scholars, researchers or practitioners in a given field, includes abstracts, articles, letters, biographies, books, brochures, classics, compositions, critiques, discourses, discussions, disquisitions, dissertations, documents, dramas essays, exhibitions find history, humanities, information, leaflets, letters, literary work, lore, novels, observations, pamphlets, papers, poetry, reports, research, story, summary, theme, thesis, tree treatment, writings-creative or imitative written works, etc. Generally, books, reports, thesis, dissertation are taken into account for review purpose, leaving various other forms of literature aside. Herlekar (1968) used the term ‘social work literature’ to include such literature which is related to or useful to social work. She has grouped this knowledge in three parts: i) Knowledge provided by social sciences, an area, which is concerned with knowledge, of man in the

* Prof. Sanjai Bhatt, Delhi University, Delhi. Social Work Literature 381

society, of human growth and behavior, and social problems, ii) Knowledge of fields and programmes of social work, concerned with the organization, administration and operational of social welfare programmes; and iii) Knowledge related to social work practices, concerning the philosophy, methods, processes, professional skills. As issues concerning both the foci and purpose of social work education had numerous, complex and interwoven factors, thus it requires a serious introspection. Social Work has shifted from micro level issues to macro level issues responding to issues linked to oppressive realities, injustice, exploitation, deprivation and marginalization. In the present socio-political milieu, it is clear that social work has transgressed from status quoism to within the system change to anti system radicalism. Every profession, as a distinct specific body of knowledge, is created out of interaction processes linked to integration of theory and practice. There cannot be any practice without knowledge and knowledge cannot be proven without its practice. In this unit you would get an overview of social work literature in India. Stages of Social Work Education and Literature Development

Social work is an interdisciplinary profession. Social work literature, in India, has, undoubtedly, adopted and adapted a lot from other countries, but it has a soul and a body of its own. Before we review existing literature on social work, a quick recapitulation on the emergence of social work educational institutions may be beneficial. 382 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Social work education can be categorized into various stages namely: 1) Initiation/Inception (1936-46): It is denoted by establishment of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work established in 1936 and now called as Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS). 2) Experimentation (1947- 56): In this Phase, Delhi School of Social Work, Kashi Vidhyapith, Gujarat Vidhyapith and similar other institutions were established. 3) Expansion (1957-76): In this phase, many social work educational institutions in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu and other states were established and there was expansion in terms of number of institutions across the length and breadth of the country. 4) Moderation/stagnation (1977-86): Unlike expansion phase, in this period not see many new social work educational institutions in the country. 5) Explosion (1987 till date): This phase crossed the 200 mark in terms of social work institutions in India. Since, the beginning American model remained predominantly heavy in the curricula and practice of social work in India. There was not much of indigenous literature and social work education was modeled with help of American books. The decade of 1977-86 had marked stagnation as far as adding the number of schools/ departments is concerned (Bhatt, 1996) but the practice based literature was noticed by educators and students. Though this period had not witnessed any major changes, rather more complacency among social work educators and schools. After 1986, the country witnessed a boom in social work education programme with phenomenal quantitative growth of Social Work Literature 383 schools/departments of social work in universities, crossing the figure of 200 social work educational institutions where 52 alone came in Maharashtra. The proliferation of many schools/colleges may be found because of liberal policies of UGC, such as self-financing courses, increasing employment opportunities in development sector, etc. In absence of any regulatory mechanism, which is must for any professional course, there was wild growth of social work schools/ departments cynically called shops (Srivastava and Singh, 2003:72). The social work literature focusing upon development issues can be traced back to the late 1960s. Desai and Narayan stated that the profession needs to move away from too much dependence on the provision of services to organising people to promote change; from institutional to non-institutional programs; from remedial to those, which seek to affect the very causes, which create poverty; from private concerns to public issues; from research with problem focused to one of the action oriented studies…testing ways and means to solve out multiple problems, building models and testing processes and approaches. The profession had made a shift, but not significant enough (Desai and Narayan:1998). It will be appropriate to list a few important publications to indicate trends. In the first phase of initiation, a few writings appeared, especially those of J.M. Kumarappa Social Work–Its Nature, Scope and Status(1941); Titmus– From Charity to Social Work (1941); Mansharaf C.– Education for Social Work (1941). Soon after independence, publication of social work professional literature halted in the second decade (1947-56) and there were a few good publications by Indian authors during the expansion stage (1965-77). The maximum numbers of books/articles were on social work origin 384 Origin and Development of Social Work in India and development; employment and human power; and professional. The next decade was comparatively less productive as number of publications on social work decreased. Desai (1987:157) reported that publications on social work profession drastically slowed down during 1977-86, which was characterized as the stagnation phase by Bhatt and Pathare (2004). Desai (1997:58) further mentioned that the other scholars who wrote and published books on various aspects of social work profession during 1977-86 were K.D. Gangrade, P. Ramachadra, H. Nagpaul, S.H. Pathak, Vera Mehta, M.S. Gore, M.M. Desai and others. Although the number of books published during this decade was little more, as compared to the previous decade, the total number of publications dropped mainly due to a drastic drop in the IJSW articles on social work. The decade of 1987-96 seems to have again picked up the publication of social work literature. The second edition of the Encyclopedia of Social Work in India was published by the Ministry of Welfare in 1987 with 10 articles on the social work profession. Social work in India is field oriented rather than method or technique oriented, and consequently, social work literature is also mostly field oriented. In India, social work is the field practice comes first and knowledge base and development of social work education later. Prof Drucker states that the need for the development of courses in Asian social work seems to put the cart before the horse. The most of literature came through generally recognized fields of social work in India like family and child welfare, youth welfare, medical and psychiatric social work, welfare of the weaker sections, tribal welfare, welfare of the physically and mentally challenged, industrial social work, etc. Some of the publication in this category are: Medical Social Work in India by Pathak, Social Welfare Work in Social Work Literature 385

Hospitals by G.R. Banerjee, Promotion of Mental Health with Community Participation by C.M. Francis and Others, Mental Health in Classroom by Mary Vinus Joseph, Social Case Work by Grace Mathew and R.K. Upadhyaya, Mental Health in India by Purnima Mane and Katy Gandevia, Psychiatric Social Work by Ratna Venna, Urbanization and Family Change by M.S. Gore, Community Organisation by H.Y. Siddiqui, Samudaik Sangathan by A.N. Singh, Street Children by W.S.K. Philip as well as by R.M. Verma, Socially Handicapped Children by M.S. Bedi, Handbook of Disabled in India by D.S. Mehta, School Social Work by Anjali Gandhi, Community Development in India by B. Mukherjee, Community Development by K.D. Gangrade, Social Action through Law by P.K. Gandhi, Social Movement: Old and New by Rajendra Singh, Field Work in Social Work edited by R.R. Singh, Field Work by Rajbhanti, Social Work Perspective by M.V. Moorthy, Labour Welfare and Social Security by Surendra Singh, Labour Welfare by Baleshwar Pande, Personnel Management in India by K.K. Jacob, Social Work and HIV/AIDS by Gracious Thomas, Pumima Mane and Subhadra, Scavengers in 21st Century by Akash Gulalia, Democracy in Trade Unions by Sanjai Bhatt, Occupational Social Work by Sanjai Bhatt, H.Y. Siddiqui and Neelam Sukramani, and many others. The special volumes of Indian Journal of Social Work had also brought field based knowledge, research and practice outcomes. Compilation of Literature

Social work literature has been surveyed at different intervals (Dudlani, 1967: Patru 1987; ASSWI: 1981; DSW, 1967; Desai M, 1997; Jacob, 2001). The University Grants Commission and Ministry of Education initiated first compilation as Social Work Education and Indian Universities in 1965. It was highlighted that many social work do not have adequate library facilities, as there 386 Origin and Development of Social Work in India are no text books, which they can purchase (1965;46-4 U.G.C). Dudlani conducted a survey of social work education in India in 1967 and reported the lack of literature for teaching and research, however he pointed out that the ongoing effort to produce literature are praiseworthy. There were significant writings on different aspect of social problems and social work by G R Banerjee, M S Gore, Kumaraappa and others. The need of cultural specific literature was felt and individuals and organizations made efforts to produce indigenous literature. The Indian Journal of Social Work in 1967 brought out a special issue titled Thirty Years of Social Work in India. T.K. Nair has edited a collection of papers organized by ASSWI in 1981, on Four Decades of Social Work Practice and Education in India at Madras School of Social Work. Prof K.K. Jacob edited papers presented in National Seminar on Five Decades of Social Work Education in India-Retrospect and Prospect, jointly organised by Udaipur School of Social Work and ASSWI. The University Grants Commission appointed a Second Review Committee in 1980. It found that the majority of social work institutions had a very small number of publications and teaching material. Publications in the regional languages were negligent (1980:161 & 186). On the completion of 60 years on social work in India in 1997, Murali Desai compiled contributions made by Indian Social Work educators under the title Literature on Social Work Profession in India 1936-96: A Classified Bibliography divided into ten major groups. She reported that the review of the literature of different aspects of the profession was undertaken with the following objectives: i) Study year wise trends in the type of literature development Social Work Literature 387 ii) Compare it with knowledge developed internationally to identify the components requiring indigenization in the Indian context; iii) Identify select Indian literature and organised them into a body of knowledge; iv) Draw consolidated implications for advancement of professionalism in current social work practice and education; and v) Identify gaps in indigenous social work literature and evolve directions for further knowledge development. Bhatt (1991:129) reported that ASSWI has published a list of 43 books written by Indian authors on social work methods in India during 1970-89. Jacob (2001) has conducted a survey of social work literature produced by social work educators. As a sponsored research study by Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Jacob has mentioned that books/articles written by social work educators are more on specific fields of social work rather than on social work philosophy, methods or applications. Singh and Srivastava (2004) also brought a fair reading on Teaching and Practice of Social Work in India by publishing national seminar papers held at Delhi. Though social work profession has seen the rise and fall of its professional organizations, these organizations have created opportunity for professional encounters. At national level, two important professional organizations/ associations were concerned. For social work schools and social work educators, Association of Schools of Social Work in India (ASSWI) was formed in 1960 which made significant contribution on professional matters till 1986. It has brought out about a dozen books, seminar and conference proceedings. In 1979, sub regional workshop for social work educators 388 Origin and Development of Social Work in India and trainers on the development of indigenous teaching material for preparing social welfare personnel for work with rural and urban poor was organised by SWDCAP and ASSWI at Madras. Its report is an extremely useful contribution (ASSWI; 1979). A year later, Prof. R.R Singh (1980) edited seminar papers organised by ASSWI and Department of Social Work, Andhra University under the title Social Work Perspectives on Poverty in 1980. In 1984, H. Y.Siddqui published Social Work and Social Action based on papers of ASSWI seminar under the title of Social Work Education in India. The governmental agencies have made their contribution in social work teaching and research. The Ministry of Education and Social Welfare published the first Encyclopedia of Social Work in 1968 under the chairpersonship of Smt. Durga Bai Desmukh. After nineteen years, the second edition of the Encyclopedia of Social Work came in 1987. The Second volume comprises of 138 specially prepared contributions arranged alphabetically in three volumes. The forth volume presents an account of Government organisations, International Voluntary Organisations, National Voluntary Organisations and UN agencies. In between, the publication of two Encyclopedias, problem of social welfare and development at national, state and local levels also attracted attention. The Central Hindi Directorate, under the aegis of the same Ministry, published a Dictionary of Social Work Terms in 1978. The PREM division of Ministry of Education and Social Welfare has sponsored series of research studies on varied themes related to social problems, granted by PREM division Ministry of Social Welfare in a three volumes under the title Research in Social Welfare, which is a compilation of the findings of researches conducted by distinguished social scientists in the discipline of social welfare, social services and allied fields. Social Social Work Literature 389 problems like beggary, unemployment, drug abuse, street and working children, child labour, disability, rehabilitation, displacement and rehabilitation, aged, etc. were the main focuses which were elaborately x- rayed. As far as professional journals are concerned, the Indian Journal of Social Work has earned distinction of its continuous publication. It has been publishing a variety of articles on labour welfare, family welfare, rural welfare, child welfare, medical social work, methods of social work, etc. There are other articles related to allied social sciences and research studies that occupy a very prominent place in this journal. The journal has brought out special issues on Professional Social Work, Social Work Education, Social Development, etc. from time to time. Vijayalakshmi, Devi Prasad and Rao have analyzed trends in articles published in the Indian Journal of Social Work, 1971-1990, and concluded that almost 90 per cent of the articles are written by Indian authors and the remaining by authors from abroad. Men are found to be predominantly single authors and first authors. A majority of the articles are written by authors from academic institutions followed by persons from research and training institutions and practitioners. However, contributions by practitioners are less as compared to that of social work educators. The proportion of articles written by social science educators is more in the first decade as compared to the number of articles written by social work educators, though in the second decade, the reverse occurred. It is encouraging to see that a considerable number of social work educators contributed articles to the journal and more so during the second time period (1981-90). The Social Work Forum started in 1962 but ceased its publication in 1974.There were other scanty efforts to bring out journal by schools and professional societies. 390 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

The ‘National Journal of Professional Social Work’ was started to review, reflect and improve the theory, practice, teaching, and research bases of social work in the Indian context. The journal, by policy, is geared to publish all relevant and appropriate contributions addressing the various aspects of current social problems and issues, and the interventional strategies. On its tenth anniversary in 1957, Delhi School of Social Work began the publication of a series ‘Studies in Social Work ‘. This series of publication intended to promote the study of social problems and on the basis of such study, it aimed to foster the development of an efficient system of social welfare services, social work and social work education in the country. In this task, the practitioners and teachers of social work as also the policy makers, and those affected by their policy, must be brought together. The same school has initiated an annotated bibliography of articles/papers/books published on issues related to social work under the title Welfare and Development Bulletin. This bulletin had equal appreciation within and outside social work fraternity in the country and abroad. It has earned large amount of books/journals in exchange. The Department of Social Work of Lucknow University has started a journal known as Lucknow University Journal of Social Work, renamed Contemporary Social Work. The aim is to review new developments in social work theory and practice, examine the impact of development schemes, discuss the findings of important research projects and scientific comments on governmental policies and programmes in relation to more pressing problems of policy and people. The College of Social Work, Nirmala Niketan, brings out a professional journal for the advancement of perspectives on social issues and social work intervention titled Perspectives in Social Work which contains articles, reports of research based papers related to Social Work, social change, social research, social psychology, and Social Work Literature 391 current topics having bearing on effective social work practice. Some other social work educational institutions have also made efforts to bring out journals. The Department of Social Work, GNK College, Yamuna Nagar published a journal- Social Reflection in 1991, but its publication was stopped after two issues. Indigenous Literature Scholars like Kulkarni (1993), Majumdar (1994), Pathak (1997), A. Desai (2000) demonstrated the availability of indigenous literature of social work teaching and practice. ‘It will be inappropriate to say that social work educators have not responded to the need of indigenous social work literature. Despite the fact that the first generation social educators had their training in American way and had their education in different disciplines of social sciences like economics, sociology, psychology and political science, many of them have extensively written on different aspects of social work. The pioneer social work educators like B. Mehta, M. Vasudevan Moorthy, M.S.Gore and G.R.Banerjee contributed considerably to the development of indigenous social work literature by frequently writing articles (Pathak, 2000:214). Further, an organised campaign for indigenous literature in Asian countries was initiated by Dr. Francas Ysas who was consultant to UN Social Welfare and Development Centre for Asia and Pacific (SWDCAP). She had strong conviction that profession like social work, which is based on human relationship, must have its literature truly reflecting values, culture, and problems of the society in which it has to be taught and practiced. In India, two workshops were held in 1971 and 1978 at Bombay on the creative literature in English, Marathi and Gujarati. ASSWI in collaboration with the Department of Social Work, Lucknow University had organised another 392 Origin and Development of Social Work in India workshop on Social Work Education and Creative Hindi Literature in May 1981. One of the objectives of the workshop was to analyse short stories written by Hindi writers in post-Premchand era with the intention to bring out case studies for teaching social work methods. The workshop had prepared case studies with adequate learning points from a dozen short stories like Boodhi Kaki by Premchand, Roz by Agney, Pret Mukti by Shilesh Bhatiani, Parda by Yashpal, Apna Apna Bhagya by Jainendra Kumar, etc. These short stories depict real life situations based on contemporary social realities, human relations and social institutions (Bhatt, 1982, mimeo). An analysis of publication titled as “Social Work Educators in India: A Profile “ brought out in 1981 by T. K. Nair and Babu Daniel under the aegis of ASSWI speaks contrary to the common beliefs. The demand for literature in regional language started with the expansion of undergraduate courses in different part of the country. As far as social work literature in regional languages is concerned, a few books are available in Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali and Kannada. The Uttar Pradesh Hindi Granth Academy has played a crucial role as it has brought out about two dozen books on social work methods and fields of social work, which have been used by the students for the undergraduate and graduate degree courses in Hindi heart land. Punjabi University Patiala, has translated a few books in Punjabi for its population. Besides the original contribution, Uttar Pradesh Hindi Granth Academy has produced Hindi translation of few books written by foreign authors, such as Introduction of Social Welfare by Friedlander, Fields of Social Work by Fink, Social Group Work Practice written by Wilson and Ryland in Hindi on the invitation of Madhya Pradesh Hindi Granth Academy. Some of the notable publication in Telgu are: History and Philosophy of Social Work (1972); Social Work Literature 393

Fields of Social Work (1972), Social Work and Social Change (1975), Field Work in Social Work (1975), Individual and Society (1975), Techniques of Social Work (1975) and Field Work in Social Work (1977), Man and Society (1977 ), Field Work in Social Work (1973). H.M. Marulasiddaih had written 18 books in Kannada, which includes Samaj Karya (1961-71), Mana Samaja Evam Samaj Shashtra (Essays in Sociology and Social Work, 1965, 197) Samudaya Sangahthana (1966, 1970), Samudaya Sanghathana (1966, 1978).C.R.Madabhai has written a book on Religion and Social Work (1981) and also on social work in Marathi. Prof Raja Ram Shastri has witten the first book on social work in Hindi. Prof Mirza R Ahmad has written the first book on social work philosophy and methods in Hindi Samaj Karya Darshan Evem Paddhat(1969).. Besides, a few books in English, he authored probably first book in Urdu titled Indian Social Problems in India. Prof. Surendra Singh authored eight books in Hindi during 1973-77, which includes Samajik Anusanha (Social Research) in two volumes and Bharat Evam Videsh Mein Samajik Surajha(Social security in India and Abroad) and also on Samaj Karya Kya aur Kyo and Samaj Karya Prakriya (what is social work and social work process’). Prof. P.D. Mishra had written books on primary methods of Social work like social case work and social group work. Prof. S.P. Srivastava has added literature by contributing more than a dozen books ranging from social work to different areas of social work like, criminology, social problem drug abuse, crime, punishment and correction in India. Prof Inam Shashtri and Prof. Kirpal Singh Soodan have written textbook on Samaj Karya in 1980 and 1991 respectively. There is enormous literature in regional languages emerged out of practice in various forms report, booklets etc which is difficult to compile 394 Origin and Development of Social Work in India due to its variety and vastness. It is important to mention that many books originally written in English have been translated into regional languages, but there is hardly any book originally written in any regional language sought translation in English. Trends and Gaps in Social Work Literature

One of the major limitations, which has been often quoted by insiders and outside univocally, is lack of indigenous literature, while some scholars accuse social work academics and practitioners of not being able to produce requisite relevant literature for teaching and practice, others blame for the non availability of indigenous literature. The major contribution in the production of knowledge and publication of literature in any discipline is made by the academics. In the case of professions like social work, field practitioners have also made significant contribution especially on practice aspect of social work. In India, for various reasons, practitioners have contributed much but very little is being classified, organized and produced as professional literature. The available literature relevant to social work teaching, practice and profession also reveals that the knowledge building exercise takes place at both the macro and micro level and there are different actors, stakeholders and consumers. Therefore, it is proposed to discuss the contribution of different stakeholders — students teachers, researchers, practitioners, professional associations, government agencies, alumni; also the position of literature in regional languages and professional journals. A review of literature by Pathak (1997) shows that social work authors have made substantive and pioneering Social Work Literature 395 contribution to the emergence of developmental perspective in social welfare, both nationally and internationally. Prof. R.R. Singh (1995) argues against prosperity for some, and deprivation of multitude. He favors austerity for posterity under a global social charter which would not only map the priority areas of social renewal, both material and moral — but would also balance vital human concerns with those that are ecological in a just and evolving plural and global social order. There should be concern for professional fraternity in human service and others who are concerned with social development and international social work. He opines that social work should respond to new challenges posed by goals of social development. Besides personal profile of 209 social work educators belonging to 35 schools/departments of social work — 48 having doctorate in sociology or social work and 57 registered for doctoral degree, have produced 134 research projects, 103 books, and monographs in English, 44 books and monograph in regional languages, 489 papers and articles in English, 54 papers and articles in regional languages, and 115 papers presented in national/international seminars. Quantitatively, this contribution may not have meaning for many critiques, but it should also not to be treated as of ‘academic vacuum’. The literature in every discipline has its own vastness and varieties. Prof Mazumadar (1994) has enlisted various categories of indigenous literature such as creative literature, project reports, studies and term Papers, annual reports, audio-visual aids, idioms, proverbs and quotations, songs, folk songs, stories, cartoons, leaflets, reports of Voluntary/ Government agencies etc. The literature created and developed in India by field practitioners has not been successfully disseminated. Similarly, the exchange of knowledge 396 Origin and Development of Social Work in India taken place in various seminars and conferences are not documented. The most important missing link is the catalytic relationship between availability, accessibility and affordability of literature. The other important problem in creation, sharing and dissemination of literature is attitudinal including financial. Most of the time the students/teachers find it difficult to come out with their fixed mind sets of the text books comfort zone and they do not look for the literature available in various forms. Now a days, students as well as readers have easy going attitude. They want easy access and do not want to take pain. As far as other forms of literature are concerned, it is difficult for many to assimilate them in their teaching and practice. In formal system of education, we face mental block to accept that literature is a existing in various other forms; Social Work education and practice is engaged with field level organisations, but we often do not enjoy their rich grass root experiences. In the era of knowledge society where information explosion is taking place, there is need to tap and streamline scattered literature. Conclusion In this Unit you have got detailed information about literature available in the country in social work discipline. You understood what constitutes ‘literature’ and then adoption and adaptation of American model of teaching and learning social work. You came to know the relevance and existing status of developing indigenous literature in social work in India. You gathered information about Indian authors who wrote theory/basic books on various areas of social work practice. Further, you gained insight into the trends and gaps in social work literature. Social Work Literature 397 References Bhatt, Sanjai and Pathare Suresh (2004), Social Work Literature in India: A Review, Proceedings of National Seminar on Gender, HIV/AIDS and Social Work, Published by NIPCCD, New Delhi. Dadlani, G.G. (1961), A Survey of Social Work Education in India, M.S. University of Baroda, Baroda. Desai, A.S. (1987), The Foundation of Social Work in India, The Indian Journal of Social Work in India, Ministry of Social Welfare, Government of India, Delhi. Desai, M. (1997), Literature on Social Work Profession in India: 1986 – 1996: An Overview, The Indian Journal of Social Work, 58 (2), 149-160. Government of India (1968 and 1987), Encyclopedia of Social Work in India (2 volumes), Ministry of Social Welfare, Published by Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, GOI, New Delhi. Mohan Brij (2002), Social Work Revisited, Xlibris Corporation, USA. Pathak, Shankar (1987), Forty Years of Social Work Education in India. In Forty Years of Social Welfare in India, Indian Council of Social Welfare, Bombay. 398 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

18 Involvement of Social Workers in National Development *R. Nalini, Tushti Bhardwaj

Introduction National development is possible only by meticulously drafting a policy which would provide the direction for planning, organizing, implementing and evaluating various components necessary for development. Social policy in India has drawn heavily upon the Constitution. The part IV of the constitution on the Directive Principles of State Policy is the main source of Indian social policy. Specific provisions under Article 38 and Article 46 are often cited as the relevant sources of social policy. Article 38 (i) states “the state shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which justice social, economic, and political shall inform all the institutions of the national life.” Article 38 (ii) states “the state shall in particular strive to minimize the inequalities in income and endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities not only amongst individuals but also amongst groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vacations.”

* Dr. R. Nalini, Aditi Mahavidyalaya, Delhi University, Delhi. * Ms. Tushti Bhardwaj, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar College, Delhi University, New Delhi. Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 399

Article 46 provides for the promotion of educational and economic interests of schedule castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections. It reads as “the state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustices and all forms of exploitation”. The second important source, which throws some light on the social policy of India, lies in the documents of the successive Five Year Plans – which have been introduced as the chief instruments for translating the constitutional directives into reality. Since national planning was chosen as the main instrument of development, the working of various Constitutional provisions on social policy can best be seen in the actual programmes planned and implemented. Social Policy A policy is a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational outcome(s). Policies can be understood as political, management, financial, and administrative mechanisms so arranged to reach explicit goals. A policy specifies the goals, the resources and the manner of their utilization to the attainment of these goals. The word ’policy’ can be taken to refer to the principles that govern action directed towards given ends. Public policy consists of political decisions for implementing programmes to achieve societal goals. Stated most simply, public policy is the sum of government activities, whether acting directly or through agents, as it has an influence on the life of citizens. The most simplest and literal meaning of policy according to concise Oxford Dictionary is a “settled course of action adopted and followed by a government or a political party.” 400 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

According to William Jenkins (1978), “a policy is a set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specified situation where those decisions should, in principle, be within the power of those actors to achieve”. Thus, Jenkins understands policy making to be a process, and not simply a choice. Policy can be broadly categorized in two divisions –

● Economic policy ● Social policy Economic policies focus on the economic development of the country. It deals with strengthening the economic resources, national income, improving Gross Domestic Product, and Gross National Product. Social policy refers to the policies of the government with regard to action having a direct impact on the welfare of citizens. Kulkarni has defined social policy as strategy of action indicating the means and methods to be followed in successive phases to achieve the declared social objectives. Prof. Kulkarni has highlighted that the adjective ‘social’ does not mean ‘sociological’ but it means ‘non economic aspects’ i.e. though not aiming at the economy of the country but it has humane perspective and so concerned with the life of people. Social policy is an interment for bringing structural and functional changes in the society so as to reach desired goals. The underlying spirit in social policy is the concern for social justice. Social policy aims at reduction and eventual limitation of inequalities through redistributing justice, change and social development. Social policy is defined as a deliberate intervention by the state to redistribute resources amongst its citizens so as to achieve a welfare objective. Health and educational services for example are primarily designed Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 401 to raise general standards of health and learning. Policies for these services become social in the sense that they deal with the allocation of resources and opportunities between potentially competing groups. The elements of distribution and redistribution remain crucial to the concept of social policy. Social policy is largely about people’s welfare. To summarize, policy:

● is a dynamic process that occurs over time; ● is ideologically informed; ● is culturally determined; ● occurs at many institutional levels; ● occurs in arenas of conflict; ● is constituted by language deployed as tactic; and ● is informed by practice or technique. Policy Development in Five Year Plans Planning is the base of all policies. Since Independence, our five-year plans have been emphasizing on planned development. In a planned development, the policies enumerate from the planning itself. The central objective of planning in India is to raise the standard of living of the people and to open to them opportunities for richer and more varied life. After Independence our major goals of development were self-reliance, industrialization, modernization and social justice. Since 1951, India has completed ten five Year Plans and is currently in the process of implementing the Eleventh Five Year Plan. The guiding principles of India’s Five-Year Plans are provided by the basic objective of growth, employment, self-reliance and social justice. Apart from these basic objectives, each five-year plan takes into account new 402 Origin and Development of Social Work in India constraints and possibilities faced during the period and attempt to make necessary directional changes. In this unit we shall limit our discussion only to the First Five Plan and the 10th Five Year Plan briefly. Those of you who are interested in knowing more about each Five Year Plans may kindly read “Draft Five Year Plans” of Government of India.

First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956) At the time of the First Five-Year Plan, India was confronted with three major problems viz. influx of refugees, severe food shortage and mounting inflation. India was also required to correct disequilibrium in the economy caused by the Second World War and partition of the country. So the First Plan placed highest priority on the increase in agriculture production, irrigation and power. It was also because of the realization that without a substantial increase in the production of food and raw material needed for industry, it will be impossible to sustain a higher tempo of development in other sectors. To handle the problem of food insecurity, the planners came up with the food policy, which provided for the minimum supply of food grains at reasonable prices. Land reform policy adopted since Independence aimed at restructuring agrarian relations and abolition of Zamidari system. It emphasized upon distribution of wasteland to the landless rural poor and modernization and updating of land record system. After Independence, there was some rethinking on the issue of forest policy. The British forest policy was mainly based on commercial interests and it aimed at supplying timber and other resources to colonial forest based industries. The British Forest Policy had strong grounds for exploitation of forests at the cost of forest Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 403 dwellers (adivasi) in the name of greater national interest. Considering these dynamics, the new National Forest Policy was issued as a Government of India Resolution in 1952. It was declared that the forest policy should be on permanent national needs. The new policy made certain concession and safeguards for the forest dwellers whose major source of livelihood was dependent on the forest, but it uphold the preservation of the forests as the main goal.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) The Tenth Five Year Plan was formulated with the major objectives of achieving average growth rate of GDP by 8 per cent, reduction of poverty, providing gainful high quality employment, education for all and reduction in maternal mortality rate. “Education for All” was one of the primary objectives in 10th plan. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was launched to this objective. The plan made sufficient grounds for restructuring of existing health care infrastructure. We have seen that there is a shift from economic to socio-economic development in the successive plans. But our trend in planning strategy has changed enormously since 8th plan onwards as it was launched against the backdrop of momentous change which was taking place in India and in other parts of the world. In 1991 economic reforms of far reaching character were introduced associated with change in the development perspective with major focus on achieving the goal of sustainable development. Process of Policy Formulation

Policies are directed to the specific goals to be achieved for the development of a country. Policies are formulated considering the existing socio-economic conditions of a 404 Origin and Development of Social Work in India country. The primary responsibility for formulating policies rests with some specific part of the central or state administration. However the government relies on a number of resources for the same. They need expert advice on the subject matter for which the expert panel is formulated. Such panel includes academicians, thinkers, special interest groups, mass organizations, political parties, worker’s unions and professional social workers. The first step in the process of policy formulation, as shown in the diagram below, is to capture the values or principles that will guide the rest of the process and form the basis to produce a statement of issues.

Diagram: The Process of Policy Formulation

Principles or Values ▲

Statement of Issues ▲

Goals and Objectives ▲

Policy Analysis ▲

Recommendations ▲

Implementation ▲ Monitoring and Evaluation Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 405

The statement of issues involves identifying the opportunities and constraints affecting the particular issue under consideration. The statement of issues will provide the basis for the formulation of a set of goals and objectives, designed to address the problems identified and to explore the opportunities which present themselves. The next step is to identify and analyze the various policy options, which can be applied to achieve the set of goals and objectives. The options available to each local government will depend on local circumstances as much as the broader context and each local authority will have to develop its own unique approach to address the existing needs. An implementation program for realizing the policy recommendations must then be prepared, addressing budgetary and programming requirements, and allocating roles and responsibilities. Finally, the implementation of the policy strategy needs to be systematically monitored and evaluated against the stated goals and objectives, and the various components of the strategy modified or strengthened, as required. At each step of the way, each component of the strategy needs to be discussed and debated, and a public consultation process engaged in. The extent of consultation and the participants involved will vary with each step. The government in power wants the development process to take place in accordance with its stated policies and this is given effect through the mechanism of five-year plans. Well before the beginning of a five- year plan period, the planing commission and the state government initiated the planning exercise. The initial exercise began with a critical review of the state of 406 Origin and Development of Social Work in India economy, the problems facing it and the outstanding development problems (social and economic). The approach strategy and main issues (growth rates, resource mobilization, social justice consideration etc.) are discussed within the planning commission through a series of internal meetings. The planning commission also invites eminent economists, social workers, academicians, and public figures for their views and holds meetings with the key figures. At the highest policy making level, the Planning Commission meets under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister. This body approves the Approach Paper to the Plan. Approach Paper is then presented before the National Development Council (NDC) for its consideration. The National Development Council is the highest policy making body, which provides the opportunity for plans to be formulated and implemented throughout the country as a unified development effort. Its Chairman is the Prime Minister, and the members comprises of Cabinet Ministers, Chief Ministers of all the States and members of the Planning Commission. The central ministries begin their planning exercises on the basis of the guidelines given by the Planning Commission. On some key issues of inter- sectoral nature, the Planning Commission constitutes Steering Groups/Task Forces. There is close interaction between the ministries and the subject Division concerned of the Planning Commission. Based on the reports of these groups, the draft plan proposals are prepared by the Ministry concerned. These are then sent to the Planning Commission where a further round of discussions takes place between the Ministry concerned and the Planning Commission after which the sectoral plan is given a shape. These are then reviewed, modified and integrated within the overall frame of the Central Plan. Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 407

Functions of the Planning Commission The Planning Commission was set up by a resolution of the Government of India in March 1950. The organization of the Planning Commission facilitates its role as an advisory body functioning at the highest policy level without further being involved in the responsibilities of day-to-day administration. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Planning Commission. The Commission has a Deputy Chairman and six or more fill time members. The finance Minister and a few other Ministers of Cabinet rank are ex-officio members. At times, the Deputy Chairman is also the Minister of Planning. A full-time Secretary coordinated the technical and administrative activities. The Planning Commission functions through a series of divisions and sections. It has eight general divisions and eighteen subject divisions. Its functions are:

● To make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country, including technical personnel, and investigate the possibilities of augmenting such of these resources as are found to be deficient in relation to the nation’s requirements. ● To formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of the country’s resources. ● To determine priorities, define the stages in which the Plan should be carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage. ● To indicate the factors, which tend to retard economic development and determine the conditions, which in view of the current social and political situation should be created for the successful execution of the Plan. 408 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

● To determine the nature of machinery, which will be necessary for securing the successful implementation of each stage of the plan in all its aspects, ● To appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the Plan and recommend the adjustments of policy and measures that such appraisal may show to be necessary and ● To make such interim or ancillary recommendations as appear to it to be appropriate either for facilitating the discharge of the duties assigned to it, or on a consideration of prevailing economic conditions, current policies, measures and development programmes or on an examination of such specific problems as may be referred to it for advice by Central or State Governments. The Planning Commission plays an integrative role in the development of a holistic approach to the policy formulation in critical areas of human and economic development. In the social sector, schemes which require coordination and synthesis like rural health, drinking water, rural energy needs, literacy and environment protection have yet to be subjected to coordinated policy formulation. It has led to multiplicity of agencies. An integrated approach can lead to better results at much lower costs. The key to efficient utilization of resources lies in the creation of appropriate self-managed organizations at all levels. In this area, Planning Commission attempts to play a systems change role and provide consultancy within the Government for developing better systems. In order to spread the gains of experience more widely, Planning Commission also plays an information dissemination role. Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 409 Role of Social Workers in Policy Formulation and Development

Policy formulation as you have already learnt in the earlier sections is a tedious exercise, which involves a team of experts from various professions. Let us reflect that formulation of social policy include planners, bureaucrats, voluntary organizations, academicians, politicians etc. Social workers are one among such experts who by virtue of their experience bring various issues in the limelight. Social workers work very closely with the people and so they are in a position to understand societal issues in depth. They are one of the best agents to bring the ground realities to the focus of concerned authorities. Several Schools of Social work have been involved directly or indirectly in policy formulation concerning developmental schemes in the country. Reputed Institutions have been represented in many of the bodies or committees that have been responsible for policy formulation in various fields, such as education, housing and slum improvement, adoption and child development, family welfare and women’s development, youth programmes, matters related to the police and communal riots, and rehabilitation of the displaced people. For the formulation and development of social policy social workers placed in government or Non government organizations (NGOs) contribute in various capacities be it –

● identification of issues ● advocacy ● consolidation of expert opinion ● implementation ● monitoring and evaluation 410 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Identification of Social Issues The first stage of policy formulation requires the identification of issues. A number of voluntary organizations have taken up the lead at this stage and social workers are the backbone in this process. Social workers through voluntary organization work at the grass root level, they work directly with the people involving their participation. Research project undertaken by social workers bring out new dimensions to the issues and highlight the scope for the much-needed provisions for the welfare of the masses. Research study on “Accessibility of Buses and Bus Shelter”, conducted in 2006 by Samrarthya, National Center for Promotion of Barrier-free Environment for Disabled Persons highlighted that the existing public road transportation system i.e. buses, terminals, and operations are either full of obstacles or are impossible to use by the disabled persons. The findings emphasized that this limits the productive contributions of people with disabilities (PWDs) to the development process. Every individual including Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) has the right to travel and to use public transportation with dignity and independence. It should be regarded as the fundamental right of all citizens regardless of their abilities and disabilities, since travel is usually a necessity for education, employment, medical attention, tourism etc. The findings of samarthaya brought new perspective to the government and low floor high capacity buses were introduced by the Delhi Transport Corporation. Samarthaya has promoted the concept of Universal Design i.e. “Design for All” in the making of Dilli Haat (recipient of National Award by the Hon’ble President of India on promotion of Barrier Free Environment), Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) and High Capacity Bus System (HCBS)/Low Floor Buses. Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 411

Social workers in academics are also important agents in identification of issues. Research studies taken up by them either for their academic degree or as sponsored projects highlight nature of the issues under study. For example the recent study carried out by the Social Welfare Department (Delhi government) and Delhi University’s Department of Social Work revealed that many beggars are able-bodied and educated, forced into beggary by unemployment or to augment their professional incomes. The findings underscore the absence of a cohesive and humane national policy for beggars in India. The research studies from a social work perspective are applied in nature putting forward a number of recommendations which in one way or the other contribute to policy development.

Advocacy In a number of instances social workers have not just left the highlighted issues to itself. Social workers by virtue of their professional expertise know that mere identification of issues is not going to make any change in the current scenario – mainly due to apathy and unwillingness of the concerned authorities to any desirable action on social issues. What is needed most in such situations is building up the pressure group on authorities. In such situations policy development becomes the long drawn process as it involves the divergent opinion and controversy from varied classes of people and concerned authorities. The most popular strategy to the social workers in such situations is the use of Advocacy. Advocacy implies measures taken for the upliftment of vulnerable and weaker sections of the society. While social work practitioners in the field level also practice 412 Origin and Development of Social Work in India advocacy, those professionals at the policy making and planning arena are predominantly engaged in the process of influencing the decisions of law makers, ministers and significant other top level officials. Thus it requires lots of tact and a good knowledge of the issue in concern for which the social worker is advocating. The social worker has to remember that advocacy is a political strategy and has to be used wisely. Advocacy, in order to be victorious calls for appropriate use of power and more importantly strength of mind. Always remember power is never given, but has to be won over. Dedication to the cause and the determination to see through difficulties are important sources of power at the disposal of the social worker. By demonstrating moral fiber a social worker can gain strength for advocacy. For example the efforts of noted social activist Medha Patekar for Resettlement and Rehabilitation of displaced people led to the consideration for the first ever National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policy in our country. On the occasion of World AIDS Day a number of organizations have joined hands together to appeal to the Prime Minister of the country to initiate the second line of ART government hospitals so as to make the full treatment accessible even to the poor sections of the society. While using advocacy one of the most serious errors one can make is to act impulsively. If you do so, those who oppose you can more easily discredit your organization. Unity of the team is another crucial source of power. By a strong comradeship the social worker and his team may exert pressure on the decision makers and legislators for a successful advocacy. Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 413

Consolidation of Expert Opinion Planners, administrators, social workers, academicians, politicians are not independent agents contributing to policy development; rather development of policies requires the consolidation of the opinion from experts of different fields. As you have learnt in the earlier sections that for formulation of policies the expert committees are formed and after a series of discussions and dialogues policy statement papers are brought out. For example the Planning Commission appoints social workers as expert group members for preparing programmes and policies related with social welfare. Each five year plan allocate separate budget for different fields of social welfare like health, education, employment, rural development and environment. Professionals with expertise in these fields are appointed as members of expert group. Eminent social workers have served as advisors to the Planning Commission in the social welfare field. Social workers have also been members of the advisory group in University Grants Commission (UGC) curriculum development reports.

Implementation Social workers job does not end with the formulation of policies rather the next category of major task i.e. bringing the provisions in concrete realities starts only after that. Mere formulation of provisions does not serve any purpose until the fruits of same reach to the general population. Social workers are the key agents for implementing the policy provisions. At the implementation level, social workers have two fold tasks–

● Information dissemination ● Accessibility of policy provisions to public 414 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Social workers have a responsibility to help the public fully understand the availability of programmes for their welfare and impact of human services on the quality of life of all persons. Social workers need to work with the media in providing this information. In India, much information is spread through appropriate use of the mass media. With the television and Radio – especially the news channels in vernacular languages, reaching hitherto unreachable remote areas, information can be spread faster. In the given context, the social worker at policy making and planning quarters may utilize the press, advertising agencies, to propagate policies and programmes to prospective beneficiaries. The use of Information Education and communication strategies needs to be appropriately used by the social workers for spreading the message among the masses. The social worker by being proactive in disseminating such information gains in two fronts (i) acknowledgment and encouragement to the public that they have a right to be aware of relevant policies, programmes and agencies maintained by government funds. (ii) Preventing spread of gratuitous and negative information. Social workers through voluntary organizations are engaged in implementing a variety of programmes directly benefiting a number of people e.g. social workers are employed as “Development officers” in ICDS programmes. Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) Act, 2000 specifies the provisions for setting up of the Child Welfare Committee for dealing with children in need of care and protection. The Committee shall have at least one professional with expertise on matters concerning to children, social workers find a place in this position. Voluntary organizations which are mainly backed by social workers may also be authorized by the state Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 415 government for setting up the children home and shelter home as provided under the said Act. The Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (1956) also has provisions for appointment of an advisory body consisting of at least five social workers to advise the special police officers on concerning matters. The social workers may also find place to be appointed as probation officer under the Probation of Offenders Act (1955). As the Probation Officer he/she is required to prepare a social investigation report so as to facilitate the court to decide about the best suitable method of dealing with offender. The social workers also have the responsibilities of supervising the probationers and to advise them in matters related to payment of compensation. Under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, the social workers are eligible to be appointed as protection officers and counsellors. The social workers are also appointed in prisons to look after the welfare measures in the custodial institutions in the capacity of welfare officers.

Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring is an important tool for ensuring proper implementation of a project or programme. It is well recognized that the success of programmes largely depends on the effective delivery system and efficient implementation so that the desired results could be achieved. In order to ensure this, the policy making authorities lay great emphasis on monitoring and evaluation of development programmes. Regular monitoring of the programmes is done to assess the physical and financial progress in implementation of the Schemes and to disseminate the information regarding progress. Evaluation of the programmes is intended for periodic assessment of their impact and to know their strengths and weaknesses so that necessary 416 Origin and Development of Social Work in India steps are taken to streamline and improve the process of implementation. Transparency in implementation is a major objective of the monitoring and evaluation mechanism. It helps to identify the loopholes in the system as well to ensure the appropriate allocation and utilization of the budgets. Monitoring and evaluation is conducted through professional agencies, which employ a team of experts for the job. The comprehensive system of monitoring and evaluation employed by the Monitoring authorities includes various mechanisms such as Progress Reports, Financial Returns/Audit Reports, Intensive Inspections by Officers Review by various Committees, Concurrent Evaluation Reports and impact research studies of the programmes. Evaluation studies also help to a great extent in devising proper policies and redesigning concerned programmes to ensure that the intended benefits reach the target groups. For example, the Ministry of Rural Development lays great emphasis on monitoring and evaluation of rural infrastructure development programmes in general and poverty alleviation and employment generation schemes in particular being implemented in various States. In order to ensure this, the Ministry has evolved a comprehensive system of monitoring and evaluation for the poverty alleviation and the infrastructure development programmes. The Inspection Committee appointed under the section 35 of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection) Act, 2000 also has social workers as team members for evaluation of the services available in children home. The social workers appointed as consultants in national or international level funding organizations such as UNICEF, UNDP, NACO also have the responsibility (i) to Involvement of Social Workers in National Development 417 ensure that the services are reaching appropriately to the target systems and (ii) to prepare reports to evaluate the effectiveness of the policy provisions..

Conclusion

The key role of a social worker in policy formulation and development involves positive influence over the lawmakers and bureaucrats to facilitate accessibility of resources to the weaker sections of the society. The entire process shall be done in a social work perspective with the social worker understanding the thin line of difference between facilitation and manipulation. They shall work with the realization that (i) appropriate plans, policies and programmes bring in a sea change in the lives of millions of people, and (ii) they represent the masses and has the responsibility of voicing the needs and problems of the weaker sections of the society. In this unit we have defined social policy, examined briefly the 1st and 10th five year plans and elaborately discussed the role of social workers in policy formulation and development which one are highly useful to students of social work.

References

Kulkarni, P.D. (1987): Social Policy. In Encyclopedia of Social Work, Vol. III. Publication Division, Ministry of Social Welfare, Govt. of India, Pg. 94-101 Jacob, K.K. (1989): Social Policy in India. Himanshu Publication, Udaipur. Titmus, R.M. (1974). Social Policy: An Introduction . Taylor & Francis, USA. http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/history/ func.htm 418 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

19 Career Prospects in Professional Social Work

*R. Nalini

Introduction

“Whoever accepts evil without protesting against it, is really cooperating with it” – Martin Luther King Welcome to the social work profession. These words of Martin Luther King, in a way, spell out the job expected of a social worker. We need to stand up for social causes, strategize, and organize people to become self-reliant. In the following pages we shall understand social work as a career and the expected roles of professional social workers in their workplace. Social Work as a Career Many a times one hears of opinions that social work is a voluntary service, done out of one’s free will. You will find famous personalities, their spouses, retired personnel etc., saying that they love to do ‘social work’. However, social work from the general notion of ‘pyjama- kurta clad’ is slowly changing with the efforts of various social work professionals. A large number of people have realized that social work is not just about doing good deeds and helping the under-privileged. On the contrary, with social problems of disability, drug misuse, poverty, mental ill health, problems of elderly, adolescents, etc. rising constantly, social work has become a vital need

* Dr. R. Nalini, Aditi College, Delhi University, Delhi. Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 419 of our Nation today. This profession offers immense soul satisfaction and though the general idea is that social work jobs are not lucrative, the trend is towards higher pay packages and well defined career paths. Social work is a career in a very different sense, far away from the conventional definition of a career. A social worker’s professional responsibilities and his or her personal life are intertwined. Most social workers cannot simply go to work, do their job, and then leave their thoughts and feelings about work at the office when returning home. They try to keep professional concerns separate from their roles and responsibilities but the nature of the work makes this difficult. Social work professionals view the client, as a whole person with various dimensions, including the physical, spiritual, emotional, psychological, social and intellectual. They also appraise the client with a situational and ecological context. These same concepts apply to the individual who takes on the roles and responsibilities of a social worker. The social workers respond to the challenges of practice with his or her whole being; therefore, the worker’s beliefs, values and physical and emotional well-being, spirituality, family relationships, friendships and all other facets of living will both influence and be influenced by the day-to-day experiences of social work practice. There must be good fit between the person and his or her occupation and job. A mismatch can be destructive to one’s health and emotional well-being. A social worker works towards the interests of the community and ensures that its most susceptible/ vulnerable citizens receive protection and care in the most responsive way possible. Those in their first social work job realize that there is seldom enough time to do all that needs to be done. 420 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Most entry-level jobs are ones involving the provision of services directly to clients. Many are angered when they recognize that in far too many agencies, social work values and principles and a concern for clients have taken a backseat to the forces of political pressure, administrative fiat, budget limitations, the fear of lawsuits, and the day-by-day struggle. Within such an environment, it can be a challenge to maintain one’s professional ideas and standards. Some important requirements for success in this profession are:

● Observation and Analytical skills ● Ability to view other people’s problems objectively ● Capacity to take initiative ● Capacity to work alone and also as part of a team ● Committed to human rights and social justice ● Being non-judgmental in attitude ● Patience in dealing with people ● Taking up responsibility ● Being emotionally mature ● Sensibility in determining priorities ● Sensitivity to the needs of people ● Effective and appropriate crisis interventions ● Conflict resolution skills ● Reflective learning abilities Thus, interest in the psychological and emotional aspects of people’s behaviour, patience and persistence are a few of the characteristics that one must possess to be in this field. Also one needs to treat everyone as equals and should not hold a bias or prejudice against any section of the society. Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 421 Social Work Settings and Fields of Social Work Practice

An organization that utilizes social work principles, methods and techniques for interventions towards betterment of quality of life is known as a social work setting. There are primary and secondary settings. Primary settings are those settings where social work objectives form the focal objectives of the agency and service delivery is directly aimed at ameliorating the distress of the client population. Social welfare deprtaments, Non-governmental organizations, and Community based organizations working in the field of social welfare would come in the category of primary settings of social work intervention. On the other hand, secondary settings are those wherein realization of social work objectives do not form part of the organization’s main goals. For example, in an industrial setting profit is the main motive with employee welfare as a tool towards achieving it. Social work is a very vast field with numerous areas, issues and groups to work with. It offers diverse opportunities for intervention at various levels because of complexities and multiplicities of problems faced by individuals and groups in changing social situations, as we observe in the present context. There are socially marginalized sections of society like children, adolescents, girl child and women, youth with specific problems, elderly and the like. Each of these categories may face countless problems with in the family, at work place, in other systems of the social environment and may require help of social work professionals. Below are some of the common fields of social work practice, that would offer you job opportunities and may become your workplace for social work intervention. 422 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

Social Work in Education Though traditional school of thought views that social work in education setting primarily involves social work practice in schools, the scope outside the school boundaries is vast. In India, school of social work (not to be confused with social work) in education setting, is a huge field for intervention. As trained social work professionals you may seek jobs in schools as school social worker with the prime objective of inculcation of values of social justice, democracy, empathy among school children as well as improving cordial relations between school, family and community as a system. Counseling students and teachers is an important part of this job. However, it is not the only function a social worker shall do. Conducting home visits, preventing school drop outs, examination stress, etc. are other tasks. Creating awareness on social evils such as substance abuse, sexual abuse, child labour and similar issues is an important aspect in this field. Other functions include facilitating school-community relations and providing a variety services to students in special education programmes. It is necessary to understand that the social worker in educational settings is neither a teacher nor an administrator but acts as a bridge between the two. He/she has to assert ones position as a human service professional so that the job in question is well understood by the school authorities, students and staff members. At the current context, it calls for innovation and creativity on the part of the social workers. School social workers may be the first to spot difficulties a child is confronting at home or in the community and the first to intervene. They often provide services or find services in the areas that prevent more serious problems from developing. Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 423

Further, problems like high drop out rate, retention problems, education of girl child, inclusive education, infrastructure problems, availability of teachers, quality of education, etc., are some of the areas of concern where you as social work professional can intervene.

Medical and Psychiatric Social Work Psychiatric social workers work with disturbed individuals with behavioural problems. They assess and diagnose their problems and help in facilitating a treatment process. Social workers, who venture into this area, help patients and their families in coping with stress and other personal and economic problems. Any hindrances that restrain recovery are dealt with by medical social workers. Services for home care after discharge from the hospital, economic help for poor patients and long term care facilities are all provided by them. Also, they help health professionals in treating the patients by providing them with information concerning the social, emotional and economic status of the patient.

Criminology and Correctional Social Work Social work in remand homes and prisons to prevent crimes and anti-social behaviour is also carried out by social workers. In correctional facilities, the focus is on rehabilitation. Social workers can be probation and parole officers, arranging for services after an offender is released, finding a group home residence, remedial classes, job training, addiction treatment, counseling, child care, and transportation. These activities generally help raise a client’s independence and self-esteem. Social workers may help with domestic disputes or provide trauma and critical incident services to enforcement officers. Social work activities in corrections are diverse, as are the clients, affording the 424 Origin and Development of Social Work in India chance to develop and use a broad range of skills. Corrections and justice is a field where a social worker can focus on rehabilitation and the constructive use of authority. Allied lines of work include corrections, probation, forensics, youth services, parole and domestic violence. Employers are mostly the Government Departments, NGOs, prisons, courts, police departments, victim services programs and similar others.

Urban and Rural Community Development In the Indian context, organizing communities towards empowerment is one of the prime goals of social work profession. Urban slums and resettlement colonies are communities that the social workers may need to work within cities. Social workers work towards solutions to problems of specific communities. They deal with problems like lack of housing, unemployment, local services etc. They help in distribution of resources and implementing social policies.

Industrial Social Work Social workers help ensuring employee well-being in industries and commercial units. They take care of human resource development (HRD), employee welfare, industrial relations etc. of the enterprise. Some also work as industrial social workers. The most recent addition to the list is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Employee Assistance (EA).

Research One of the most absorbing roles in professional social work involves expanding the profession’s knowledge. Social work researchers achieve this by investigating the effectiveness of approaches, methods or programs Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 425 in assisting clients. Social work researchers also help agencies provide services more effectively and contribute to efforts to support and promote social change. Research points the way for improved social policies or legislation and can be the underpinning of successful social policy advocacy. Many researchers begin their careers in direct services and program development, then return to a university to get a doctoral degree to pursue a research career. Others work in agencies or organizations, including government departments.

Aging/Gerontology This means working with older adults, providing counseling, disbursement of social security measures like pension, ensuring affordability, availability of health care system, helping them with medical treatment, improving inter-generational relationships, organizing recreational activities and support groups, and generally improving their quality of life. Further, it would also involve management of old age homes, ensuring proper enactment of legislations like Welfare and Maintenance of Senier Citizens and Parents Act, 2007, Cr.PC sec. 125 and the like.

Social Advocacy This includes addressing various social issues including gender concerns, caste-based discrimination, employment, working conditions, environmental protection and the marginalization of various people.

Disability The disabled, now called the ‘differently abled’ are a disadvantaged section of the society in India. Though the Government has initiated many policies and 426 Origin and Development of Social Work in India programmes for the differently abled, there are lots of bottlenecks in its implementation. Apart from physical disabilities, there are also developmental disabilities, which can include mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism, epilepsy, and other conditions. Working in this field calls for a thorough knowledge of various kinds of disabilities, needs and problems of the disabled and schemes/facilities that could be availed by them. The objectives of social work interventions are to bring the differently abled to mainstream and integration with the society. Policy and Planning “Social workers in this field address problems such as child abuse, homelessness, substance abuse, poverty, violence, unemployment, women issues, mental illness etc. They work to improve systems to better conditions for the people affected. On a daily basis, this often means analyzing census data and legislation, drafting position papers, testifying at public hearings, working with the media, talking with policy makers, and lobbying elected and appointed officials. Their tasks may also involve raising funds, writing grants, or conducting demonstration projects. Work on one issue may take many months or years and change is often incremental. But work in the policy and planning field earns social workers the satisfaction of knowing they are pressing our society to improve the quality of life of all its members”. Counselling Social workers perform counseling in almost all the jobs they undertake, irrespective of the setting. But, many of them are employed as full time counsellors, in non- profit organizations, educational institutions, mental health settings, hospitals, community development projects – the list is not exhaustive only suggestive. Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 427

Counseling is a skill that has to be applied appropriately in accordance to the setting and client in question. The objective of counseling is to help clients improve their social functioning by helping them better understand their feelings, modify their behaviours and learn to cope with problematic situations. In order to perform this role, the social workers need knowledge of human behaviour and an understanding of how the social environment impacts on people. The key job responsibilities include psychosocial assessment and diagnosis, ongoing stabilizing care, social treatment, practice evaluation etc.

Management and Administration Social work administration includes many elements common to administration in other organizations. But the difference emerges from the fact that social work administration also demands knowledge of human behaviour, social problems, social services and values. This job calls for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-coordinating, recruitment and budgeting. Depending on the size of the organization the social worker may be called upon to do all or some portions of these functions. Finding a Placement, Employment and Salary Once you have completed your social work degree, the job hunt begins. Sources of employment could be varied beginning from advertisement in Dailies, Internet access or through the most common ‘word of mouth’. On locating a vacancy, a covering letter and a bio-data needs to be prepared. Added to this, you may send application with your CV attached, to organizations where you are willing to work as most of the organizations now-a-days have data bank where your profile would also find a place 428 Origin and Development of Social Work in India and at appropriate time, you would be called for an interview. The covering letter should focus on the particular job being applied for and should stress the applicant’s qualifications for that position. It should be approximately one page in length and must be carefully written with no spelling, punctuation, or grammatical errors. The letter should clearly indicate the position applied for, and specify why the applicant is interested in that job. The covering letter is not the place to discuss salary expectations or reasons for leaving past jobs. There is no prescribed format or style for a bio-data. However, it should atleast include the following information: Personal data: comprises of the applicant’s name, date of birth, sex, address, email id and phone numbers. Qualification: Details of examinations passed beginning from the school leaving, mentioning the name of the institution/university, degree conferred, year of passing, percentage and distinctions obtained, special skills such as computer literacy, language proficiency in those other than your mother tongue and English, etc. Experience: As a beginner, you may mention your experience in fieldwork agencies, involvement in any development activity for instance; experience in freelancing for social issues. If employed (as part time or full time employee) list employment in reverse order, i.e., beginning with your current or most recent job, giving the job title, name of the organization, dates of employment and job duties. It is also helpful to list any volunteer experience that might have contributed to your social work competencies. Hobbies and other interests: Identify your professional interests as well as those that extend beyond social work. Note membership in professional organizations, Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 429 your participation in various sports, clubs or organizations and any offices held and any hobbies of special interest. References: In general, the persons selected as references should be able to remark on the individual’s professional abilities. It shall be your teacher, field instructor, and/or superiors in your previous jobs. Complete contact details of the referee including name, position held, address, email id and telephone/mobile numbers need to be specified. The concerned individual has to consent that he or she be quoted as your referee. A relative cannot be your reference as his remarks about you might be considered as nepotism. If short listed, you may be called for an interview. In the interview a panel of experts (relevant to your job profile) has a face to face professional interaction with you. The interview is a two-way process and what is important for you is to communicate to the panel precisely your capacities, convictions and values – as a person and a prospective employee. Some organizations also require the candidates to take up a written examination. There could be two or more interviews as well in the selection process. You need to be well equipped with professional knowledge required for the job you are being interviewed. Collect information about the organization in detail – as to its functioning, objectives, reputation and their future plans. This could be done by discussing with other professionals, visiting the organization’s website, reading through informational material available with them etc. This task, well completed shall enable you to relate and answer better the questions posed before you in the interview. Do remember that personal grooming is very important in creating the right impression. Wear clean, formal, 430 Origin and Development of Social Work in India not very expensive clothes in soothing colours. Be sure your hair, nails etc. are well kept and your body is free from odours. Given below are questions that could be expected in interviews: Tell us something about yourself What are your strengths/positive points? What are your weaknesses/negative points? Why do you want this job? Where do you want to reach in your career five years from now? As a social worker, how would you handle the following situation?

Employment and salary Social work profession has growing employment opportunities with both governmental and non- governmental organizations as key employers. The following are the employers, largely of social work professionals: Government Departments Non-government organizations working on various issues Funding organizations – national and international Educational institutions Business houses Research organizations Media Hospitals Mental health institutions Though it is very difficult to specify a fixed amount as a beginner’s salary it could range from Rs.6,000/-to Rs.20,000/-. Salary obviously depends on the practice Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 431 setting and the type of employer. As one goes up the career ladder, salaries are bound to increase. However, social work being a career with a difference, opportunities for career advancement also differs from one setting to the other. Conducting yourself at the Workplace Do not force your values, political preferences, religious beliefs, or life-style on others be it colleagues, friends or clients. Do not indulge in substance abuse. Do not misuse your authority Be assertive in your behaviour. Extreme shyness or submissiveness may end up in you being used as a puppet. Be properly groomed and follow the dress code (implicit or explicit) in the workplace. This will enable clients to approach you without hesitation. Do not indulge in behaviour that is disrespectful and unexpected of a professional social worker such as cracking ethnic jokes, being caste oriented, use of unparliamentary words, mockery etc. Also be cautious of your mannerisms such as snapping of fingers, clearing of throat, excessive body gestures etc. Avoid all irritating personal habits such as fidgeting, nail biting, cleaning of ears/nose, playing with the hair, smoking, chewing gum, eating supari, cracking the knuckles etc. As a social worker you need to grasp information quickly and apply complex principles. It is crucial that you possess a flair for abstract thinking. The social worker’s verbal communication must be understandable to clients and other professionals. Do 432 Origin and Development of Social Work in India not speak too fast, too slow and pause appropriately. Do not mumble or scream and be cautious to alter your vocabulary in accordance to the listener’s profile and capacity. It is very important to possess good written communication skills since a social worker’s job involves frequent report writing, drafting messages etc. for both internal and external dissemination. Be punctual and well prepared for all your work-related appointments, in meeting deadlines, record keeping, assignments and tasks. Your conduct outside the work sphere is also very vital since any negative behaviour calls for public attention and could endanger your organization’s and the profession’s image.

Relating to your Organization Develop a thorough understanding of your organization, its history, mission, aims, constitution, traditions, policies and programs. An in depth knowledge of all the above also needs meticulous updating in terms of facts and figures such as number of beneficiaries, new projects on the pipeline etc. Remember, information is power. Try to match your effectiveness as a person and a professional with the needs of the organization appropriately. This may bring you job involvement and resultant job satisfaction. Maintain direct contact with agency clients even as you rise to a supervisory or administrative level, for, this provides you, with a constant reminder of the agency’s purpose and what needs to be changed to improve service to clients Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 433

Respect the chain of command. Any attempt to go around or over the head of your immediate superior is a risky move. When frustrated by a specific rule or procedure, seek answers to the question of why it exists. Many rules, procedures and policies come into existence as a reaction to some problem and remain in force even when no longer necessary. As an agency employee, you need to respect and cooperate with your colleagues, departments and units. Do not bring in your personal likes and dislikes to the workplace. Maintain a balanced perspective and a sense of humour about your job and your place within your organization. Work hard and be a responsible employee, but do not take yourself or your agency too seriously. Social Worker’s Image In India there are lots of misconceptions about the social workers and their job profiles. Though media’s portrayal is a significant contributor to the above, individual social workers also have an equal role to play. Many of them hesitate to use the title ‘social worker’ and prefer to be addressed as officers, counselors, managers etc. Social workers need to change their outlook towards their profession and facilitate change in the mindset of the general public. This requires that all of us take up ownership for improving the profession’s image, offer the best of our services, be totally professional in approach and most importantly, inform, wherever possible, that you are a trained social worker. We need to associate ourselves with professional entities and work together for educating the people about our profession, roles, scope and relevance. 434 Origin and Development of Social Work in India

All too often, social workers come to believe that no one, except another social worker is capable of understanding their concerns and frustrations. This role-centeredness in the selection of friends limits exposure to differing points of view and constricts opportunity for personal growth. In some cases, it leads to an “us against them” type of thinking. In addition to friendships with colleagues, the social worker needs to cultivate friendships with people who are from outside the work setting and profession. Constant learning and updating of knowledge is required. Be in touch with the new ideas, latest developments in the field through participating in seminars, academic exercises, writing articles and concept papers. Important Points to Ponder As a profession, social work requires individual to be mature and resilient. What is important is to know where to draw the lines lest people read you as low in self- esteem and indecisive. We, for most part of our work deal with problems and individuals affected by those problems. We need to stay focused that we do not get entangled in emotions but guide individuals out of these problems and reinvent meaning in their lives. There is no doubt that social work is a challenging, stressful and at times dangerous occupation. What is essential is that a social worker must be able to maintain a proper boundary in professional relationships. Moreover, the social worker needs to stay healthy physically and emotionally. Here are some points to remember in the workplace Understanding does not mean agreement Humility is not compromising on one’s self-respect Goodness does not mean weakness Simplicity is not complacency Career Prospects in Professional Social Work 435 Conclusion In this Unit you have gained understanding about various career options that would be available to you after successfully completing the course. The unit described the settings, primary as well as secondary, for social work intervention, talked about the roles and responsibilities of social work professionals in these settings. The unit also mentioned about the process of finding a suitable job, tips for preparing curriculum vitae, conduct in interview and behaviour expected from a social worker at the work place.

References

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