OVERVIEW

Reflections on the Dream Traditions of Islam

Kelly Bulkeley, Ph.D.

INTRODUCTION For scholars trained in Western psy- chology, the dream traditions of Islam may ew Western dream researchers have appear alien, unapproachable, and perhaps Fany familiarity with the rich dream tra- not even relevant to the primary concerns ditions of Islam. The Muslim faith first of their research. This attitude is unfortu- emerged in seventh century B.C.E. Arabia nate, because there is great potential here as a profound revisioning of early Jewish for cross-cultural dialogue, with the benefit and Christian beliefs and practices. One of greatly enhanced knowledge on both theme the Prophet Muhammed (pbuh) sides. The admittedly formidable linguistic drew from the scriptures of those two reli- and cultural chasm between Islamic and gions was a reverence for dreaming. In the Western traditions should not deter people Qur’an, as in the Jewish Torah and the from making the effort to build bridges Christian New Testament, dreams serve as across that chasm. The simple fact is that a vital medium by which God communi- all humans dream, and thus dreaming itself cates with humans. Dreams offer divine is a bridging phenomenon between the two guidance and comfort, warn people of traditions. Muslims have been paying close impending danger, and offer prophetic attention to their dreams for nearly 1500 glimpses of the future. Although the three years, and their insights and observations religions drastically differ on many other have many significant points of contact topics, they find substantial agreement on with the theories developed by Western this particular point: dreaming is a valu- psychologists over the past 150 years. The able source of wisdom, understanding, aim of this essay is to highlight those points and inspiration. Indeed, as I will propose of contact and show where further conver- in this brief essay, Islam has historically sation between Muslims and Westerners shown greater interest in dreams than can promote a deeper mutual understand- either of the other two traditions, and has ing of the origins, functions, and meanings done more to weave dreaming into the of dreaming. daily lives of its members. From the first I myself am writing from the Western revelatory visions of Muhammed (pbuh) psychological perspective; I am not a to the myriad dream practices of present- Muslim. However, my scholarly training is day Muslims, Islam has developed and in the field of religion and psychology, so I sustained a complex, multi-faceted tradi- bring to the discussion some familiarity tion of active engagement with the dream- with Islam as one of the world’s major reli- ing imagination. gious traditions. I am not a member of any From the Graduate Theological Union, Santa Clara organized religious community, although I University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A. have been influenced from childhood by Address reprint requests to: Kelly Bulkeley, Ph. D., 226 Jewish and Christian teachings. I approach Amherst Avenue Islam as a respectful but curious outsider, Kensington, CA 94708, USA eager to learn new things but modest in E-mail: [email protected] my expectations of how much can be Accepted December 1, 2001

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translated from one tradition to another. three major dream episodes in Joseph’s life Finally, I approach Islam as an all remain, and these episodes combine to American writing in the immediate after- make a clear point: dreams, and the ability math of the events of September 11, 2001. to interpret them, are an important sign of The horrific eruption of violence, fear, and God’s favor. Muhammed (pbuh) starts sura destruction in the past several weeks has 12 with the young Joseph telling his father been awful to behold, and I know I am not he had a dream in which “eleven stars and alone in feeling an urgent desire to find the sun and the moon were prostrating some way of ending the bloodshed and themselves before me (3).” Joseph’s father creating a better relationship between warns the boy not to tell the dream to his Muslims and Westerners (1). In that older brothers, who jealously harbor mur- broader historical context, this essay is derous intentions toward him (in Genesis intended as one small contribution to the the dream is interpreted to mean that one cause of creative reconciliation between day Joseph’s eleven brothers, mother, and people who have been warring against father will all bow down to him-a prospect each other for far too long. that enrages his brothers). Joseph’s father prophesizes that his youngest son "shall be DREAMS IN THE QUR`AN chosen by your Lord. He will teach you to interpret visions." The prophecy is borne Muhammed (pbuh) recorded the out later in the sura when Joseph, unjustly Qur’an between the years 610 and 632 imprisoned in Egypt, is asked to interpret C.E. Tradition has it that the first revela- the dreams of two fellow prisoners: tion of the Qur’an was given to "One of them said: ‘I dreamt that I was Muhammed (pbuh) by the angel Gabriel pressing grapes.’ And the other said: ‘I in a dream (2). The text of the Qur’an con- dreamt that I was carrying a loaf upon my tains 114 chapters (suras) of varying head, and that the birds came and ate of it. length and content. Unlike Jewish and Tell us the meaning of these dreams, for we Christian scriptures, which were produced can see you are a man of learning.’ Joseph by multiple authors from different histori- replied: ‘I can interpret them long before cal times and cultural backgrounds, the they are fulfilled. This knowledge my lord Qur’an is the work of a single man, in a has given me, for I have left the faith of single lifetime. The text thus bears a strong those that disbelieve in Allah and deny the stamp of that man’s personality- life to come. I follow the faith of my fore- Muhammed (pbuh) is the Prophet of fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.’" Allah, the human medium of God’s ulti- Joseph tells the first man his dream mate revelation. To learn about Islam is means he will be released and serve the inevitably to learn about the Prophet king wine, while the second man’s dream Muhammed (pbuh). means he will be crucified, and the birds Several passages of the Qur’an contain will peck at his head. When these predic- discussions of dreams and dreaming, and tions come true, Joseph’s skill as a dream because of the absolute centrality of the interpreter comes to the attention of Qur’an to Muslim faith these passages have Egypt’s king, who has been troubled by become fundamental to all later Islamic two dreams of his own, one in which seven dream traditions. What follows are brief fatted cows devour seven lean ones, and synopses of four suras in which dreams the other in which seven green ears of corn play a significant role. devour seven dry ones. The king asks his 12: Joseph. In this chapter Muhammed royal advisors to tell him the meaning of (pbuh) gives a condensed version of the these dreams, but they cannot do so, say- story of Joseph (following the essential ing "It is but an idle dream; nor can we outline found in the Torah’s Genesis 37- interpret dreams." Joseph, however, is 50). While much of the material from the able to interpret the dreams accurately as Genesis version has been removed, the anticipations of the future welfare of the

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land and its people, when seven years of cherished human attachments ("That was plenty will be followed by seven years of indeed a bitter test"). Muhammed (pbuh)’s famine. The king is pleased with this inter- retelling of the story of Abraham and Isaac pretation, and as a reward makes Joseph in many ways encapsulates the whole of his personal servant. the Qur’an. A fourth and final point to Very much like the Genesis version, the note here is the interesting twist at the end Qur’an portrays Joseph as an exemplary of the story, which differs quite dramatical- man of faith and piety, and one clear sign of ly from the Genesis version. In sura 37, his close relationship with God is his abili- Abraham is stopped in the sacrifice of his ty to have and interpret revelatory dreams. son by God’s sudden words, "Abraham, 37. The Ranks. Like sura 12, this one you have fulfilled your vision." Abraham is also retells a story found in the book of true to his dream not by literally enacting Genesis. Here the main subject is Abraham, it in the physical sacrifice of his son; whose life is recounted in Genesis 12-25. rather, he "fulfills his vision" by a symbol- The Qur’anic version focuses specifically on ic demonstration of his absolute obedience God’s command to Abraham to sacrifice his to God. As I will discuss later, this empha- only son, Isaac (cf. Genesis 22): sis on the symbolic rather than the literal "[Abraham said] ‘Grant me a son, Lord, will pave the way for later Muslim philo- and let him be a righteous man.’ We [Allah] sophical and theological thinking about gave him news of a gentle son. And when what kinds of truth can be discerned via he reached the age when he could work the dreaming imagination (4). with him his father said to him: ‘My son, I 8: The Spoils. This sura describes two dreamt that I was sacrificing you. Tell me of Muhammed (pbuh)’s own dream expe- what you think.’ He replied: ‘Father, do as riences. He mentions them in the context you are bidden. Allah willing, you shall of telling how in the early years of his mis- find me faithful.’ And when they had both sion he struggled to lead his followers in surrendered themselves to Allah’s will, and battle against their opponents-"some of the Abraham had laid down his son prostrate faithful were reluctant. They argued with upon his face, We called out to him, saying: you [Muhammed (pbuh)] about the truth ‘Abraham, you have fulfilled your vision.’ that had been revealed, as though they Thus did We reward the righteous. That were being led to certain death." was indeed a bitter test." Muhammed (pbuh) says he prayed to God Several points are worth noting here. for help, and God responded as follows: First is the explicit reference to a dream as "You [Muhammed (pbuh)] were over- the means by which Abraham receives this come by sleep, a token of His [Allah’s] pro- command; the Genesis version does not tection. He sent down water from the sky to emphasize the dream provenance as clear- cleanse you and to purify you of Satan’s filth, ly. Second is the unquestioned assumption to strengthen your hearts and to steady your by both Abraham and his son that the footsteps. Allah revealed His will to the dream is a command from Allah. The angels, saying: ‘I shall be with you. Give dream as Abraham describes it has no spe- courage to the believers. I shall cast terror cial markers of divine origin, and yet he into the hearts of the infidels. Strike off their and his son immediately agree that what heads, maim them in every limb!’" Abraham has envisioned is ordained by A little further on, Muhammed (pbuh) God and must be done. This leads to the describes his experience the night before a third and theologically most important particular battle, when he and his army point: the dream and their interpretation were encamped across a valley from a of it lead Abraham and his son to "surren- gathering of hostile warriors: der themselves to Allah’s will." This hum- "Allah made them appear to you in a ble obedience is the very heart of the dream as a small band. Had He showed Muslim faith-the absolute trust in God, them to you as a great army, your courage even to the point of sacrificing one’s most would have failed you and discord would

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have triumphed in your ranks. But this dreaming state. The visionary quality of Allah spared you. He knows your inmost the experience and the fact that it hap- thoughts." pened at night support the belief that it The two dreams reflect the warlike was a dream, but later Muslim commenta- environment in which Muhammed (pbuh) tors have argued that it was not a dream and his followers first established the but an actual physical transportation to Muslim faith. Although Muhammed heaven. Here we run into the difficult (pbuh) spent much time alone in desert methodological problem of trying to dis- caves praying and meditating, he was also tinguish dreams from other types of a charismatic warrior who led his troops extraordinary visionary experience. How through several harrowing battles. The to tell the difference between dreams, dream experiences reported in this sura visions, hallucinations, out-of-body expe- express Muhammed (pbuh)’s faith in God’s riences, and so forth is a major challenge rousing presence during times of violent for the cross-cultural study of dreams. I struggle. In this way the two dreams are will return to this issue at the end of the similar to many passages in the Torah and essay; for the moment, I simply want to the New Testament, where God appears to highlight the fact that this sura, one of the the faithful in times of danger, violence, most mystically evocative narratives in the and despair to offer reassurance and heav- whole Qur’an, is decidedly ambiguous enly comfort (e.g., Genesis 28; Matthew 1, about whether or not Muhammed (pbuh)’s 2; Acts 16, 27). An unusual feature in this "Night Journey" was a dream. sura is the frank acknowledgment that God may use dreams to deceive the faith- DREAMS IN THE HADITH ful for their own good. Muhammed (pbuh) is grateful that Allah knew his Both during and after Muhammed "inmost thoughts," i.e., his secret fear that (pbuh)’s death a number of accounts were his army would be defeated, and sent a written of his words and deeds, and these dream that reassured him. The value of the accounts are gathered in the hadith. dream is clearly not in the accuracy of its Among the various sayings of the hadith representation of physical reality, but are several detailed discussions of dreams rather in its inspiring emotional effect on and dreaming. Although secondary in the- Muhammed (pbuh)-the dream emboldens ological importance to the passages from him to ignore any "realistic" appraisal of the Qur’an, the references to dreaming in his chances and to continue fighting in the hadith are extremely significant histor- total confidence of ultimate victory. ically, and they have added important con- 17: The Night Journey. This sura begins ceptual and technical elements to the with the following lines: dream traditions of Islam. In particular, "Glory be to Him who made His servants the hadith contain abundant references to go by night from the Sacred Temple [of the practice of dream interpretation, and Mecca] to the farther temple [the Throne of many of the interpretive principles enunci- Allah] whose surroundings we have blessed, ated in these passages continue to guide that we might show him some of Our signs. the dream practices of present-day He alone hears all and observes all." Muslims in countries around the world. The remainder of the chapter consists The legitimacy of dream interpretation of a lengthy revelation to Muhammed as a religious activity receives strong (pbuh) regarding the creation of the world, endorsement from the hadith, most direct- resurrection and the afterlife, ritual prac- ly in the verses that state: “When the com- tice, ethical precepts, warnings against panions of the Messenger of God unbelief, and several other key principles [Muhammed (pbuh)] saw dreams while he of the Muslim faith. The text does not was still alive they would tell him of their specifically say whether Muhammed dreams and he, for his part, would inter- (pbuh)’s journey occurred in a waking or pret them as God willed (5).” Many hadith

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describe Muhammed (pbuh)’s interpreta- is unquestionably a true dream. Every tions of particular images and symbols in other kind of dream could be a malevolent the dreams of his followers, while other deception sent by Satan, but a dream of verses tell of Muhammed (pbuh)’s own Muhammed (pbuh) can be accepted with dreams and his interpretations of them. complete confidence as an authentic revela- For example, the hadith report several tion because Satan does not have the power dreams Muhammed (pbuh) had of his to assume the shape of God’s Prophet. friend ‘Umar, who later became one of his Perhaps the most oft-quoted hadith on the successors. The dreams express subject of dreams reads, "The good dream is Muhammed (pbuh)’s respect and admira- 1/46th of prophecy." While commentators tion for the power of ‘Umar’s faith, and this have long debated the significance of this provided ‘Umar with a kind of divine sanc- exact number (8), the general sense of the tion for the day when he assumed religious passage is clear: dreams are a legitimate authority following the death of source of divine knowledge (9). This basic Muhammed (pbuh) (6). attitude in the hadith-dreams are not the According to these texts, Muhammed only source of religious revelation, but nev- (pbuh) was sensitive to the practical diffi- ertheless a real and important one available culties encountered by many of his follow- to a wide spectrum of people-builds on the ers who were trying to interpret their own positive evaluation of dreams in the dreams. The first suggestion Muhammed Qur’anic verses discussed above and gives a (pbuh) makes is to tell the dream to some- more definitive shaping to the beliefs and one else: "A dream rests on the feathers of practices of later Muslims. a bird and will not take effect unless it is The hadith include two particular related to someone." However, people dreams of Muhammed (pbuh) that are should be careful not to reveal too much in worth mentioning. In the first, the public; "tell your dreams only to knowl- Prophet explains how he interpreted one edgeable persons and loved ones," and of his own dreams: beware those who will use your dreams "I saw in a dream that I waved a sword against you (like Joseph’s brothers did and it broke in the middle, and behold, that against him). Muhammed (pbuh) gives a symbolized the casualties the believers suf- colorful warning to those who abuse the fered on the Day [of the battle] of Uhud. practice of dream interpretation: "Whoever Then I waved the sword again, and it claims to have had a dream in which he became better than it had ever been before, says he saw something he did not shall be and behold, that symbolized the Conquest ordered [in Hell] to tie a knot between two [of Mecca] which Allah brought about and barley grains and will not be able to do so." the gathering of the leaders (10)." To help people increase their chances of The broken sword is a striking emblem having a good dream, Muhammed (pbuh) of military defeat and social humiliation, a offers suggestions about how to approach vivid imagistic reference that would be sleep in a state of ritual purity, with the spe- likely to resonate strongly with his battle- cific instruction to try sleeping on the right tested followers (11). In that context, the side (7). Bad dreams come from Satan, and suddenly restored and improved sword he says people should refrain from talking symbolizes the transcendent power of about these dreams and instead "offer a Muslim faith. What looks impossible can prayer" and "seek refuge with Allah from actually be done, what appears lost can be [the dream’s] evil." regained, what seems fractured can be The hadith that reads, "Whoever sees made whole again-all of this is possible, if me [the Prophet] in dreams will see me in people are willing to give complete trust in wakefulness [the Hereafter] for Satan can- the Almighty. Here again, a brief dream not take my shape" has long been under- memorably expresses one of the preemi- stood to mean that a dream in which nent themes of Islamic belief and practice. Muhammed (pbuh) appears as a character The second dream to note in the hadith

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is recounted by A’isha, the woman tive method appears in several texts: Muhammed (pbuh) married after the "[T]wo dreamers came to Ibn Sirin death of his first wife Khadija: within an hour of each other and each had "Allah’s Apostle said to me [A’aisha], dreamed of being the caller to prayer ‘You were shown to me twice [in my (muezzin). The first person was told that dream] before I married you. I saw an his dream foretold that he would perform angel carrying you in a silken piece of the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. The sec- cloth, and I said to him, "Uncover [her]," ond man, who seemed to be of a baser and behold, it was you. I said [to myself], character, was told that he would be "If this is from Allah, then it must happen." accused of a theft. [His] pupils then ques- Then you were shown to me, the angel tioned how Ibn Sirin could come up with carrying you in a silken piece of cloth, and such radically different interpretations for I said [to him], "Uncover her," and behold, the same dream. His response was that the it was you. I said [to myself], "If this is character of each dreamer was evident from from Allah, then it must happen (12)." his appearance and demeanor. Therefore, After the death of Khadija, we may the first one’s dream evoked the Qur’anic imagine Muhammed (pbuh) felt some verse ‘Proclaim to the people a solemn pil- degree of uncertainty about whether he grimage’ (20:28) since he was clearly pious. should take a new wife, and if yes, then The second man’s dream evoked the verse whom he should choose. His decision ‘Then a crier called after them, O company would of course have profound implica- of travelers [Joseph’s brothers], you are tions for both his personal life and the surely thieves’ (12:70) (13)." political dynamics of the religious move- Ibn Sirin’s reference to specific scriptural ment he was building. These twin dreams passages reflects the fact that Muslims are provide Muhammed (pbuh) with divine thoroughly steeped from an early age in the guidance in a potentially difficult situation, text of the Qur’an. Memorization of sanctioning his choice of A’aisha in a man- Qur’anic verses has long been a central fea- ner very much like his dreams legitimating ture of Muslim education, and Ibn Sirin’s the status of his successor ‘Umar, men- interpretive strategy relies heavily on peo- tioned above. The repetitive nature of the ple’s intimate familiarity with the language, two dreams emphasizes the clarity of their characters, and themes of the Qur’an. message, which is that A’aisha has been Perhaps of most interest to Western psycho- presented to Muhammed (pbuh) as a gift logical researchers, Ibn Sirin explicitly teach- from God. Not just in war but in love as es that a given dream’s meaning cannot be well, dreams reveal the will of Allah. determined without reference to the person- ality characteristics of the dreamer. There is, CLASSICAL TOPOLOGIES in other words, no "one size fits all" inter- pretation for any particular dream symbol; Inspired by these teachings from the the meaning depends on the personality and Qur’an and the hadith, Muslim philoso- life circumstances of the dreamer. phers and theologians in subsequent years The same interpretive principle appears continued the process of developing new in the Oneirocritica of Artemidorus, a sec- techniques and conceptual frameworks for ond C.E. writer from the Roman empire. the practice of dream interpretation. The Artemidorus’ work was translated into most famous of the early dream inter- Arabic in 877, and it gave a major stimulus preters was Ibn Sirin, whose name was to the further development of Muslim reverently attached to dream interpretation dream theory and practice. Here is the manuals for many centuries after his death point where Muslim traditions begin to in 728 C.E. One of the Ibn Sirin’s key expand beyond their Christian and Jewish teachings was to pay close attention to the counterparts. Indeed, I would argue (with- personal characteristics of the dreamer. out having the space to defend my claim The following anecdote about his interpre- fully) that during its Medieval period

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Christianity effectively repudiated dream- desires. The second and much more signif- ing as a legitimate source of divine revela- icant type of dream draws its material not tion by increasingly emphasizing the from daily life but from the "Universal potential for demonic temptation in Soul," a source of knowledge closely associ- dreams. Although religiously-oriented ated with the faculty of abstract reasoning. dream traditions continued and in some "Universal Soul" dreams reveal fundamental cases even flourished at the level of popu- truths about reality, although like the first lar Christian practice, the attitude of the- type of dream these ones are distorted by ologians and church officials from the imperfect mirror of the human imagina- Augustine through Aquinas, Luther, tion. Interpretation is therefore required to Calvin, and on into the present day has discover what the symbolic images mean. been generally hostile to dreams and dream The third and final type of dream involves a interpretation (14). Judaism did not suffer direct revelation of reality, with no distor- this kind of decline in the religious author- tion or symbolic mediation-a clear vision of ity of dreams. On the contrary, thinkers like divine truth. Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) contin- Ibn Arabi’s typology portrays a wider ued to develop creative new ways of con- range of dream experience than is usually ceptualizing the revelatory power of acknowledged in Western psychological dreams (15). But Judaism never achieved thinking, which focuses its attention anything like the geographic spread of almost exclusively on his first category, the Islam (from the Atlantic to the border of "ordinary" dreams of daily life. This is an China in just its first 100 years), nor did important point, and I will return to it in Judaism ever produce the kind of spectac- the conclusion. ular efflorescence of scientific and philo- A further elaboration of this three-part sophical discovery that occurred in the typology appears in the monumental Classical Era of Islamic history (from Muqaddimah ("An Introduction to approximately the ninth to thirteenth cen- History") written by the philosopher Ibn turies C.E.). Tabir, the Muslim science of Khaldun (1332-1402). He explains the dream interpretation, emerged in this peri- different types of dreams in this way: od as dynamic body of knowledge integrat- "Real dream vision is an awareness on ing Islamic faith with the classical heritage the part of the rational soul in its spiritual of the Greeks and Romans (16). Nothing essence, of glimpses of the forms of emerged in Judaism or Christianity to rival events…. This happens to the soul [by the breadth and sophistication of this tradi- means of] glimpses through the agency of tion, and it is an open question whether sleep, whereby it gains the knowledge of any civilization from India, China, or any- future events that it desires and regains the where else ever matched the richness of perceptions that belong to it. When this classical Islamic dream knowledge. process is weak and indistinct, the soul Looking in more detail at the Muslim applies to it allegory and imaginary pic- teachings, the first example to consider tures, in order to gain [the desired knowl- comes from the philosopher Ibn Arabi edge]. Such allegory, then, necessitates (1164-1240), who devised a grand meta- interpretation. When, on the other hand, physical system merging Islamic theology this process is strong, it can dispense with with Greek philosophy (17). His typology allegory. Then, no interpretation is neces- of dreaming establishes the basic frame- sary, because the process is free from imag- work used throughout later Muslim history. inary pictures…. One of the greatest hin- According Ibn Arabi, there are three basic drances [to this process] is the external types of dream. The first is an "ordinary" senses. God, therefore, created man in dream, produced by the imagination when such a way that the veil of the senses could it takes experiences from daily life and mag- be lifted through sleep, which is a natural nifies them as in a mirror, reflecting in a dis- function of man. When that veil is lifted, orted symbolic fashion our wishes and the soul is ready to learn the things it

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desires to know in the world of Truth. At questions does exist, but it has not yet times, it catches a glimpse of what it received much attention from mainstream seeks…. Clear dream visions are from Western dream researchers. God. Allegorical dream visions, which call for interpretation, are from the angels. And DREAMS IN CONTEMPORARY ISLAM ‘confused dreams’ are from Satan, because they are altogether futile, as Satan is the Turning to the beliefs and practices of source of futility (18)." today’s Muslims, who number over a bil- Ibn Khaldun refines the philosophical lion people living in countries all over the and theological foundations of Ibn Arabi’s globe, the main point to note is the strong three-part typology. He emphasizes the historical continuity of the dream tradi- idea that in sleep people are liberated from tions discussed so far. The basic ideas their senses, freeing their rational souls to about dreaming found in the Qur’an and gain glimpses of transcendent truth. This the hadith are still a living influence in the same theme runs throughout Platonic and contemporary Muslim world, and it Neoplatonic thinking about dreams, and it appears that the people of several Muslim seems likely that Ibn Khaldun was familiar countries hold dreaming in a much higher with those Graeco-Roman philosophical regard than is generally true anywhere in notions and used them to enrich his own North America or Western Europe. One understanding of dreams. The distinctive detailed piece of research will have to suf- feature in Ibn Khaldun’s theory is that God fice as evidence for this admittedly broad deliberately created sleep as an opportuni- claim (20). Valerie J. Hoffman’s work on ty for humans to "lift the veil of the senses" the role of visions in contemporary Egypt and gain access to divine realities and indicates that for present-day Muslims reli- higher forms of knowing. Dreaming giously revelatory dreams are a surprising- appears in this light as one of God’s gifts to ly widespread phenomenon. Hoffman humankind, a "natural" means of spiritual argues that the experience of such dreams insight potentially available to all people. does not indicate a pre-modern or naively The foregoing is only the briefest of superstitious mentality; on the contrary, surveys of the vast wealth of Islamic dream the people she describes are well-educat- teachings from the classical era. A modest- ed, technologically proficient, and psycho- ly sized scholarly literature exists in logically healthy. Although many English that discusses this material (19), Westerners assume modern civilization but much more work needs to be done by and religious faith are mutually antitheti- researchers from both Muslim and non- cal, the Egyptians Hoffman studies are liv- Muslim backgrounds. For example, it ing proof that this is not universally true. would be interesting to know more about She says the Egyptian Muslims "believe how Islamic theologians understood the that the ability to receive visions through sexual dimensions of dreaming, a topic dreams and in the waking state is a faculty which has long troubled Christian think- that is latent in human beings, whose ing about dreams. It would also be useful attachment to material things clouds their to learn more about how dreams have receptivity to impulses from the spiritual served in Muslim caregiving practices as realm (21)." This is a remarkable indica- means of diagnosis and treatment for peo- tion that the fourteenth-century ideas of ple suffering from physical and/or emo- Ibn Khaldun are alive and well in the tional distress. And, further information minds of twentieth-century Egyptian as about the influence of dreams on political, they regard their dream experiences. legal, and military decision-making would Many of the people described by offer excellent comparative material for the Hoffman have been deeply influenced by study of the problem-solving function of the Sufi mystical tradition of Islam (22), dreaming. My suspicion is that a vast and this is most evident in their use of amount of information on these and other dreams as a means of seeking religious

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instruction: some of my own research interests. "In the course of my research I collect- 1. Dream Patterns: C. G. Jung first was ed many stories in which dreams played a the first in the Western psychological tra- major role in guiding people to a particu- dition to investigate in real detail the ques- lar spiritual guide. In two very similar tion of whether certain dreams have fun- cases, middle-class, college-educated damentally different psychological struc- women-whose families had no connec- tures from other types of dreams. Jung’s tions with Sufism and who claimed no notion of "big dreams" has long been previous knowledge of the major Sufi ignored by psychological researchers who saints-were afflicted by physical and psy- focus exclusively on dream data produced chological illnesses that medical doctors in sleep laboratories. But in recent years, seemed unable to cure, when suddenly extraordinary dreams of unusual cognitive they were visited in their dreams by great form, aesthetic vitality, and emotional Sufi saints, both deceased and living. They intensity have been the subject of greater found themselves propelled by these theoretical and empirical investigation dreams to seek the solace of the shrines of (25). One common feature of these the great deceased saints and to seek bless- intense, highly memorable dreams is that ing guidance and healing from specific liv- when people describe them they often ing spiritual guides. Both of them found report a strong feeling that "it wasn’t like a the guides they had seen in their visions, normal dream"; in many cases people say and one of them claimed that her dream they’re not even sure it was a dream, had shown her the route and physical lay- although they can’t offer a better name for out of the house of he woman who was to it. This is reminiscent of our earlier discus- be her main spiritual guide (23)." sion of Muhammed (pbuh)’s "Night The material gathered by Hoffman offers Journey" and the traditional Islamic debate striking evidence that dreams continue to about whether or not it was a dream or a play an important part in the religious lives physical transportation to heaven. I sug- of present-day, "modernized" Muslims. gest the ambiguity of the Qur’anic text Today as 1500 years ago, dreams provide reflects the possibility that Muhammed Muslims with direct experiential confirma- (pbuh) experienced a type of "big dream"- tion their faith, connecting them with an experience that began in the physical divine powers and realities and reassuring state of sleep and ordinary dreaming but them of the living presence of God in their then soared away into the transcendent lives. Hoffman’s concluding suggestion that realm of revelation, inspiration, and divine "Egyptians may well be defining modernity presence. Seen in this light, the dream in a manner that embraces experiences typologies of Ibn Arabi, Ibn Khaldun, and unrecognized by Western rationalism (24)" many other classical Muslim thinkers offer is a thought-provoking challenge to valuable observations about various types Western researchers who may not fully of extraordinary dream experience. appreciate the powerful influence of reli- Western researchers who aspire to a truly gious faith, devotional practice, and cultur- comprehensive understanding of the al history on people’s dream experiences. dreaming imagination could benefit great- ly from a careful study of these texts. CONCLUSION 2. Dreams and the Body. Although classical Muslim typologies recognize the What, then, are the most promising transcendent dimensions of dreaming, areas for Westerners and Muslims to devel- they also provide detailed analyses of the op further their mutual interest in dreams bodily basis of dreaming experience, with and dreaming? What are the best prospects a special focus on several different emo- for future investigation and dialogue? I have tions (anger, fear, lust) that influence the four suggestions, which certainly do not formation of different kinds of dreams. exhaust all possibilities but merely reflect Most Western researchers are on familiar

Sleep and Hypnosis, 4:1, 2002 9 Reflections on the Dream Traditions of Islam

ground here, and their findings about ing influences of education, cultural rapid eye moment (REM) sleep and the expectation, and gender stereotyping, or neuropsychology of dreaming should find some combination of the two (28). The a ready conceptual space in the Islamic tra- best way to address this question is to dition. For example, the common Muslim investigate the dream lives of people from belief that dreams appearing just before many different cultures, and here again the waking are more truthful than dreams Islamic tradition offers an abundant source from earlier in the night (26) could be cor- of comparative material. related with the Western research finding 4. What are contemporary Muslims that in most cases the longest REM period dreaming right now? The Qur’an and of the night (when the dreaming imagina- hadith are clear about the special value of tion seems to be especially active) comes dreaming in times of military conflict, and during the last hour or two of the sleep I strongly suspect that many present-day cycle, right before waking. Muslims are dreaming about the events of 3. Gender. The work of several Western September 11 and talking with each other scholars has focused on the significance of about what their dreams mean in relation gender in dream beliefs, practices, and to the current outbreak of warfare. I would experiences. According to the content be very, very interested in learning about analysis work of Calvin Hall, Robert Van those conversations. I know, based on my de Castle, and G. William Domhoff, men own research, that many people in the and women dream differently, and one of United States are experiencing profoundly the major differences regards the rate in troubling dreams related to September 11, which the other gender appears in their dreams filled with planes crashing, bombs dreams: women’s dreams have an equal exploding, buildings crumbling, and ter- percentage of male and female characters, rorists attacking children and family mem- while men’s dreams have twice as many bers. These dreams reflect the deep emo- male characters as females (27). This find- tional impact of the events of September ing is based largely, though not exclusive- 11 on the American psyche, and in future ly, on Western populations, and it would work I hope to investigate these dreams as be fascinating to know if the same pattern expressions of an extraordinary psycholog- exists in various Muslim communities, ical effort to make meaning in a time of where gender boundaries tend to be at social trauma, anger, and confusion. As I least as sharply drawn and forcefully contemplate that project, I wonder-do defended as in Western society. A key Muslim dream experiences contain any of question raised by the content analysis these same themes, or do they express a research is whether gender differences in totally different complex of perceptions, dream content reflect genetically-deter- feelings, beliefs, and desires? Are Muslims mined psychophysiological differences dreaming of Westerners as much as between men and women, or the socializ- Westerners are dreaming of Muslims?

REFERENCES

1. In a short essay like this, I hope I will be forgiven this 2. Marcia Hermansen, "Dreams and Dreaming in generalized, oppositional use of the terms "Muslim" Islam," in Dreams: A Reader in the Religious, and "Westerner." I do not mean to suggest anyone Cultural, and Psychological Dimensions of forget the facts that millions of Muslims live in Dreaming (edited by Kelly Bulkeley) (New York: Western countries, that millions of Muslims and mil- Palgrave, 2001), p.74 lions of Westerners feel no special enmity toward each other and would be happy to live in mutual 3. All quotes from the Qur’an are from the translation peace, and that millions of people in both Islamic and of N.J. Dawood (New York: Penguin Books, 1956). Western countries oppose the military policies and actions of their political leaders.

10 Sleep and Hypnosis, 4:1, 2002 K. Bulkeley

4. For example, see Henri Corbin, "The Visionary 19. For example, various essays in Von Grunebaum and Dream in Islamic Spirituality," in The Dream and Callois, The Dream and Human Society, op. cit.; Human Societies (edited by G. E. Von Grunebaum Hermansen, "Dreams and Dreaming in Islam, op. cit.; and Roger Callois) (Berkeley: University of John Lamoreaux, "Dream Interpretation in the Early California Press, 1966). Medieval Near East," Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1999; Leah Kinberg, Ibn Abi al-Dunya Morality in the 5. Hermansen, "Dreams and Dreaming in Islam," p. Guise of Dreams (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994); Sara Sviri, 75. "Dreaming Analyzed and Recorded: Dreams in the World of Medieval Islam," in Dream Cultures: 6. Ibid., p. 75. Explorations in the Comparative History of Dreaming (edited by David Shulman and Guy G. Stroumsa) 7. The Muslim practice of religiously-oriented dream (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). incubation, istikhara, is itself a topic worthy of greater investigation. See, for example, J. Spencer 20. Other good sources on the role of dreams in contem- Trimmingham, Islam in West Africa (Oxford: porary Muslim practice are Katherine P. Ewing, "The Clarendon Press, 1959). Dream of Spiritual Initiation and the Organization of Self Representations among Pakistani Sufis," 8. One common explanation is that the number 1/46th American Ethnologist (1989) vol. 16, pp. 56-74; involves a doubling of the number of years (23) Benjamin Kilborne, "Moroccan Dream between the beginning of Muhammed (pbuh)’s reve- Interpretation and Culturally Constituted Defense lation and his death. Mechanisms," Ethos (1981) vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 294- 312; Hermansen, "Dreams and Dreaming in Islam"; 9. All quotes in this paragraph are from Hermansen, Micheline Centlivres, Pierre Centlivres, and Mark "Dreams and Dreaming in Islam," pp. 75-76. Slobin, "A Muslim Shaman of Afghan Turkestan," Ethnology (1971) vol. 10, pp. 160-173; M. C. Jedrej 10 Ibid., p. 75. and Rosalind Shaw (editors), Dreaming, Religion, and Society in Africa (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993). 11 Many Western researchers, schooled in the interpre- tive methods of Sigmund Freud, will suspect a sym- 21. Valerie J. Hoffman, "The Role of Visions in bolic expression of castration anxiety in this image. Contemporary Egyptian Religious Life," Religion (1997) vol. 27, no. 1, p. 53. 12. Ibid., p. 74. 22. For further information about Sufism and dreams, 13. Ibid., p. 78. see Jonathan G. Katz, "An Egyptian Sufi Interprets His Dreams: ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha’rani 1493- 14. See Morton Kelsey, God, Dreams, and Revelation 1565," and Marcia Hermansen, "Visions as ‘Good to (Minneapolis: St. Augsburg Press, 1991). Think’: A Cognitive Approach to Visionary Experience in Islamic Sufi Thought," both in Religion 15. See Alan Brill, "The Phenomenology of True Dreams in (1997) vol. 27, no. 1, the special section devoted to Maimonides," Dreaming (2000) vol. 10, no. 1: 43-54. "The Study of Dreams and Visions in Islam."

16. Nathaniel Bland, "On the Muhammed (pbuh)an 23. Ibid., p. 48. Science of Tabir, or Interpretation of Dreams," The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and 24. Ibid., p. 60. Ireland (1856), vol. 16, pp. 118-171. 25. Harry Hunt, The Multiplicity of Dreams (New 17. Rom Landau, "The Philosophy of Ibn Arabi," The Haven: Yale University Press, 1989); Kelly Bulkeley, Muslim World (1957), vol. 47, pp. 46-61. Transforming Dreams (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000); Roger Knudson, "Significant Dreams: 18. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah (translated by Bizarre or Beautiful?" Dreaming (2001) vol. 11, no. Franz Rosenthal) (Princeton: Princeton University 4, pp. 167-178. Press, 1967), pp. 80-81, 83. 26. Nathaniel Bland, "On the Muhammed (pbuh)an Science of Tabir," p. 129.

27. G. William Domhoff, Finding Meaning in Dreams (New York: Plenum, 1996), p. 56.

28. On this subject, see Carol Schreier Rupprecht, "Sex, Gender, and Dreams: From Polarity to Plurality" in Kelly Bulkeley (editor) Among All These Dreamers (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996).

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