Teaching Fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy

Teaching fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy

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Citation Foss, Clive. 1998. Teaching fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy. Harvard Library Bulletin 8 (1), Spring 1997: 3-30.

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Teaching Fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy

Clive Foss

ictators dream of creating a New Man who will embody the spirit of their D CLIVE Foss is Professor of regime and carry it on to future generations. Benito Mussolini, creator of History at the University of the first modem totalitarian system, was devoted to this ideal. He wanted to tum Massachusetts, Boston, and at his talkative, fun-loving and individualistic subjects into serious, hard-working, the Harvard Extension School. brave and self-sacrificing soldiers of Fascism. Though it might be impossible to convert those who were already grown and hardened in their old ways, the young offered real hope. The regime concentrated its efforts on youth by trans- forming the educational system and supplementing it with a massive program of moral, political, and physical education. One important element in gaining control of young minds was the elementary school textbook. A whole range of such schoolbooks can be studied here thanks to the constantly surprising resources of the Harvard library system. The Gutman Library at the Graduate School of Education has a substantial collection and generously makes it available to researchers. 1 This collection is the basis for the present essay, which deals with the books used in the first three years of the elementary schools. 2 I hope to show how Fascism tried to control the minds of the very youngest schoolchildren, and to assess the strength of its message as it developed during the period ofrequired state texts, from 1930 to 1942. Mussolini came to power on 28 October 1922, an event long celebrated as the anniversary of the March on Rome, when (according to the exaggerated official line) fascist bands seized power. The new government made reforms, pacified the country, and gained considerable popularity in its first year. Mussolini then moved quickly to establish full control, so that by the end of 1926 Italy was a dictatorship, with one party under one leader, called in Italian, Duce. 3 Education was the first major fascist reform, in 1923, when the whole system was reorganized and centralized. 4 The regime laid down the principles, but existing

1 The volumes of 1931 and 1938 are from the collection 3 For general introductions to this period, see Denis Mack of Gaetano Salvemini, a leading historian and opponent Smith Mussolini (New York, 1983) and Alexander de of Mussolini. He was professor at Harvard from 1934 Grand, Italian Fascism (Lincoln, Neb., 1989). The insti- until his return to Italy in 1948. tutions of fascism are well surveyed by Herman Finer in 2 Marylene Altieri, Special Collections Librarian at Mussolini's Italy (London, 1935). Gutman, kindly made their collection available, and 4 For this and later reforms, see L. Minio-Paluello, Education explained its workings. Denis Mack Smith first intro- in Fascist Italy (London, 1946) and Tracy Koon, Believe, duced me to these texts, and encouraged this study by Obey, Fight: Political Socialization of Youth in Fascist Italy sharing his collection of them with me. My colleague (Chapel Hill, 1985). Spencer di Scala kindly read the manuscript and saved me from various errors. My sincere thanks to all. 6 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

textbooks continued in use. The schools, though, rapidly took on a fascist appearance. Portraits of the King and the Duce joined the crucifixes in every classroom, and the day began and ended with reverence for the flag and singing of the royal and fascist anthems. Fascism taught that the state was supreme, and that individuals belonged to it, that war was a natural state of existence, and that work should be central to everyone's life. The state was under the control of the Party, whose institutions blossomed after the establishment of the dictatorship. Primary among them was the National Balilla Organization, directed to the physical, moral and political education of the young. It was named for a Genoese urchin who stirred a successful revolution in 17 46 by throwing the first stone at the Austrian occupiers. Founded in 1926 as part of the Department of National Education, it took over the schools in small rural communes, and rapidly acquired a monopoly of after- school activities. Membership was voluntary, but millions saw the advantages of joining a party organization that offered sports and cultural activities, as well as the possibility of cheap vacations and sojourns in summer camps. These children, who wore uniforms and swore a solemn oath, were grouped according to age. The youngest (ages 6-8) were Wolf Cubs (named for the wolf that nourished Romulus and Remus); they entered the Balilla in the third grade and remained till thirteen, undergoing an increasingly rigorous regime. Girls joined corresponding organizations, the Little, then the Young, Italians. All the groups held meetings and had many activities, supervised by loyal party members. Teachers in the elementary schools had to belong to the Party, and could be removed for political reasons. The regime attached great importance to the youngest pupils. For several years control was far from total, since a wide range of books was still in use. In 1929, however, all elementary schools were ordered to use the same books, and those had to conform to the spirit of Fascism. Party committees chose the authors who soon set to work; the first volumes were presented to Mussolini by the beginning of the school year in 19 3o. During that year, 5. 5 million texts were printed. They formed the unvarying reading matter for the nation's children. 5

1931: FASCISM'S FIRST BOOKS

The first uniform textbooks appeared at a time when he regime had achieved sta- bility and a certain success. Italy was at peace and good relations with the church had been secured by the Concordat of 1929 which guaranteed religious instruc- tion in the schools. The country was involved in a great campaign for self-sufficiency and land reclamation. Its most widely trumpeted success was the draining of the Pontine marshes south of Rome and the construction of a network of new agricultural settlements. This was all part of a policy to keep the peasants on the land. Mussolini hoped to produce a nation of healthy producers with numerous offspring who could eventually be turned into soldiers. The government consequently encouraged a high birthrate and offered many benefits to children and families. These policies are reflected in the schoolbooks.

5 These books are discussed in a broad context by Koon, Italy, 475-77. A few are illustrated in figure 124 of 74-83. See also M. Saracinelli and N. Totti, /'Italia Umberto Silva, Ideologia e artc delfasdsmo (Milan, 1973). de/ Duce (Rimini, 1983), 87-104 and Finer, Mussolini's TeachingFascism 7

I. The first grade reader conveys the propaganda in messages well suited to its young audience. 6 The readings (once the alphabet has been mastered) are short and simple, with abundant illustrations in pretty pastel colors. Fascist propaganda occupies a small part of the work, appearing on less than ten percent of the pages, even fewer than those devoted to religion. Most of the examples and stories deal with subjects any little boy or girl could recognize: the family, toys, animals, games, and the countryside. Many have more or less direct lessons about cleanliness and morals, and simple references to Jesus, the Virgin, and the Church. They suit a stable and healthy society with a strong family structure in which the mother is central: love between the mother and her children permeates the work. Children are nice to each other; girls play with dolls and help their mothers, boys play with trains, beat drums and admire soldiers and aviators. Yet this is definitely a fascist volume with strong and well-integrated propaganda. At the beginning, the little boy learning his vowels writes the meaningless fascist slogan "Eia!" on the board (see illustration). Boys and girls in uniform standing at attention or giving the fascist salute illustrate simple phrases, and when the children can read sentences, the Duce appears: "BENITO MUSSOLINI (the first title in capitals) loves children very much. The children ofltaly love the Duce very much. VIVA IL DUCE!" (see illustration).

/'~ ') BENITOMUSSOLINI ama molto i bambini. I bimbi d'Italia am.ano molto ii Duce.

VIVA Il.. DUCE!

Un saluto al Duce. II saluto aila bandiera.

6 Dina Buciarelli Belardinelli, Sillabario e piccole letture yr. X of the Fascist era = 1931). This was revised and (Rome: La libreria dello Stato [as in all these textbooks], expanded from the 1930 edition and reprinted in 1933. 8 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

The opposite page shows children saluting the flag. This juxtaposition clearly implies that the Duce is Italy. A fumiliar object, the fasces illustrates the combination -sc-: "The children know it well. They see it in school and at home .... All the children of Italy are little fascists. They love the King, they love the Duce." Finally, in the last reading the boys watch an infantry company passing and dream of growing up to be brave fighters like Mussolini or the King. The propaganda sometimes appears in unexpected contexts. One story describes a comfortable evening at home, with daddy reading the paper, the little boy looking at the pictures in a book, the girl writing and mother sewing. She's working hard to finish the Little Italian uniform for her daughter who turns out to be writing: "The Duce guides the Italian people. God protect the Duce!" The Leader is always present, even in the midst of the family. II. Second graders, who could read and understand more coherent stories, were exposed to a higher proportion of propaganda. 7 Fourteen of forty-five stories in their reader bear a fascist message while only seven treat religion, and the King has to make do with one. Religion, however, has a separate 60-page section at the end, reflecting the Concordat of 1929 that reconciled state and church. From now on, all these books have a separate section on Religion. Here, too, mother love and the family are central: mothers work very hard, grandparents are wise and kind, new babies arrive, and the whole family is close. Fathers, however, hardly ever appear, as if their place were taken by the Duce or the fascist structure. The readings stress good behavior and honesty, the expe- riences of children (friends, games, fairs, gardens), and include many animal stories (usually with a moral) and funny stories, as well as riddles and tongue- twisters. The child's environment becomes richer as (for example) the sea, fish, silkworms and country life are presented. Everything is very good-natured. Fascism now has a more permeating and sophisticated role. As the children enter school on the first day, they refer to themselves as Balilla and Little Italians, but their mother points out they have to deserve membership by having the heart and feelings of Italians. The first indication of what that means follows immediately: an aged wise man tells a child the three virtues: obedience, obedience, and obedience. This is a theme that will constantly recur. By now, children are ready for a bit of history and are more conscious of the passing year and its anniversaries. The flags displayed on 28 October are the occa- sion for the story of the March on Rome with a child's version of Mussolini get- ting rid of all the bad Italians. As daddy explains Victory Day (4 November), he can tell the story of Mussolini, a humble soldier in the war who came back to restore order in Italy. On the birthday of Rome, 21 April, the fascist children's organizations parade singing the songs of renewed youth, since the Duce, who wants to restore the greatness of Rome, decreed this as Labor Day. Finally, on the anniversary of the great victory of Vittorio Veneto (24 May 1918), the father allows his son to put on the Balilla uniform, even though he is not yet eight. As vacation draws near, children think about the summer camps that even the poor- est can attend. And on the last day of school, the children give the Roman salute and leave singing the fascist anthem "Giovinezza" (Youth). The final illustration

7 0. Quercia Tanzarella, fl /ibro della Ila classe(Rome, 1931-IX). TeachingFascism 9 captures the spirit and hope of this propaganda: it shows a small Wolf Cub in his uniform casting the shadow of the great soldier he will become (see illustration). Nevertheless, this is not an entirely fascist year, for the religious holidays are not forgotten. They appear in their place with the appropriate stories. Church and state definitely share the stage, with no effort made to displace religion from the life of the child. By the end of the year, the seven-year olds will be fully aware of their fascist role and ambitions, but their attitudes will be tempered by the family and church, and fascism seen as one part of a larger environment. III. The third grade text contains twenty-eight long readings; only six of them carry fascist propaganda. 8 The rest are largely organized around the explorations and adventures of three boys from different social classes. During the year, they learn about various occupations and activities-from shepherds to metal workers-and are introduced to some recent history. In several cases, they are accompanied by a father, who now starts to play a more prominent role. There are stories of boy heroes, nature, the sea, the countryside and the church. Most of them have clear lessons, teaching proper behavior and respect-for each other, the weak, animals and plants-and self-confidence in that even children can do much good. By the end of the year, the child should have gained a much wider understanding of the country and society than the limited viewpoint of neighborhood or village could offer. Propaganda is at its mildest in this volume, but still conveys important lessons from beginning to end. On the first day of school, when the children exchange news of their summers, they are all tanned and healthy from the summer camps. They are instantly taught that all, however poor or humble, are equal. The children went to the sea or the mountains, but one of them had a purpose. He per- suaded his father to take him to the house where the Duce was born; all the others are impressed by the stories of the Leader's humble origins. History becomes more prominent at this level. Two long readings teach the children about the unification of Italy, and the March on Rome. Heroic boys play a role in both cases, and communists are defined in the latter-as people who do not respect order or the rights others have won by hard work. The final history lessons deal with the conciliation between church and state secured by the Duce, and World War I, which (in this view) was won by the Italians at Vittorio Veneto. By now, the children have a certain view of recent Italian history, but have learned nothing at all about the outside world. 9

8 Grazia Deledda. II libro de/la terza classe elementare and Arithmetic. (Rome, 1931-IX). I have only dealt here with the 9 The following section on Geography deals essentially first l 5 l pages, letture; the rest of the volume with method and with Italy. comprises Religion, History (since 1830), Geography IO HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

This volume continues the themes of the first two. Family and church remain important, but the mother fades into the background as the boys start to turn their interests outward, beyond the home and its immediate surroundings. Fascism is frequently present, in direct or subtle manifestations. The stories of brave boys, though they would be appropriate to any schoolbook for eight-year- olds, certainly have implications for fascism, which was imposing an ever more militarized training on the children. These texts reflect the workings of a fascist government that planned to indoc- trinate its children, but the message is not what might be expected. Although the Duce is obviously central and to be revered, and the regime is powerful and beneficent, fascism is only part of what the child learns. Most of each volume deals with normal life and could easily be transposed to another society. It would seem that fascism is either insinuating itself gently or feels enough self-confidence that it need not overplay its hand. These books are far from being made up of overt propaganda (as they are sometimes portrayed),r 0 but they need to be seen in the larger context of the child's entire day. The half that was not spent at school could be dominated by the activities of Wolf Cubs and Balilla that are always present here. Yet the family was still central, and the Church played a major role.

1938: FASCISMTRIUMPHANT

By the mid-193o's, the regime was embarking on an aggressive policy which marked all aspects of life. Society and education became more militarized as the country girded itself for war. Already in 1934, teachers were obliged to wear uniforms to class, a clear symbol of the new direction. War actually broke out in October 193 5 when Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, a mammoth undertaking that achieved its main goal by capturing Addis Ababa in May 1936. On the ninth of that month, the Duce proclaimed the restoration of the Roman Empire, a glorious moment that brought the regime to the height of its popularity. The government and the Italian people (thanks to a barrage of propaganda) took special pride in the victory, because it had been accomplished in the face of active hos- tility from the League of Nations whose members decreed damaging economic sanctions against Italy. These years also saw a major change in the educational system. In 1937, the various party extracurricular organizations were merged in the GIL, the Italian Youth of the Lictor (the attendant of the Roman consuls, who carried the fasces). This was a party organization that increased military training of the youth and impinged even more on normal school activities with its meetings and speeches. At the same time, the rural schools were returned to the Ministry of Education. Militant fascism became dominant everywhere. I. The beginning of the first grade reader reveals the new spirit. 11 Its cover shows a boy and girl holding hands, walking to school; they both wear fascist uniforms. The frontispiece is of a Wolf Cub holding an Italian flag, and the first lesson, teaching the vowels, concludes with the fascist cry Eia! Eia! and a drawing

rn This is the message or implication of the works cited II Maria Zanetti, II libro de/la prima classe (Rome, 1936- above, n. 4. XV; reprinted with minor changes in 1938-XVI). TeachingFascism I I of the fasces. No child using this could doubt that he was living in a fascist state. In fact, the proportion of propaganda is far higher than in the previous series: it appears in 43 of the 148 short readings, while the King graces only four, and the Church 6 of them. Once again, the volume is filled with simple, appealing, brightly-colored illustrations. It addresses both boys and girls and has readings based on the environment of the child. Stories deal with animals, weather, the church, babies, dolls, toys, the countryside, airplanes, and other familiar themes, and give useful lessons about cleanliness, neatness, and honesty. Families are close, focussed on the mother's love, self-sacrifice, and incessant work for her children; fathers hardly ever appear.

All this provides a context for an insistent propaganda, some of which would have had to be explained by the teacher. To practice the letter "o", for example, children read "Mario is a man" with the boy in uniform repeated from the frontispiece, and "Roma. To Rome! Heroes, to Rome!" with the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum. This would surely have prompted a lesson about the March on Rome. Italy first appears in exercises for the letter "t": "My land, I love you. We all love you. Heroes and martyrs deserve love!" accompanies the image of a Wolf Cub looking at a wall map. 'Martyrs' have now joined 'heroes', but more is to come before the children are reading connected sentences. The fascist slogan "A noi!" (For us), together with phrases about hands and Rome illustrate "n" and "m", all brought to reality by a picture of boys giving the Roman salute (see illustration). Propaganda runs throughout the book. A ship arrives, an exciting moment for a child, especially since its passengers are returning from Ethiopia, which they have just conquered. War and conquest are never far away. An illustration of a 12 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

CAMICIENERE .

,'to :;""

'Piccole 'Camicie Nere, voi siete l' avvenire della Patria.

Forti Camicie Nere,

voi siete la difesa della Patria.

huge crowd greeting the King at his window has as its text "Italy is powerful and feared. Long live Italy! Long live the King! Victor Emmanuel III is King of Italy and Emperor of Ethiopia! King Victor, the Italian people love you so much." Later, a boy and girl compare books: hers is about good children, dolls, and puppets. His deals with the Country, soldiers, the flag, Benito Mussolini, and the Balilla. Which one, the lesson asks, is better? The correct answer is prob- ably that the first is best for girls, the other for boys. Boys and girls alike participated in the fascist children's organizations which constantly appear. The Black Shirts of different grades and organizations are shown (see illustration) when children, as "the future," then when grown, as "the defence of the Nation." The Little Italians sing nice songs as they march; they will be happy and grow up to be proud women of Italy. The boys are anx- ious to grow up to be Balilla and soldiers; they long to catch a glimpse of the Duce reviewing their marches or sports (their hearts beat faster when they do); they rescue smaller children from drowning. Their ambitions are military. Sometimes this theme creeps in unexpectedly. A reading about "peaceful sleep" begins with two little girls sound asleep in one bed. The next page shows the TeachingFascism 13

sunrise: "It's after seven. The sun is rising. Up, up, to work! Everyone is going to work. Everyone should love work. Mussolini said so." Mother by now has worked hard so that brother's uniform is ready. As he puts it on, he asks his grandfather, "Do I look like a real soldier of Mussolini?" The Duce is ever-present. Although the King, the head of state, appears first, he is rapidly left in the shadows. As the children see the first portrait of BENITO MUSSOLINI (his name in capitals) between fasces, they read "Children, love Benito Mussolini. Benito Mussolini has worked and will work for the good of the Nation and the Italian people. You have heard your daddy, mamma and teacher say: 'If Italy today is more powerful than before, we owe it to Him'. Let's salute him altogether: A noi!" A picture of him embracing a Balilla (see illustration) has a text almost like a prayer "Duce, Duce, you are so good to the children and the children love you with all their heart. You are like a father to them, you make them become strong and robust, you make them happy. LONG LIVE THE DUCE OF ITALY!" This passage, incidentally, shows the solution for the general absence of fathers: the Duce was the father of all the children. Yet however great now, he started out as a poor child, son of a blacksmith and a teacher. Strong and proud, he took the lead among the children, and grew up to be the Duce of Italy: all this in a story about the house where he was born. At the movie in the Dopolavoro (fascist leisure-time center), children eagerly watch the Ethiopian campaign and cheer when the Duce appears on the screen (see illustration). Toward the end of the book, the Duce appears in a real context: on his balcony announcing the beginning of the war in Ethiopia, then its successful conclusion, to shouts and tears of joy. The fascists took great pride in land reclamation. A lesson about the new town of Littoria explains that the land where it stands was all marsh till the Duce said it must be cleared "And when the Duce says something!. .. " Now the mosquitoes are gone and the land is full of wheat fields and thriving towns: "Doesn't it seem like a fairy tale? That the Duce is a real magician?" By the end of the year, the Leader will have appeared not only as victorious and all-powerful, child-loving and kind, but as a real father and virtually superhuman, the kind a child can only imagine from stories. 14 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

II. In the second-grade reader, the atmosphere is more serious: the pastel colors are gone, replaced by a much smaller range, and fascism permeates the majority of the lessons (44 out of 71). 12 The King gets six and the church four, but the section on Religion from the 193 1 edition is reprinted here, as a rather ill-fitting supplement. The book is significantly called "The New Italian". These seven- year olds are bombarded with the party line from the very beginning: the cover shows a Wolf Cub brandishing a rifle and a book (see illustration), an embodi- ment of the fascist slogan "Book and gun, perfect fascist", the first page has a quotation from Mussolini, and the first ten readings are unremitting propaganda. Lessons begin with Balilla raising the flag, then marching by a group of smaller boys who imitate them (the second-graders were still too young to join the Balilla). A girl watching them from a window dreams of the thousands doing the same thing all over Italy. A mother, who takes affectionate care of all her children, hopes the smallest, just learning to walk, will be healthy and brave like his brother who is already a Wolf Cub. Grandfather, who lives in the country, has

12 Alfredo Petrucci, L'ita/iano nuovo. Letture de/la 2a classeelementare (Rome, XVIl-1939). TeachingFascism 15 a huge family, like an army when it is assembled. People in the country have fine houses given them by the government which reclaimed the marshes. A boy is proud to put on the black shirt like his father (see illustration); they give each other the fascist salute as they come from their respective meetings. A new build- ing is going up in the town: it is the Casa del Fascia, the party headquarters. A veteran recounts the days when the fascists attacked the Reds in the countryside in 1920-21 (a heroic period in current mythology); although he lost two fingers, he still works. A story of a mother who stays up late sewing for her sleeping children offers only a brief respite, for the following poem, ostensibly a lul- laby, tells how a small boy scared away a wolf by saying "I am a black shirt." This series concludes with a man who lost his sight in the War. The last thing he saw was the King mingling with the men in the trenches; his only regret is that he can't see the new Italian youth in their black shirts. After this barrage the child can have no doubt that he is part of a militaristic fascist t society which stresses bravery, self-sacrifice and heroism, uni- versal ideals to which even the smallest child should aspire. The government is kind, car- ing for the poor and providing housing in the country. Yet the family is still central, strengthened by the devoted love of the mother. This is only the beginning. The rest of the book presents the usual themes of close family life, new babies, games, the cycle of the seasons, the weather, the countryside, the sea, together with the church and simple stories of the Bible and the saints. Yet these are almost submerged by the messages of the regime. One new subject is the African war and victory. There are stories of the fighting (heroic men, boys and animals), children's games of Italians vs Abyssinians, letters to daddy at the front, and of course the Duce's proclamation of the Empire. A child asks his mother why she wears an iron ring; she answers that even the Queen does because all the ladies had sacrificed their gold rings for the war and for defence against the sanctions. To resist the "barbarians of Europe" who imposed them (and could thus be considered on the level of the "barbarians of Africa" who were conquered), children were enrolled in a national scrap drive. In one story, a boy contributes his mother's iron; after initial surprise, she agrees to let it go. Some stories combine war propaganda with other themes: a 16 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

boy puts a picture of the victorious soldiers on his wall, reflecting on how well they are treated compared with the unpleasant reception the veterans of the W odd War had to endure (from the socialists whom the fascists soon crushed). In general terms, fascists believe in war, as a returning soldier explains to a group of boys, because war guarantees peace. Another prominent theme is agriculture. "Before and after" pictures of the Pontine Marshes, as well as movies about the new cities, show how much has been accomplished; a farmer bringing grain to the mill admires the new fascist public works and wonders what his grandfather would think if he could see such prosperity; children are taught to respect bread. These culminate in "An Unforgettable Spectacle" where the Duce himself joins in the reaping and threshing (see illustration). Thanks to all this work, Italy is no longer poor, and its people do not have to emigrate. In fact, with its colonies and the hearts of ten million Italians abroad, it is the ''jewel of the world."

The book gives a simplified version of history since I 870, with the unity of Italy, the heroic deeds of the War, and the glories of the monarchy all leading up to the March on Rome and the triumph of fascism. Among the many Italians who shed their blood for the country was the heroic soldier Benito Mussolini. Adulation of the Duce reaches a peak in a story describing the huge meeting when he proclaimed the Empire. A deaf and dumb boy who was present under- stood that everyone was clamoring in joy. Then when the crowd responded to the Duce's demands with a massive "si," the boy suddenly found he couldjoin the shout, hear the words, and cry out "Duce." Patriotism (or Mussolini) had worked a miracle. Stories like this could only suggest that the Leader was close to the divine. Everyone, however weak or handicapped, shares in devotion to the New Italy. In one story, an old grandfather takes to his bed in illness, surrounded by worried children. He asks them only, if he dies, to bury him in his black shirt. The volume ends on a note of aggressive optimism: "the New Italy does not stop; it continues to march with an iron will, ready to conquer every day." TeachingFascism 17

III. The same unremittingly aggressive tone permeates the third grade text. 13 Of its 78 readings, 41 contain propaganda for fascism or war, and Mussolini is quoted 27 times. The King is the subject of five readings, while the church and ancient Rome (a new element) have nine each. Religion, though, is not neglected, for a separate section of 53 pages is included in a companion volume. The cover shows a small Balilla standing beneath the titanic stylized fasces (see frontispiece), and only sober colors are used in the text. Although the volume retains the general themes of close families, animals, nature, the environment, and useful moral lessons, they are very much in the background, and even seemingly innocuous subjects are turned into propaganda. A story about the birch tree, for example, details its various uses, such as making fasces. A grape falling from the cluster provides a parallel with citizens and the state. The grape vine merits praise because it teaches self-sacrifice. The olive is presented as the most valuable tree; the Romans planted it in Libya where it is now flourishing again. The opening reading sets the tone. As the children enter school, they see the images of Christ, the King and the Duce. All are watching them, the last to see whether they had kept their promise to be brave. The civil authorities appear on a level with the divine. The Duce in particular is stressed in the third lesson where a man goes to consult wise men in order to learn the law in an instant. It only took one word to summarize everything he needed to know: DUCE! History has the usual slant. The children first learn that Mussolini had saved Italy, then that he had founded Fascism, inspired the workers and led the March on Rome (see illustration). The fascists had fought against the Reds who refused to produce grain in order to starve others. The focus, though, is largely on the Ethiopian war, called the greatest colonial war in history. Parents of soldiers who died for Mussolini in the campaign write to the Duce to express their gratitude. The Queen contributes her wedding ring to the campaign against sanctions (described as the barbarous weapon of the whites while the scimitar was the barbarous weapon of the Negroes). Everything culminates in the proclamation of the Empire on 9 May, a night that brought together the Roman and fascist empires. The victory was won by faith in one of the favorite phrases of the regime: "Mussolini is always right." Adulation of the Leader takes many forms, some that would appeal to children. He appears as a simple soldier

1 3 Nazarino Padellaro, fl libro de/la terza classeelementare. Letture (Rome, XVII-1939). 18 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

keeping a diary where he praises the sun as being like a mother's love. His initial M adorned the front of the uniform of the Wolf Cubs (see illustration). In one story, a boy who thinks it stands for Mussolini debates with his sister who is sure it must mean "mamma." Mother solves the question by explaining that it represents both: that is, Mussolini and mamma merge into one. Because the Duce respected calluses as a sign of work, he inspired a child in one reading with an obsession to get calluses on his hands by any means. He has marvelous powers. In ancient times, the land was terrorized by a king who devoured travelers; later he was turned into a mosquito infesting the marshes. Julius Caesar, "the greatest emperor the world ever had" wanted to drain them, but it remained for one Man to build 2 3 cities on the reclaimed land. Devotion to the regime sometimes takes on a peculiar religious aspect. Children are taught to thank God that they were born in the fascist era and to recognize that God's greatest gifts are Christians, Italians and Fascists. Foreigners at a congress all wish they had a Mussolini, but a boy explains a com- mandment: do not covet the Duce of others. Finally a boy goes to great trouble to prepare his room to receive an honored guest: it turns out to be a picture of Mussolini. This is all designed to form the future brave soldiers ofltaly. A key lesson "Obey because you must obey" compares a boy who doesn't follow orders rapidly with a jammed rifle, and one who asks "why?" with a tin bayonet. All those objects are equally useless; unquestioning obedience was the sole virtue (see illustration). Bravery was just as important - for girls as well as boys. Several lessons tell in a morbid tone of children who show no fear of death: a nine-year old rescues a smaller boy from drowning; another tries to save a little girl but she is already dead; and a Little Italian drags her small sister from a burning house. Another girl who offers her own skin to save her burned sister gets her courage TeachingFascism 19 from the Man who confronts the whole world. More extreme examples of this line are the stories of the heroic deaths of children: a Balilla dies crying "Viva il Duce"; another about to die asks to put on his uniform and leaves his tiny sav- ings to the party Committee; and a Little Italian on her deathbed leaves her party card to her parents asking them to keep it as a souvenir. The final lesson brings the themes together by describing the shrine to the Unknown Soldier, with its flame lit by the Duce, and enjoins the children as they leave this school year to follow the fascist injunction to believe, obey, fight; and always be daring. These books represent the height of the fascist propaganda effort in the schools. Their unremitting message of obedience, bravery, willingness to face death and adulation of the Duce reflected a time when the populace was stirred to enthusiasm by the war effort and its glorious (and easy) triumphs. From the time when they first begin to read, the children of Italy were set on the path to becoming the New Italians, filled with the ideals of the regime. Yet even here, fascism does not entirely monopolize the books. The pupils still learn about other subjects, and still pay attention to their families and the Church, though both these realms have receded somewhat into the background. The overwhelming impression, though, is of a powerful and successful State, to which everyone should be completely devoted. This bold image soon had to be modified in the face of a very different struggle.

1942: THE REALWAR

The Ethiopian campaign brought Italy closer to Germany, which gave moral and material support. The Spanish Civil War saw the Duce's forces fighting side-by- side with the Germans. The Pact of Steel of May 1939 turned the friendship into a formal alliance. The policy was extremely unpopular, especially when Mussolini followed Hitler's lead and embarked on an anti-Semitic program. In spite of all the bluster and supposed training in Africa and Spain, Italy was totally unprepared when war broke out in September 1939 and chose to remain in the sidelines. Mussolini only jumped in after the defeat of France in June 1940, when the Nazis seemed invincible. The Italian effort was a disaster: the invasion of Greece in October 1940 was an unexpected failure; the Italian fleet was badly damaged in November; the Duce failed to move in North Africa; and-greatest humiliation of all-the glorious Empire collapsed when the British took Addis Ababa in April 1941. By the time the next set of schoolbooks was produced in 1942, the situation was rapidly deteriorating, and internal opposition was growing. Consequently, the government changed its tune. The books for 1942 are actually much less bel- licose than the previous series and have remarkably few references to the current war, though they still have an important fascist content. This series belatedly reflects the reforms of 1937, when the rural schools were returned to the Ministry of Education from the Balilla organization. A double series of texts was now issued for the second grade and above, one for the urban, one for the rural schools. They have substantially different content, reflecting the origins and interests of their readers, as well as the varying government policies that applied to them. On the whole, fascism seems more prominent in the rural volumes. 20 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

I. Only about ten percent of the readings in the first year book deal with fascism. 14 The world war never appears, nor is there any belligerent propaganda. The youngest children are being treated very gently. Of course, the fasces are used to illustrate the letter "f', and "Roma" (accompanied by an illustration of the March on Rome) is one of the first words learned, but the King appears long before the Duce, and patriotism takes the form of "Italia and mamma, two words full of love." Most of the readings deal with the child's life: families, animals, plants, bed, washing, the weather, the countryside, the church, games, and legends. Such material might appear in any country that loved its children. Particular Italian touches are the strength and devotion of the mother (the last illustration shows a mother kissing a small boy) and the general absence of the father who is off working to support his family; but these are hardly specific to fascism. The Duce finally makes an appearance halfway through the book, telling the children to obey, study, and work. "Do the children of Italy hear the words of the Duce?" seems a curiously ambiguous way to introduce the Leader. Twenty pages later, the Duce enjoins the "little eagles" ofltaly to "believe, obey, fight" and a Balilla is finally portrayed saluting in uniform. In most of the book, though, the children wear normal clothes. The Duce is a benign and somewhat remote figure, rather like the fathers of these children. In one lesson, a boy too young to read holds up the paper and pretends to read it by pointing to a picture of the Duce and saying "Mussolini." Everyone is amused and happy because his older brother had taught him to recognize and love the Duce. When another boy looks for a picture of the Duce to stick in his notebook, the whole family helps; he finally settles for one that shows him with a group of Balilla. Fascist ideals become more evident later in the school year. On 21 April, birthday of Rome and fascist Labor Day, a girl puts on her Wolf Cub uniform and is com- plimented by everyone as a "little lady and soldier of Italy". She later receives her membership card and swears an oath to Mussolini. Everyone must obey Mussolini because he is always right. A boy in his uniform is told by his mother that it's not enough to wear the uniform but he must be strong like the Balilla. These children seem to be part of a fascist society that does not impinge too heavily on their lives, but is only one of many things that might interest them during their first year in school. II (Urban). To both urban and rural children, the message of the second year was more direct than the first, but not overwhelming. Readings in the urban volume were organized around the life of one good fascist family with eight children who lived in a working class district named for a fascist hero. 15 The volume has sober illustrations in the national colors of green and red, and 139 readings (much longer than the earlier books), with a 47 page section on religion at the end. Only 17 of the readings directly mention fascism, but there are ten quotations from Mussolini which sometimes give a fascist tone to an otherwise neutral story. Six deal with the church, two with the King, and ten with war which now makes its appearance, though it is already implied by the cover which shows a Wolf Cub writing "Conquer" on a wall (see illustration on next page). In this volume, the children wear a uniform more often than not.

14 Vera Cotarelli Gaiba and Nerina Oddi, II libro de/la 15 Pina Ballario, "Quartiere Corridoni", Libro di lettura per la prima classe (Rome, 1942-XX). Ila classede/le scuole dei centri urbani (Rome, 1942-XX). TeachingFascism 21

Most of the volume treats familiar themes: the family and love between mothers and children; animals and plants; the seasons; toys and games; occupations; the sea; the stars; and the church and its saints. There are many moral lessons, as if the children were now old enough to be civilized. Stories tell them to respect their parents, not to be selfish (a constant theme), to be kind to animals and weaker people, and to be clean. In one of them, a group of Balilla returning from a meeting trip up a strange boy then repent and help him when they learn that he is too poor to go to school. It would seem that these children are learning not to be overly aggressive.

The government is kind and helpful. Thanks to it, grandfather who lives in the country has a nice new house, and the horrible marshes have been drained. The Befana, the old lady who brings children gifts at Epiphany, turns out to be young and pretty because she is the fascist Befana. When a girl sets up a dinner party, one poor friend sadly declines because she has no good clothes. A solution emerges: they all wear their Little Italian uniforms, which make everyone equal. The regime had a civilizing mission. One boy receives a card from a friend in Albania where the Italians had ended malaria and changed the face of the country. A girl from Brazil speaks perfect Italian thanks to the activity of the Dante Alighieri Society, which spread Italian culture. On a more dubious note, a mis- sionary brings a black boy to class: he had been a real savage eating raw meat, but was now civilized. The boys remain skeptical that he could really be like them and wonder if he should be sent to the laundry. 22 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

II (Rural). The rural second graders also got a relatively mild dose of propaganda in their reader. 16 Only I 3 of 84 stories bear an official message, less space than is devoted to religion, which has six readings plus a 40 page supplement. The readings present themes natural to country children: the family, the church, school, games, the natural environment, the weather and seasons, rural occupations, plants and especially animals. The value and virtues of work are everywhere stressed, as are the joys of country life. That subject easily turns to propaganda designed to support the government policy of keeping people on the farm. One story tells of a stone that moved to a busy road where it suffered just like peasants who move to the city. In another, a mother recounts her visit to Rome where she saw the marvels but certainly wouldn't want to live there. Later, an uncle returns from the front (a rare reference to the war) and delights in the countryside. When the mother returned from Rome, the first question her children asked was whether she had seen the Duce; she hadn't, but at least had kissed the stones of his palace. Otherwise, Mussolini hardly appears except in history lessons. When Italy was a garden surrounded by wolves who wanted to destroy it, a Man rose up and marched on Rome. A story about Romulus and Remus explains that the Duce had chosen the birthday of Rome as Labor Day. The children also learn that the Duce had conquered Ethiopia from a bad emperor who had enslaved everybody and that he had succeeded in spite of the foreigners. As he said when faced with opposition: "We will shoot straight." When the dead heroes are celebrated, the lesson states that all fascists are ready to give their lives for the Duce. The theme of heroism recurs, sometimes in unusual contexts. A poor boy enviously watches a parade ofBalilla and wishes he could afford to buy a uniform since he loves the Duce. When he rescues a girl from drowning (the Balilla do nothing) he is rewarded with a uniform and a citation. A Wolf Cub who cuts himself is told not to cry but be brave so that he will be ready to go to war; another lesson reveals that bravery is what the Duce wants. Although fascist themes run throughout the school year, with the usual references to the charities and benefits of the regime, they are remarkably tame compared with the previous series, and the propaganda for war is drastically muted, now that the country was faced with a war whose reality might frighten children of any age. III (Urban). By the third grade, though, the wartime children were receiving a far larger dose of fascism. The volume for city pupils, called Patria (Fatherland), consists of fifty-four long readings. 17 Forty-one of them contain propaganda, usually of a direct kind, and twelve end in quotations from Mussolini. The message is consistent, punctuated by stories of the familiar kind about animals, nature, the seasons, occupations, holidays, games and toys. Yet even these can spread the word of the regime. After the first two stories, about marching Balilla and a "brave little soldier of Italy, worthy of the Fascist fatherland" who stands guard at the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution, a legend seems to offer a break. It tells of a countryman who cures a sick prince, but then insists on returning to his village. Lesson and government policy: peasants should not move to the

r6 Eros Belloni, II libro per la seconda classe dei centri rnrali 17 Adele and Maria Zanetti, Patria. Letture per la Illa classe (Rome, 1942-XX). dei centri urbani (Rome, 1942-XX). TeachingFascism 23 c1t1es. The next reading, too, is ostensibly neutral, about a tree protecting the birds; but it ends with a pointed quotation from the Duce. Boys are brave and heroic in these lessons, but this aspect is stressed far less than it had been in 1938. No one here vaunts his bravery in the face of death, or expires with Mussolini's name on his lips. A passing Balilla does, of course, rescue an old lady from a burning house, and their oath is fully discussed. They had sworn to obey the orders of the Duce without discussion; to defend the fascist revolution with their strength and, if necessary their blood. The oath expressed fascist faith, and fascism was Italy. As Mussolini told them, "believe, obey, fight. In these three words is the secret of every victory." Girls also have an important role. They are first presented playing with their dolls and stirring a rhetorical question: Do Little Italians play with dolls? The answer is yes, because they will grow up to be mothers. This aspect is stressed in a curious story of an eleven year old girl who takes charge of her baby niece when her sister dies. In spite of terrible problems, she manages to care for the infant herself, and is recognized as being a real heroine. The war that was actually going on never appears directly. There are plenty of stories about the glorious campaign in Ethiopia, its heroes, and Italy's civilizing mission. One boy receives a letter from his father who is fighting in the Spanish civil war. He writes that the Duce was always with us and that he was absolutely right to fight the Reds. Otherwise, the current fighting is only reflected in a story of children playing a war game by the river using stones as islands and regretting that the Italian flag does not fly over Corsica and Tunisia. One of the last readings treats "Our Sea," telling how the Empire and Albania are joined by sea and woe to anyone who wants to take this route away. The major themes that run through the book are fascist history and the generosity of the regime. A series of readings, inter- rupted by neutral subjects, gives a coherent view of recent times from the First World War, through the crises of the postwar years and the formation of the Party to the March on Rome. The positive role of the King and the back-stabbing by the allies are stressed. Related readings tell of the young Mussolini and of his heroic aviator son, and of various young fascist martyrs, in a kind of hagiography. As usual, the regime brings many benefits. It supplements the work of the Befana, who had got so old and tired that many children wound up with empty stockings. Now, they all get presents, thanks to a Man whose picture is enclosed with every gift (see illustration). The generous government makes it possible for all children to enjoy ski resorts and summer camps and helps the poor laundress who must work to support her children, but cannot leave them alone at home. Instead, she takes them to the House of the Mother and Child where they flourish in a "little paradise" because that is what the Duce wants. On a more personal level, a boy in Naples loves music and longs to play the violin but is far too poor ever to buy one. So he writes to the Duce, and one arrives in the mail 24 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

(see illustration). "O good Duce! You have made the happiness of the little Balilla. Through You alone his dream came true." In other words, the goodness of the regime comes from the Leader, who is worthy of the kind of devotion usually reserved for the Saints. III (Rural). The country cousins of these third graders also got a substantial dose of propaganda in half the readings in their schoolbook. 18 The fasces and bayonets of the cover (see illustration) dwarf the plowing farmer, while the title is a quotation from Mussolini, printed in full on the title page: "The plough --C digs the furrow and the sword defends it." The lessons are organized around the life of a village with

18 Alfredo Petrucci, L'Aratro e la Spada. Lettureper la III classedei centrirurali (Rome, 1942-XX). TeachingFascism 25

its inhabitants and their occupations, and one particular family (see illustration). Most of the readings have rural themes, treating plowing and harvesting, storing grain, crops and useful products, the weather and seasons, plants and animals (a popular subject), the church and its festivals, and big family meals. The atmosphere, as usual in these books, is warm and friendly, with no reference to the current war. Fascism permeates the life of this peaceful imagi- nary countryside. In the center of the village stands the Casa del Fascia, the place where the whole population gathers to hear the broadcast of the Duce's announcement of the Ethiopian war (see illus-

"I I j\J J 's Js tration). It abuts the square where the traveling film show reveals the accomplishments of the regime and where the Fascist Confederation of Agricultural Workers arranges a performance of Aida, for these peasants are no strangers to culture. On the day after Easter, for example, the teacher takes his young charges to a country chapel to look at frescoes that might be by Giotto (see illustration on next page). The inhabitants include the blacksmith who was wounded in the Spanish war but is devoted to the idea of Empire, the cobbler who made shoes for the teen-age paramilitary Avanguardisti when they were camped nearby (they came from all classes and all parts of Italy), the priest who gave the medal he won for bravery in the war to the campaign against the sanctions, the teacher 26 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

who always wears his uniform to class but falls sick from an old war wound, and a widow who struggles bravely to maintain her farm with the help of the secretary of the local branch of the Party. Fascism, in other words, permeates this society. Even the chickens produce eggs that help the nation on the road to self-sufficiency. Lessons stress the way country life has been improved by the regime, which reclaimed land from the marshes and mosquitoes, and sends soldiers home on leave to help with the harvest. The Duce personally gave a house to the local cross- ing guard on reclaimed land, and a special prize to an old grandfather who had faithfully worked the land all his life. The women's branch of the party provided a wife with seeds for her herb garden, while the children all know that the government will help with their Epiphany gifts. One child dreams that the Befana has a Man (he knows it is the Duce) at her side to guide her; the next morning, the party men in their uniforms hand him his presents at the Casa del Fascio (see illustration). The opera performance already noted has another benefit: in the old days, the men would hang around the bar; now they have something better to do. The Duce had brought fundamental changes: now there were trains, drinking water, hospitals, schools and good houses in land that had formerly been abandoned. People in the future would surely think that some magician had accomplished such great work; Mussolini succeeded where many had tried and failed. The benefits were not restricted to Italy. Stories about Ethiopia and Libya present the Italian colonists who were bringing developed agriculture and civilization. They had long since brought Argentina, California, and Tunisia to a flourishing state. Africa, of course, was also the land of heroic campaigns (where boys and horses are featured) and the Empire, part of a glorious fascist history which in this volume is told in a series of exciting adventures. These focus on the internal war against the Red subversives who insulted the soldiers returning from the War and spread trouble everywhere; they were routed in punitive expeditions, but not until they had terrorized the rural population. One long story nar- TeachingFascism 27

rates the adventures of a boy whose house is besieged by the Communists. When he escapes to get help, he is wounded, but manages to reach the fascists who rescue his family. There is a happy ending: the communist leader visits him in his hospital bed and repents. An equally stirring story tells of an Italian boy in Spain during the civil war: his mother had been killed in church, his father is off at the front, and he is horribly harassed by drunken Reds. Fortunately, the Italian troops arrive in the nick of time. The Duce, though far away in Rome, is spiritually close to his countrymen. At the Casa del Fascia, they can hear his broadcast words, and see his image. Two stories explain the paintings on its walls: they show Mussolini, pick in hand, demolishing old houses; the work of land reclamation; the March on Rome; and the proclamation of the Empire. Toward the end of the book, a lesson details the complicated schedule of the Duce's day and ask when he ever rests. It culminates in a peroration: "Every day, the people feel growing in their hearts respect, admiration and filial devotion for the Man who guides them ... Mussolini: it is like another way of saying 'Italy.' Mussolini: see how the image of the new Italy, with its citizen-soldiers, its fields all under cultivation, its expanded industries, its sky bathed with wings of steel, spreads in our minds, until it occupies the entire face of the World." The book has built up to dramatic statements like that; it ends with a dream which seems like the swan-song of this entire subject. In the last lesson, a Balilla has a vision of himself standing on a high hill beating his drum so as to wake the Earth, while down below a Man on horseback leads a flood of men in black shirts toward the rising sun (see illustration). 28 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

1944: EPILOGUE

The last fascist school year ended early: classes were adjourned in April 1943 in anticipation of the allied invasion of Italy which soon came. Libya, the last out- post of Empire, had been lost in January, and on 9 July allied troops landed in Sicily. In the face of these disasters and the overwhelming unpopularity of the Duce, the fascist Grand Council met on the night of 24/25 July and deposed Mussolini. When he reported to the King the next day, he was arrested. Fascism came to a sudden and ignominious end. Of the three million members of the party, not one lifted a finger to save the Leader. In September, the King joined the allies and the Germans occupied north and central Italy. Finally, in June 1944, the allies liberated Rome, but the war continued as Mussolini's puppet government held out in the north until his murder in April 1945. Despite war and changes of regime, generations of schoolchildren were still being born and waiting to be educated. The new allied regime had to find books in the midst of a continuing war and desperate shortages. Existing texts, filled with fascist propaganda, were obviously of no use, but something could be salvaged from them. For the school year 1944/ 45, the Allied Military Command issued new versions of the 1942 books, purged of their fascist content. 19 The books were poor and thin, on bad paper and with very few illustrations. The introductions explain that the shortage of materials made it impossible to produce attractive books. In this series, the fascist texts have a kind of ghostly afterlife. The quotations from Mussolini are gone, and readings that glorified the regime have been purged. Old themes of general interest were not touched, nor were readings related to the church, but the King has virtually disappeared. To compensate for the gaps caused by dropping old material, some new stories, usually from well known authors like Tolstoy or Hans Christian Andersen have been added. The second grade reader is based on the 1942 volume for urban pupils; the rural volumes were not reproduced, but one text served for everybody.2° The setting is the same, a working class district of a big city, but its name has been changed to the bland "New District". The same family appears (though not illustrated as previously) and the children relate to each other and their families in the same way. Except for the absence of fascism, the basic social and moral structure is unchanged. Readings with a purely propagandistic contact have disappeared (hence the work is much shorter than the 1942 version), but several of the old stories have been kept, with only a few names changed. This is largely because the war was still going on, so texts that dealt with martial virtues and patriotism were still in order. For example, Albania is no longer an appropriate setting, but has been replaced with Sardinia or Italy, and elsewhere "the enemy" appears in place of the Greeks. Dying for the country and discipline are still acceptable, but the name of the Duce (which those stories stressed) is gone. The role of the King has also been reduced; his birthday has yielded to Victory day, and he is simply king, not emperor.

19 I have not seen any first year books except II primo anno 20 Pina Ballario, Quartiere Nuovo. LRttureper la secondaclasse di scuola:si//abario, 20th ed., published in Perugia in 1945. urbana e rurale. Edizione ufficiale autorizzata, 1944-45 This is a dry and old-fashioned pamphlet of 64 pages, (Rome, 1944). whose age is reflected in the Art Nouveau title page. TeachingFascism 29

Bigger changes affect the daily lives of the children in the stories. There are no more Balilla or black shirts, and the achievements of the regime are not so evident. In the story about the poor girl who didn't have proper dress for a party, another girl lends her clothes; uniforms are gone. The Pontine marshes have still been drained, but the list of new towns of Mussolini has been suppressed. Yet, curiously, the black boy civilized by Italian missionaries is still there, since Italy could still be considered as a center of culture, if no longer of empire. The third grade book uses similar methods. 21 Balilla and Little Italians have disappeared, as has the entire body of fascist history. Stories from famous authors make up some of the deficiency, but this volume also is much shorter than its predecessor. Some war stories survive, only with the names changed to take away any fascist content. In many ways, though, life goes on as it had. The eleven year old substitute mother is still there, since such heroism was still appropriate. Mothers can have their children cared for, but now in the children's shelter, not a fascist institution. In some cases, abridgement leads to anomaly. As before, the Befana gets old and tired, but this time, there is no sequel, no Man to give presents, so the children are left empty-handed. All this was evidently an emergency effort, to keep public schooling going at a time when there was no possibility of making new books. These volumes stress a phenomenon already noted, that the schoolbooks of fascism contain much beside propaganda, so that a coherent book could be put together from the "neutral" readings. They almost make fascism appear as a thick veneer which could be removed without disturbing the basic fabric-which, of course, is what happened to the whole society.

CONCLUSION

Taken as a whole, the schoolbooks of the fascist period reveal the strengths and weaknesses of the regime, as well as its development. Strength is manifest in the clever and convincing propaganda, intelligently presented in a way that could appeal to its young audience. The sympathetic stories and attractive illustrations that presented fascism as a basic and natural part of life can hardly have failed to make an impression. During their whole career in school (long beyond the first three years considered here), children were subjected to constant propaganda, and would have learned no alternative. The regime seemed well organized to seize the minds of the young and maintain its control over them. Fascism also showed adaptability, changing the content of the schoolbooks sufficiently over the years to reflect new situations or policies. The first series shows the supremacy of the regime, insinuating itself into every aspect oflife. The volumes of 1936, in the aftermath of the Ethiopian campaign, brought a more aggressive and belligerent tone, training the young to accept and glorify war. But the reality of war, by 1942, brought a reaction, with a much milder tone, especially for the youngest children. These books were plainly produced with great care, to present the message of the regime in the most palatable and plausible way. Yet an obvious question arises: if the propaganda was so unremitting, and the pupils never learned anything different, why did fascism collapse so suddenly and

21 Adele and Maria Zanetti, Patria. Letture per la terza classse (Rome, 1944); this was printed by order of the Allied dei centri urbani e rurali. Edizione ufficialeautorizzata 1944-45 Military Command. 30 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN

completely? There are, of course, many objective reasons that go far beyond schoolbooks.2 2 Failure in war is the most obvious, but long before 1941, the society, especially the young, was infected with stagnation and boredom. Some of this rose from lack of any alternative point of view or possibilities of discussion, some from the corruption of a bloated and incompetent party that offered too few opportunities for those who did pass through the educational system. The gap between the claims of the regime and reality led to widespread cynicism. These books, though, provide another approach to this question, by revealing the limits of fascism. The government might try to control the minds of the young, but it made no attempt to monopolize their loyalties. All these readers devote much space to other centers ofloyalty: the King, the church and the family. Mussolini never disestablished the monarchy. Even though the King was very much in the background, it was he who finally dismissed and arrested the Duce. He never lost his authority, a fact that met with the strong disapproval of Mussolini's friend, Hitler. Likewise the church was not persecuted or destroyed. Quite the contrary, the Concordat of 1929 recognized its prestige and authority, especially in primary education. Even if the church rarely opposed the state, its full establishment could still function as a focus for moral authority and (at a much higher level) an alternative education. The church, with its saints and festivals, is constantly in evidence in these books. Most important, though, as a focus for loyalty, was the family. Lenin and Stalin recognized the obstacle that a strong family structure could pose to an all- embracing state, and did their best to destroy it, or (when that failed to produce the desired results) to subordinate it. These books show that Mussolini was far from making any such effort. On the contrary, family life and mother love are central to the life of the society portrayed in all these texts. No matter what the regime said or threatened, there was still a refuge at home, and possibly a greater confidence in the values of the family than in those of the state. Although texts for the higher classes focus on other subjects, it is clear that the family was the foundation of the society and education, and that Mussolini did nothing to wean his subjects away from it. However much the children might dress in fancy uniforms, sing songs and march around, they still came home to their families whom they never learned to desert, denounce or dislike. Here was a central weakness in a state that wanted to achieve supremacy over the minds as well as the bodies of the young. However effective the propaganda of these first three years might be, it did nothing to eliminate competing bodies that could legitimately lay claim to the same hearts and minds, so that when fascism collapsed, it did not leave a vacuum, but allowed the people of Italy to fall back on the basic structures that had always supported them in the past.

22 On this question, see the discussion of Koon, Believe, Obey, Fight 217-52.