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Assessing the Europeanisation of Portuguese Foreign and Security Policy

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Assessing the Europeanisation of Portuguese Foreign and Security Policy Assessing the Europeanisation of Portuguese Foreign and Security Policy Steven Robinson Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Geography, Politics and Sociology Newcastle University March 2013 Abstract This thesis examines how Portuguese foreign policy is constructed, drawing upon qualitative data gathered from interviews with policy-making elites and official documentation. It assesses the extent to which Portugal’s accession to the European Community in 1986 has resulted in a transformation of the domestic policy-making structures, and how this has impacted Portuguese foreign policy, by building upon sociological institutionalist accounts of how European integration has shaped aspects of national identity and the construction of national foreign policy roles. Through increased familiarity with the EU and elite socialisation, Portuguese foreign policy- making processes have become increasingly mindful of the European context. However, in terms of policy outputs, the Lusophone world and NATO remain key areas of interest for Portugal. The Europeanisation of Portuguese foreign policy is, therefore, limited. While Member States shape, and are shaped by, EU policies, the transformative effects of the EU on national foreign policies are restricted, as the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Common Security and Defence Policy reflect more of a patchwork of different national foreign policy priorities interacting in an intergovernmental framework. While common interests and norms of behaviour have emerged, these are not necessarily a consequence of EU membership and Europeanisation processes. For example, NATO’s role in the internationalisation and multilateralisation of Portuguese foreign and security policy was significant. Contemporary Portuguese foreign policy operates in an internationalised, multilateral context. Portugal maintains strong ties with its former colonies, whilst supporting the UN and NATO and contributing to the development of the EU’s global actorness. Stressing the complementarity of the EU, NATO and the Lusophone global community, allows Portugal to pursue its Lusophone interests without reneging on its other commitments. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank everyone who has supported me through my research and the writing of this thesis. I am especially grateful to the School of Geography, Politics and Sociology at Newcastle University for the studentship I received, without which this thesis would not have been written. I am also thankful for the encouragement and support I have received from the staff and students, both past and present, in Politics. I am grateful to everyone who gave up their precious time to be interviewed for this thesis. I would also like to thank Laura Ferreira-Pereira, Nuno Severiano Teixeira, Pedro Aires Oliveira and Manuela Franco, for providing me with contact details of potential interviewees. Additionally, I would like to thank António Costa Pinto for welcoming me to Lisbon and for arranging for me to be a visiting researcher at the Institute of Social Sciences of the University of Lisbon during my fieldwork in 2010. I am also grateful to Sven Biscop and the Egmont Institute for extending me the same warm welcome and institutional support during my stay in Brussels later that year. I would also like to take this opportunity to express my thanks to the Camões Institute for offering me a research grant to assist with the travel and accommodation costs incurred during my visit to Portugal. It was a great personal honour to receive the grant, for which I am grateful to Sérgio de Almeida, in particular, for making possible. The fact that the Camões Institute saw the potential value of my research was most humbling, so I cannot stress enough how much I am grateful to this organisation. Furthermore, if it were not for the presence of the Camões Institute Portuguese Language Centre at Newcastle University, I might not have ever learnt a word of Portuguese, and my life could have taken a very different course. So, I would like to thank my first Portuguese teacher, Miguel Lume, not only for teaching me the basics of the language in 2002–2003, but for mentoring me during the subsequent years. I am especially grateful for his help in getting me settled in Lisbon when I arrived for my Erasmus year abroad in 2004. In the more recent past, I would like to thank Camões Institute leitora Fátima Taborda for her assistance in helping me to prepare the ground for my fieldwork, for proofreading my Portuguese writing, and for enthusiastically offering me a platform in the School of Modern Languages upon which to present my research. iii I also owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my supervisors, Jocelyn Mawdsley, Tony Zito, and Jens Hentschke, for their comments on earlier drafts of this thesis. More than that, I am grateful for their encouragement over the years, and for nurturing me into an academic by giving me the benefit of their experiences and passing on their collective accumulated wisdom. I could not have wished for a better supervisory team. Finally, I would like to thank those dearest to me for their encouragement over the years, and their supportive words during my occasional periods of despair while writing this thesis. The truth is that this thesis would still be a work in progress if it were not for the love, care, and succour that Alexis has given me over the last couple of years. During the difficult months and years ahead, I will be more than happy to return the favour, and will gladly offer my services as a thesis proofreader when the time comes. Lastly, I would like to thank my Mum and Dad for the emotional and financial support they have given me over my many years at university. I could not have got through these years without their help, and am eternally grateful for everything they have done for me. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents v List of Figures and Tables ix List of Abbreviations xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Goals and Content of the Thesis 1 1.1.1 The study in context 1 1.1.2 Research questions 2 1.1.3 Research design 4 1.1.4 The original contribution to knowledge of this thesis 9 1.2 Why Portugal? 11 1.2.1 Historical legacies that shape Portuguese foreign policy priorities 12 1.2.2 The multilateral context of contemporary Portuguese foreign policy 17 1.2.3 The importance of Portugal in the European context 18 1.2.4 The importance of understanding the Lusophone world 21 1.2.5 The wider applicability of the Portuguese case to states undergoing democratic transition processes 23 1.3 Portuguese Foreign Policy Analysis and Studies on the Europeanisation of the Portuguese State 24 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework 29 2.1 Theorising Foreign Policy-Making 29 2.1.1 Levels of analysis problems in foreign policy-making 29 v 2.1.2 Structure and agency in foreign policy-making: a constructivist perspective 30 2.1.3 Foreign policy-making in ‘small states’ 38 2.1.4 Institutional approaches, elite socialisation, and social learning 41 2.2 Theorising Europeanisation and European Integration 54 2.2.1 European integration theories and the Europeanisation literature 54 2.2.2 Assessing the Europeanisation of national foreign policy 62 2.3 Conceptualisation, Explanation and Analysis 70 2.3.1 Europeanisation: unique processes of change? 71 2.3.2 Conceptual operationalisation and analytical deployment 74 Chapter 3: The Institutional Context of Portuguese Foreign Policy-Making 88 3.1 Challenges for Contemporary Portuguese Foreign Policy-Making 88 3.1.1 Adapting to Europe: the Europeanisation of policy-making processes 89 3.1.2 Streamlining Portuguese public administration: foreign policy implications 93 3.2 The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MNE) 96 3.2.1 The Directorate-General for External Policy (DGPE) 99 3.2.2 The Directorate-General for European Affairs (DGAE) 103 3.2.3 The Portuguese Institute for Development Assistance (IPAD) 109 3.2.4 Portugal’s overseas embassies, consulates and permanent missions 111 3.2.5 The Secretariat-General 119 3.2.6 The Diplomatic Institute and the training of officials 121 3.2.7 The ministerial team 122 3.3 The Ministry of National Defence (MDN) 123 3.3.1 The organisational structure of the Ministry of National Defence 124 3.3.2 The role of the Armed Forces in Portugal: past and present 127 3.3.3 The Portuguese defence establishment in the wider context: institutional disconnects and relations with international organisations 128 vi 3.4 The Wider Constitutional and Political Context of Portuguese Foreign Policy-Making 132 3.4.1 The role of the President of the Portuguese Republic in national foreign and security policy 132 3.4.2 The Prime Minister and the Presidency of the Council of Ministers 135 3.4.3 Parliamentary scrutiny of foreign affairs 136 3.4.4 Party politics and Portuguese foreign policy 138 3.5 Assessing Portugal’s Foreign Policy-Making Institutions: What Impact has Europeanisation had on Domestic Processes? 142 Chapter 4: Portugal’s Renewed African Vocation 147 4.1 Cloaked Colonialism: Contemporary Europe’s Relations with Africa 149 4.1.1 Losing an empire and finding an acceptable new role: projecting national influence in Africa since decolonisation 150 4.1.2 Europe’s multilateral postcolonial relations with Africa: development aid in the context of the European Union’s external action 153 4.2 Portugal’s Relations with Lusophone Africa in the Twenty-First Century 155 4.2.1 Portugal’s development aid spending 157 4.2.2 Cultural policy and promoting the Portuguese
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