Introduction: Traveling to Meet the Dead

Notes

Introduction: Traveling to meet the Dead

1. See Woodbridge on the background for Godwin’s thought: “the Reformation’s desire not to speak with the dead [manifested by its destruction of old churches and funeral monuments] was a profoundly antihistorical moment .... If the dead make up the original imagined community ... Renaissance Europe founded a living imagined community, the nation, on the desecrated graves of a dead medieval community” (599). Aware of what had been lost, many thinkers of the Romantic era took special interest in the dead of pre-Reformation times. 2. As Godwin surely knew, agitators in France had decided to clear all of Paris’s ancient burying-grounds, effectively erasing “the human debris of the ancien régime” (Brooks 7). 3. Notable critics have written on “romantic death”—the effort to rescue individual death from the anonymity of mass carnage. See Kelly’s introduction to Felicia Hemans (26–28). For representative images of the apocalyptic floods, see Hemans’s “A Thought of the Sea,” the famous inundation of Wordsworth’s Prelude V, or any of myriad complaints about the “deluge of print.” 4. A comparable account from the period’s fiction appears in Mary Lamb’s Mrs. Leicester’s School: “I was born in the parsonage-house, which joins the churchyard. The first thing I can remember was my father teaching me the alphabet from the letters on a tombstone that stood at the head of my mother’s grave. ... in this manner, the epitaph on my mother’s tomb being my primmer and my spelling-book, I learned to read” (9–10). 5. One significant change, culminating in Victorian times, was the banishment of corpses from the cities by means of the suburban cemetery movement. But even earlier there were efforts to render death less obtrusive though “a regime of newly segregationist taxonomies of behavior in ... manners and bodily administration” (Roach 50). Benjamin summarizes: “And in the course of the nineteenth century society has, by means of hygienic and social, private and public institutions, realized a secondary effect which may have been its sub- conscious main purpose: to make it possible for people to avoid the sight of the dying... . In the course of modern times dying has been pushed further and further out of the perceptual world of the living” (“The Storyteller” 93–94). 6. The first organized British travel packages appeared in the wake of Waterloo. Naturally, not everyone could make the trip, but writers were quick to offer the vicarious experience: Byron, Scott, and Southey were among the poets who visited the field of Waterloo and published poems on their impressions. 7. Here I draw on MacCannell: “The actual act of communion between tourist and attraction is less important than the image or the idea of society that the collective act generates” (15). 8. As Newlyn observes, many Romantic-era writers took positions toward literary heritage that seemed to run counter to their usual politics, reminding

174 Notes 175

us “that where death the leveler is concerned, strategies of self-preservation tended to cut across ideological commitments, uniting writers in the wish to find recuperative models of reading” (289). 9. See especially Greenblatt’s “Presidential Address 2002: ‘Stay, Illusion’—On Receiving Messages from the Dead,” PMLA 118.3 (2003): 417–426. 10. Eliot imagines, “The existing monuments form an ideal order among themselves, which is modified by the introduction of the new . . . work of art among them” (5). As Newlyn notes, the argument here “goes back a long way further than Eliot, into the Romantic tradition he claimed to dis- own” (264). Anna Barbauld offers a similar but humorous depiction of the canonical order of the dead in her “Dialogue in the Shades” (ca. 1813). Clio, the muse of history, determines that pantheon has become too crowded. Therefore, even over the protests of illustrious ghosts, “I must strike off half of them at a venture: the rest must make room,—they must crowd, they must fall into the back-ground” (470). Necromanticism celebrates the illustrious dead in their simultaneous existence, but it also concerns itself with reducing the dead to their proper numbers.

1 On Ideal Presence

1. Helpful to my thinking about Romantic reading has been Darnton’s classic “Readers Responding to Rousseau.” I also admire Deutch’s Loving Dr. Johnson, with its account of readers’ desire to lay open the author’s heart, as on an anatomist’s table (4). 2. Kames’ influential Elements first appeared in 1762, but it went through many editions both in Britain and America, persisting well into the nineteenth century. All citations in this book (noted by volume, chapter, part, section, and page) refer to the 6th edition of 1785, the last revised by the author. 3. The material on ideal presence first appeared in D’Israeli’s 1818 second edition. Citations in this chapter refer to the two-volume third edition of 1822. 4. Compare the famous pronouncement from Shelley’s Defence, “A man cannot say, ‘I will compose poetry.’ The greatest poet even cannot say it; for the mind in creation is as a fading coal, which some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind, awakens to transitory brightness.” 5. Godwin says, “I wished to ... to enable [my reader] to feel for the instant as if he had lived with Chaucer” (Chaucer xi); Stowe reports of her visit to Melrose Abbey: “I felt, for the moment, verily persuaded that if the guide would pry up one of the stones we should see [the dead Michael Scott] there as described” (I.154); Calvert, recalling his pilgrimage to Trinity Church in Stratford, writes: “For an instant I seemed to feel the presence of Shakespeare” (Scenes and Thoughts 8). These writers and many others understand the difficulty of preserving the “waking dream” of ideal presence. 6. Shelley, “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty,” line 52. 7. The line Wordsworth recalls is from Young’s Night Thoughts: “And half-create the wondrous world they see” (vi, 424). 8. It is no coincidence that the Romantic era’s most enthusiastic bibliophiles— people like Leigh Hunt and Thomas Frognall Dibdin—were also literary tourists. In addition to touring authorial graves, homes, and haunts, Dibdin 176 Notes

championed a form of literary tourism in which rare books and manuscripts were themselves the principal attractions, fighting a rear-guard action for aura in an age of mass-production.

2 The Origins of Literary Tourism

1. Notable exceptions include Ousby, Santesso, and Watson. 2. See Dekker 5, Watson 33, among others. For a focused version of this argument, see Péter Dávidházi’s The Romantic Cult of Shakespeare. 3. Cf. Tricia Lootens, whose 1996 Lost Saints returned the question of religious tradition to the canon debate at a moment when many critics argued that religion’s influence on literary canonization was “superficial at best” (3–4). Lootens observed, “literary canonization not only mobilized and trans- formed complex discourse and practices of reverence but was inscribed by them in turn” (3). 4. Source: http://www.canterbury-cathedral.org/ (March 2007) [accessed 14 October 2011]. 5. Zemgulys’ argument focuses on the English religious landscape, but most of her observations apply to the American context as well. See Mulvey on Beecher, Coxe, and Stowe (75, 81–93). 6. Colonel Gardiner (that is, Colonel G—) is one of only two historical characters in Waverley, the other being Prince Charles Edward Stewart. In the 1829 edition, Scott inserts information about Gardiner in his notes, most of it extracted from Doddridge. Gardiner lived from 1688 to 1745—fitting dates for a defender of Protestant Succession. 7. If any proof were needed, we might observe that religious pilgrimage was (and is) a living practice. Goethe, making his famous Italian voyage in 1786, encountered pilgrims bearing the scallop shell and pilgrim’s hat (Adler 1372). English Protestants might describe such pilgrims as survivals of a benighted past age. Still, Victorian guidebooks commonly referred to literary shrines as a “Loretto” or “Mecca,” illustrating that religious pilgrimage was a model ready to hand, even when reference to it was ironic. 8. On post-Waterloo versions of the Grand Tour, see Buzard, The Beaten Track, and Siegel, Haunted Museum. 9. Nonetheless, Johnson supplied some of the words most often quoted by later literary tourists: “To abstract the mind from all local emotion would be impossible, if it were endeavored, and would be foolish, if it were possible. Whatever withdraws us from the power of our senses; whatever makes the past, the distant, or the future predominate over the present, advances us in the dignity of thinking beings. Far from me and from my friends, be such frigid philosophy as may conduct us indifferent and unmoved over any ground which has been dignified by wisdom, bravery, or virtue. That man is little to be envied, whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of Iona” (140–41). 10. Perhaps the earliest account of Burns tourism appeared in 1788: Stebbing Shaw’s A Tour, in 1787. In Shaw’s account of Ayr, he writes, “Before I take leave of this promising county I must mention, that ... [it is] proud of giving Notes 177

birth to a genius of originality and fancy who has lately published his poems chiefly in the Scotch dialect” (123). 11. The Wordsworths visited several Ossianic sites on their 1803 Scottish tour. Reflecting on the experience, William later wrote a poem called “Glen Amain; or the Narrow Glen,” which takes up basic problems of literary pilgrimage. The speaker asks, “Does then the bard sleep here indeed, / Or is it but a groundless creed?” (lines 17–18). He answers,

What matters it?—I blame them not Whose Fancy in this lonely Spot Was moved; and in such way expressed Their notion of its perfect rest. A convent, even a hermit’s cell Would break the silence of this Dell; It is not quiet, is not ease, But something deeper far than these; The separation that is here Is of the grave. (19–28)

Apparently, the crucial question is not whether the grave is authentic but whether it meets an imaginative ideal. Wordsworth decides that it does, “And, therefore, it was rightly said / That Ossian, last of all his race, / Lies buried in this lonely place” (30–32). 12. Godwin’s take on “old countries,” strongly recalls Gilpin on the picturesque: “In every historical country, there are a set of ideas, which peculiarly belong to it. [Places] have all their associative ideas. ... and it is a soothing amusement in travelling to assimilate the mind to the ideas of the country” (98).

3 William Godwin, Necro-Tourism, and the Empirical Afterlife of the dead

1. Though Sepulchres had limited circulation, it found notable readers. One was Thomas Southwood Smith, who quoted extensively from Sepulchres in his 1827 pamphlet “On the Uses of the Dead to the Living.” Smith’s essay in turn inspired his friend Jeremy Bentham’s bizarre “Auto-Icon; or, Farther Uses of the Dead to the Living,” which took Godwin’s proposals a step farther by urging Britons to preserve corpses (including his own) above ground for purposes of instruction and commemoration. 2. See also Carlson’s revised and extended treatment of Sepulchres in England’s First Family of Writers. 3. Aside from Westminster and Canterbury, the most important Chaucer shrine was the Tabard Inn site. The Tabard was destroyed by fire in 1676, but its successor, the Talbot Inn, was often mentioned by nineteenth-century guidebooks. A victim of urban renewal, the Talbot was demolished in 1873, but its location (in Talbot Yard, west of Borough High Street) is now marked with a blue plaque. 4. All citations of Essay on Sepulchres refer to Mark Philp, ed., The Political and Philosophical Writings of William Godwin, vol. 6. 178 Notes

5. Note the verbal echo here of Kames: “I am imperceptibly converted into a spectator, and perceive every particular passing in my presence” (I.2.1.VII.89). On “passing” as both traveling and “passing away,” see Roach 37. 6. “Continuousness” is Coleridge’s term. His hermeneutics, outlined in the Biographia Literaria, depend on a strikingly literal notion of sympathy, which amounts to a collapse of (writing) subject into (reading) object. For an excellent treatment Coleridge’s concept, see chapter 2 of Newlyn’s Reading, Writing, and Romanticism. 7. Godwin makes no clear distinction between graves and ruins: he recalls ideal visions of the dead at tombs, but also at such locales as Kenilworth Castle and Valle Crucis Abbey. His point is that necro-tourism works wherever there are suitable remains of history. 8. For an exemplary account, see “The Grave of Colonel Gardiner” in Bigelow’s Leaves of a Journal. Bigelow is typical in admitting that historical reverie is “purely factitious” but also insisting that graves have unique evocative power. 9. Hunt’s equation of dead authors with books comes from “My Books” (first published in Examiner, July 5 and 12, 1823). His vision of the portable Bard appears in “Shakespeare’s Birthday” (originally published in Indicator, May 3, 1820). Romantic equations of books and dead authors are quite common, though they do not always share Hunt’s enthusiasm. Contrast Southey complaining about the age’s rage for posthumous biography: “But in this age, when a person of any notoriety dies, they lose as little time in making a book of him as they used to do in making a mummy” (351). 10. I am recalling Lootens’ commentary on the term canon. Explaining the word’s historical application in the plastic arts, she notes succinctly, “if the canon’s home is in a library, it is a library with busts” (5). 11. Admittedly, casket, meaning “coffin,” is an Americanism—and it was a new coinage when Hazlitt was writing. Hazlitt used the word in the more traditional sense: “A small box or chest for jewels, letters, or other things of value” (OED). Still, my pun fits the context. Hazlitt’s take on rare treasures recalls Matthews’ observation that the uniqueness of graves made them “potent point[s] of contact”: “The poet lived in several houses, but had only one ‘last home’” (158). 12. Santesso cites John Urry’s The Tourist Gaze, which in turn derives concepts from Michel Foucault’s work on the “clinical gaze” in The Birth of the Clinic. 13. On Wordsworth’s borrowings, see Noyes, “Wordsworth and Burns.” 14. Tourists reacted to gravesites according to established aesthetic codes. These derived largely from the discourse of the picturesque, but they also included a decorum doctrine according to which the character of a dead writer must express itself in the memorials. Tourists often objected when they felt monuments or their surroundings failed to harmonize with the spirit of the departed writers’ works. 15. This fascination-repulsion dynamic has received attention from several scholars of literary biography. See, for instance, Cafarelli. Obviously, the dynamic arises in many areas of culture, but it is directly and dramatically engaged in the accounts of literary pilgrims. 16. Nicholas Roe has argued that the shabbiness of Burns shrines actually served as a sign of “the real” for some tourists (“Authenticating Robert Burns”). Disappointment was part of what they sought. Notes 179

17. For a more detailed account, see Lorna Clymer’s “Cromwell’s Head and Milton’s Hair.” 18. So far as I have been able to determine, there was (alas) no tomb of Clarissa Harlowe. However, the grave of one heroine in the Richardsonian tradition, Susanna Rowson’s Charlotte Temple, can still be visited in New York’s Trinity Churchyard. Zemgulys reports that Victorian tourists “were moved even to find the supposed graves of [later sentimental favorites, Thackaray’s Rosie Newcome and Dickens’s Little Nell]” (57). 19. If Godwin discounted cenotaphs, many others did not. Some of the most popular monuments in Westminster Abbey—Shakespeare’s, for instance— were tributes to writers who were not buried there. Other cenotaphs dot the literary tourist map. Still, tourists have often taken the cenotaphs for actual graves, lending support to Godwin’s arguments. 20. Similar logic informs Wordsworth’s suggestion that it may be possible to mark the graves of “mighty benefactors of mankind” with the plainest of inscrip- tions, even “naked names” (Epitaphs 61). 21. Hazlitt elaborates, “[Godwin] is to all ordinary intents and purposes dead and buried. But the author of Political Justice and of Caleb Williams can never die; his name is an abstraction in letters; his works are standard in the history of intellect. He is thought of now like any eminent writer of a hundred-and- fifty years ago .... He knows this, and smiles in silent mockery of himself, reposing on the monument of his fame” (Spirit of the Age, chapter 2). 22. Protestant cemeteries in several Italian cities (Florence, Lirorno, Naples, Rome) were referred to as the Cemiterio degli Inglesi. No doubt dead English tourists and exiles outnumbered other Protestant expatriates. However, I like to think that the Italians associated cemeteries with inglesi because so many English haunted those places—that Italians recognized graveyard tourism as a dis- tinctly English habit. 23. On English graves abroad, see Tobias Döring, “Travelling in Transience: The Semiotics of Necro-Tourism.” Clearly, the dead did imperial work. 24. Cf. Isaac Disraeli in The Literary Character, sharing Godwin’s sense that British literary devotion will expand though still in its early stages: “We who were reproached for a coldness in our national character, have caught the inspiration and enthusiasm for the works and the celebrity of genius .... [T]he profound feeling of art is still confined within a circle among us, of which hereafter the circumference perpetually enlarging, may embrace even the whole people” (328). 25. Godwin’s argument here recapitulates the theory outlined in Political Justice. Social change begins with the just thoughts of select individuals, but the thoughts of those few gradually become universal. The dissemination of truth depends upon reading and conversation. See especially Book IV, chapter 2. 26. From Smith’s 2nd ed., London, 1761. Reference provides part, section, chapter, and page numbers. 27. Wordsworth, “Expostulation and Reply,” lines 7–8. 28. I refer here to Trevor Ross’s argument that the end of perpetual copyright in 1774 allowed the books of the dead to be imagined as common national property. 29. The accretion of monuments could serve to cover rifts in the nation. For example, monuments to Scottish writers began to appear in Poets’ Corner in 180 Notes

the wake of the Act of Union and the Jacobite rebellions (Connell, “Death and the Author”). 30. When Godwin proposes memorials “for the Use of Men Hereafter to be Born,” he echoes language from the copyright debates, but he also anticipates arguments over burial grounds. In the 1820 case of Gilbert v. Buzzard, Lord Stowell argues that churchyards are “the common property of the living, and of generations yet unborn.” 31. This ownership principle helps make sense of a poem like Felicia Hemans’s “England’s Dead” (an ancestor of Rupert Brooke’s “The Soldier”) in which the far-flung burial places of English soldiers symbolically become part of Britain. It also helps explain how Rome’s Protestant Cemetery, the burial place of Keats and Shelley, became for the Victorians an English “center” abroad, an island of home-space in Rome. 32. Nietzsche’s antiquarian historian is a “being who preserves and reveres” (67), one who serves life by celebrating the good he has inherited (73). In contrast, his critical historian is one who serves life by judging and resisting the tyr- anny of the dead (67). 33. Though concerned mainly with the indisputably illustrious dead, Godwin does not promote hasty efforts to exclude the unworthy. Confident that time will sort things out, he urges, “Do not fear to remember too much; only be upon your guard not to forget any thing that is worthy to be remembered” (28). Godwin directly connects the sifting of the dead through time to the process of literary canonization: “It is with the memories of men, as it is with books” (26). 34. “I would give all that I possess, to purchase the art of preserving the whole- some character and rosy hue of [my friend’s] form, that it might be my companion still” (9). This macabre fantasy follows Godwin’s discussion of the death of his “ideal friend,” which many scholars have identified with Mary Wollstonecraft. However, Godwin recognizes that death is necessary, and such is the moral of his novel St. Leon. St. Leon’s overreaching hero obtains the elixir of life but finds, predictably, that it is a curse. His physical immortality destroys, ironically, his power to impact history and so win the symbolic immortality described in Essay on Sepulchres. He writes, “The immortality with which I am endowed seems to put out of the question the common motives [for writing] that relate to posthumous fame” (3). 35. See Heidegger’s Being and Time. 36. “Dismiss me from the falsehood and impossibility of history, and deliver me over to the reality of romance”: Godwin’s “Of History and Romance,” 1797. 37. Culler, “Semiotics of Tourism” (1981); Buzard, The Beaten Track (1993).

4 Imaginary Pilgrimages: Felicia Hemans, Dead Poets, and Romantic Historiography

1. The source is “William Godwin and the Idea of Historical Commemoration,” cited below as “Commemoration.” A later version of this essay appears as the final chapter in Society and Sentiment. 2. Such topoi only become more common in the nineteenth century, as “literary remains” become their own subgenre. On this topic, see Matthews. Notes 181

3. I am here applying the argument of Phillips’s “Historical Distance and the Transition from Enlightenment to Romantic Historiography,” cited hereafter as “Distance.” 4. Schor does not mean, obviously, that elegy is an eighteenth-century invention, but rather that the eighteenth century came to conceive of elegy in a unique way: rhetorics of the period lumped epitaph, elegy, and eulogy into a single category. I follow their lead in blurring the generic lines, asserting that the various modes work on similar logics. 5. Phillips lists biography, martyrology, memoir, local history, and “much literary history” among genres that “carry with them a particular sense of [Romantic] immediacy” (“Distance” 438). 6. My copy text of “Funeral Day” is the 1914 Oxford Poetical Works. 7. Vegetation was a favored source of keepsakes in the Victorian period. Tourists clipped trees, vines, and flowers. Preferred were plants that grew on a burial spot, as if fed by the dead writer’s dust. Also popular were leaves from trees planted by the author when still living. These souvenirs functioned more or less as contact relics. When such keepsakes were unavailable, tourists had to content themselves with snipping plants from locations the dead had merely visited. 8. “Still” is a crucial word in Cowper’s The Task, and it gets taken up by poets of the next generation, notably Coleridge and Wordsworth. Compare a similar occurrence in Shelley’s Adonais, stanza VII. 9. Here I am recalling Paul de Man’s famous argument from “Autobiography as Defacement.” Culler’s essay on apostrophe also seems apposite. Elegy is the example par excellence of apostrophic lyric, which according to Culler, suspends time, space, and normal causality in “a now of discourse” (152). 10. Hemans’s “Funeral Day” is one of numerous texts that imagine characters from Scott’s novels as persistent, friendly ghosts that provide eternal access to their creator’s spirit. Andrew H. Miller observes that a similar discourse followed Charles Dickens’ death, when Dickens’s characters became imagined as ghosts and Dickens himself “[became] a text which we can recall in the séances of our reading” (336). 11. “The Grave of a Poetess” first appeared in the New Monthly Magazine 20 ( July 1827). A slightly revised version appeared in Records of Woman. Here I use the text from the 1914 Oxford Poetical Works. 12. Corinne finds the epitaph in a Florentine church, so it is almost as if Hemans is saying, along with Percy Shelley, “The Writer of the Following Lines died at Florence” (Advertisement to Epipsychidion). 13. Hemans reportedly discarded the locket upon reading about Byron’s scandal- ous behavior in Moore’s Life. However, she never stopped quoting his poetry. 14. Letter to John Lodge, July 1831, reproduced in Wolfson (513–14). Apparently, Hemans felt that the sculpture at Tighe’s tomb fell short of an ideal memorial for a poetess—that is, for herself. 15. Hemans’s letter to Graves also reproduced in Wolfson (514–15). 16. Matthews’ analysis of this scenario is spot on: “Supersensitive to public curiosity about her own marital separation, and anticipating the unregulated posthumous circulation about her private life, Hemans now distinguishes herself from the poetess with whose destiny she had earlier identified personally and poetically; yet the ‘daylight of truth’ is painfully harsh ‘at the tomb itself,’ and her sympathy with the suffering poet(ess) is strongly implied” (102). 182 Notes

17. Admittedly, “On Reading Coleridge’s Epitaph” is a different sort of tribute from “The Funeral Day of Sir Walter Scott” or “The Grave of a Poetess”—it is not a virtual tour of Old Highgate Chapel. Still, in its allusiveness, it serves the canonization function common to the other two poems. To paraphrase Donnelle Ruwe, Hemans makes Coleridge’s canonicity “dependent upon his reception and transmission by a feminine audience”—and especially by Hemans herself (137). Hemans implicitly inserts herself as an arbiter of affective and spiritual capital. 18. “On Reading Coleridge’s Epitaph” first appeared in Blackwood’s Magazine 36 (Dec. 1834), 801. For discussion of Coleridge’s self-made memorials, see chapter five (“Epitaphs”) of Paley’s Coleridge’s Later Poetry (114–131). 19. This is not to say that Hemans did not admire Coleridge’s poetry. Chorley reports that “Chamouny; the Hour Before Sunrise. A Hymn” (another imagined pilgrimage of sorts, since Coleridge had never been to the Savoy Alps) was among Hemans’s favorite examples of religious verse (II.246). 20. Letter to Rose Lawrence, 13 February 1835. See also Hemans’s letter to Archdeacon Samuel Butler, 26 July 1834 (Wolfson 519–521). 21. Letter to Rose Lawrence, 10 February 1835, printed in The Last Autumn … and Recollections of Mrs. Hemans (388). Hemans’s self-canonization worked; for better or for worse, Victorians typically read Hemans as a saint, even when downplay- ing her poetry. In the 1840s, George Virtue made Hemans the heroine of his conduct book (Kelly 77). For decades, a sanctified Mrs. Hemans appeared in collective hagiographies, the latest example probably being George Barnett Smith’s Noble Womanhood (1912). 22. In her virtual funeral service for Scott, Hemans praises him as a colonizer of the past: “And art thou there—to those dim nations join’d, / Thy subject host so long.” She has learned from Scott’s technique. Scott colonizes the past, Hemans colonizes Scott, and, it seems, we modern critics colonize them both. On the other hand, it is possible to read “The Grave of a Poetess” as a poem that calls self-promotion into question. If the poem erases Tighe by speaking for her and recreating her in Hemans’s image, it is also true that the poem acknowledges the possibility that Tighe would wish to speak for herself. This reading depends upon placing “Don’t feel sorry for me” straightforwardly in Tighe’s mouth. In the epigraph, Tighe makes herself heard over the self-pity- ing language of her elegist; and in so doing, she utters a line that acts like what Diana Fuss has called a “corpse poem”—a poem spoken from, not at the grave. Spoken in the first-person, the “corpse poem” rejects apostrophe, the key trope of the elegy, the device which always returns attention to the elegist. 23. Tilottama Rajan has written on this problem. I am thinking also of Johannes Fabian’s writings on questions of presentism in anthropology.

Interlude: Necromanticism and Romantic Authorship

1. Howitt’s preface to the third edition of Homes and Haunts (1857) elaborates this theme of anachronism, emphasizing that a new age has begun, marked by the moment when the last of the Romantic poets (here Rogers rather than Wordsworth) has gone to the grave, thus “[snapping] the link which bound living authors to a long-past period” (iii). Notes 183

2. The moment of recognition applies to literary landscapes as well as to persons. Compare Lockhart’s account of seeing the Scottish Borders with Walter Scott: “The name of every hill and every valley all around is poetical, and I felt, as I heard them pointed out one by one, as if so many old friends had been introduced to my acquaintance after a long absence,” (Peter’s Letters to His Kinsfolk II, Letter LII, 138–39). 3. Roach makes a similar point: “Even in death actors’ roles tend to stay with them. They gather in the memory of audiences, like ghosts, as each new interpretation of a role sustains or upsets expectations derived from previous ones” (78). 4. Women writers, it seems, had an even harder time than male writers remain- ing idealized in tourists’ eyes. Hemans was somehow not feminine enough. Mitford and Baillie were pleasant but grandmotherly. 5. Byron looms large in such accounts. See especially Mason and Mole. 6. The image, described in De Quincey’s Lake Poets volume, was a frontispiece engraving of Richardson’s Milton portrait, “not only by far the best likeness of Wordsworth, but of Wordsworth in the prime of his powers” (140–41). As of May 2011, visitors can see this image on display at the Wordsworth Museum in Grasmere. 7. Physiognomy and phrenology thus come to the aid of necromanticism. Thence come multitudinous references to Coleridge’s forehead and to nearly every feature of Byron’s, comparisons of Scott’s face to Shakespeare’s bust, and so on. Romantic readers’ fascination with literary faces—as manifested in collections (both published and self-assembled) of portraits, illustrated collective biographies, and so forth—is another canon-shaping force with affinities to literary tourism. 8. See also Newlyn and Cafarelli on collective literary biographies. As Newlyn writes, “Group biographies, like anthologies, allowed national resemblances between authors to be configured unobtrusively, as well as openly celebrated” (293). However, sometimes the resemblances noted were international, as canon-makers promoted a more cosmopolitan version of the republic of letters. 9. “Monography” is actually what Milnes claims not to be writing. However, as Siegel’s analysis of Milnes’ editorial shaping reveals, Milnes doth protest too much. “Monograph” persisted for some decades as a possible label for biography. Thomas Wemyss Reid published his Charlotte Brontë: A Monograph in 1877. Inscribed to Milnes, Reid’s work clearly extends the necromantic tradition pioneered by Milnes, Gaskell and others. Fascinated with Brontë’s Haworth, its graveyard, and the tourist gothic it cultivates, Reid writes, “death, the great touchstone of humanity, revealed [Brontë’s] true position to the world” (187). 10. “So here they all are!” This is a quotation from Anna Quindlen, who echoes generations of visitors to Westminster Abbey in her Imagined London (28). Quindlen also observes that many of the great writers are missing from Poets’ Corner, and that many who do have monuments are not actually buried there. But one feels somehow that all the poets should be present. 11. Of course, the dead often are gendered in the public imagination, sometimes to their detriment, as Lootens shows in Lost Saints. Byron himself said plenty to hinder the long-term reception of woman poets. 184 Notes

12. A statue is a statue, an epitaph an epitaph, and so the dead become interchangeable. This seems to be the joke of Byron’s jaded “Substitute for an Epitaph”: “Kind Reader! take your choice to cry or laugh; / Here Harold lies—but where’s his Epitaph? / If such you seek, try Westminster, and view / Ten thousand just as fit for him as you.”

5 American Literary Tourists and the English Dead: The Transatlantic Invention of “English” Literary Heritage

1. One notable exception is Zemgulys, who describes modern literary heritage as cosmopolitan and transatlantic. In many ways, her study picks up histori- cally where this one ends. She records later deployments of the “inheritance” discourse I foreground in this chapter. 2. Chandler also argues for the post-Napoleonic era as the key moment for understanding America’s literary mark on the British imagination (447–454). Add to Chandler’s account a more literal understanding of literary exchange: the end of the wars unleashed literary tourism, leading not only to British writers’ “elaborate ethnography of the early U.S. republic” (Chandler 448), but also to American tourists’ cultural mapping of Britain. 3. British writers, too, could describe English literature as Americans’ inheritance, though with a different spirit of nationalism. See Thomas Noon Talfourd in 1837: “The great minds of our times have now an audience to impress far vaster …—an audience increasing as population thickens in the cities of America, and spreads itself out through its long untrodden wilds— who speak our language, and who look at our old poets as their own immortal ancestry. And if thus our literature shall be there’s ... our poets [shall soften] the ruggedness of a young society” (15). 4. Cf. Calvert: “A youngster, fresh from Yorkshire, has not a more absolute title on London than one from the Banks of the Hudson or the Potomac, the national alienation giving even a keener zest wherewith the American enters upon his property. The Tower is his, and the Thames, and he walks into Westminster Abbey with filial reverence” (First Years 16). 5. Homes and Haunts of the Wise and Good featured several contributors, among them Howitt, but it seems to have been primarily the child of “Mrs. S.C. Hall,” that is, Anna Maria Fielding Hall, who also produced Pilgrimages to English Shrines. 6. Cf. Arthur Cleveland Coxe (1863), claiming Shakespeare as America’s national poet as well as England’s: “The whole Anglo-Saxon race must ever recognize in him the original master of many of its forms of thought, a rich contributor to its idiom and language, and the constructor of some of its strongest sentiments of civilization, of morals, and of religion” (183). See also the preface to Hall’s Homes and Haunts of the Wise and Good, which figures literary England and America as twin “channels through which the long stream of Anglo-Saxon life is emptying itself into the great ocean of modern civilization” (iv). 7. See definition III in the OED: “Used rhetorically for English in its wider or ethnological sense, in order to avoid the later historical restriction of ‘English’ as distinct from Scotch, or the modern political restriction of Notes 185

‘English’ as opposed to American of the United States; thus applied to (1) all persons of Teutonic descent (or who reckon themselves such) in Britain, whether of English, Scotch, or Irish birth; (2) all of this descent in the world, whether subjects of Great Britain or of the United States. “ This usage develops emerges via texts like those discussed in this essay. A century later it produces the term WASP. 8. Three Years in Europe was the title of the book’s first edition (London, 1852). The American edition (Boston, 1855) was called The American Fugitive in Europe, emphasizing that Brown had to delay his return to the United States because of the passage of the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law. 9. A memoir published with Brown’s The Rising Son collects highlights from the British reviews. The Eclectic Review opines, “Mr. Brown has produced a literary work not unworthy of a highly-cultivated gentleman.” Writes the Literary Gazette, “It is well to have another proof of the capability of the negro intellect.” The Glasgow Citizen remarks, “W. Wells Brown is no ordinary man, or he could not have so remarkably surmounted the many difficulties and impediments of his training as a slave. By dint of resolution, self-culture, and force of character, he has rendered himself a popular lecturer to a British audience, and a vigorous expositor of the evils and atrocities of that system whose chains he has shaken off so triumphantly and forever. We may safely pronounce William Wells Brown a remarkable man, and a full refutation of the doctrine of the inferiority of the negro.” 10. Cultural inheritance remains a theme in Brown’s writing throughout his career. Published during the same tour that produced the American Fugitive, his Clotel; or The President’s Daughter (London, 1853), gets to the heart of legitimacy and American identity, and it also contains scenes of literary tourism. The Rising Son (1873) develops Brown’s ideology of self-culture. 11. I borrow the “dialectics of authenticity” phrase from MacCannell, who calls it “the key to the development of the modern world” (145). 12. According to Moncrieff’s 1824 Excursion to Stratford, Mrs. Hornby, “con- ceives that Shakespeare’s genius loci has inspired her, and has composed many pieces in eloquent bad English, on the injuries which she has suffered from lawyers and false friends” (44). By 1824 she has been evicted from Shakespeare’s birthplace and is living across the street. 13. That this racialized discourse comes from Stowe indicates how widely it saturated American culture. Obviously, however, the “Anglo-Saxon” (and Protestant) American identity was under stress—and it would be further challenged as the century progressed. 14. Irving jokes of America’s history hunger in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”: “In this by place of nature there abode, in a remote period of American history, that is to say, some thirty years since, a worthy wight of the name of Ichabod Crane” (289). 15. Mulberry relics are still available. Inspect, for example, the Krone Limited Edition William Shakespeare Fountain Pen: http://www.kronepen.com/le/ writers/shakespeare.html [accessed 14 October 2011]. Shakespeare’s mulberry has an amusing history, for which (alas) I have inadequate space here. Briefly, the tree was a present from James I, reportedly planted by Shakespeare himself at New Place, but chopped down in 1759 by the house’s owner, who was tired of tourists’ predations. An entrepreneur named Thomas Sharp 186 Notes

purchased the wood and converted it into trinkets, and so an industry was born. 16. Stowe draws a less playful analogy between the Santa Casa and the Shakespeare birthplace, describing the Shakespeares as a Holy Family (I.203– 204). However, she gives Bardolatry an orthodox check, admonishing readers to recall, “That mystic quality that exists in these souls [great authors] is a glimpse and intimation of what exists in [God] in full perfection” (I.223). For Stowe, the admiration of great authors becomes a kind of imitatio Christi. 17. As of summer 2007, the chair still has a home in the building that was once the Red Horse Inn, Stratford’s Marks & Spencer shop. It sits beside a grand- father clock—made by none other than Thomas Sharp of mulberry trinket fame—which once belonged to the inn’s Irving Shrine. These relics are not on public display, but an accommodating store clerk can take you to them. 18. Alas, visitors can no longer tread on Shakespeare. His grave is roped off, so one has to be satisfied with reverential gazing and the purchase of a postcard. 19. Not all readers would sympathize with Irving to the point of envying the Trinity Sexton. In fact, a variant of the Sexton’s story, appearing in Moncrieff’s 1824 Excursion to Stratford upon Avon, condemns the morbid curiosity that would lead someone to look on Shakespeare’s bones or (worse) be tempted to steal them: “some modern Golgothite of the Byron school, told Sir Richard Phillips, that he was excited by curiosity to push his head and shoulders through the cavity, where he saw the remains of the bard, and could easily have brought away his scull [sic], but was [fortunately] deterred by the curse ... (37). Bardolatry must have its limits. Still, Moncrieff is as keen as any tourist on visiting the tomb of “never-dying Shakespeare” (10). 20. Hawthorne finds the birthplace disappointing, but not surprising. He has already visited a full-sized replica of the house in the zoological gardens at Liverpool (198). By the 1850s, Stratford had long since passed through what MacCannell calls the “mechanical reproduction” stage of site sacral- ization (45). 21. The painted bust was apparently an obligatory topic for travel writers. Its value as reference, ever a subject of debate, came into further question in 1793, when it was whitewashed. Some thirty years later, Charles Lamb could still get worked up about the “meddling sacrilegious varlets” and “sapient trouble-tombs” who would thus blot out “the only authentic testimony [of Shakespeare’s appearance] we had” (148). The bust has since been repainted and, according to some conspiracy theorists, entirely replaced. 22. Stowe also writes on the unattractive bust. Seizing on a hint from the sexton, she attributes its deformities to the disease from which Shakespeare died, thus assenting to the effigy’s accuracy while preserving her beau ideal. 23. On St. Paul’s as a rising attraction for necro-tourists, see Leigh’s New Picture of London (1819): “About the year 1790, a scheme was suggested and has suc- ceeded, to break the monotonous uniformity of the architectural masses in the interior of the cathedral by the introduction of MONUMENTS and STATUES, in honor of the illustrious dead, and they have added materially to the interest excited in the mind of the visitor” (185). In Leigh’s post-war moment, the St. Paul’s monument to Lord Nelson was no doubt the major draw; however, there was an effort at that same time to build up a kind of Artists’ Corner Notes 187

to rival Poets’ Corner at Westminster, featuring monuments to Dr. Johnson, Joshua Reynolds, James Barry, John Opie, and others (Leigh 186). 24. British–American relations soon became even more vexed, as Britain adopted several pro-Southern policies during the Civil War even while maintaining official neutrality. Neither the Union nor the Confederacy was satisfied with the British stance, which sought to balance condemnation of slavery with Britain’s need for Southern cotton. However, the nations were quick to forgive each other in the 1870s. 25. Our Old Home received positive reviews as a literary performance, but Hawthorne drew criticism from some for dedicating the book to former President Franklin Pierce, who had come out in favor of states’ rights. Pierce, an old school friend of Hawthorne, appointed Hawthorne to the Liverpool Consulate, thus making Our Old Home possible. Hawthorne himself disliked slavery, but he was not an abolitionist, and he never fully supported the Civil War. Hawthorne died at Pierce’s home before the war’s end. 26. The title is also a quotation; compare Sigourney’s 1843 Pleasant Memories of Pleasant Lands. 27. Several instances signal the simultaneous constructions of international “English” literature and Anglo-Saxon racial identity. Stowe reports London’s mayor offering this toast: “God forbid that, with a common language, with common laws ... with one common literature, with one common religion, and above all with one common love of liberty, God forbid that any feeling should arise between the two countries but the desire to carry through the world these advantages” (263). On the same occasion, “Justice Talfourd proposed the literature of our two countries, under the head of ‘Anglo-Saxon Literature’” (264). 28. Charles Browne invents a similar story for his alter-ego Artemus Ward in his 1867 parody, “At the Tomb of Shakespeare.” As Mulvey describes it, “Artemus Ward stood like Washington Irving ... and reflected on the mortal remains of the man he called ‘William W. Shakespeare.’ But when he took leave of the churchyard, he discovered that he had been standing in front of the wrong grave—his pious sentiments had, as it were, been addressed to the wrong body. Artemus Ward pursued the boy who had misdirected him, but the young rascal merely ‘larfed and put the shillin I’d given him into his left eye in an inglorious manner’” (80). Americans’ poetical faith (or credulity) was good for business—and for entertaining travel writing. 29. In line with the concept of inheriting literary power, Nathaniel Carter, in his 1827 Letters from Europe, quipped that Michael Scott’s “potent wand” had been “bequeathed as a legacy to his illustrious descendant” (268). But the implicit question in many American tour books was whether literary power could be inherited or if it could only be appropriated. 30. Irving, in turn, echoes Calvin’s famous remark that there were enough fragments of the True Cross in circulation to build a ship with. The Walter Scott plum tree mentioned by Stowe is itself an example of quotation. Shakespeare’s mulberry is the prototype, and its many replications include the Milton mulberry at Cambridge, the Garrick mulberry at Abbington Abbey, Pope’s Willow at Twickenham (converted into relics in 1801), Byron’s oak at Newstead Abbey, and Wordsworth’s rock-pine at Harriet Martineau’s The Knoll. (Arguably, the Wellington tree at the field of Waterloo belongs to 188 Notes

the same lineage.) In addition, literal offspring of the Shakespeare mulberry purportedly survive not just in Stratford but in many locations, including New York’s Central Park and Cleveland’s Cultural Gardens. 31. I have not been able to determine which guide Irving had. Several were in print, including one published the year before Irving’s arrival: Wheler’s A Guide to Stratford-upon-Avon. 32. In addition to the various attractions at Stratford, tourists can still visit Garrick’s Temple to Shakespeare on the Riverside at Hampton. 33. Booth made this remark in her 2006 NASSR/NAVSA Workshop, noting that literary tourists seek association with authors through contact, almost like a “laying on of hands.” Her figure is not farfetched. In an 1819 essay, Leigh Hunt traces “a link of ‘beamy hands’ [that is, of handshakes] from our own times up to Shakespeare” (“Social Genealogy,” Essays and Sketches 107). Touch confirms the spiritual connection between readers and authors. It may even allow readers to imagine themselves as authors. In “A Vision of Poets,” Maria Jewsbury has Milton placing his hand on Wordsworth’s head and bestowing a blessing (I.73). 34. On Stowe’s chafing at the demands of programmed travel, see I. 61–62: “to the idealist, who would like to roam, and dream, and feel, and to come unexpectedly on the choicest points of view, it is rather a damper to have all his raptures prearranged and foreordained for him, set down in the guide book and proclaimed by the guide.” She makes these remarks on visiting Bothwell Castle, sacred to her because of its appearance in The Lady of the Lake. 35. William Cullen Bryant, in a memorial address, correctly pointed to the Sketch- Book as Irving’s greatest contribution, for it “showed the possibility of an American acquiring a fame bounded only by the limits of his own language, and gave an example of the qualities by which it might be won.” 36. Similar prohibitions were enacted at Abbotsford, Robert Burns House, and other pilgrimage sites. Too many tourists wanted to sit in authors’ chairs, jump in their beds, or clip bits of upholstery for souvenirs. Some tourists reported performing the old rituals when guides’ backs were turned. 37. A master of local antiquities, a spinner of legends, and an inveterate player of anonymity games, Irving seemed like Scott’s kindred spirit. In fact, Scott read and admired Irving’s witty Knickerbocker’s History of New York, setting the stage for their later meeting. 38. James Fenimore Cooper, too, was sometimes identified as an “American Scott.” Of course, Scott in his turn was often identified as the successor to Shakespeare, much as Wordsworth was compared to Milton. Part of necromanticism— and the transmission of literary inheritance—is the conferral of symbolic genealogies. 39. Abbotsford, arguably, is Scott’s replication of Horace Walpole’s Strawberry Hill. My point is not to privilege Scott as an original, but rather to show that an American writer could learn quotation from British masters of the art. 40. “The significance of the ivy should not be overlooked: with one clip of the pruning shears, a remarkable associational web involving Scottish history, Dutch legend, Robert the Bruce [whose heart was buried at Melrose], and Katrina Van Tassel [heroine of the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow”] were forever linked by a vine, the artistic and literary roots of which were to be dug Notes 189

up, grafted, and transplanted by dozens of imitators on both sides of the Atlantic” (Sweeting 135). 41. The Currier and Ives print is one of many popular images that made Sunnyside recognizable as a heritage symbol. Celebrated by architectural tastemakers, the cottage became a model for American country life. As Kathleen Johnson notes, “Images of ‘America’s Home’ appeared in paintings, prints, stereopticon cards, pictorial magazines and advertisements and on ceramics, sheet music and daguerreotype cases” (16). Oliver Wendell Holmes said that next to Mount Vernon, Sunnyside was “the best known and most cherished of all the dwellings in our land” (qtd. in Johnson 16). 42. After Scott’s death, the Bard’s bust in the Abbotsford library was replaced with a bust of Scott himself. Schussele may have known this. In any case, he proved himself canny about the equations and substitutions that render figures canonical. 43. Charlotte Temple poses the question, “What happens when you transplant a Richardsonian heroine to America?” One answer: you also transplant the literary grave. It’s no coincidence that, in Britain, Godwin was talking about the desirability of a grave for Clarissa Harlowe, even as fans of Rowson’s novel were visiting Charlotte Temple’s grave at Manhattan’s Trinity Church. 44. In 2006, Concord’s Sleepy Hollow also received the remains of Hawthorne’s wife and daughter, originally buried in England in the 1870s. Though other reasons for the action were cited, I wonder if the decision to move Sophia Hawthorne’s dust to Authors’ Ridge seemed appropriate because of her own growing reputation as a writer. In any case, the move was another strikingly literal instance of literary transplantation. 45. Irving was a trustee of the cemetery, and as one might expect, he took keen interest in his future burial spot. Today, the cemetery’s homepage reproduces a delightful burlesque-gothic letter from Irving to Gaylord Clark, then editor of the Knickerbocker Magazine, about his future burial in the place. Irving’s grave, situated in the spot he selected, remains surprisingly quiet today as it overlooks the Old Dutch Church and the site of the bridge made famous by “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” 46. The literati were deeply involved: at the cemetery’s dedication, Emerson spoke and William Channing recited an original poem.

6 Illustration, Historicism, and Travel: The Legacy of Sir Walter Scott

1. This assertion of Scott’s supremacy may surprise some, but it shouldn’t. In The Reading Nation, William St Clair demonstrates convincingly that Scott was the most-read author in the Anglophone world—not just in his time, but also throughout the entire nineteenth century. Historians of transatlantic tourism, including Lockwood, Mulvey, and Watson, all note Scott’s centrality, which was especially pronounced for Americans. A cursory review of the period’s travel books reveals Scott as an industry unto himself. 2. As William Epstein notes in Recognizing Biography, readers want “fact” to be a “natural pre-text,” but it turns out that fact, too, is text (42). 190 Notes

3. Douce is a fascinating if now-obscure person, associated with several characters who figure in this study, including D’Israeli, his longtime friend, and Scott, his sometime correspondent and collaborator. A serious collector of books and antiquities and a major player in the ballad revival, Douce also contributed to important editorial projects, worked in the department of manuscripts at the British Museum, and in general exemplified the odd mix of concerns and literary activities that Necromanticism tries to help explain. It seems fitting that his next publication after Illustrations was The Dance of Death (1833). 4. However, the fact that Douce’s Illustrations included any images tells us something. Most newly written books in this period had no illustrations at all. Engraved title pages, portraits of authors, and frontispieces were associated largely with reprints (St Clair 134). The presence of images in a book on Shakespeare underscores that book’s connection to the undisputed canon. St Clair reports that the “old canon,” made up of reprints made possible by the legal judgment of 1774, opened up (for obscure reasons) new opportunities for artists and engravers (134). Thus, “the explosion of reading of literary texts was accompanied by an explosion in the viewing of engraved pictures” (135). 5. Scott employs the word this way in his preface to the 1829 edition of Waverley: “Upon the whole, it is hoped that the Waverley Novels, in their new dress, will not be found to have lost any part of their attractions in con- sequence of receiving illustrations by the Author, and undergoing his careful revision” (348). 6. Todd’s seven-volume collected works of Milton (1809) added “notes of various authors” together with Todd’s own “illustrations and some account of the life and writings”; His Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer appeared in the following year. Obviously, “illustrations” were closely linked to collected editions, which Andrew Piper describes as the “sovereign of all [romantic] book formats” (54). What Piper says of the collected edition also applies to the illustration book: it contributed to the rising “heritage consciousness,” and it “[fashioned] a unified literary corpus out of a diverse and often heterogeneous [materials]” (55). Further, it worked as a sign and instrument of canonization, and it promoted the author as “the single organizing figure” (54). All of these functions would prove important for tourism. 7. Besides Illustrations of Sterne (first ed. 1798, second ed. 1812), see Nichols’ monumental Illustrations of the Literary History of the Eighteenth Century, which began appearing in 1817 and eventually ran to 8 volumes. 8. Hobhouse’s book is an anomaly and rather a failure in the genre. It refers to Byron only occasionally, dedicating most of its space to the display its author’s classical erudition. The “illustrations” are mainly words, words, words: one can count the few supplementary images (none of which bears directly on Childe Harold) on one’s fingers, though the book is over 500 pages long. No doubt Hobhouse wished to cash in on Byronmania, yet rather than tailoring his efforts for Byron’s fans, he produced a prosy, pedantic work in the tradition of the worst Grand Tour companions. The reader could take warning from Hobhouse’s Advertisement, where he admits that many of his “dissertations” are “not at all requisite for the intelligibility of Childe Harold, although they may illustrate the positions or the objects therein contained” (iv–v). According Notes 191

to the story of the Advertisement, Byron thought his travel companion’s memoranda quite as good as his own but felt that adding them to the appendix of Childe Harold would “[swell the volume] to a disproportioned bulk” (iv). We can see Byron’s wisdom. Notwithstanding all this, Hobhouse’s work is a notable case study. Like other books of “illustrations,” it wrestles with generic categories that are usually opposed, arguing that they are necessary supplements for one another. As Cheeke writes, the book “highlight[s] the ‘integrative impulse’ of the period’s literature, which “resists the assumption of hierarchical distinction between the discourse of knowledge and that of the imagination” (“What So Many Have Told” 530–31). 9. The suddenly ubiquitous image from Chambers appears in Siegel’s Desire and Excess, Russett’s Fictions and Fakes, and Duncan’s Scott’s Shadow. 10. The tradition of trying the poet’s seat at Melrose continued for decades, taking on strong necromantic tones. Thomas Frognall Dibdin, recalling a visit to the Borders in 1838, writes, “[I] fancied I saw the embodied spirit of the GREAT POET sitting upon the identical spot which it used to occupy in its more substantial form of flesh and blood ...’ ‘There, sir,’ said the living genius of the place [the guide, Mr. Bower], ‘there, Sir Walter Scott used to sit and look about him.’ Of course, I was bound to sit and do the same” (A Bibliographical, Antiquarian, and Picturesque Tour in the Northern Counties of England and in Scotland, II.1004). This ritual is probably related to the custom of sitting in authors’ chairs as if to imbibe their inspiration—a popular activity at author-house museums, beginning with Shakespeare’s birthplace and Scott’s own Abbotsford. 11. Note that tours of what Bayard Taylor later called “Scott-land” were fairly well established before Scott ever published a novel. (On this topic, see Watson’s chapter on “Ladies and Lakes” in The Literary Tourist and Lockwood’s account of Scottish culture tourism in Passionate Pilgrims.) While literary historians have sometimes suggested that Scott’s poetry was totally eclipsed by Byron’s, the records of tourists demonstrate that Scott’s metrical romances, especially The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Marmion, and The Lady of the Lake, were popular for decades, fading only near the end of the nineteenth century. Many visitors to Scotland could recite passages of the poems, much as tourists in Venice could quote Byron on the Bridge of Sighs. St Clair’s work helps explain the cultural penetration of Scott’s poetry: it went out of copyright in the 1830s, not long after Scott’s death, and thus became available for reprinting in many affordable formats (208–209). 12. Two exceptions to the 1830 rule follow the lead of Robert Chambers as well as one could desire. The first, Waverley Anecdotes, Illustrative of the Incidents, Characters, and Scenery Described in the Novels and Romances of Sir Walter Scott, Bart., written by “F.,” first appeared in 1833 but surfaced again in an 1850 “revised and improved” edition. The 1850 edition includes engravings but remains predominantly textual rather than visual. It praises the Waverley novels as generators of ideal presence and origin-seeking curiosity: “while reading their pages ... we became actual spectators of the scenes they dis- played” (3–4) and imbibe “a taste for biography and antiquities” (4). The second exception appeared in 1912, when Scott’s star was waning: The Scott Originals by W.S. Crockett. Crockett’s main interest was locating originals of characters rather than places; however, Crockett was also the 192 Notes

author of such homes-and-haunts texts as Footsteps of Scott and The Scott Country. 13. Martin Meisel, too, acknowledges the split between verbal and visual illustration. In Realizations, he confirms that before the 1820s, a book featuring pictorial illustration had to signal its peculiarity, usually by advertising engravings or the names of contributing artists on its title page (30). Otherwise, readers could just as easily expect textual illumination, especially, as we have seen, in the form of scholarly commentary or annotation. 14. Maxwell makes a similar observation: “Through the mediation of antiquarianism, with its destabilizing, sometimes anarchic craving for supplements of all kinds, the idea and practice of pictures in books achieved a new kind of power” (2). Of course, my interest in antiquarianism leads in a different direction—not toward the growing power of images in books, but toward the tourist’s supplement (an addition to both text and picture), which was the exploration of actual geographic locations. In any case, I share Maxwell’s sense that different kinds of illustration functioned “as an interconnected multimedia gloss,” adding to Scott’s cultural authority and enriching readers’ conceptions of history (2). 15. For a literal example of this sort of equation between author and earth, see Leigh Hunt’s “Allan Ramsay.” Hunt converts writers not just into the spirits of place, but into the places themselves: “Ramsay, to be sure, with all his genius ... is but a small part of Burns—is but a field in a corner compared with the whole Scots pastoral region” (Essays and Sketches 161). 16. Todd and Bowden confirm that Scott supplied all the “descriptions and annotations” for Schetky’s Illustrations and note that “Scott’s collaboration with Schetky is also evident in the ingenious title vignette design, ... repre- senting his motto and coat of arms, these gracefully posed, it seems, above old Camp, his bull terrier (d. 1809)” (141). 17. I do not say that Scott’s friends produced all of the illustrations. Scott did not always approve of illustrations commissioned by his publishers. On this subject, see Gordon. Still, Scott was far more interested in illustration projects than most historians have suspected, as Richard Hill demonstrates in Picturing Scotland through the Waverley Novels. On Scott’s involvement specifically in the Magnum Opus illustrations, see also Garside. 18. Watson likewise observes that accounts of visits to Abbotsford often imagined the personal guidance of Scott, attributing this convention to the influence of Washington Irving’s 1832 “Abbotsford” (95). However, Irving was not the first to represent Scott as a tour guide. For perhaps the earliest instance, see the end of Lockhart’s 1819 Peter’s Letters to His Kinsfolk, vol. 2. Consider also the case of Turner, who, in the process of developing illustrations for Scott’s Poetical Works in 1831, toured the Lowlands with the dying poet and imagined recreating that experience with his art (Wood 179). Of course, Scott’s role as guide is most famously recalled in Wordsworth’s 1835 “Extempore Effusion upon the Death of James Hogg.” 19. In fact, Scott proposed A Series of Sketches to Skene “in an effort to benefit the artist with advanced knowledge of the publication of the Magnum” (Hill 31). Notes 193

20. I see the revival of titles drawn on by Scott as (in part) a biographical gesture. In essence, publishers were making available the Author of Waverley’s personal library. The interest in Scott’s reading continued after his death, as an 1838 Constable publication, Cochrane’s Catalogue of the Library at Abbotsford, attests. 21. My copy text is the second edition. The first appeared in 1832 as Landscape Illustrations of the Waverley Novels, with Descriptions of the Views. 22. Davis reports that Scott and Skene abandoned the Sketches project after two volumes because the workload had grown too heavy for the artist. However, that abortive experience put Skene in an ideal position to consult for Tilt’s Landscape Illustrations, which turned out to be a great commercial success (32). 23. Thanks to art historian Erin Hazard for her help with this detective work. 24. The hourglass may simply be an emblem for the preoccupations of the historical novelist; however, it is possible that the hourglass is actually the half-hour glass Scott used to pace himself while attempting to write his way out of bankruptcy. That artifact now belongs to the National Museums of Scotland (Brown, Abbotsford and Sir Walter Scott 52). 25. This strategy of replacing the author with his things anticipates the work of the Abbotsford Edition of the Waverley novels (1842–47), which helped establish Abbotsford tourism as an essential supplement to reading. With literally dozens of wood engravings per volume, many of them depicting artifacts from the Abbotsford museum, this series set out to conjure Scott from his collections. As Maxwell puts it, “In effect, [Cadell, the publisher] put Abbotsford into print; at the same time, he made it the author’s voice from the dead. Scott communicates with us through the detritus of history, which is also the detritus of his own life” (29). 26. Images of Scott’s empty chair and writing table, first engraved and then photographed, circulated widely from the 1830s forward and became a pre- dictable focus of tourists’ interest. A year after Scott’s death, Orville Dewey, the American Unitarian minister, visited Abbotsford and left this ecstatic account: “I have seen it! The study—the desk at which he wrote! In the very chair, the throne of power from which he stretched out a scepter over all the world, and over all the ages, I sat down—it was enough!” (qtd. in Lockwood 74). As Lockwood reports, “To sit in the author’s chair eventually became a duel of sorts between the tourists and the custodians” (76; see also 343–44). 27. The poet is Charles Swain (1801–1874), the full title of his poem (as listed in Swain’s published collections) “Dryburgh abbey, the burial place of Sir Walter Scott, a vision, forming a poetical catalogue of all the principal characters in the Waverley novels.” Swain seems to have specialized in this sort of thing. He also penned “A Vision of Tombs,” an elegy for L.E.L. published in the Forget Me Not of 1840, which surveys the graves of several poets in Extempore Effusion style: Hemans, Hogg, Scott, some lesser known Scottish poets, and finally L.E.L. The poem ends with a call to repatriate Landon’s remains and thus preserve them for the purposes of national necro-tourism: “Restore our dead! /... / We claim her ashes! ‘tis a Nation’s claim! / Her—in her wealth of mind—to thee we gave; / Yet—plead we for the dust of that dear frame: / Oh, bear our world-lamented o’er the wave! / Let England hold at last—’tis all she asks—her Grave!” 194 Notes

28. Again, see Miller on nineteenth-century authors coming to occupy the spectral position of their creations. “Dryburgh Abbey” is an earlier example of the phenomenon Miller explores. (Note also that Dickens’s famous empty chair, described by Miller, is an updated version of Scott’s chair in the Abbotsford study.) 29. Phrases borrowed from Shelley’s Adonais, stanzas 15 and 42. They seem especially applicable here, though intended for another poet, and they resemble lines from the many elegies penned for Scott in 1832. 30. And yet, such comments were balanced by the idea that Scott was not fully of the world when he lived. “The fact is, Scott belonged to a past,” Harriet Beecher Stowe remarked (69). 31. The latest example of which I am aware is Crockett’s The Scott Originals (1912). 32. A British Magazine review of Landscape Illustrations captures the ideal of “real” illustration: “While wandering with the great Enchanter ... we have often looked for a better guide than imagination; and when visiting with him some half ruined caste or abbey of the olden time, we have longed to have some clearer idea than even his words could convey, of the scene he had been describing. It has seemed to us most important that fancy should be checked, that reality should be aimed at as much as possible, and that we should acquire knowledge while obtaining amusement” (July 1830, 71). 33. Our English Lakes, Mountains, and Waterfalls, As Seen by William Wordsworth is specifically pitched to the tourist, who will “have the additional pleasure of identifying with his own favourite spot any of the Poet’s verses which refer especially to it” (Introduction). The volume begins with a facsimile of Wordsworth’s manuscript for “Inscription Intended for a Stone in the Grounds of Rydal Mount,” a poem which ends with the poet writing himself into the necro-tourist itinerary: “and here / (Heaven knows how soon) the tender-hearted / May heave a gentle sigh for him / As one of the departed.” For more on this book, see Groth, chapter 3. 34. Watson offers an excellent treatment of this embarrassment in the opening pages of The Literary Tourist. 35. See www.findagrave.com [accessed 14 October 2011] and similar sites. Works Consulted

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Note: “n” after a page number denotes a note number on that page. Abbotsford, 4, 99, 100, 115, 124, 134, and materialism, 147 154, 170, 188 n36 and n39, 192 as portal, 19 n18, 194 n28 author as, 95 and Irving’s Sunnyside, 136–8 devotion to canon, 84 Faed painting, 138 associationism, 2, 41–2, 44–5, 47, 52, “Room at,” 156–60, 166 54, 59, 62, 116, 122, 131, 136 emblem of Scott’s work, 170 authenticity, 29, 30, 48 53, 173, 115, Abrams, M. H., 28 119, 121, 129 Adler, Judith, 35, 39, 61, 118, 176 n7 illustration books, 145, 151, 153 afterlife, alternate visions of, 12, 20 in text, 148 37, 71, 82 originals, 55 Allan, William, 139, 158–9, 169 photography, 168 American Civil War, 117, 128, 187 strategies, 153–56 n24 and n25 author American Renaissance, 108 as book, 53, 178 n9 Americans as celebrity, 13, 92–9, 179 author flattening, 100 as genius loci, 4, 185 Britain stabilizer for, 107–8, 116, 128 as living dead, 92, 155 case studies, 117–32 as territory, 153, 45, 192 n15 heirs of British, 14, 108, 112 as tourist attraction, 4, 10, 13, 44, history-envy, 116, 185 n14 50, 92, 97, 136 1iterary heritage, 106, 111 “death of,” 92, 98 literary tourists, 14, 77, 106–40 flattening and fungibility, 99 nationalism, 108, 116, 184 n3 ideal v. real, 4, 57–58, 98, 100, 103, quotation, 143, 188 n39 125–6, 161 slave predicament, 114 intimacy with, 2, 6, 17, 51, 58, 95 tradition, 108, 112, 114 author myth, 97, 99, 112, 144 transplant literary tourism to U.S., author-worship, 13, 33–4, 36, 99, 122 107, 137 Wordsworth, 95 Bann, Stephen, 18–9, 152, 172 ancestors, 1, 8, 103, 109, 122 Barbauld, Anna Laetitia, 7, 77, Anderson, Benedict, 7, 32, 38, 91, 102 175 n10 antecedents, 134 Bate, Walter Jackson, 9 anthology, 6, 77, 83–4, 102–5, 149, 169 battlefield tourism, 1, 7, 43, 77 anti-memorialism, 62 “being toward death,” 73 antiquarianism, 8, 29, 152, 192 n14 Benjamin, Walter, 6, 55, 104, 172, Ariès, Phillipe, 6, 28 174 n5 Aristotle, 21 Bennett, Andrew, 6, 9–10, 63, 71, ars moriendi, 72 81–2, 92, 123, 168 artifact, 4, 11, 29, 42, 55–7, 104, 137, Berkeley, George, 27 142, 158 bibliomania, 29, 53–4, 68, 175 n8

208 Index 209

Bigelow, Andrew, 1, 36–7, 45, 116, British, 12, 68, 77, 112, 135, 148, 178 n8 179 n29 biography, 17, 37, 40, 49, 57, 59, collectivity of, 103 96, 105, 152, 178 n15, 181 n5, formation, 66, 78, 84, 103, 183 n8 and n9, 191 n12; see also 180 n33 hagiography, monography literary, 11, 40, 68, 84, 176 n3 Blair, Robert, 6 mastery of, 114–5 Blake, William, 27, 173 material representation of, 10, 49, Bloom, Harold, 9, 10, 79 67, 178 n10, 186 n23 Body, 15, 23, 48, 59–61, 94, 144, 150; canonization, 49, 57, 65, 78, 83, 95, see also corpse 136, 140 Bogel, Fredric, 28 attaining, 88, 125, 182 n17 books and n21 both physical and spiritual, 50–3 linked to mortality, 92 containers of the dead, 3, 5, 28, 44, linked to quotation, 83–4 50, 52–3 of self, 78, 83, 87, 122 personified, 53, 96, 178 n9 Canterbury Cathedral, 34 vehicles of transport, see transport Castle, Terry, 28, 47, 93, 97, 100 Booth, Alison, 134, 137, 188 n33 Cavell, Stanley, 28 Boswell, James, 21, 46 cemetery, 174 n5 British tradition, 108, 171 cenotaphs, 62, 179 n19, 183 n10 Brown, William Wells, 14, 112–5, 141, Cervantes, Miguel de, 22, 61 185 n8–10, “chain of memory,” 65 “burden of the past,” 9, 65 chairs belonging to authors, 120, 135, burial, 64 158, 186 n17, 188 n36, 191 n10, burial sites, 12 193 n26, 194 n28 Burke, Edmund, 6, 8, 64, 70–1, 73 Chambers, Robert, 149–52, 158, 191 Burns, Robert, 41, 43, 45–6, 55–8, n12 95, 149, 176 n10, 178 n16, Illustrations of the Author of Waverley, 188 n36 150 gravesite, 8, 46 chronotope, 29, 99, 101, 103 busts, 24, 53, 95, 125, 139, 140, 159, chronotopic mapping, 29, 116 178 n10, 183 n7, 186 n21 and churchyards, 1, 6, 64, 69, 80, 174 n4 n22, 189 n42 contemplation of, 44 Buzard, James, 39, 41, 74, 176 n8, ghosts, 3, 52 180 n37 reciprocity of generations, 70, 180 Byron, George Gordon, 19, 94, 103, n30 139, 164, 174 n6, 181 n13, 183 visited wrong, 129, 187 n5 and n11, 184 n12, 186 n19, Chaucer, Geoffrey, 34, 35, 50–1, 148, 187 n30, 190–1 n8 175, 190 n6 “Childe Harold’s Goodnight,” 113 American inheritance, 110 Newstead Abbey, 115 biography, 50 Parnassus, 120 shrine, 34, 50, 177 relics, 84, 158 citational originality, 123, 132, 134; see also quotation canon, 3, 4, 6, 10, 53, 79 “classic ground,” 11, 39–40, 47, 116, Anglo-American, 107 136 as collection, see anthology Cohen, Erik, 29, 65 210 Index

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 57, 79, 99, De Staël, Germaine, 82–3, 103 105, 183 n7 Derrida, Jacques, 143 burial, 87 devotional poetry, 88, 90–1 continuousness, 51, 178 n6 disappointment, 57–8, 97, 117, 126, poetical faith, 24 129, 132, 178 n16 self-canonization, 87, 93, 182 n18 D’Israeli, Isaac, 23, 100, 102 true poet, 52 Dollimore, Jonathan, 6 collection, logic of, 84, 102 Donaldson v. Beckett, 6, 144; see also commemoration, 9, 23, 48, 56, 65, public domain 76, 8, 105, 122 Douglass, Frederick, 113–114 “communitas,” 65 Dryburgh Abbey, 80, 130, 159, 166 community of the dead, 13 Duncan, Ian, 18 confession of antecedents, 134 Durkheim, Émile, 32 copies, see reproductions corpse, 4, 54, 58, 80 elegy, 79, 81, 181, 182 and ideal presence, 26 Eliot, T. S. [Thomas Stearns], 9, 13, of European literature, 108 114, 175 n10 critical distance, 78, 91 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 108, 119, 140 cult of the dead, 3, 54, 74 emulation, 66–7, 134 cult of singularity, 99–105 “English” (international), 14, 42, 105, v. author flattening, 99–100 114, 118, 120, 135, 187 n27 v. collectivity, 103 epitaphs culture, 7, 114, 142, 167 part of “elegiac” literature, 181 acquired, 114 reading lesson, 6, 174 n4 Anglo-American, 184 n6 Erskine, Neal, 36 industry 14, eternalizing conceit, 82 literary, 3, 49, 72, 113, 142, 163, “excess,” 10, 104; see also mass culture 167, 170 print, 3, 104, 148, 163 faith, 26, 66, 85, 90, 98, 119, 130 Romantic-era, 24, 32, 44, 54, 69, definition, 25 92, 100 grave’s power a product of f., 121 travel, 9, 76, 143, 170 poetical, 24, 115, 120 “culture of mourning,” 7, 67, 16 Favret, Mary, 7 “culture of posterity,” 6, 10, 63, 82, Ferriar, John, 145 123; see also deferred reception Ferris, Ina, 29, 54 French Revolution, 2, 71 dead, the, 24, 54, 58, 67, 69–70, 78, Fuss, Diana, 7 98, 102 collective power, 104 Gardner, Col. James, 36 literary d., 65, 92, 100 Garrick, David, 132, 145 shared property, 110 genealogies, literary, 134, 149, v. living authors, 92, 96, 148 188 n38 dead poets, 77–78, 80, 94, 101 “ghosting,” 96–97 death obsession, 8 ghosts, 28, 50, 81, 95, 98, 110, 116, deathways, 6, 174 n5 159 deferred reception, 92; see also “culture authors as, 4, 10–1, 15 of posterity” Irving as, 137, 140 De Man, Paul, 8, 81, 181 n9 literary characters as, 3, 19, 81, 96, De Quincey, Thomas, 94, 100, 183 n6 110, 117, 159, 181 n10 Index 211

living authors as, 96–7 tourists’, 179 n22 raising, 130, 132 haunting, 3, 5, 10, 28, 81, 169 Scott as, 150, 158, 162 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 14, 109–10, talking to, 19, 50, 83, 93 115–7 132, 138, 186 n20 Wordsworth as, 95 John Murray’s shop, 124 Glendening, John, 29, 32 Salem, 140 Godwin, William, 1, 7, 26, 46, 48–74, visit to Stratford, 124–8 169 visit to Westminster Abbey, 53, 109 Essay on Sepulchers, 27, 49 Hazlitt, William, 12, 24, 56–8, 93, Life of Chaucer, 49, 50–1 126, 178 n11, 179 n21 “Of History and Romance,” 26, 59, on literary biography, 57, 96, 98 66, 180 n36 on Godwin, 48, 63, 179 n21 Political Justice, 63–4, 68, 72, 179 n25 on Irving, 111, 135 gothic, 6, 56, 83, 97, 116, 168 on originals, 54, 56–7, 98 Grand Tour, 11, 32, 38–41 on posthumous fame, 58 domesticated, 36, 40–41 on trusting the dead, 71 graves, 48, 59, 61, 67, 69, 71 Hemans, Felicia, 12–3, 52, 58, 75–91, abroad, 64, 179 n22 and n23, 180 n31 100–1, 161 as first literary tourist sites, 5 heritage, 47, 64–5, 71, 75, 95, 115, as last home, 178 n11 172–3 as signs, 25 British and American shared, 107–8, decorum doctrine, 86–7, 178 n14 112–3, 187 n27 fictional, 61–62, 177 n11 industry, 2, 36, 47, 137, 171 ideal v. real, 131, 181 n14 literature, 106, 114, 171 Milton, 8 tourism, 12, 33, 76, 113 pilgrimage sites, 75, 85–7, 93, 109 v. history, 1–2, 5, 36, 165, 171 Shakespeare, 8, 70 Hervey, James, 6 truth-markers, 121, 127 hic jacet, 48, 64, 160 uniqueness of, 12, 54, 178 n11 hierarchies of significant space, 34, United States, 163, 141 101 graveyard poetry, 6, 37, 44, 57 historical erasure, 1–2 Gray, Thomas, 6, 15, 23, 42, 44, 67, historical fiction, 8, 19, 22, 37, 119, 69, 80, 143 171 Elegy Written in a Country Church- historicism, 89–90, 172 yard, 6 modes of being, 90 Stoke Poges, 129 Walter Scott, 142–178 Greenblatt, Stephen, 10, 175 n9 see also New Historicism and Groth, Helen, 16, 168–9, 194 n33 Romantic historicism Guillory, John, 6, 123 historiography, 12–3, 17–8, 20, 48–9, 75–8, 172 hagiography, 8, 89, 100 history hair, 53, 84; see also relics as a site, 2, 10, 76–7 Harrison, Robert Pogue, 1, 25, 69, 70 as interpersonal relationship, 9, 38, Hartman, Geoffrey, 19 75 haunts as experience, 76 authors’, 17, 32, 34, 142, 154, 169 dependence on ideal presence, 11, homes and, 14, 35, 44, 47, 59, 70, 18, 83, 89 95, 101, 110, 111, 113, 136, 170, Holy Trinity Church, see Trinity 182, 184 Church 212 Index

Home, Henry (Lord Kames), 11, 18–25, limits of, 5, 26, 27, 96, 194 n32 68, 78, 175 n2, 178 n5 tourism as trial of, 12 home, 4, 69 imagined community, 7, 70, 102, Hotz, Mary Elizabeth, 6 174 n1 Howitt, William, 35, 47, 95, 101, 172, imitation, 132, 143 182 n1, 184 n5 immortality, 10, 25, 37, 57, 82, 88, Hume, David, 20, 24, 27, 84 93, 99, 158, 180 n34 humility, 72, 74, 87 inheritance, 108, 110, 112, 184 n1 Hunt, Leigh, 5, 7, 34, 77, 188 “Anglo-Saxon,” 14, 108, 112, 116, dead writers, 53, 178 184 n3 relics, 53 consanguinity, 100, 112, 115 tourist, 175, 192 cultural, 67, 114, 116, 119, 129, “world of books,” 3, 44 185 n10 literary, 107, 188 n38 idealism vs. materialism, 12, 27, 50, 52 product of labor and self-culture, “ideal presence,” 11, 17–30, 39, 52, 114 56, 68, 78, 102 Internet, 170, 172 limits of, 26, 128, 175 n5 Irving, Washington, 14, 43, 97, 109, metaphors of, 23 111 origins of, 20, 31 as American Scott, 136 proximity, 19, 78 as ghost, 137 sympathetic connection, 18 at Abbotsford, 136, 192 n18 temporal disruption, 20 burial at Sleepy Hollow, 140, 189 n45 idealization of the dead, 35, 58, 103 Red Horse Inn, Stratford, 48, 135, illustration 186 as illumination, 146, 163 Schussele painting, 138 documentary, 163 Sketch-Book, 14, 43, 109, 112, 118, fiction, 148 143, 188 fidelity, 165 Sunnyside, 136–7, 189 n41 “ideal,” 164–7 photographic, 15, 142–73, Jefferson, Thomas, 112, 115 “real,” 164 Johnson, Samuel, 21, 24, 27, 46, 77, Scott’s works, 46, 142–73 101, 137, 145–146, 176 n9, textual, 148, 149, 155, 190, 192 186–7 n23 visual, 144, 148, 155, 192 illustration book, 15, 151–3, 155, 162, Kames—see Home, Henry (Lord Kames) 172 Keats, John, 13, 37, 55, 64, 80, 94, 99, contrast with illustrated book, 144–8 101, 142 merchandizing, 154 burial place, 64, 180 n31 Byron, 148, 190 n8 literary tourist, 41–2 Scott, 148 Kenilworth Castle, 47, 178 n7 Shakespeare, 144–48 imaginary pilgrimage, 3, 5, 12–3, 18, Lake District, 41, 45, 94–5, 97 47, 75–88, 132, 137, 157 Lamb, Charles, 94, 167, 186 n21 canon-making, 84 Lamb, Mary, 174 n4 limits of, 96 Landon, Letitia Elizabeth, 193 n27 poetry, 77, 79 landscape touring, 11, 16, 31, 43, 109, imagination, 4, 5, 12, 24, 42, 81, 99, 152, 161 129, 168 Langan, Celeste, 130, 152 Index 213

Laqueur, Thomas, 6 McKelvy, William, 33 Leavis, F. R. [Frank Raymond], 9 Melrose Abbey, 34, 37, 130–2, 134, Lennox, Charlotte, 22, 145–6 137, 151, 166, 175 n5, 188 n40, libraries, 6, 19, 28, 53–4, 82, 102 191 n10 literary pilgrimage, 3, 5, 9, 16, 51, 88 Miller, Andrew H., 6, 181, 194 Americans, 14, 106–140 Milton, John, 42, 60, 68, 81, 188 n33 antecedents, 32 and n38 definition, 3–6 Birthplace, 4, 60–61 delimitation, 7 burial place, 60, 77 political association, 66 illustration, 148, 190 n6 records of, 38, 58 inheritance, 111, 188 n33 results of, 65, 134 mulberry tree, 187 n30 secularization, 38, 88 plagiarism, 145 values, 51, 76 portrait resembles Wordsworth, 183 virtual, 170 representative of canon, 104 literary tourism, 2, 38, 44, 51, 55, Moncrieff, William Thomas, 31, 185 58–59, 63, 69, 99 n12, 186 n19 Americans in Britain, 107–140 monography, 101, 149, 183 n9 definition, 133 Moretti, Franco, 69 Internet, 170 monuments, 2, 7, 10, 40, 58, 69, 76, multimedia conception, 152 101, 104, 178 n14, 179 n29, monuments, 127 183 n10, 186 n23 motivations for, 34 Americans and, 109, 126 nationalized, 12, 95 author as, 2, 13 secularization of, 38 author flattening, 103–4 shared memory, 134 canonical status, 10 transplantation to United States, erecting, 7, 77 117, 125, 135 everywhere, 104, 127 Liu, Alan, 10, 79, 91 literary, 10, 49, 63, 69 Loch Katrine, 37, 166, 168 rhetoric of, 104 Lockwood, Allison, 126, 161, 189 n1, Scott, 15, 86 191 n11, 193 n26 visiting, 2, 17, 127 Lord Kames, see Home, Henry (Lord multimedia, 152, 173, 192 n14 Kames) Lukács, Georg, 7 mystical illumination, 34 Lynch, Deidre, 3, 70, 82, 169 myth of contact, 16

MacCannell, Dean, 29, 32, 104, 174 n7, narrative illustration, 163–4, 168 185 n11, 186 n20 national identity, 4, 66, 68, 129 MacPherson, James, 45–6, 77 national literary heritage, 4, 5, 14, 49 maps, 26, 29, 44, 46, 62 American, 107, 111 mass culture, 2, 54 British, 118 literacy, 21 Napoleon Bonaparte, 2, 108 print, 3, 9, 54, 96, 170, 175–6 n8 Napoleonic Wars, 7, 41, 108, 184 n2 replication, 104 necromantic equation, 44, 110 tourism, 15, 170 necromanticism, 3, 49, 71, 92–105, see also “excess” 122, 170, 175 n10, 188 n38 materiality, 4, 12, 25, 49, 52, 66, 69, 96 and tourism, 11, 64, 68 Matthews, Samantha, 6, 49, 94–5, author’s perspective, 9, 102 178 n11, 180 n2, 181 n16 deferred reception, 92 214 Index necromanticism – continued Piper Andrew, 9, 100, 123, 149, 190 definition, 3 Poet’s Corner, see Westminster Abbey essential components, 23 politics, 8, 22, 35, 44, 50, 66, 69, 71, historical context, 5–8, 64 89, 108, 112, 174 n8 living authors, 155 presence, 20, 24, 29, 71, 89, 143, 163, metaphors, 5 169 range, 15, 148 and absence, 16, 56, 158, 161, 163 necro-tourism, 5, 12, 27, 48, 62, 64, real, 11–2, 24, 58, 83, 128, 167 72, 92, 127, 179 n23 see also “ideal presence” New Historicism, 10, 79, 89–90 Protestant Cemetery, 64, 179 n22, Newlyn, Lucy, 9, 65, 71, 102, 104, 180 n31 174 n8, 175 n10, 178 n6, 183 n8 proximity, 12, 18, 59, 78, 85, 147, Newstead Abbey, 115, 124, 187 n30 151 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 72, 98, 180 n32 public domain, 69, 180 n30; see also Nora, Pierre, 13 Donaldson v. Beckett

Ossian, 45–46 quixotism, 22, 62 ghosts, 37 quotation, 10, 14, 107, 116, 118, 134, gravesite, 46 187 n26 and n30, 188 n39 originality, 14, 104, 118, 123, 132, and/as plagiarism, 124 134, 145 case studies, 117–132 “originals,” 3, 15, 57, 124, 134, 144, Hawthorne, 124–128 154, 191 n12 Irving, 118–124 Ousby, Ian, 4, 32, 34, 44, 92, 106, in literary tourism, 143 176 n1 self-canonization, 122 Stowe, 128–132 Paine, Thomas, 8 “passing,” 51, 71, 78, 169, 178 n5 race, 94, 110, 112, 129 pastoral elegy, 29, 42, 81, 161 Radcliffe, Ann, 19, 100 Phillips, Mark Salber, 2, 18, 48–9, 62, Rajan, Tilottama, 10, 182 n23 71, 76, 78, 91, 181 n3 reading, theories and practices, 5, 11, photographic realism, 167 17, 28, 42, 104 photography, 18, 142, 162 real presence, 11, 21, 24, 54, 58, 83, and nostalgia, 2, 16, 167 128 and romantic vision, 163 realism, 43, 163, 165, 167–8 landscape, 165 reality, 15, 28, 33, 49, 61, 194 n32 realism, 167 and perception, 21, 24 tourism, 168 Burnsian, 55 witness, 166 conference with the dead, 77 physiognomy, 100, 183 n7 materialism, 15, 40, 61, 144 picturesque problem with, 129 cult of the, 11, 32, 41–47, 51, 55, reanimation, 17, 26, 66, 96 80, 177 n12, 178 n14 Reformation, the, 1, 32, 34, 174 n1 pilgrimage relics, 5, 17, 32, 53, 60, 66, 84, 115, author-centered, 3–4, 46 120, 158, 181 n7, 185–6 n15, fiction-centered, 3–4 187 n30 imaginary, 5, 12, 47, 75, 77, 158 religious pilgrimage, 11, 32, 34, 84, literary, 2, 65, 88 176 n7 religious, 11, 32–8 reproductions, 54–5, 186 n20 Index 215 republic of letters, 4, 65, 183 n8 Faed painting, 138–9 resurrect, 17, 39, 49, 56–7, 96, 102, festivals, 133 162; see also revivalism Holy Trinity Church, 34, 58, 121, reverie, 19–20, 42, 63, 77, 83, 85, 133, 125, 147–8, 158, 175 n5 178; see also “ideal presence” illustration books, 144 revivalism, 3, 39, 50, 56 relics, 120, 148 Roach, Joseph, 6, 103, 174 n5, 178 n5, tourism, 147 183 n3 visiting, 133 Robinson, Mary, 38 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 13, 64, 80, 84, Memoirs, 6 94–5, 99–102, 112, 175 n4 and Romance revival, 8, 29, 50, 56, 137, n6, 180 n31, 181 n8 and n12, 155 194 n29 Romantic authorship, 3–4, 6, 100, shrines, 90, 140, 178 105, 134 cult of the dead, 3 “romantic death,” 174 n3 dead authors, 46, 77 Romantic historicism, 8, 171; see also literary, 15, 100, 106, 109, 127, 169, historicism, Romantic historiography 176 Romantic historiography, 12–3, 17–8, secularization, 32 20, 48, 75, 78, 172, 181 n3 self-canonization, 10 Rome, 23, 47, 179, 180 n31 sign, 24–5, 158 “Room at Abbotsford,” 115, 117, 156, Siskin, Clifford, 23 158, 161, 164 skepticism, 3–4, 119, 132 “sketch” as literary genre, 43, 113, 123 Santa Croce, 103 slavery, 113–4, 140, 187 n24 and Sartre, Jean-Paul, 26 n25 Schor, Esther, 7, 67, 77, 79, 181 n4 Smith, Adam, 67–8, 73 Scotland, 45–46, 116, 136, 154, 161 Smith, Thomas Southwood, Scott, Michael, 130, 175, 187 177 n1 Scott, Walter, 26, 72, 81, 142–173, Southey, Robert, 37–8, 74, 178 n9 Abbotsford, 100, 136, 154, 170 St. Clair, William, 6, 109, 148, 189 n1, gravesite (Dryburgh), 46, 80, 127, 190 n4, 191 n11 130, 170 St. Paul’s Cathedral, 7, 62, 126, 128, Great Unknown, 15, 150 186 n23 illustration book, 144, 149–150 Stewart, Susan, 16, 29, 102 Lay of the Last Minstrel, 3, 34, 46, Stoke Poges, 127, 129 130, 151 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 14, 39, 111, Magnum Opus, 154, 162, 165, 116–8, 128–132, 134, 140, 161, 192 n17 and n19 175 n5, 176 n5, 186 n16 and poetry and tourism, 191 n11 n22, 187 n27 and n30, 188 n34, Waverley, 22, 156 194 n30 Waverley novels, 149 Bothwell Bridge, 131 Scottish Enlightenment, 11, 18, 21, Hartford, CN, 140 26, 77–8 Melrose Abbey, 130, 132 secularization thesis, 32, 35, 37, 39 Stratford Jubilee, 15, 35, 46, 133, 140, self-fulfillment, 33 147 Shakespeare, William, 34, 57, 68, 104, Stratford upon Avon, 109, 112, 133 112, 158 Irving sketch, 115, 119 as shared inheritance, 110 substantiation, 5, 48–9, 53, 144, 152, birthplace, 120 162, 164, 166 216 Index supplementation, 5, 26, 144, 152, trees (memorials and sources of 165, 172, 191 n8 relics), 132, 181 n7, 185 n15, “suspension of disbelief,” see faith, 187 n30 poetical Trinity Church (Stratford), 34, 58, syncretism, 34 121, 125, 147–8, 158, 175 n5 synchrony, 101–2; see also chronotope Trumpener, Katie, 19

Talbot, William Henry Fox, 163, “unbearable lightness of being,” 29 165–7 taxidermy, 18 Van Sant, Ann Jessie, 21 temporal disruption, 12, 20, 78, Victorian period, 31, 142 83, 101 Virgil, 40 Terry, Richard, 6, 28, 32 virtual heritage, 173 text voice, 79–83, 89, 96, 137, 140, 189, expansive concept, 142–3 193 mirroring travel, 12, 143 Tighe, Mary, 58, 79, 82–3, 85–6, 89, war (especially with France), 2, 7, 41, 181 n16, 182 n22 57, 184, 186 Todorov, Tzvetan, 28 American Civil, 117, 128, 187 n24 tomb, 24–5,63, 79–80, 88, 161 and n25 authenticity in, 121, 126 American Independence, 111 cult of, 44 memorials, 7, 69, 186 n23 imaginary, 46, 61, 179 n18 of 1812, 108; see also Napoleonic reciprocity with books, 53, 163 Wars represents departed, 25, 80 Waterloo, 41, 64, 108, 187 n30 tourism, 39, 46, 77, 186 n19 and tourism, 7, 174 n6, 176 n8 tour books, 43, 113, 116–19, 123, 136, Watson, Nicola, 5, 56, 151, 176 n1 144, 187 n29 and n2, 189 n1, 191 n11, 192 n18, tourism, 29 194 n34 author-centered, 4, 96 categorizing genres, 3 birth of, 2 graves, 5, 103 creative activity, 98 literary tourism, 49, 81, 143, 147 “interrogative,” 61 photography, 168 literary, 2, 38, 64, 70, 84, 96 quotation, 143 “possessive,” 61 secularization, 32 text-centered, 4 transatlantic tourism, 189 n1 transatlantic, 107, 112–3 Waverley, Edward (character) tourists v. travelers, 61, 73–4 literary tourist, 22 transcendence, 5, 53, 59, 66, 117 quixotism, 22 transport, 5, 12, 18, 29, 43, 76, 83, 85 Westminster Abbey, 14, 47, 68, 102, travel 109 history, 31 collection, 104 performances, 143 Hawthorne, 110, 126 travel literature, 77; see also tour books visual rhetoric, 104 bridging knowledge and Whitman, Walt, 108 imagination, 191 n8 Williams, Helen Maria, 76–7 illustrated, 148 Wilson, Thomas, 31 transatlantic, 106, 109 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 180 n34 Index 217

Wordsworth, Dorothy, 55–6 topographical poetry, 45 Wordsworth, William, 7, 12, 41, 52, tourist in Scotland, 55–6, 177 n11 64, 70, 94–5, 174 n3, 175 n7, visits to, 94, 97 178 n13, 179 n27, 181 n8, “world of books,” 3, 19, 29, 44, 52 192 n18, 194 n33 writers as literary pilgrims, 9 and Milton, 100, 183n6, 188 n33 and n38 Young, Edward, 6, 175 Essays upon Epitaphs, 6, 64, 69–70, 179 n20 Zemgulys, Andrea, 33, 36, 110, 171, illustrated, 169 176 n5, 179 n18, 184 n1