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Teaching Fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy

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Teaching Fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy Teaching fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Foss, Clive. 1998. Teaching fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy. Harvard Library Bulletin 8 (1), Spring 1997: 3-30. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:42665575 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA - 5 Teaching Fascism: Schoolbooks of Mussolini's Italy Clive Foss ictators dream of creating a New Man who will embody the spirit of their D CLIVE Foss is Professor of regime and carry it on to future generations. Benito Mussolini, creator of History at the University of the first modem totalitarian system, was devoted to this ideal. He wanted to tum Massachusetts, Boston, and at his talkative, fun-loving and individualistic subjects into serious, hard-working, the Harvard Extension School. brave and self-sacrificing soldiers of Fascism. Though it might be impossible to convert those who were already grown and hardened in their old ways, the young offered real hope. The regime concentrated its efforts on youth by trans- forming the educational system and supplementing it with a massive program of moral, political, and physical education. One important element in gaining con- trol of young minds was the elementary school textbook. A whole range of such schoolbooks can be studied here thanks to the constantly surprising resources of the Harvard library system. The Gutman Library at the Graduate School of Education has a substantial collection and generously makes it available to researchers. 1 This collection is the basis for the present essay, which deals with the books used in the first three years of the elementary schools. 2 I hope to show how Fascism tried to control the minds of the very youngest schoolchildren, and to assess the strength of its message as it developed during the period ofrequired state texts, from 1930 to 1942. Mussolini came to power on 28 October 1922, an event long celebrated as the anniversary of the March on Rome, when (according to the exaggerated official line) fascist bands seized power. The new government made reforms, pacified the country, and gained considerable popularity in its first year. Mussolini then moved quickly to establish full control, so that by the end of 1926 Italy was a dic- tatorship, with one party under one leader, called in Italian, Duce. 3 Education was the first major fascist reform, in 1923, when the whole system was reorganized and centralized. 4 The regime laid down the principles, but existing 1 The volumes of 1931 and 1938 are from the collection 3 For general introductions to this period, see Denis Mack of Gaetano Salvemini, a leading historian and opponent Smith Mussolini (New York, 1983) and Alexander de of Mussolini. He was professor at Harvard from 1934 Grand, Italian Fascism (Lincoln, Neb., 1989). The insti- until his return to Italy in 1948. tutions of fascism are well surveyed by Herman Finer in 2 Marylene Altieri, Special Collections Librarian at Mussolini's Italy (London, 1935). Gutman, kindly made their collection available, and 4 For this and later reforms, see L. Minio-Paluello, Education explained its workings. Denis Mack Smith first intro- in Fascist Italy (London, 1946) and Tracy Koon, Believe, duced me to these texts, and encouraged this study by Obey, Fight: Political Socialization of Youth in Fascist Italy sharing his collection of them with me. My colleague (Chapel Hill, 1985). Spencer di Scala kindly read the manuscript and saved me from various errors. My sincere thanks to all. 6 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN textbooks continued in use. The schools, though, rapidly took on a fascist appearance. Portraits of the King and the Duce joined the crucifixes in every classroom, and the day began and ended with reverence for the flag and singing of the royal and fascist anthems. Fascism taught that the state was supreme, and that individuals belonged to it, that war was a natural state of existence, and that work should be central to everyone's life. The state was under the control of the Party, whose institutions blossomed after the establishment of the dictatorship. Primary among them was the National Balilla Organization, directed to the physical, moral and political education of the young. It was named for a Genoese urchin who stirred a suc- cessful revolution in 17 46 by throwing the first stone at the Austrian occupiers. Founded in 1926 as part of the Department of National Education, it took over the schools in small rural communes, and rapidly acquired a monopoly of after- school activities. Membership was voluntary, but millions saw the advantages of joining a party organization that offered sports and cultural activities, as well as the possibility of cheap vacations and sojourns in summer camps. These children, who wore uniforms and swore a solemn oath, were grouped according to age. The youngest (ages 6-8) were Wolf Cubs (named for the wolf that nourished Romulus and Remus); they entered the Balilla in the third grade and remained till thirteen, undergoing an increasingly rigorous regime. Girls joined corresponding organizations, the Little, then the Young, Italians. All the groups held meetings and had many activities, supervised by loyal party mem- bers. Teachers in the elementary schools had to belong to the Party, and could be removed for political reasons. The regime attached great importance to the youngest pupils. For several years control was far from total, since a wide range of books was still in use. In 1929, however, all elementary schools were ordered to use the same books, and those had to conform to the spirit of Fascism. Party committees chose the authors who soon set to work; the first volumes were presented to Mussolini by the beginning of the school year in 19 3o. During that year, 5. 5 mil- lion texts were printed. They formed the unvarying reading matter for the nation's children. 5 1931: FASCISM'S FIRST BOOKS The first uniform textbooks appeared at a time when he regime had achieved sta- bility and a certain success. Italy was at peace and good relations with the church had been secured by the Concordat of 1929 which guaranteed religious instruc- tion in the schools. The country was involved in a great campaign for self-suffi- ciency and land reclamation. Its most widely trumpeted success was the draining of the Pontine marshes south of Rome and the construction of a network of new agricultural settlements. This was all part of a policy to keep the peasants on the land. Mussolini hoped to produce a nation of healthy producers with numerous offspring who could eventually be turned into soldiers. The government conse- quently encouraged a high birthrate and offered many benefits to children and families. These policies are reflected in the schoolbooks. 5 These books are discussed in a broad context by Koon, Italy, 475-77. A few are illustrated in figure 124 of 74-83. See also M. Saracinelli and N. Totti, /'Italia Umberto Silva, Ideologia e artc delfasdsmo (Milan, 1973). de/ Duce (Rimini, 1983), 87-104 and Finer, Mussolini's TeachingFascism 7 I. The first grade reader conveys the propaganda in messages well suited to its young audience. 6 The readings (once the alphabet has been mastered) are short and simple, with abundant illustrations in pretty pastel colors. Fascist propaganda occupies a small part of the work, appearing on less than ten percent of the pages, even fewer than those devoted to religion. Most of the examples and stories deal with subjects any little boy or girl could recognize: the family, toys, animals, games, and the countryside. Many have more or less direct lessons about cleanliness and morals, and simple references to Jesus, the Virgin, and the Church. They suit a stable and healthy society with a strong family structure in which the mother is central: love between the mother and her children permeates the work. Children are nice to each other; girls play with dolls and help their mothers, boys play with trains, beat drums and admire soldiers and aviators. Yet this is definitely a fascist volume with strong and well-integrated propaganda. At the beginning, the little boy learning his vowels writes the meaningless fascist slogan "Eia!" on the board (see illustration). Boys and girls in uniform standing at attention or giving the fascist salute illustrate simple phrases, and when the children can read sentences, the Duce appears: "BENITO MUSSOLINI (the first title in capitals) loves children very much. The children ofltaly love the Duce very much. VIVA IL DUCE!" (see illustration). /'~ ') BENITOMUSSOLINI ama molto i bambini. I bimbi d'Italia am.ano molto ii Duce. VIVA Il.. DUCE! Un saluto al Duce. II saluto aila bandiera. 6 Dina Buciarelli Belardinelli, Sillabario e piccole letture yr. X of the Fascist era = 1931). This was revised and (Rome: La libreria dello Stato [as in all these textbooks], expanded from the 1930 edition and reprinted in 1933. 8 HARVARD LIBRARY BULLETIN The opposite page shows children saluting the flag. This juxtaposition clearly implies that the Duce is Italy. A fumiliar object, the fasces illustrates the combination -sc-: "The children know it well. They see it in school and at home .... All the children of Italy are little fascists. They love the King, they love the Duce." Finally, in the last reading the boys watch an infantry company passing and dream of growing up to be brave fighters like Mussolini or the King.
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