Section One: the Concept of an Arab Knowledge Society

PART II

Section one: the concept of an Arab knowledge society

The Report starts, in Chapter 1, with a conceptual discussion of knowledge as it relates to Arab countries. It defines what is meant by knowledge and sets out an analytical framework for examining the current status and cultural, social, economic and political context of knowledge acquisition, the main subjects of this Report. The chapter contrasts the requirements of a knowledge society with the characteristics of Arab societies, historically and at the present time. The discussion identifies the key challenges that later chapters take up in detail.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 33 CHAPTER 1 Conceptual framework: knowledge, human development and the knowledge society in Arab countries

This series of Arab Human Development quences of the relative backwardness of the Reports (AHDR) was designed so that the first Arab region in this vital arena. issue, published in June 2002, offered a com- The first AHDR highlighted how weak prehensive treatment of human development knowledge bases and stagnant knowledge de- in Arab countries according to the definition velopment condemn many Arab countries to adopted by the series and recapitulated in Part fragile productive power and reduced develop- I of this issue. Subsequent issues were to exam- ment opportunities. It is now a commonplace ine, in depth, specific challenges that are of es- that the knowledge gap, rather than the income sential importance to human development in gap, determines the prospects of countries in those countries. This practice starts with this today’s world economy. In addition, a consen- second issue of the series, dedicated to the sus is emerging that the gap between develop- topic of "knowledge". ing and developed countries in the capacity to For Arab countries, the This chapter lays out the conceptual basis produce knowledge is wider than the knowl- need to invest in for exploring issues of knowledge and defines edge gap itself. This calls for serious efforts to knowledge is great what is meant by the "knowledge society". regenerate knowledge production in the devel- Subsequently, it discusses briefly some ques- oping world. and the dividends that tions raised as a result of contrasting the char- The Report assumes that countries with de- can be realized are acteristics of the "knowledge society" with ficient knowledge capabilities have much to those of present-day Arab societies. These gain by moving towards the "knowledge soci- proportionately large. questions, and the challenges they pose, will be ety" since the developmental returns on knowl- further tackled in subsequent chapters of this edge acquisition increase in societies suffering a Report. It ends by highlighting a major chal- knowledge deficit. Such societies can take ad- lenge to knowledge in Arab countries, namely vantage of the abundant stock of knowledge, the need to create strong, effective and increas- experience and best practice available world- ing societal demand for knowledge supported wide. They can learn from the mistakes and by adequate purchasing power. profit from the achievements of early knowledge leaders. In a comparative perspective, for WHY FOCUS ON KNOWLEDGE? Arab countries, the need to invest in knowledge is great and the dividends that can be re- Knowledge is recognised as a cornerstone of alized are proportionately large. human development, a means of expanding people’s capabilities and choices and a tool for overcoming human poverty. In the 21st century, knowledge is also increasingly a dynamic BOX 1.1 Edward W. Said - What knowledge? factor of production and a powerful driver of It isn’t knowledge as a product or com- facts are connected to other facts, how productivity and human capital. The first modity that we need; nor is it a matter of they are constructed, whether they re- AHDR identified a serious shortfall in knowl- remedying the situation by having big- late to hypothesis or theory, how one is edge acquisition, absorption and use as one of ger libraries, a greater number of termi- to judge the relationship between truth three cardinal deficits undermining human de- nals, computers and so forth, but a and interest, how to understand reality qualitatively different knowledge based as history. These are only some of the velopment in Arab countries. This second on understanding rather than on au- critical issues we face, which can be Report starts where the first left off and takes thority, uncritical repetition, mechanical summed up in the phrase/question, how an in-depth look at the causes and conse- reproduction. It is not facts, but how to think?

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 35 THE ACQUISITION OF stories, pictures and any mental construct in- KNOWLEDGE AND HUMAN forming human behaviour, whether docu- Knowledge is one of DEVELOPMENT mented, oral or implicit. The institutional knowledge of a society includes history, cul- the few human ture, strategic orientations and organisational resources that does KNOWLEDGE forms. Consequently, knowledge can be explicit not perish, but rather Knowledge consists of data, information1, in- (recorded in one form or another) or implicit proliferates through structions, and ideas, or the sum total of sym- (in the form of spontaneous behavioural pre- bolic structures possessed by individual human scriptions, for example). Moreover, the pro- consumption. beings or by society at large. These symbolic duction of knowledge is not limited to the structures guide individual and institutional standard forms of science and scientific re- human behaviour in all walks of life and in all search, it also spans knowledge embodied in spheres of public and private activity. the various forms of artistic and literary ex- Knowledge includes, for instance, the sym- pression and in both popular and formal cul- bolic structures which are acquired through tures2. formal education and experiences learned Knowledge transcends the mere acquisi- from work and life. It also encompasses facts, tion of information. Indeed, information over- load in the age of the Internet, media BOX 1.2 Collective learning: a means for developing knowledge capital or saturation and fast communication can some- reinforcing the status quo? times smother true knowledge. The explosion In all societies there is a number, large or Most human systems possess common of readily available data, opinions, articles, small, of people who possess some knowl- knowledge models that aim to protect the documents and other types of content trig- edge. The challenge of building knowl- status quo and to entrench it in the form of edge capital within a human system, conservative societal institutions, knowl- gered by the digital revolution can be over- however, resides in converting individual edge transmission mechanisms, and re- whelming and requires a process of selection, knowledge to collective knowledge. ward systems. Such models deter extraction and judgment in order to retrieve A large amount of knowledge exists in members of these societies from challeng- useful and usable knowledge. Moreover, while the minds of individuals in the form of an- ing the status quo and deprive them of op- knowledge ranks higher than information on swers to the questions: how and why? portunities for learning. From a This constitutes a knowledge model on the developmental point of view, such learn- the scale of human values, it is one step lower individual level. A higher order type of ing is not useful and could be harmful. An than wisdom, which entails a commitment to knowledge is acquired through conceptual example of this type of learning in Arab high human ideals such as freedom, justice and learning, which can change knowledge countries is the widespread culture of human dignity. frameworks and thus the world-view of in- myths and the supernatural. dividuals. Conceptual learning can be dis- Controversy often springs up around In all human systems, only a small amount tinguished from lower order procedural what could be deemed useful versus harm- of total organised knowledge is recorded. In learning, which simply leads to changes in ful learning. The controversy, in fact, re- human systems where the acquisition of actions. A change in the knowledge model flects the differing social interests behind knowledge is weak, the extent of unrecorded occurs when new actions, embedded in these viewpoints. The only way out of this new knowledge frameworks, are estab- impasse is to adopt a decisive criterion. and implicit knowledge residing in individual lished. Generally speaking, it can be said In this case, it is suggested that the cri- and collective knowledge models, in the cul- that individual knowledge models arise terion be the extent of contribution to ture and in spontaneous prescriptions for from a world-view (Weltenschaung) of the building human development, according human conduct, is still often substantial. system embedded in the general knowl- to the definition adopted by this Report in One of the quintessential, and seemingly edge model internalised by system mem- Part I. This is the measure by which the el- bers. ements of the Arab knowledge model must contradictory, characteristics of knowledge is This discussion raises questions as to be judged, so that those features enhanc- that it grows with use. Knowledge is one of the the content of the dominant knowledge ing human development may be identified few human resources that does not perish, but model in the Arab world and whether it re- and fostered. rather proliferates through consumption. inforces or hinders human development. It is useful to draw a distinction, on the

1The conversion of data to information requires processing such as evaluation and analysis. 2It is accepted that many technologies embedded in popular knowledge provide brilliant solutions to local problems. Consider, for example, the use of palm-tree stems in reinforcing buildings and roofs in Arab desert environments, which surpasses "modern" technologies in combating the harsh- ness of the tough desert climate. This is also evident in the case of popular medicine in developing countries, especially in Latin America, where indigenous cures can have real commercial value. Several multinationals have rushed to possess this popular ‘know-how’, and convert it into monopolised knowledge through patents. 3The term "capital" is not limited to financial assets. The term in English means "man-made means of production" (Oxford Dictionary of Economic Terms, 1997).

36 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 level of society, between knowledge wealth and learning, research and technological develop- knowledge capital3. Knowledge wealth is the ment, and literary and artistic forms in both Knowledge is sum total of knowledge assets, or symbolic popular and formal cultures -- together with structures in society; knowledge capital is that the effective use of such knowledge in societal multi-dimensional: part of knowledge wealth used in producing activities - will not only increasingly expand the an inherent human new knowledge, which in turn leads to the fur- frontiers of human potential. It will also be the ther growth of knowledge wealth. means to enlarge the scope of human freedoms faculty, a human The knowledge wealth of a given society and to guarantee those freedoms through good product and that extends, at least in principle, to the general, governance and the promotion of equity and and ever-renewable, stock of human knowl- human fulfilment. Knowledge will thus serve which enhances what edge. However, two types of impediments the loftier goals of freedom, justice and human it means to be hamper the free use of this stock. First, aspects dignity. of the institutional structure and the societal As noted previously, knowledge has be- human. context of the knowledge system in the society come an essential factor of production, and a itself can present internal obstacles. Second, basic determinant of productivity. There is a features of the international context of knowl- strong connection between knowledge acquisi- edge acquisition can interpose barriers, as will tion and the productive capacity of a society. be outlined in a later section. This connection figures prominently in high Effective knowledge is knowledge that is value-added production activities, which are widely disseminated, absorbed and used. The increasingly based on knowledge intensity, and most fundamental driver of that process, on the which lead to the rapid obsolescence of knowl- individual or the societal levels, is learning. edge, technology and skills. Such activities are Individual and collective learning are two of the mainstay of competitiveness worldwide, the most important capabilities for building they will create the wealth of the future and knowledge capital. they therefore constitute a major gateway to development for developing countries. Yet in most developing countries, the KNOWLEDGE AND HUMAN knowledge system faces a dual crisis. On the DEVELOPMENT one hand, the system itself suffers from the

In the broad concept of human development, BOX 1.3 Economic characteristics of knowledge acquiring knowledge is a fundamental human entitlement. People, simply by virtue of being Knowledge has special features that de- In practice, much knowledge is human, have a right to knowledge as a public termine its economic character. transferred to developing countries in Knowledge is non-spatial. It can tra- forms originally developed for rich coun- good. At the same time, knowledge acquisition verse distances and borders at high tries. This can reduce the value of knowl- is also a means of achieving human develop- speed, especially when digitised. edge transfers, and waste scarce ment, since it enables people to enlarge their Knowledge is also durable. It does not resources. Such arrangements often bur- capabilities and widen their horizon of choice. perish by being transferred from its den poorer countries with additional and owner to whoever demands it. This sometimes unjustified requirements, as Moreover, in the present phase of human means that it can exist endlessly without in the case of conditions governing fran- progress, the acquisition, absorption and pro- any need for further production. chises. They can also impose require- duction of knowledge drive social and eco- Some types of demand stimulate the ments for expertise or capital assets not nomic transformation. Knowledge can liberate reproduction of knowledge itself, at an available locally. This reduces the bene- individuals and societies from human poverty additional cost to meet particular needs fits to developing countries of technol- or preferences. Such preferences include ogy transfers owing to high transaction in a given cultural context and elevate them to reducing the cost of knowledge, or the costs and the absence of domestic sys- higher planes of human existence. Thus, in time taken for its production, or its tems that would allow such countries to human development terms, knowledge is closer adaptation to the particular cir- derive the maximum benefits from im- multi-dimensional: an inherent human faculty cumstances and resources of a society or ported technology. its environmental requirements. Hence the value of knowledge does and a basic human right, a human product and Developing countries have a particular not necessarily lie in its abstract content that which enhances what it means to be stake in expressing this latter preference, but rather in how much it can contribute human in the first place. or taking adaptation into their own to finding solutions to problems affect- In the developing world, knowledge ac- hands. ing a society at a particular time. quired and expressed through education and Source: Mohammed Mahmud Al-Imam, background paper for AHDR2.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 37 backwardness of the society of which it is an belong to the world on its own usually result in inseparable part, and its efficiency and impact that country assuming a marginal and depen- are limited by restrictions emanating from its dent position. societal context. In some less developed soci- A society that does not clearly incentivise eties, rooted constructs, concepts and pre- knowledge acquisition and use through educa- cepts may actively hinder human tion, technical research and development and development. Those symbolic structures need all kinds of literary and artistic expression to be challenged by other knowledge struc- traps itself on the lowest rungs of learning. A tures that stimulate or enhance human devel- society that does not value knowledge highly opment. Moreover, the elements of the does not provide for the knowledge acquisi- In most developing knowledge system in developing countries are tion system the necessary resources and social typically dispersed in various individual and environment for its effective activity. The out- countries, the non-formal forms. Dispersion makes it diffi- come is lower productivity and lagging human knowledge system cult to assess and manage knowledge wealth, development. let alone amalgamate scattered assets into an The four most significant aspects of the so- faces a dual crisis. effective knowledge system built on firm cietal context affecting Arab knowledge sys- knowledge capital. tems are: links with societal activities, On the other hand, the principal hope for especially production; the role of the state; the overcoming underdevelopment and achieving regional context; and the international envi- competitiveness in developing countries is ronment. The first and second aspects are dis- precisely a mobilised, well-organised and well cussed next; the regional and international functioning knowledge system. No other de- contexts are taken up in chapter 8. velopment investment promises greater exponential returns in an era of knowledge Strong links between the knowledge acquisition system and societal activity intensity and knowledge-driven competition. Cutting this Gordian knot is one of the most In a well functioning knowledge system, the formidable challenges facing developing coun- enterprise sector (both public and private) and tries today. government and civil society organisations are dynamically connected. Such linkages energise SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF the system and maximise its role in advancing KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION productivity. For example, the modern con- ception of technological development de- The global stock of knowledge is renewable mands a symbiotic link between societal and grows ceaselessly. Yet its human, cultural activity sites and research institutions. This and economic potential will not blossom in contrasts with the older, one-way view that A society that does any country where the social climate does not technology is an application to society of sci- not clearly incentivise actively encourage knowledge acquisition, dis- entific discoveries in research institutions. As a semination, production and use. A system of second example, the best education, especially knowledge knowledge can be sustained or stunted by the in technical fields, cannot play a vigorous soci- acquisition and use social soil in which it grows and by the sur- etal role without a strong connection to labour rounding regional and global environment. markets, firms, factories and enterprises. traps itself on the These conditions influence whether educa- lowest rungs of tion, learning, R&D and literary and artistic A vigorous role for the state and all its institutions expression flourish or fail and therefore learning. whether productivity and human develop- This second aspect is particularly important in ment prosper or not. developing countries, where the "knowledge Regional issues take on special significance market" is traditionally notorious for failure. for Arab countries, whose small markets logi- Knowledge, in the language of economics, is a cally point towards greater regional integra- public good whose producer does not neces- tion. The dominance of the global economy sarily capture all the returns on the initial in- poses different challenges. Experience sug- vestment. It is also non-rivalrous: its use by gests that attempts by each Arab country to one party does not prevent others from using

38 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 it. As such, the returns to knowledge produc- cultural, social, economic, and political. The tion accrue to society as a whole rather than presence and efficiency of key societal institu- exclusively to its producer. tions are also key factors, as will be discussed Where knowledge is concerned, the rela- later. tive weakness of the profit motive discourages profit-oriented enterprises from investing in THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY knowledge production, especially in developing countries. Leaving knowledge acquisition It is now understood that the cognitive assets entirely to the for-profit sector in less devel- of society -- knowledge and expertise -- and State activism does oped countries thereby risks reducing the sup- not its material assets -- raw materials or finan- ply of knowledge and depriving weaker social cial and physical capital -- increasingly deter- not stop at merely groups of its benefits. At the global level, this mine its productivity and competitiveness. overcoming "market market failure can actively retard knowledge The term "knowledge society" refers to acquisition by developing countries and, as this current phase in the evolution of human failure" but extends happens at the national level, leave the weaker progress, as it is unfolding in advanced soci- to taking initiatives in social categories in those countries facing the eties. greatest knowledge deprivation. The World Specifically, the knowledge society is or- the public interest . Bank Report on Knowledge for Development ganised around the dissemination and produc- (1998) emphasises these matters in more than tion of knowledge and its efficient utilisation one respect and concludes by stressing the de- in all societal activities: the economy, civil soci- cisive role of the state in developing countries ety, politics, and private life, in a continuous in fostering efficient knowledge acquisition. quest to advance human development. It is true that the for-profit sector plays a In such a society, knowledge plays a para- major role in the knowledge acquisition sys- mount role in shaping social structures; in in- tem in developed economies. However, the fluencing the performance of the economy, role played by the state remains pivotal, partic- society and polity; and in changing the occu- ularly in fostering basic research and educa- pations and life-styles of its citizens as the tion, areas that do not yield quick, tangible knowledge content of their daily lives intensi- profits in developing countries yet which are fies steadily. In a knowledge society, the num- indispensable to any vital knowledge acquisi- ber of workers in the knowledge system, as tion system in the long run. In most developed well as their share of the total work force, rises. countries, the role of the state was strongest In addition, the ratio of work time devoted to during periods of nation building, a phase still knowledge-intensive activities increases for all in progress in most developing, particularly workers. The cognitive assets Arab, countries. In economic terms, building the knowl- The role of the state is especially decisive edge society in Arab countries means shifting of a society, and not in developing countries undergoing economic towards a knowledge mode of production in its material assets, adjustments that excessively curtail the state’s place of the rentier mode of production4 that societal functions and services. At the same currently dominates most parts of the region. increasingly time, newer approaches to economic growth In a knowledge society, societal institu- determine its and development recognise that state activism tions belonging to the knowledge system, ei- does not stop at merely overcoming "market ther as producers or disseminators, are many, productivity and failure" but extends to taking initiatives in the varied and interconnected. The knowledge so- competitiveness. public interest and becoming actively involved ciety guarantees a social context conducive to in knowledge acquisition and public innova- the vitality of the knowledge system. tion. Eventually, a "knowledge culture" evolves, Ultimately, how dynamically a society par- embodying values motivating the acquisition ticipates in knowledge acquisition and how ef- and use of knowledge. This culture is sup- fectively such knowledge serves human ported by effective societal incentives for dis- development depends on societal structures: seminating and producing knowledge. In

4This applies to countries where economic value is basically derived from depleting raw materials, either directly in oil-producing countries, or indi- rectly in others through dependence on aid and expatriate workers’ remittances from the former.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 39 short, a virtuous circle develops between the To put it in a regional context, it can be said, effectiveness of the knowledge system and the without prevarication, that Arab countries are extent of support it receives from the societal far removed from such a society. context. Indeed, the divide between developing In other words, the challenge of knowl- countries, including Arab countries, and edge acquisition consists of transforming soci- knowledge societies is large and widening ety from a system that comprises some rapidly. Chapter 4, on the measurement of knowledgeable individuals to a societal system knowledge, reveals this gap clearly as reflected fully anchored in the production and dissemi- in the different performances of Arab coun- nation of knowledge and its efficient utilisa- tries and the East Asian "Tigers" in accumu- The knowledge society tion in advancing human development lating human capital. means instituting As noted earlier, societies possess a huge Some analysts (e.g., Az-Zayyat, in Arabic, amount of knowledge scattered in individual 2003) go so far as to maintain that if develop- knowledge as the reservoirs in institutions, in people’s minds ing countries are to catch up with agile knowl- organising principle of and in a variety of media. Less formalised edge societies, they will have to pursue a path knowledge assets are implicit in the sponta- of exponential growth, (Figure 1-1). Adopting human life. neous activity of individuals and the popular such a path is a tall order: it requires accelerat- culture of the society. Nevertheless, a rational ing the dissemination, production and utilisa- societal leadership can mobilise uncoordi- tion of knowledge in developing countries at nated institutions and dispersed knowledge rates faster than those which historically pre- through a deliberate societal programme. The vailed in today’s knowledge societies. This potential dividends are handsome and will steep gradient should be taken to indicate the serve the strategic purpose of building human seriousness of the challenges developing coun- development. tries face if they seek to build the knowledge To put this challenge in one sentence, the society starting from initial conditions today. knowledge society means instituting knowledge as the organising principle of human life. KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION SYSTEMS Figure 1.1 Bridging the knowledge gap through exponential growth in knowledge acquisition The conversion of knowledge wealth to knowledge capital and the efficient use of knowledge capital in producing new forms of knowledge requires two connected societal processes. The first is the dissemination of available knowledge, whereas the second is the production of new forms of knowledge in all fields: natural sciences, social sciences, the humanities, arts, literature, and all other societal activities. The efficiency of both activities rests on vigorous and efficient societal institutions and social processes. These are complex systems reflecting the specificity of society, history, culture, and institutions. The success of these systems depends on the fluent exchange of knowledge among all units that produce and utilise knowledge such that the productivity of each unit, and of the societal system as a whole, is optimised. The societal processes and institutions used in building and utilising knowledge capital in the dissemination and production of

40 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 knowledge vary and interact, especially in Arab countries are concerned in light of esca- profit-seeking enterprises, which are expected lating regional challenges and accelerating to contribute effectively to knowledge acquisi- globalisation. tion, and in particular to technological devel- Figure (1-2) illustrates the elements of the opment in a free market economy. knowledge system and the societal context As a result of this multiplicity, the effi- that affects it as discussed in this Report. The ciency of knowledge dissemination and pro- numbered elements correspond to the duction depends on the organisational context Report’s chapters. that surrounds such processes and institutions The diagram shows three rings that sur- and supports the relationships among them. round the heart of the knowledge system, Organisation is the The coherence of this organisational context is knowledge capital, which is discussed in key to knowledge an important factor in building the knowledge Chapter Four. All elements of the system are society. subject to two environments – the regional management, In less advanced societies, the organisa- and the international – that influence them. transfer, tional context surrounding the dissemination Knowledge capital is circled by the two rings and production of knowledge is inefficient. of knowledge acquisition - dissemination indigenisation and Yet such organisation is the key to knowledge (Chapter Two) and production (Chapter production. management, transfer, indigenisation and pro- Three). This knowledge acquisition subsystem duction. Both the state and the enterprise sec- is in turn surrounded by the organisational tor have a high stake in the efficiency of these context for knowledge (Chapter Five). All the organisational relationships. foregoing elements are surrounded by the cul- Even so, the organisational context is only tural context (Chapter Six) and the socio-eco- one component among the complex societal nomic structure for knowledge (Chapter determinants of a successful knowledge sys- Seven). The last ring, the political context, tem. It is the closest component to the func- and the regional and international environ- tioning of the system itself. But it depends, in ment, are discussed in Chapter Eight. turn, on other important structures, which The establishment of a knowledge society might seem farther away from the system but in the Arab world, in the conceptual setting il- which have a stronger impact, positive or neg- Figure 1.2: ative, on the formation of knowledge capital The knowledge system: a schematic representation and knowledge wealth. The crucial structures governing the societal context of the knowledge system, particularly from the perspective of the Arab world, include the prevalent culture, socio-economic structure, and political and legal context. All of these exist in an influ- ential regional and global environment. Culture embraces several components, such as intellectual heritage, religion, and language. The socio-economic structure pertains to modes of production, growth and wealth distribution and to the societal incentive system associated with that structure. The political and legal context governs the processes and institutions of knowledge dissemination and production; especially important in this respect is the status of the key freedoms of speech, opinion and assembly. All of these components are surrounded by, and subject to the regional and global environment of knowledge acquisition. This two- tier environment is especially relevant where

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 41 lustrated here, poses considerable challenges, Arab world, which has not succeeded yet in in- which are taken up in the Report. digenising knowledge as a social institution and an authentic cultural dimension. ARABS AND KNOWLEDGE The question is actually a cognitive challenge that concerns most developing countries. But in order to avoid over-generalisation A LONG, MIXED HISTORY it is useful to clarify some distinctive features LEADING TO CHALLENGES TODAY of the Arab world, both inherited and acquired. Some of these features could help, The Arab world has a long and mixed history while others could impede the successful indi- of knowledge acquisition. The first AHDR genisation of modern knowledge. (2002) concluded that Arab countries have Building the fallen far behind in acquiring knowledge, this THE ARAB KNOWLEDGE now being one of the three main deficits im- CIVILISATION: SOME knowledge society in peding their human development at the begin- SIGNIFICANT FEATURES st Arab countries ning of the 21 century. Nevertheless, history tells us that Arabs, in previous epochs, con- Islamic culture cannot be properly understood reclaims one of the tributed substantially to the production of without investigating its scholarly character. brightest treasures of knowledge and by extension to enriching the History shows that, with the beginning of global stock of human knowledge. From this the Abbasid state, a scholarly renaissance com- Arab history. perspective, building the knowledge society in menced, one hardly less important than that Arab countries reclaims one of the brightest which transformed Europe during the 17th treasures of Arab history. century. To understand this scholarly renais- This historical paradox raises an essential sance, some factors must be kept in mind. question: how can the Arab world truly inter- The first is the role of the political and so- nalize knowledge acquisition? How can the re- cial authorities of the day in encouraging gion move beyond merely importing scientific learning and providing the material require- and technological products in the form of ments and the human capital for knowledge goods and services from companies and insti- development. The reputations of the Abbasid tutions abroad? Caliphs, who established libraries and obser- This question has preoccupied many vatories, were built precisely on this role. This scholars, intellectuals, politicians and others state of affairs continued even after the disin- over the last two centuries. It represents the tegration of the caliphate and the division of largest challenge facing the contemporary the Islamic world into competing states, each

BOX 1.4 with its own centres of scholarship. These new A Cauldron of Cultures developments led to the creation of the "schol- "The rich legacy of Islamic civilizations, Golden Age has been hailed for its open arly city" with its various and rival colleges. historians argue, is due in part to its ex- embrace of a universal science, no matter Looking at Baghdad during the mid-third cen- ceptional absorptive quality and relative the source—believing that there was not tury of the Islamic era reveals a city of thriving tolerance for different cultures and eth- a "Christian science," "Jewish science," scholarship, with scholarly institutions repre- nic traditions of civilizations from south- "Muslim science," "Zoroastrian science" ern Europe to Central Asia." or "Hindu science." There was just one senting various groups. "Not merely translators, the science for the Abbasids, who were ap- The second factor stemmed from the ma- Abbasids collected, synthesized and ad- parently influenced by numerous terial and cultural needs of the new commu- vanced knowledge, building their own Qur’anic references to learning about nity. The vast new state, teeming with multiple civilization from intellectual gifts from the wonders of the universe as a way to many cultures, including the Chinese, honor God. Thus, reason and faith, both cultures and systems, called out for develop- Indian, Iranian, Egyptian, North being God-given, were combined, mutu- ment and unification. These two challenges African, Greek, Spanish, Sicilian and ally inclusive and supportive. Islam was prompted the resort to scientific scholarship. Byzantine. This Islamic period was in- anything but isolationist, and Abbasids The extraction of groundwater, the digging of deed a cauldron of cultures, religions, connected to all cultural traditions, be- learning and knowledge—one that cre- lieving as they did that learning was uni- canals, the establishment of cities, the exten- ated great civilizations and influenced versal, and not confined to their own sion of roads, the organisation of ministries others from Africa to China. This domain." (diwans), the levying of taxes, the survey of Vartan Gregorian, Islam: A Mosaic Not a Monolith lands and other activities led to the unification President’s Essay, 2001 Annual Report, Carnegie Corporation.

42 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 of calculation systems and the utilisation of al- knowledge became one of the hallmarks of gebra and geometry. Sciences were applied to Arab culture. It was evidenced by several an- solving practical problems. Moreover, reli- thologies exhaustively classifying old and new gious duties, such as fasting, praying, and Hajj forms of scholarship, and it permeated popu- (the holy pilgrimage to Mecca) were accompa- lar culture as well. nied by astrological research, which had a The establishment of this new scholarly great impact on the progress of astronomy. culture began with the transfer of the scholar- The science of timing and the new social occu- ship of the ancients, especially the Greeks. But pation of the "timer" led to the assimilation of on examining the scientific translation move- scientific research in traditional culture. The ment, particularly in astronomy and mathe- development of mathematics and algebra was matics, another profound attribute becomes Scholarship was never spurred by the appearance of new ministries clear. Translation is closely connected to sci- and another new social occupation -- that of entific research and creativity. The objective of marginal in the the scribe. Other examples of applied study the translation movement was not to establish Islamic-Arab city, or in can be cited in medicine, chemistry and me- a scientific library to enrich the palaces of the popular culture. chanical engineering. Indeed, science and its caliphs and princes, but to fulfil the needs of applications became a part of social practice, scientific research. Without fully understand- through teaching and research. Scholarship ing this phenomenon, none of the outcomes of was never marginal in the Islamic-Arab city, or this movement, which undertook the most ex- in the popular culture. It was one of the main pansive translation of practical texts in history, attributes of Arab culture even at the time of can be appreciated. decline. The translators themselves were leaders of The third factor contributing to the scien- the scholarly movement; indeed, some of them tific renaissance was that it was preceded by a were among its universal authorities, such as renaissance in the humanities and the social al-Hajjaj bin-Mattar, Thabit bin Qurrah, and sciences: specifically, in scholastic theology, Qusta bin Luqa. Moreover, the choice of linguistics, history, jurisprudence, religious ex- books and the timing of this choice were egesis and other disciplines. The rise of these closely related to what was being researched. scholarly fields paved the way for the develop- To take just one example, when Thabit bin ment of mathematical and other sciences. To Qurrah translated several books from cite one example, Kitab al-‘Ain, by al-Khalil Apollonius – the finest and most difficult writ- bin-Ahmad, was the first lexicographic work ing in Greek geometry – he needed them in his in history. This work required scrupulous new mathematical research, especially that re- knowledge of phonetics as well as of the prin- lated to calculating areas and sizes. The con- ciples of combinatorial mathematics in order nection between scientific translation and to draw up tables of words. In fact, several advanced scientific research is not only an his- studies in the humanities raised questions that torical fact, but also explains why researchers required drawing on or developing scientific active in astronomy and mathematics under- Translation is closely answers. The rise of the humanities provided a took so much translation in those fields. It large audience to those concerned with sci- also illustrates some of the attributes of lin- connected to scientific ence and with language tools and it prepared guistic translation. research and the Arabic language to receive new forms of A far-reaching result of this meeting be- knowledge. tween two currents of study -- one in the hu- creativity. This explosion of learning included all manities and languages, the other in scientific branches of knowledge at the time; it did not research -- was the rise of the scientific Arabic favour some to the exclusion of others. Thus, language. This new medium took two simulta- it included theoretical branches and the appli- neous paths, translation and creativity, re- cations related to the needs of the new com- flected in the invention of new sciences munity. In this way, learning became an unknown to the ancients. Perhaps the most essential component of the popular culture, important attributes of the new knowledge and was not confined to matters of religion, produced by Arab culture at this time were: 1) language and literature. An appetite for A new mathematical rationality; 2)

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 43 Experimentation as a pattern of proof. backwardness and advancement, authenticity The new rationality may be described in and modernity, the self and the other, the two words, algebraic and analytic, while the Arabs (Muslims) and the West. Such topics introduction of experimentation, by al- have persisted in writings and studies on Arab Hassan bin al-Haitham as a criterion of proof history, society and politics for more than a in physics research, profoundly influenced century. Indeed, to many, it appears that intel- both the material and human sciences. Taken lectual life in the Arab world has revolved together, these historical currents illustrate around itself for several centuries without that the Arab scientific renaissance produced, going beyond the self towards more produc- The Arab scientific in its own time, a knowledge society in the full tive and valuable fields of knowledge. When sense of the term. introspection succumbs to introversion, the renaissance produced, Oddly, lessons learned from this history of wellsprings of creativity begin to run dry. A in its own time, a indigenous and acquired knowledge during significant part of Arab intellectual endeavour the early Arab scientific and linguistic renais- seems to seek refuge in ideological headlines knowledge society in sance were not enlisted when the moderniza- that either take the form of slogans to glorify the full sense. tion of science became a central question in and effect a nostalgic revival or that encourage the Arab world. Attempts at scientific mod- self-pity, blame others for adversity and do ernisation by Muhamad Ali and Gamal Abdel not do justice to Arab societies. Nasser during the 19th and 20th centuries re- These characteristics of intellectual output spectively neither drew nor built upon this do not reflect any innate "inadequacy" in the legacy. Instead, leaders turned to imitating "Arab mentality". Rather, they mirror a socio- what the West offered. Neglecting this her- political feature that is very common in con- itage and settling for the pragmatic importa- temporary Arab history, and which has a tion of science and technology from 19th profound impact on culture, namely: – the century Europe – an approach that still domi- dominance of the polity over intellectual nates the minds of officials and reformist intel- products and their public reception. lectuals today -- was a missed opportunity, The "self", the "other" and related con- historically, and likely created a significant im- cepts are deep structures requiring a close pediment to establishing a knowledge society study of Arab sociology, history, and econom- in the modern Arab world ics. Their depths are not easily fathomed amid a shifting reality. Yet it is clear that purveying THE ARAB KNOWLEDGE MODEL general ideological statements, reducing com- TODAY plex reality and a rich past to a simple proces- sion of glories and disgraces and venerating The modern Arab world is the scene of myr- the heroic acts and struggles against humilia- The modern Arab iad intellectual currents each with its own so- tion of a few, do not yield accurate knowledge. world is the scene of cial, political and ideological direction and One such (and all-too-common) example is sources. As in all other societies, these cur- simplifying the events of modern Arab history myriad intellectual rents may meet intermittently without being into a gallery of crude opposites: the authentic currents each with its subsumed into a single primordial frame of versus the inauthentic, local versus foreign, reference. There are Islamic fundamentalists continuity versus rupture. Arab history in ef- own social, political and Islamic reformists. There are progressive, fect is narrated as though it had been solely and ideological leftist, nationalist, liberal, technocratic and one of alienation and corruption at a time other intellectual movements. These move- when the Arab world had, in fact, witnessed direction and sources. ments are all variously reflected in writings on valuable scientific, intellectual and cultural politics, history, society, economics, philoso- production, had experienced democracy, and phy and science. had undergone momentous socio-political Such diversity of thought, though ostensi- shifts. Failing to see history and heritage as liv- bly a strength, also reflects a continuing crisis ing, ongoing and self-renewing human of identity and often results in conflict. This is processes, where the march of progress is the case despite the fact that Arab writers and never complete, is misleading and therefore intellectuals tackle common core issues -- harmful to present and future generations.

44 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 It is worth noting the considerable intel- BOX 1.5 Ahmad Kamal Aboulmagd: Towards a New Language of Faith lectual contributions to social reform of the pi- oneers of the contemporary Arab renaissance The current language of faith separates and protect those interests. All of it is jus- two worlds, both of which have been cre- tice and all of it is mercy. "Any question through three schools in Egypt, Greater Syria ated by Allah, namely the World of the that goes out of justice into injustice, from and Arab North Africa. The Religious Reform Texts (The Qur'an and the Sunnah) and fairness into inequity and from mercy to school: Jamal ad-Din al Afghani, Mohammad the World of Life, with all human and its opposite is not part of Islamic law, Abdou, Abdelrahman Al Kawakibi, non-human beings in it. even if it was made part of it by interpre- Abdelhamid Bin Badiss, Chakib Erslan, Allal The first key of the new language of tation". faith is that Muslims should know that be- Muslims are not separate from Al Fasi; the Liberal school: Refa’a al Tahtawi, lief in the metaphysical world does not mankind at all. They are carriers of a mes- Ahmad Lutfi Essayed, Qassem Amin, Taha negate the role of the mind; that the ap- sage to mankind. As Muslims, they are Hussein, Keireddin Al Tunisi, Al Yazigi and plication of Islamic law is not enough to witnesses to nations, but they remain on Al Bustani; and the Secular school: Shibli make one dispense with addressing the same horizontal line with the rest of human problems in all their social and nations and peoples. Nobody owes them Shmayyel, Farah Antoun and Salama Moussa. economic dimensions; that Islam was not a favour, nor should they be haughty or At this point in history, Arab countries built on the ruins of the heritage of conceited in dealing with others. face societal obstacles to knowledge produc- mankind; and does not strive to destroy The comprehensive nature of Islam tion arising from ideological conflicts between and demolish the experience of peoples. does not mean that the texts deal with different political currents. The conflict over Its basic function is to add to them the el- every question of life, large or small. That ement of guidance and rationality and ori- is not only impossible, but also unaccept- the Islamicisation of knowledge is an example. ent them towards what is good for able, considering the freedom which This is because few Arab intellectuals are will- mankind. In this new language of faith, Islam left to the human mind to move, in- ing to focus on substantive issues relating to new readings of the ancient teachings terpret and decide. history and reality at the same time. Yet sub- must emerge. The fact that Islam is eternal does not All the texts – at the top of which are mean a "rigidity of its law". It means that stantial gains would accrue to knowledge pro- the verses of the Holy Qur'an – are not it is able to renew itself and to innovate in duction from pursuing serious research on another world to be added to this one. response to the movement of life and its Sharia’a sciences, adopting a reformist scien- They are indeed witnesses to Allah's cre- changing modes. The originality of tific view. In fact, none of the characteristics ation by Allah's own words. A Muslim is Muslims and their excellence do not required to ponder on the Qur'an,, but mean that they should be isolated from or historical developments of Arab countries he/she is also required to walk on the sur- the rest of mankind, inward-looking in a should be exempt from rational study. face of the earth and ponder on the signs closed circuit surrounded by a wall with- Undoubtedly, there are certain structural of Allah in mankind and in the furthest out doors. It means communication with impediments that constrict knowledge pro- regions of the earth. people, living with them and, through duction in Arab countries. The cultural con- The law of Islam is not a system that, conveying to them the loftier values which is separate from people's ambitions and great principles upon which the doc- flict between political currents over the and interests. It is – with all its sources – trine of Islam, its law and ethical structure Islamicisation of knowledge is one example. rather a means to realize those ambitions rest. This conflict is tied to intellectual reluctance to discuss history and present-day reality to- ing process of its formation. gether. Yet no essential characteristic or aspect of Arab society should be excluded from THE DEMAND FOR KNOWLEDGE a scientific perspective. The question of research into history and heritage and the appli- This chapter has previously considered some cation of scientific and reformist approaches of the economic qualities of knowledge; this to that work, hold one of the keys to the pro- section analyses in more detail the issue of the The "Arab mentality", duction of knowledge and, therefore, to the demand for knowledge, the low level of which knowledge society itself. Such questions in Arab countries is one of the most serious re- is a project, not a should be the subject of collaborative thinking strictions on the production and diffusion of fixed construct. It is a and study, not dissension or rancour. knowledge in society. In the final analysis, the Arab knowledge Undeniably, knowledge supply can be a model in the process model, or the "Arab mentality", is a project, real constraint in developing countries, espe- of formation. not a fixed construct. It is a model in the cially those where autocratic and absolute process of formation and, as such, it offers an regimes restrict freedom of expression and the historic opportunity that should not be circulation of knowledge, ideas and informa- missed. Arab countries will do well to indi- tion that are critical of authority. Yet there are genise science and knowledge as foundations good reasons to believe that the lack of de- of the Arab knowledge model in the continu- mand for knowledge also curtails prospects

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 45 for building knowledge societies in these mand grows stronger in proportion to the de- countries gree of rationalism in decision-making and the It may seem surprising that problems of value placed on learning. In general, the demand are encountered in disseminating5 a major drivers of dissemination and demand commodity whose main characteristics are are the institutional components of the knowl- The price of that it is non-rivalrous6 and infinitely ‘expan- edge system. knowledge rises with sionable’ 7, as well as aspatial -- weightless8. A closer examination of the characteristics of DETERMINANTS OF THE DEMAND its transaction costs, knowledge demand in Arab countries reveals FOR KNOWLEDGE which can be heavy. why such problems remain widespread. From a purely economic perspective, purchas- SOURCES OF THE DEMAND FOR ing power substantially influences the demand KNOWLEDGE for knowledge on the open market. Low incomes and the high price of knowledge, or the Sources of demand for knowledge vary in goods and services that embody knowledge, every community. Families demand knowl- tend to curtail demand. In the Arab world, the edge as a way to invest in the human capital of majority of people have low incomes, while their members, and to make social and eco- the cost of knowledge acquisition is high, es- nomic decisions within the family. The state, pecially if the commodity is directly imported civil society, and business sectors, public as or is produced locally using imported compo- well as private, demand knowledge in order to nents. The price of knowledge rises with its perform their respective functions. This de- transaction costs, which can be heavy. Rents Figure 1.3 paid to the producers of knowledge, to those Correlation between Internet penetration and Internet costs -- Arab who incorporate knowledge into commodities countries and comparators and services and to those who operate local monopolies9 all bring up its cost. Figure 1.3 shows the effect of cost on Internet penetration, which is a major means of spreading access to knowledge. It is quite clear that, in the Arab region, as in the world at large, the high cost of accessing the Internet is inversely linked to its diffusion. The restrictive impact of high Internet access costs on the extent of its availability is il- lustrated in figure 1.4. High costs and the relatively limited availability of personal computers in the Arab world are reflected in low Internet usage compared to developed countries and South East Asia. Generally speaking, demand for a commodity is shaped by the extent to which pre- vailing consumption patterns and their prices generate an appetite for particular goods and services. Some Arab countries are noted for their conspicuous consumption while basic needs often remain unsatisfied and costly to Source: International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 2002. fulfil, because governments reduce the basic

5Among the well-known examples is the limited dissemination of open-source software, such as "Linux", despite the fact that this operating system is free, effective and easily available. The impression that the software is difficult or unstable is not necessarily correct. 6Non-rivalrous means that the consumption of knowledge by one person does not reduce its availability to others. 7Infinitely ‘expansionable’ means that, no matter how high the cost of initial production, the cost of subsequent use is low. 8Aspatial or weightless refers to the ability of knowledge to cross borders, in particular if digitised. 9 Consider, for example, the high costs of cellular phone services.

46 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003 services they provide and the competition fails Figure 1.4 to provide better or more cost-effective alter- PC availability and Internet costs and penetration: natives. Not surprisingly, demand for knowl- Arab countries, OECD and East Asia, 2001 edge, as embodied in goods and services, is declining. Imagine, for example, how public demand for Internet access competes with demand for health care. In the case of knowledge, the characteristics and preferences of its potential users (decision-makers within families, the production sector, state and civil society institutions) largely determine the extent of demand. Arab families have always put great value on educat- ing their children to the highest possible level in an attempt to raise their social status. Families have often been prepared to bear the high costs of education even if this severely strained their resources. This is evident when one considers the rising trend towards private tuition and private schooling in the region. On the other hand, in Arab countries, decision Source: World Economic Forum, 2002. making within community institutions is often in the hands of older, authoritarian genera- litical problems -- or that it is simply beyond tions. In taking decisions, these generations reach. Hence, decision-makers end up limiting mainly rely on traditional considerations that themselves to deploying "traditional" meth- reflect their narrow affiliations and loyalties ods and mechanisms. This is a further illustra- There is a widespread more than the broad scientific rationalism that tion of the weakness of developing country assumption that requires decisions based on hard knowledge. knowledge systems. In the last three decades, this problem has Coercion may succeed in suppressing or knowledge is not as been compounded by the ascendance of containing demand for knowledge more than effective as power or money and power in the structure of societal any economic or social impediment. Certainly, incentives. when freedom is curtailed, knowledge is an influence in solving Reference has been made previously to early casualty and those who seek it apply it social, economic or how knowledge system institutions create de- sparingly or learn to live without it. mand for knowledge simply by playing their Finally, another constraint is censorship of political problems. natural role. A vicious spiral of deteriorating the Internet. This global media miracle, which knowledge supply is set in motion in commu- originally arose to transcend borders and over- nities with a poor knowledge system, curbing come distances, has fallen under the control of the direct demand for new knowledge. This is the censor in Arab countries. In Iraq for in- one of the most fundamental factors in the de- stance, it was not possible to access the cline of knowledge in developing countries. Internet until mid-2000. Even after that, ac- The inadequacy of the knowledge system indi- cess remained limited. In one rich Arab coun- rectly decreases the demand for it. Developing try, the government closed 400,000 web sites Coercion may succeed country decision-makers frequently complain, after initially allowing access to the Internet in and rightly so, of the feeble support they re- 1999. The increase in Arab Internet users in in suppressing or ceive from knowledge institutions when they 2001 saw both restrictions on access and cen- containing demand turn to them for help. sorship of the Internet grow stronger once Another shortcoming in the societal con- more (World Markets Research Centre, 2002). for knowledge more text in Arab countries that constrains knowl- The brakes on knowledge demand that than any economic or edge demand is the widespread assumption have been cited here will be further discussed that knowledge is not as effective as power or in Chapter 8, which addresses the political and social impediment. influence in solving social, economic and po- legal contexts of knowledge.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: KNOWLEDGE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY IN ARAB COUNTRIES 47 About the journey towards the knowledge society The following chapters of the report outline a cognitive journey that follows the contours of the conceptual framework briefly introduced in this chapter, a few of whose most important aspects were highlighted in their relationship to history and the Arab reality. The destination of this journey is a strategic vision for building the knowledge society in the region. This vision identifies the landmarks of societal reform, which precede the establishment of the knowledge society in Arab countries (Chapter Nine). The journey to this destination passes through two waypoints. The first (Chapters Two - Five) is an assessment of the present state of knowledge acquisition, dissemination and production, in Arab countries at the beginning of the 21st century. The second (Chapters Six - Eight) is an analysis of the features of the societal context affecting knowledge acquisition in the region at the present time, which considers culture, socio-economic structures and politics. Emphasis is placed on guaranteeing freedom under the rule of law, and the discussion culminates in a survey of the regional and international environment for knowledge acquisition.

48 ARAB HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2003