Chapter ONE The knowledge society: concept and problematicS

INTRODUCTION today and the entities towards which societies have been moving since the end The theoretical framework of the Arab Knowledge of the 20th Century and the beginning Report for the year 2010/2011 is determined of the 21st Century. The most important through addressing the central concept, which the of these include the ‘information society’, GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT report aims to highlight and discuss thoroughly. ‘network society’, ‘knowledge economy’, This central concept is represented in ‘preparing and ‘knowledge society’. These terms can the young Arab generations for the knowledge be used interchangeably, even though society’ as an objective and a means to achieve the each term emphasises some aspects, and desired Arab renaissance. This chapter addresses excludes others, of the transformational the concept of the knowledge society in relation phenomenon we are experiencing (Judith to the preparation of the young along with a Sachs, in English, 2008). The Arab Human number of significant problematic issues relating Development Report for 2003 considered to the Arab renaissance and involvement in the that knowledge was a tool to expand the The concept of knowledge society: Cultural development in the options and abilities of human beings, preparing future Arab region, the inherent contradiction in the and it was the main key to achieving knowledge society and knowledge economies, the comprehensive development. It also generations for burning of stages and the change in education defined the knowledge society as one based tomorrow is related systems. on the dissemination and production of to the concept The concept of preparing the future generations knowledge, employing it efficiently in all of building the for tomorrow is related to the concept of building areas of community activity, economy, civil knowledge society the knowledge society as a whole. In short, most society and politics, as well as in private of the starting points, requirements and elements life where knowledge has increasingly as a whole requested in the Arab Knowledge Report for become a powerful engine for economic 2009 for the establishment of a knowledge society and social transformations (UNDP, 2003). in the Arab region are revisited: To expand the The UNESCO Report issued in 2005 area of freedom, education reform, consolidate IT adopted the concept of the knowledge infrastructure, and creativity stimulation. To that society and used it in the plural form, end, a window should be opened to communicate ‘knowledge societies,’ considering it most with ourselves and the world to bridge the consistent with the transformations taking knowledge gap which will increase daily and place in a world in which the technological become more difficult to remedy if ignored. dimension represents the cornerstone of society and in which the new economy and The knowledge society: communication networks represent the the concept and main features of its general structure. its relation to the The first Arab Knowledge Report for preparation of the 2009 elaborated on the significance of the future generations term ‘knowledge’ in the concept of the ‘knowledge society’ to include cultural and There are many terms that describe the civilisational dimensions, not restricting it enormous changes we are living through to scientific and technological dimensions

GENERAL REPORT - THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY: CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMATICS 13 as in the fulcrums and indicators of the technology, which has emerged since the knowledge economy stated in some 1970s: the scientific revolution associated literature, such as the World Bank’s reports. with a new global awareness influenced The Arab Knowledge Report stresses by the communications revolution, and that the knowledge society, which some the knowledge revolution (or ‘post- call the ‘digital society,’ is a society project modernism’ as it is called in the West). and is larger than its tools and internet All these revolutions spawned coherent networks. Thus, it was possible for the contexts composing of new emerging Arab Knowledge Report to adequately paradigm which are called by different express that the ‘knowledge society’ is a names - as mentioned above - but the one step ahead of the ‘information society’ we have settled on is the term or paradigm as agreed upon now by many experts of the ‘knowledge society’. who hold the view that information Since we are involved in studying the and communication technology has led processes of preparing the young for the to the realisation that ‘knowledge’ has knowledge society, we must point to the become the principle and driving force pivotal role of increased investment in for all dimensions of economic, social, rehabilitation, formation and education political and cultural changes taking place in order to develop the human resources The Arab around us in today’s world (the UNDP suited to this quantum leap in the economy Knowledge Report and Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum and knowledge society. Researchers have stresses that the Foundation, 2009). In this sense this predicted what is happening in the world knowledge society, report emphasises, with respect to the regarding the radical shift in these aspects which some call preparation of the young, that the Arab of society and the movement of the ‘digital society,’ vision of the knowledge society must take production to a new stage. They stressed a comprehensive course. It tends towards that cooperation between people and is a society project building a society where knowledge countries was the result of disparity in and is larger becomes the product of combining the knowledge and skills and that investment than its tools and cultures of information, experience and in education would reduce the gap not only internet networks ability to govern, in order to rationalise between people but between countries resources, mobilise and use the available as well (Bell, in English, 1973). That idea means to reach the renaissance and enjoy enjoyed considerable support, particularly the gains of human development. at the beginning of the 1990s, because In the context of attempting to the basis of growth in economic wealth understand and explain the new global involved knowledge workers. However, changes, including the cultural, political, the main wealth-producing activities will social and educational aspects around not be in the use of raw materials, capital us, an Arab researcher (Al-Sayyid Yasin, or labour; rather, the added value will be in Arabic, 2000) adopted a general produced through innovation and creativity concept that has spread through social and through the application of knowledge science circles in recent years. This concept, at work. The value of products will be or ‘paradigm,’ coined by Thomas Kuhn in determined in the ‘knowledge’ retained his noted book ‘The Structure of Scientific in the final product (Druker, in English, Revolutions’, can be translated into Arabic 1994). as ‘The Complete Theoretical Model’. The Another researcher (Tuomi, in English, researcher’s observation confirmed that the 2001) attempts to monitor the development old paradigm, which had prevailed before, of the information and knowledge revolution had fallen along with its political, value and and its growth in three waves. He argues that cognitive meaning, and that a new paradigm the first wave - roughly from the beginning was being created with the ascendance of of the 1970s to the beginning of the the new revolution in communications 1990s - was associated with an anticipated

14 ARAB KNOWLEDGE REPORT 2010/2011 ICT revolution, which was expected to and implement appropriate technology lead to, and did lead to, the convergence policies in isolation. Technology policies of television and telecommunications. and social policies have to be developed This led to a focus on deregulation and in a complementary way and strive for network infrastructure and to technology complementary objectives. It is necessary, development initiatives, especially in if we want the ‘society’ in information Japan, Europe and the United States. The society to be more than a rhetorical second wave started at the beginning device, to develop a more sophisticated of the 1990s of the previous century appreciation of these social issues” and focused on global competitiveness, (Ducatel, in English, 2000). economic growth, protection of privacy, and intellectual property rights. Its key Knowledge and difference from the first wave was the technology and emerging concern about the haves and communication GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT have-nots, i.e., the ‘digital gap’, within the revolution same country and between countries in the The emergence of world, as well as the stress on the concept The knowledge society has been based of globalisation due to the expansion of on multiple revolutions in information the so-called ‘digital networks and progressive accumulation and communications technology, and the gap within the of information technology. The second accompanying revolutions in thought, same country and wave spread rapidly around the world, and values and culture, as well as in all aspects between nations quickly found itself surfing an even bigger of social and political life. Knowledge has wave, the internet. What distinguished become the basis for the production and in the world’ is the information and telecommunication the main driver of economic and social the result of the technologies in the first and second waves development, resulting in a knowledge- widespread use was the emergence and spread of the intensive production with a surplus of the internet internet and personal computers (PCs). value arising from science, knowledge and PCs clustered The emergence of the so-called ‘digital and creativity in the production process gap within the same country and between and design. In plain words, the value of between segments nations in the world’ is the result of the products in the knowledge society does of society and widespread use of the internet and PCs not lie in the used raw material, nor in the between countries clustered between segments of society and labour force, nor in the spent capital, but between countries (Omar Bizri, Member rather in the knowledge retained in the of the Readers Committee). final product. The escalation of these revolutions, Knowledge has characteristics different and the changes they brought to the world from those of capital. In the first place, in all aspects of life, culminated in the knowledge is difficult to measure and it ‘third wave’ that has emerged since the easily crosses borders and nations, lighting end of 1990s and the early years of this up the lives of people everywhere. Once it century. The dimensions of this wave can is produced, it can be easily reproduced or be described as follows: “The relationship copied. In this regard, knowledge transfer between technological change and social is cheap. Hence, developed countries pay transformation is now acknowledged attention to the laws that protect intellectual to be a complex one, and the simple property rights, patents, the internet, data notion of technological changes having banks, and all other sources of knowledge. social effects, which in turn can be Furthermore, knowledge produces more simply controlled by appropriate policies, knowledge, so the critical mass of has now been shown to be false. This knowledge-makers is very important in brings an added complexity to policy achieving the production of knowledge making; it is not enough to develop and building a knowledge economy. This,

GENERAL REPORT - THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY: CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMATICS 15 consequently, sheds light on the importance there is only one thing that has not been, and of preparing the young so that we can build cannot become, a commodity; namely, the this critical mass required to cross into human imagination (Friedman, in English, the desired knowledge society in the Arab 2005). Therefore, encouraging positive region. In the world today, we can see some imagination among the new generations factors which reflect this idea in terms of becomes a key issue facing educational labour and infrastructure as represented in systems and upbringing and political Silicon Valley in California, the Electronic institutions. It urges them to encourage Belt in Germany, the Hsinchu region of the people more than ever before to think Taiwan, and the Multimedia Super Corridor seriously and focus on the results beneficial (MSC) in Malaysia. These are all examples to humanity and which can bring about of the idea of critical mass which leads the progress and unite human civilisation. process of producing knowledge. (Harris, Today’s knowledge society provides a in English, 1998). wider space to evoke positive imagination If the evolution in information and (i.e., creativity and innovation), exchanging communications technology is the first and disseminating it without limits. Searching pillar of the knowledge society, globalism is the internet, for example, has become one the second pillar. Globalism is the increasing of the most important and strongest factors spread of information and knowledge for enabling individuals in a way that is among people across the world, increasing unprecedented. It is contrary to everything similarity between groups, communities and humans have ever experienced or learned. institutions, removing barriers and distances It enables the individual to do all that he/ If the evolution in between states and dissolving them into one she believes to be true in dealing with the information and global arrangement rising above everything, information he/she wants. Moreover, social including geographical boundaries, and networking sites on the internet have grown communications bringing them together under one global and have become, thanks to ‘Facebook’, technology is the entity. ‘Twitter’ and others, a communication tool first pillar of the Most analysts confirm these dramatic not only from one to many but also from knowledge society, changes that have taken place in our world many to many. Such communication has today, making it, in spite of differences created what is called the ‘Virtual Mass globalism is the and existing borders, a ‘small village’ in Society’. Yet, this virtual society may become second pillar the figurative sense. An analyst sees that a social reality especially in the event of the technology and communications have availability of the conditions of economic, placed all the people of the world in touch social and political pressure. Social with each other, and provided the fluidity communication sites played a distinct role in of ‘knowledge’ for everyone (i.e., the rapid mobilizing the crowd around a certain idea spread of knowledge and its circulation or political position. among all), to the extent that China and An emerging mass of youth has formed India have gained an increasing wealth in the Arab region as a whole, among the which will represent a challenge to the upper-middle class, which has managed United States unless it quickly develops to to embrace digital technologies and open maintain its powerful position in the world. for itself extended horizons under the In this connected world, we find that many ‘Digital Domain’ and the practice of of the cooperation mechanisms, such as ‘Digital Citizenship,’ or the practice of knowledge, imagination, and information citizenship through the internet with its and communication technology, have various techniques, which announces the become commodities within everyone’s birth of ‘Network Citizenship’ (Netizen), reach. There are many people today who so to speak. Those youths have created possess the capacity and potential to create a general view for the emerging mass of their own contexts (i.e. lives). However, youth, becoming a ‘digital front and a

16 ARAB KNOWLEDGE REPORT 2010/2011 nucleus of a soft power, which identifies communication technologies. Therefore, we issues, trends and mottos, and movements find that the institutions of the knowledge followed by the larger public mass’ (Samir society seek to attract knowledge-makers Murqus, in Arabic, 2011). and information and communication The eruption of the knowledge technology users and specialists. This has revolution has increased the chances of created huge competition in attracting freedom and democracy for the people. these kinds of knowledge workers and In this respect, human rights movements information technology specialists (Evers, around the world have made progress, in English, 2001). Time and place are no emphasising people’s rights to freedom, longer necessary for the establishment of an expression, belief, a dignified life, and institutional organisation, as communication employment opportunities where they can can be achieved through communication realise their humanity, defend women’s networks, and meetings and conferences rights and equality, fight poverty and can be held virtually. This has resulted in GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT marginalisation, and confront bullying reducing costs and saving time and effort and all forms of tyranny. Thus, globalism in project management, decision-making, in its positive side, has been associated agreement execution and follow-up. with the prevalence of key governing Perhaps among all these global changes concepts stressing democracy, pluralism there may be some elements that can and respect for human rights. On the facilitate the way for Arab communities other hand, totalitarianism has declined. to prepare the Arab youth to access the All of these have become the new pillars knowledge society. All these changes have Globalism has been of a renaissance of communities from penetrated, challenged and influenced the the inside, as well as rules for dealing school systems, and rebuilt the structure associated with with other countries. It has become clear of school organisation (Wilber, in English, the prevalence that the knowledge society is based on 1993). In this respect, the relations in the of key governing comprehensive sustainable development, new social organisations of schools, in the concepts stressing as well as the creation of conditions of knowledge society we seek, are no longer freedom, growth, and human-supporting based on a bureaucratic hierarchic structure; democracy, values. Moreover, the knowledge revolution instead, they have become horizontal and pluralism and has been associated with new concepts in face-to-face relations through technology. respect for development, population, and environment, Also, the teacher is no longer the only human rights and attention has been brought to issues source of information, but has become surrounding women and children (Olson, a learning facilitator undertaking his/her in English, 2004). original role in raising generations, not The introduction of information and only as a conduit for knowledge (Beare and communications technology to industrial Slaughter, in English, 1993). Additionally, production alters the structure of an the relationship inside the classroom has institution’s social organisation and culture. become ‘from many to many,’ where all, This has resulted in replacing semi-skilled teacher and students, interact together in or unskilled workers with skilled technical an all-in-one learning situation. workers capable of dealing with information Furthermore, universities in the and communications technology and high- knowledge society are no longer restricted to tech devices for managing the institution. The producing the basic knowledge. What used relations in the structure of the institution’s to be called the triad of scientific research, social organisation based on bureaucratic and industry and university, referring to the personal contact are no longer appropriate production of knowledge, is now conducted for the new pattern of management. That in multi-functional institutions. Knowledge pattern has been replaced with a virtual networks are set up to connect these world managed through the internet and institutions, where the industrial institutions

GENERAL REPORT - THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY: CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMATICS 17 and labour and production organisations excellent education, neither of which can have become intelligent organisations run be achieved without full care and education by high-salaried intelligent management. in early childhood up to post-university Similarly, universities are no longer the sole education (Hussein Kamel Bahaa El-Din, driver for progress science and technology, background paper for the Report). and thus, inevitably they have become In this context, the Arab Knowledge intelligent organisations managed by a Report for the year 2009 showed that highly qualified labour force, and connected it would be possible to make up for to research and development networks and the historical Arab delay in the field of production and service centres. knowledge. It also showed that it would be Thus, the knowledge society has possible to deal with the knowledge gaps in tremendous opportunities and potentials the Arab region; if there was the political will which enable us to transcend history to overcome them and put knowledge in the The knowledge towards creating a more welcoming future service of development; and if energies are society has in which we can achieve renaissance and mobilised and harnessed and the necessary progress to let the Arab region access the resources allocated, if efforts are made for tremendous knowledge society through democratic building the enabling environments for the opportunities and and economic progress. A researcher desired knowledge society. That way, the potential which confirms (Mourad Wahba, in Arabic, 2011) acquired, indigenising, employed, produced enable us to that Egypt, for example, can establish and innovated knowledge would become transcend history democracy now thanks to the information a tool and an end for society as a whole, and knowledge revolution, which took four reaching all categories equally and all fields towards creating a centuries for Europe to achieve. Certainly, of knowledge, including the scientific, more welcoming the scientific and technological revolution technical, cultural and heritage areas as well future in which in the twentieth century produced two main as the accumulated communal experiences, we can achieve phenomena: ‘mass’ and ‘electronic’. The thus realising the knowledge, freedom and term ‘mass’ has evolved to include, ‘mass development triad. renaissance and production,’ ‘mass society,’ ‘mass media’ or progress to let the ‘mass communication,’ and ‘mass culture’. Problematics of accessING Arab region access As for the electronic revolution, the internet to the knowledge society 1 the knowledge and e-commerce, they gave birth to two phenomena, the first being the ‘death of The term ‘problematic’ involves an inherent society through distance’ in time and space, and the second contradiction in the issue or matter democratic and is ‘Facebook,’ in addition to other sites of addressed (Mourad Wahba, in Arabic, 1996). economic progress social communication on the internet. With In this part, we present a critical analysis of the death of distance, time can be saved; five important problematic issues that should for example, the four centuries it took for be tackled when thinking about building various countries across Europe to achieve the Arab Renaissance and preparing future democracy can be saved. (Mourad Wahba, generations to access the knowledge in Arabic, 2011). society: Cultural development, the inherent Economic progress is also possible. contradiction between the knowledge society To illustrate, there is a new option and knowledge economy, the burning of made possible by the transition from stages and the change in education systems. traditional production to knowledge- intensive production as demonstrated by The problematic of South Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore. cultural development in This option would condense centuries of the Arab world progress into only 15-20 years. This would also need a work force enjoying a high Despite the multiple definitions of culture, it level of intelligence and knowledge, and is, from the practical perspective consistent

18 ARAB KNOWLEDGE REPORT 2010/2011 BOX 1-1 Development of European modernisation Modernisation, along with its achievements of scientific and which paved the way for religious reform. The third reform was technological renaissance, was formed through interactive waves represented in ‘Enlightenment’. The term Enlightenment refers of major reforms. The first of those reforms was the wave of to the totality of the ideas that expressed people’s imagination in religious reform which recognised the freedom of religion and a the eighteenth century. Enlightenment was a reaction against the person’s ability to know religion, without an intermediary or religious authoritative dogmas and archaic traditions as well as the domination authority. It overthrew religious authoritarianism imposed on social of the ideas of the past over the production of science and and political life, and even in religious life itself. The second reform knowledge. Confidence in humans and the mind were the factors was the political and social movement that embraced the call to the behind the tendency towards Enlightenment. Namely, the mind is ‘Social Contract’. The idea of the social contract was a reaction able to acknowledge the existence of humans and social life through against absolute political power. It established the principle that scientific methods and research. It is also able to reform social, people would be the source of powers and promoted individual political and economic institutions to promote life and achieve direct and social freedom (liberalism), human rights, tolerance, relativism well-being. In this context, the idea of natural law and natural life in and pluralism. The social contract was founded on secularism politics and society emerged.

Source: (Mohsen Ziyadah, 1988 and Butts, 1995). GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT with the objectives of this report, all the involve ideologies, i.e. systems of values experiences, skills, and system of values and beliefs, which distort people’s awareness and attitudes that have accumulated and and implant regressive attitudes as a result are rooted in society which uses it to of a long cultural legacy of oppression, shape its world and satisfy its needs, and occupation and tyrannical power. Also, the produce the means for this satisfaction, inherited old traditions may result in some thus generating structures, relationships ideologies nurturing regression, dependency, and achievements (Mahmoud Qamber, historicism, formalism and superstition. in Arabic, 1989). Therefore, culture must This raises the problem of the ability of be at the heart of efforts of renaissance, the initiators of the renaissance project change and development. However, the to develop new cognitive and perceptive heart of a society’s culture itself may models, new values and ethics of public

BOX 1-2 Cultural reform in the Alexandria Document The Alexandria Document issued by the Conference on ‘Arab and modern requirements. Doing so would remove the harmful Reform Issues,’ held at the Bibliotheca Alexandria from March 12 contradiction between the freedom of thought and creativity and to 14, 2004, stated a number of ways of reforming culture within the commandments imposed by some in the name of religion a comprehensive vision of other paths of reform. There are five which, in fact, calls for argument in a way that is best and does key recommendations for cultural reform we mention due to their not impose intellectual terrorism on those adopting different importance for the present report. They are listed as follows: opinions. • Work on establishing the principles of rational and scientific • Proceed with the liberation of women to achieve equality between thinking by promoting the institutions of scientific research, men and women in education and employment, stressing the through providing the required funding, and releasing the effectiveness of social participation in all its senses. freedoms of civil society to develop them. Meanwhile, the sources • Create a cultural atmosphere to promote democratic development of religious extremism, whose residue still exists in the curricula, and peaceful transfer of power through working to confront the mosque sermons, and formal and informal media, should be rigid traditions and cumulative effects of corrupt political methods eliminated. and conditions preventing any effective political participation. Such • Encourage further renewal of religious discourse in order confrontation will change the political and social look of women to reflect the enlightening cultural nature of religion, which and stress their cultural contribution, scientific achievement, and necessitates the releasing of intellectual freedom, opening the necessary role in development, taking into account that cultural gates of ijtihad (i.e. intellectual reasoning) wide for scientists and development is the basis of any development. The first step for researchers with respect to societal issues to benefit both the any radical reform cannot succeed without spreading the culture individual and society, and confronting all forms of extremism and of democracy in the educational curricula and media. rigid literalism in understanding religious texts which take them • Confirm that science is a key component of culture and an away from their purposes and comprehensive principles. This established path for a future vision which implants in the public’s requires that the reform of religious discourse should proceed in cultural awareness the need for the knowledge society, which is the a direction consistent with the spirit of science, the rule of reason, best way to realise progress in each area.

Source: Alexandria Document, 2004.

GENERAL REPORT - THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY: CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMATICS 19 awareness, and new cultural structures of a knowledge society. Nonetheless, pushing the efforts of development and attempts by Arab societies to nurture change and meeting the requirements and science have been limited to the pragmatic objectives of renaissance. utilitarian use of science and the attempt Among the main elements of the cultural to import the products of technological structure are the knowledge models by which science without the science itself; thus, people understand the world around them, Arab societies have become consumers of or what is called by one of the researchers science and technology as commodities “building a new Arab view of the world”. to be used, not indigenised, employed and This vision includes three basic approaches produced (Samir Abu Zeid, in Arabic, 2009). to discovering the world: Experimental, Perhaps the inability of Arab societies to rational and logical consistency, and religion. indigenise, employ and produce science lies They are intended to work in three key in the absence of cognitive and perceptive areas of knowledge: experimental science, models coping with ‘modernity’ from the philosophy or intellectual thinking, and structure of Arab culture and knowledge. religion. Because reality is more complicated, One Arab researcher has attempted these three key areas do not have clear fixed to monitor the Arab Renaissance, trying Among the main limits but they overlap and interact in reality. to diagnose regressive attitudes using Such overlapping and interaction produce the works of a considerable number of elements of the an integrated world view changing from one experts concerned with the Renaissance cultural structure place to another according to the resulting and through identifying two key trends: are the knowledge cultural interactions. In addition, there is no religious reform and the liberal trend models by which possible dissemination of scientific culture dominated largely by secularism. These people understand from one society to another, through two trends were found to have several translation, transfer by scientists or others, common denominators. The first, the the world around without a cultural atmosphere possessing conviction of the importance of science them, or what is a suitable world view which absorbs and the need to rely on rationality and called ‘building science and scientific methodology and reason. The second common denominator a new Arab view calls for following the practical traditions was the call for openness to the world and in theoretical and technical research (Samir conditional borrowing from the West. The of the world’ Abu Zeid, in Arabic, 2009). Hence, many third, was the adoption of the principles Western experts called at the end of the last of freedom, justice, equality and the rule of decade for ‘a fresh mind for a new world,’ so law, and the conviction that reform, change that the West could access the 21st Century, or modernisation must be done gradually. the era of information and knowledge It should not be applied from above, but it society (Ornstein and Ehrlich, in English, should have a comprehensive communal 2000. Translated by Ahmed Mustajir). quality, covering the political system, The so-called ‘scientific facts’ are only women’s conditions, issues of language human exertions that change constantly; and education, and people’s lifestyles and both reality and knowledge are relative. morals (Al-Sayyid Yassin, in Arabic, 2010). However, science involves a continuous Many Arab intellectuals have attributed discovery of reality in terms of what happens the failure of the spirit prevailing during and how it evolves. Scientific activity is an the Arab Renaissance to the intellectual integral part of the intellectual and cultural rupture in the Arab culture of tolerance, structure. That is, science is just one, not openness, freedom, enlightment, pluralism, all, of the patterns of human knowledge. relative truth, and the importance of cultural Yet it needs a fostering cultural structure. interaction, which were all present in the Simultaneously, science is the main driver climate of the Arab Renaissance project. of economic and social development in any Instead, other trends characterised by country pursuing progress and achievement closure, intolerance, unilateralism, clinging

20 ARAB KNOWLEDGE REPORT 2010/2011 to absolute ownership of truth and public freedom, freedom of expression, scepticism about the other, (previous and freedom of religion and belief, along reference) thus Enlightenment relapsed and with another set of rights such as equality the march of Arab modernisation stopped and social justice, the right to knowledge (Mourad Wahba, in Arabic, 2011). and work, and the right for all citizens to The solution to the contradiction lead a decent life. Meanwhile, the prevailing between a culture we aspire to; embracing neoliberalism stresses a set of rights in science and depending on relativity and contradiction with the mentioned rights, rationality and the common culture, with respect to individual ownership, which embracing trends based on intolerance gives legitimacy to capitalism through the and claiming absolute ownership of right to profit and ownership. These rights truth, cannot be solved except through a involve inequality. Put differently, the right renaissance project that achieves cultural to ownership is available to those who ‘have’ development, sponsoring a new mind the means according to their capacity and GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT aimed at building a new society. efficiency, but also result in its opposite, because of course there are those who ‘have’ The Problematic of the and those who ‘have not’. inherent contradiction This contradiction between the principle in the knowledge society of the right of ownership and its independence and knowledge economy for all, and the principle of equality and social Knowledge societies well-being, or what can be expressed as ‘the constitute the Knowledge societies constitute the economic inherent contradiction between economic heart of society, and they involve, like other freedom and social justice in the capitalist economic heart capitalist economies, contradiction. The system,’ has highlighted a need forchange in of society, and knowledge economies evoke the forces of the capitalist system through social policies they involve, like growth and welfare, but they seek, at the which have not achieved their desired results, other capitalist same time, to reap the greatest profit and especially in many developing countries, economies, self-interest, which tears at and disturbs including some Arab countries, and has order in society, serves to widen the gap caused the foundations of social and political contradiction between rich and poor, sparks terrorism and stability in these countries to shake. The crime, and undermines the pillars of security question remains open about the possibility and stability in the world (Hargreaves, in of the coexistence of ‘Civil Equality’ with English, 2003). ‘Economic Inequality’. There is a fundamental contradiction If we move from the level of in the issue of knowledge society and theoretical analysis to the procedural economy. To explain, the neoliberalism level, this problematic issue, or rather this dominating contemporary global capitalist contradiction, is seen particularly clearly in thinking emphasises a set of rights sponsored developing societies that aspire to progress under the banner of democracy, including towards the knowledge society. That is, the

BOX 1-3 The absence of political and social dimensions from economic growth - Egypt case New economic experiences, which focused unemployment and aggravating inequality at home. on economic growth as a single factor in the All this led to social problems, and soon it became development process while neglecting the political, clear that this economic growth itself was not economic and cultural factors, cost their countries homogeneous, thus its impact was not felt by the a very heavy price in terms of poverty, increasing broad masses.

(Source: Carnegie Endowment website, www.carnegieendowment.org, February 23, 2011).

GENERAL REPORT - THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY: CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMATICS 21 knowledge economies are, by definition, in the ability of the countries seeking to based on intensive knowledge, unlike the catch up with the knowledge society to traditional industry economies which are follow development policies that achieve based on intensive labour. Additionally, balance between society’s need to grow the knowledge-intensive economies attract and progress towards the knowledge a small segment of knowledge workers society, and society’s need to employ who possess knowledge, skills, and high all its members, eradicate poverty and potentials. This segment contains those with unemployment, and achieve justice, this high incomes and those who benefit from can be achieved through the promotion knowledge economies. The majority of those of productive development and service belonging to this segment are professionals projects in agriculture and industry, at the who raise the prices of the services they level of large and small enterprises. offer in the knowledge economy, resulting in Sustainable development based on their achieving substantial economic returns. the establishment of knowledge societies In return, the other segments with lower requires removing the contradiction levels of knowledge and skills are excluded, between the ‘knowledge economy’ and giving rise to what can be called a ‘digital the ‘knowledge society’. The knowledge gap’, which is in essence a social gap between economy is a capitalist economy serving the relatively small segment that possesses the private interest and promoting the knowledge, culture and skills required for profit motive and mechanisms unleashing …the knowledge the knowledge economy and other social market freedom. However, the knowledge economies are, segments that do not possess them. While society is a comprehensive social process in by definition, the first segment grows richer, the second political, social and cultural development, based on intensive grows poorer and more desperate. targeting public interest (Hargreaves, in In fact, the aspects of social and English, 2002). Herein lays the importance knowledge, unlike economic inequality do not only lead to of directing social systems and institutions, the traditional undermining social harmony and political including educational systems, to work to industry economies stability, but they also contradict the spirit of serve both goals, ‘private interest’ and based on democracy itself and encourage corruption ‘public interest’, under integrated policies. intensive labour and favouritism, which are among the factors that cripple development. Whereas Box 1-4 economic globalism, when set loose without control, may increase the intensity of Equality and the Knowledge Society inequality, poverty and exclusion, managing it Knowledge economy is likely to be achieved wisely (including the adoption of legislation under capitalist conditions within the framework of a capitalist society in which the rates of poverty and motivating and responsible procedures) and unemployment are kept within ‘acceptable’ is a necessary prerequisite to promote the limits along with ‘palliative prescriptions’ similar individual’s economic and social rights. to those we see in capitalist societies today. In summary, the knowledge society is not, in This sharp division, in societies seeking to principle, a utopian society involving all forms access knowledge economies, between the of equality. Rather, there is a need for various elite controlling the information economy changes at many levels in order to achieve the desired equality and access to the ‘fair’ knowledge (about 20%) and the poor majority in the society. information economy (about 80%) results in increased unemployment, poverty and Source: Omar Bizri, Member of the Readers Committee marginalisation, a decline in workers’ rights, and a deterioration in the state of social Burning stages welfare (Hijazi, Mustafa, background paper problematic for the report). The contradiction involved in the Under the waves of global evolution problematic issue we are dealing with lies from the industrial to the knowledge

22 ARAB KNOWLEDGE REPORT 2010/2011 society, the Arab, like other developing factor is represented in the accelerating rate societies, witnesses the transition, without of the spread of digital knowledge in many introduction, from agricultural settings Arab countries. The third factor is that a and the oral or semi-oral cultures to the number of Arab countries have launched digital knowledge (Bin Hafeez, Abdel serious initiatives in their educational Wahhab, background paper for the report). systems, even though these have not been Consequently, the developing societies, generalised or assessed yet, to activate and witnessing a rapid flow of revolutionary indiginise knowledge with the construction knowledge, contains generations that have of infrastructure for information and not yet changed and many who still live in communication technologies necessary for the darkness of past stages since they have the success of these initiatives, and support been left behind by the developed world. for research and development. The fourth Arab societies are still preoccupied factor revolves around the capacity of the with many key foundational issues such as Arab renaissance movement in building GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT literacy and the building of modern states an enlighted political will to overcome the following independence, which require the culture problematic and achieve cultural provision of infrastructure, knowledge development through which a new Arabic Arab societies are and skills. “For example, we find the child mind appears. These four factors constitute or young person in the countries of the a strong motive for Arab societies to still preoccupied developed North opening their eyes every become engaged without delay in the with many key morning to see a computer and life in a intense knowledge revolutions covering all foundational family or social environment relatively sectors of life at the same time, to be able issues such as well versed in information, while the Arab to remove the contradiction underlying the child or young person opens their eyes in issue of burning past the stages. literacy and the an atmosphere that has not yet reached the building of modern degree of satisfaction in initial knowledge” The change in education states following (Bin Hafeez, Abdel Wahhab, background systems problematic independence, paper for the report). Thus, if building a knowledge society in the West, as Perhaps the issue of the change in which require explained earlier, was based on knowledge education systems is one of the problematic the provision of revolutions, in successive stages of history, issues most relevant to the processes of infrastructure, is there a chance for Arab societies to burn preparing the youth for the knowledge knowledge past these stages and work simultaneously, society. This is because education is and skills intensively and comprehensively to fulfil the a system existing in the context of a requirements of this historic achievement society which political, social and cultural and participate in the knowledge society? characteristics and conditions are already The possibility of burning these determined. Education influences, and is stages for Arab societies still exists. This influenced by, society at the same time in a possibility lies in a number of factors. The strong dialectical relationship. first is realised thanks to the nature of the It is one of the most important flow of knowledge and its rapid spread foundations of economic growth; but it transcending time and space by means of is also its major determinant. Education advanced information and communications derives its resources and inputs from the technologies. This knowledge flow, which economic and cultural growth of society. should be utilised to reduce the knowledge Education is a cause and an effect at the gap and organise development projects, same time. The key problematic issue with is now directly identifying the areas of respect to the question lies in its starting social behaviour and shaping relations and point: Should we start from the educational management patterns in a boundless space system and its input, governance and where borders have dissolved. The second processes to get learning output that is

GENERAL REPORT - THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY: CONCEPTS AND PROBLEMATICS 23 able to achieve democracy and social determined only on building an appropriate and economic progress and engage in market in terms of preconditions, laws the era of knowledge? Or should it be and institutions necessary to preserve from the society and its economic, social that market’s independence and allow the and cultural contexts, which build the exercise of economic freedom. educational system, provide its resources In contrast to the human capital and shape its educational environment so theory, the efforts of critical sociologists society can get the desired output from grew in the 1960s and 1970s and were the human elements supporting access to reflected in very important experimental the knowledge age? This problematic issue field surveys. There was, for example, has been reflected in sharp intellectual research in the 1960s (Coleman, in debate between the proponents of human English, 1966) that emphasised that the capital theories, and social critical theories school as an independent factor had (Hassan Al-Bilawi, in Arabic, 1986). little impact on the students’ academic As all agree, the logic of the human acquirement. Other studies confirmed capital theory is based on the principle that the impact of factors outside the that education is an investment in people, school (e.g. the level of poverty and and when successful individuals acquire social class) were much stronger on the knowledge and skills, they become human academic achievement of students with As all agree, capital. The educational process, according respect to determining the individual the logic of the to the theory of human capital, is an activity level of educational outcome (Jencks, in which grows with the individual’s human English, 1972). Thus, we should focus human capital experience. In this regard, educational on achieving equity and social justice theory is based achievement is governed by the individual’s rather than focusing on achieving social on the principle efforts. Therefore, this concept introduces a activity. According to these experts, the that education model outside the influence of social class, role of the school in achieving social is an investment race and gender. Here, school is a neutral justice and progress and preparing young mechanism whose quality guarantees ‘equal generations for the knowledge society in people, and opportunity’ for all. Equal opportunity is remains marginal, unless it exists within when successful the focus of social justice. School, according a framework of fair social policies and individuals acquire to this theory, is the place where the human a just economy. In the four case studies knowledge and capital is efficiently and fairly developed. included in the report, a questionnaire To put it another way, justice is learned and was conducted in the context of that skills, they become implemented in school. study among the Arab youth. It showed human capital The classical liberalism, or social that 52% of students decisively agreed liberalism, sought to resolve the contradiction on the idea that ‘he who has the money between the individual’s pursuit of his/ has a better opportunity to get a better her own interest, and society’s interest, on education,’ while 23.1% of students the basis of determining the state’s role partially agreed. This result is consistent in the care of public interests (in defence, with the thought of the proponents of education and law) and the building of the critical school.2 policies to create stability (which ensure the The experimental field research helped public interest and public services, address social critical theories in education to grow the disadvantages or failure of the market, in popularity, such as the theory of political and mediate between the competing economy (Bowles S., and Gintis H., in groups). While we find that neoliberalism, English, 1976), the theory of cultural capital advocated by the neo-conservatives heavily (Bourdieu and Passeron, in English, 1970), dominating the knowledge economies in and the critical theory in education (Giroux, the West, offers a concept which is contrary 1981 and Apple 1982, in English). These to the role of the state and which is theories are similar in their analysis of the

24 ARAB KNOWLEDGE REPORT 2010/2011 environment of social organisation that show that the school and the prevailing culture represent the mechanism for reproducing the capitalist system and the dominant culture in society (Hassan Al-Bilawi, in Arabic, 1986). Based on the above, the elimination of the contradiction in the problematic relationship between education and building human capital, within the overall framework of preparing the young for the knowledge society, lies in adopting comprehensive and complete policies of educational reform and economic and social development, and making educational reform an integral part of comprehensive development plans in the context of freedom and democracy in society led by a strong political will and supported by an active communal will. The understanding of reform would change the general view by seeing that the preparation of ‘human capital’ is not only limited to the preparation of the means of production but also relates to the preparation of ‘human competence capital’ through the cognitive capital. Moreover, school should be viewed as a comprehensive system of goals and incentives, information systems, technology, flexible management and GENERAL REPORT GENERAL REPORT distinguished leadership. Therefore, education will become a transformative factor able to prepare a new generation, in a new society, that can deal with a new world. It should be fulfilled within the knowledge, freedom and development triad.

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