Dr. Paradzai Pathias Bongo1

Community-based disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change: The case of rural

INTRODUCTION This paper is based on a current Department for Overseas Development (DFID) funded Community-Based Disaster Risk Management project in the semi-arid Southern part of Zimbabwe, entitled ‘Mainstreaming Livelihood Centred Approaches to Disaster Management’.2 The paper posits the need for building, supporting and strengthening communities’ livelihoods so that they become more resilient during and after a hazard as they mainly use their local resources, institutional arrangements and own conceptions of risk. It is envisaged that community based risk reduction plans could inform meso and macro policy levels, thereby shaping the current disaster management regime prevailing in the country. Since time immemorial, human beings have been faced with various types of hazards, most of which turned into disasters. In such cases, mainstream and official prescriptions have focused on response and relief aid, without paying due regard to the need for reducing the vulnerability of affected communities by increasing their resilience through building their capacity.

With the effects of climate change worsening globally, communities will be called to be even more responsive to these changes, as they affect them in newer and unique ways. They will therefore have to be supported in their adaptation measures, considering that most developing world governments are already cash-strapped to fund development and investment, let alone disaster management projects. Yet at the same time, risks that communities face dictate that livelihood-centred approaches be mainstreamed into

1 Projects Manager Livelihoods and Disaster Risk Management, Reducing Vulnerability (RV) Programme, Practical Action Southern Africa, Zimbabwe. 2 The project is based initially in 4 countries (Bangladesh, Peru, Zimbabwe and UK), and is being co- ordinated by a project co-ordinator based in the UK. The project is managed through a core team consisting of the project co-ordinator, project managers from participating countries and a disaster mitigation specialist from Sri Lanka. This team meets at least once a year to review progress and agree on outputs and work plans for the coming months.

1 disaster management and development plans. Disasters and hazards greatly reverse the gains of development, and ignoring Disaster Risk Reduction in development projects is self-defeating.

WHY FOCUS ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN DEVELOPMENT? Disaster risk reduction is defined as, “The systematic development and application of policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities, hazards, and the unfolding disasters impacts throughout a society, in the broad context of sustainable development”, (UNDP, 2004). There is convincing evidence that the frequency and magnitude of disasters is increasing, and that poor countries and poor communities are disproportionately affected. More than half of disaster deaths occur in low human development countries even though only 11% of people exposed to hazards live there. These countries also suffer far greater economic losses relative to their GDP than richer countries (DFID, 2004: 1). Death, disablement or migration of key social actors leads to an erosion of social capital.

Disasters are known to hold back development and progress towards attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Among other repercussions, recent studies indicate that both governments and donors tend to fund disaster relief and rehabilitation assistance by reallocating resources from development programmes. This affects the poor disproportionately through adverse effects on poverty reduction efforts. Many developing countries have economies based on rain-fed agriculture. This makes development in these countries particularly sensitive to weather extremes and climatic patterns (Karimanzira, R.1999: 19). The severity of the 1991/2 drought alone underlines the importance of taking into account hazards such as meteorological drought in future economic development policies. According to Karimanzira (1999), in Zimbabwe poor planning resulted in national strategic grain reserves being sold off. Other services such as health, education, and water provision came under severe pressure and this reversed much of development gains achieved in Zimbabwe in the preceding decade. Development can also cause disaster risk. This happens through unsustainable development practices that create wealth for some at the expense of unsafe working or

2 living conditions for others or degrade the environment (see Madeley, J, 1999; Low and Gleeson, 1998; Leach and Mearns, 1996). Vandana Shiva3 argues that local seed varieties and traditional cropping patterns are being rapidly replaced by hybrid varieties and monoculture. With the growing economic policies of deregulation, liberalisation and privatisation, states are advised by International Financial Institutions (IFIs) to withdraw subsidies and cut social spending to balance fiscal deficits. In the absence of protection mechanisms for the poor and marginalised against this ‘free market’ mechanism, the vulnerability of disenfranchised communities is greatly increased. At a social level, some development paths can generate cultural norms that promote social isolation or political exclusion (Bongo, P.P, 2003).

Development can also reduce disaster risk. Access to adequate drinking water, food, waste management and a secure dwelling increases people’s resilience. Trade and technology can reduce poverty. Investing in financial mechanisms and social security can cushion against vulnerability. At a social level this can be seen in building community cohesion, recognising excluded individuals and providing opportunities for greater involvement in decision-making. Enhanced educational and health capacity increases resilience.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT The Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) pilot project runs for an initial five years spanning from January 2006 to December 2010. It is partly premised on the Hyogo Declaration and Hyogo Framework of Action 2005 – 2015.4 In implementing this project, Practical Action is working in partnership with two local NGOs, Organisation of Rural Associations for Progress (ORAP) and Hlekweni Friends Rural Service Centre, which has a strong Quakers grounding. The project focuses on the roles and linkages between

3 Shiva, Vandana, Poverty and Globalization www.biotech-info.net/poverty_globalization.html 4 This is a reference document which underscores disaster-development linkages, pledging that “We build upon relevant international commitments and frameworks, as well as internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration, to strengthen global disaster reduction activities for the twenty-first century. Disasters have a tremendous detrimental impact on efforts at all levels to eradicate global poverty: the impact of disasters remains a significant challenge to sustainable development.” (ISDR, WCDR, 2005)

3 vulnerable communities, district and national level government institutions and humanitarian agencies in regards to disaster preparedness and mitigation. It examines how these agencies can be made more responsive to the needs of poor people by adopting a livelihood-centred approach to disaster management. There are four main aims: 1. To establish models in at least 3 locations (Bangladesh, Peru, Zimbabwe) where livelihood-centred approaches to disaster management are combined with other methodologies such as participatory action development planning in order to link communities better with wider institutional structures involved in disaster and development planning. The locations selected encompass areas and communities with exposure to a mixture of disaster risks including drought, flood, disease and conflict. 2. To develop guidelines and training materials on livelihood-centred disaster management for use by local and national service providers, planners and humanitarian agencies. 3. To learn lessons from experiences in implementing this approach, including an analysis of best practice in building consensus amongst stakeholders on how to link most effectively with and support communities’ own disaster planning in a sustainable way. We are also reviewing how the approach can be applied in different contexts, e.g. in fragile states where institutions are weak and where community/state relations may be antagonistic. We will undertake peer reviews and share learning on risk reduction interventions with other NGOs active in disaster risk management. 4. To influence policy makers at all levels involved in disaster management and development planning to adopt a livelihood-centred approach to disaster risk management. This will be done through: o Providing evidence of the positive impact of a livelihood-centred approach to disaster risk management on the livelihood assets of poor people through collation and analysis of past and current projects; o Working in partnership with regional networks, such as Duryog Nivaran and LaRed, and international networks such as ALNAP to disseminate project findings and provide a platform for policy discussion and advocacy; o Forming strategic alliances with other NGOs active in disaster management to promote joint actions in support of regional or international policy developments.

4 The area of operation (Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe) is plagued with recurring droughts and is the province with the highest levels of food insecurity. It falls in the driest region in the country, where the major livelihood viably possible is cattle ranching. Rain fed agriculture is not profitable and is often not an option in many locales. The situation is further compounded by the fact that there are few water reservoirs since it is a very low rainfall area. Many people have therefore diversified out of agriculture into harvesting forest products for both subsistence and commercial purposes. It also has occasional episodes of flash floods. Like any other province of Zimbabwe, Matabeleland South also has been plagued with HIV and AIDS.

Apart from the natural hazards mentioned above, manmade hazards have also taken their toll in the three districts. The current hyperinflationary environment in Zimbabwe has impacted negatively on livelihoods and survival strategies. Inflation stands at 8000% and this has resulted in many people not affording the basic commodities for survival, let alone school fees and other important household needs. Even those who are trying to start small income earning activities are hard hit by the high inflation and other macro- economic maladies. The project is being implemented in 12 wards5 in three Districts, namely , Bulilima and Mangwe, targeting 10 000 beneficiary households.

SUMMARY OF PROGRESS WITH PROJECT ACTIVITIES A rigorous process of awareness raising and project entry involving stakeholder consultations and assessments at provincial, district and community level was conducted, with ORAP and Hlekweni staff (Field Officers) based in the rural area wards responsible for implementation of activities on the ground. One provincial, three district and twelve ward inception meetings were held, streamlining the role of each stakeholder, and created space for buy in and assisted the project team in strengthening and value addition to existing and newly identified Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and food and livelihood security initiatives. Thus the awareness workshops have identified strategic implementing partners who have been given the mandate and support to effectively implement the

5 A ward is usually made up of 6 villages and is overseen by a ward councillor, who sits in Rural District Council meetings. A ward can have an average of 600 households (approximately 3000 people), though some have more or less than this.

5 identified initiatives. To this effect, a number of NGOs, extension and other development agencies have supported project initiatives, notably World Vision, SNV, TBT (Tchinyunyi Babili Trust), AREX (Department of Agricultural Research and Extension), Department of Veterinary Services, Matopos Research Station, ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) and the PME (Provincial Monitoring and Evaluation) unit, among others.

The lady councillor for Marula Ward, Ward inception workshop for Manama Ward, Mangwe District, addressing villagers at , in process. the Ward inception meeting, May 2007.

A Provincial stakeholder brainstorming workshop on Disaster Risk Reduction that saw participation from a wide spectrum of players, was conducted. The workshop demonstrated the central role played by ‘disaster-proofing’ development initiatives. Some of the identified initiatives included strengthening soil and water conservation initiatives, exploring more livelihood strategies away from agriculture, hazard awareness education and other forms of disaster risk reduction so as to guard the gains made in food and livelihood security.

A participatory household DRR and food security and livelihoods baseline survey was conducted in the three Districts, from mid to late August 2007. The major challenges identified by communities in order of severity were: shortages of food and water (largely located in recurrent droughts), transport, unstable prices, sanitation and health problems (HIV and AIDS). This raises implications on the need for the project to take into consideration these challenges when designing future livelihood protection and DRR interventions. A strong partnership involving Practical Action, Hlekweni Friends Rural Services and ORAP has been created through mutually agreed dialogue and

6 communication processes. Harmonisation of rural development experiences, approaches and financial management practices has been achieved through joint institutional planning and technical support meetings. Joint Management Team (JMT) meetings involving project managers meet every three months to review operations and the Steering Committee involving Directors of the three organisations meet after every four months to provide strategic direction to the project.

Facilitation Skills Training for 40 District Training Team members was successfully conducted, preceding the CBP trial run process carried out three months later. The CBP trial run was an important opportunity for testing the CBP manual and to train District Training Teams (DTTs) from other districts to enable them to go and facilitate the production of community based plans for their wards. Adopting a multi-stakeholder approach and creating space for other organisations such as World Vision and government departments was an effective strategy to spread knowledge on the CBP process.

Community Based (Disaster Risk Management) Planning (CBP), (CBDRM) Community Based Planning was piloted in Zimbabwe’s Gwanda and Chimanimani Rural Districts in 2002. The planning system seeks to engage poor and vulnerable groups in communities to improve the quality of their plans, improve the quality of services and to influence resource allocation. These development plans will be integrated into the local authority plans and subsequently into the central government budgeting cycle.

The benefits for conducting CBP in Zimbabwe are; Opportunities for promoting community empowerment and ownership in the development process. A reliable method for obtaining realistic and focused plans at ward level. Potential for integrating ward (micro) and local authority level (meso) plans. Harmonisation and integration of plans of various actors at ward and district level. Identification of additional sources of revenue for implementing local plans.

7 Opportunities for capacity building for institutions operating at sub-district level. Transparency in the selection and prioritisation of projects at all levels. Opportunities for improved accountability during project and programme implementation. (Gumbo, D.,2007)

Stages in Community Based (Disaster Risk Management) Planning 1. The first step was to conduct a community leadership debriefing meetings in the 12 wards. The meetings preceded actual planning and were held a week or two before the actual planning week. The CFT first met the community leadership and the ward committee. The objective was to explain the CBP process to the community leadership and get them to mobilise the different sections of the community. Full community participation enhances community ownership as people realise this is their process that demands local action and not only resources from outside.

Community debriefing for CBP

2. The second step was community debriefing. Here village heads called for village assembly meetings. The aim was to mobilise representatives of many different sections of the community. Two or three villages would attend one debriefing meeting whose duration ranged from 2-3 hours; therefore the CFT in each ward could do up to two debriefing meetings per day.

By the end of this meeting:

8 The broad community in the each village understood background information on CBP, the objectives of CBP, the planning process and expected outputs The broad community was committed to supporting an inclusive planning process (which prioritised the needs of all people including marginalised/vulnerable groups) The main socio-economic groups were identified and each socio-economic group selected a representative to participate in the intensive planning process.

3. The third step involved collection of background information on the ward. This background information was collected by the CFT members between preplanning and the actual planning week and pooled together at the beginning of the planning week so that it could be validated and updated in the planning sessions or any gaps in it could be identified and filled. Examples of information collected included: basic statistics on the people who live in the community (number of people, number of households, number of people in different age groups, different ethnic groups). Infrastructural information: number and location of boreholes, number of houses with and without pit latrines etc. Health records. Disease patterns, understanding the main diseases/illnesses that people suffered from and when (e.g. malaria, rainy season and the under 5s) Understanding soils and land capabilities, understanding the main crops and varieties that people grow and the diseases they suffer from. information on who are the service providers in the ward (government and non governmental organisations). Their future focus, their direct community investment and finding out whether they would be present at the intensive planning or would send their resource envelope. 4. The next step was the intensive community based planning process. Crucial at this juncture was to present the findings of the pre-planning meeting concerning the

9 different socio-economic groups identified in the community. These were discussed and amended to develop a final list.

Community hazard risk mapping, Community hazard risk mapping, Natane Madabe Ward, Mangwe District Ward, .

Technical backstopping…Practical Action Video case study during Livelihoods and DRR International DRR Project Coordinator training for DTT and CFT, Mangwe and Pieter Van Den Ende closely following a CBDRM Bulilima Districts. planning workshop in Mangwe rural area, Zimbabwe.

Participatory vulnerability and capacity Group work during Livelihoods and DRR assessment in session, Madabe Ward. training for the DTT and CFT, Gwanda District.

10 5. The community plan then took shape through the use of a variety of PRA tools. It was then compiled by a team chosen from the CFT, after which it would be presented back to the community for comments and revision. The plan would then be submitted to the Rural District Council and ready for implementation.

DISCUSSION We have seen how rural communities in drought prone rural Zimbabwe are taking action to reduce the impact of hazards and disasters on their livelihood asset base. This is being done against a background of changing climate patterns even in Matabeleland South Province. At the beginning of October 2007, this usually arid region experienced unexpected heavy rains even before the beginning of the ‘known’ rainy season in the country. Last winter (June 2007), the same area that usually has very high temperatures also experienced frost, which in some cases led to destruction of crops like tobacco and some horticultural crops. Even in the early stages of this project, we see the signs of climate change impinging upon rural people’s livelihoods, making an inquiry into climate change imperative. Longer term climate predictions can inform strategic decisions about the location and approach of development interventions. Short-term and medium term climate monitoring should be strengthened. This should not be dominated by meteorology, but should focus on how climate is affecting poor people’s livelihoods, and how the poor perceive this (DFID Key Sheet 5, p. 3).

In many cases, responses to climate change may be a case of strengthening current development initiatives, rather than doing anything differently. Africa currently has a ‘relief culture’ that should be discouraged. Focus should rather be on ‘risk reduction’ or risk management culture that focuses more on social protection, preventative measures, and promoting increased resilience through access to markets and income generation opportunities. Pro-poor economic growth that is resilient to climate variability and enhanced policies and institutional mechanisms for reducing the vulnerability of the poor to shocks are imperative. In Matabeleland Province, a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan has been unveiled, and this still needs refining as it does not explicitly address climate change issues. There is also a Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan, spearheaded by

11 World Vision Zimbabwe under the auspices of the Provincial Administrator’s office. Although this is a good starting point in disaster mitigation issues, largely missing from the plan is input from grassroots community and risk reduction measures, particularly to slow-onset disasters like HIV and AIDS and drought.

The Zimbabwe DRR project is putting emphasis on the key role played by knowledge generation and dissemination on climate change and disaster risk reduction. Coupled with this will be an emphasis on the need for more evidence of effective responses by individuals and governments to current and increasing climate variability. There are plans to translate the current livelihoods and DRR training manual into the local vernacular languages to enable accessibility of information to a wider grassroots audience. This can inform the identification of effective adaptation responses.

The linkage between macro-level policy and institutional arrangements is seen in the shrinking economic base that appears to stifle DRR efforts. As the economic climate gets more intricate, rural communities are being faced with dwindling alternative livelihood diversification options out of agriculture, causing them to even further exploit the degraded natural resource base. This could lead to a vicious cycle of poverty, environmental destruction and vulnerability. The major challenge is the fragmented nature of pieces of legislation dealing with disaster management and above all the weaknesses of the Civil Protection Act. It is apparent that disasters affect the environment and people, more than anything else. However, in Zimbabwe, different administrative sections handle disaster management and environmental management. There is need to rethink this arrangement in the light of coordination, attitudes, and accountability.

Some DRR approaches include climate insurance, though this project has not taken this on board owing to a number of limitations. There is a small climate insurance market in Africa owing to a number of reasons. Insurance companies are finding past climate variability a poor predictor of future risks, leading to volatile markets and costs of insurance. Climate change will probably increase demand and/or need for insurance, while at the same time increasing its cost. This therefore makes climate insurance less

12 attractive to poor regions like Southern Africa. Climate variability, drought and poor people’s vulnerability are not taken as separate emergency issues in this project. Africa has highly variable and unpredictable climate. For example, rainfall in the Sahel varies for the region as a whole, over short distances, from year to year, and within single seasons (DFID Key Sheet 10). Baseline data on African climate, which is essential to drive models of future climate, is sketchy at present. El Nino has dominant influence on climate patterns in Africa – it is linked to reduced summer rainfall in South East Africa (e.g. the drought in Southern Africa in 1991/2), and to higher than average rainfall in Eastern Africa-but it is not fully understood, and is mixed up with the effect of climate change.

Models of climate change suggest that climate in Africa will become more variable, for instance, in the next 50 years: Africa is likely to get drier in the northern and southern latitudes and wetter in the tropics. These overall trends hide variations between regions and countries, for example Southern Africa may be drier as a whole but some countries may be wetter than average. The frequency and intensity of severe weather events is likely to increase, among other key predictions. Food security is likely to be affected by increased frequency and intensity of droughts and/or floods. Trends such as the rising burden of HIV and AIDS and the impact of prolonged conflict are reducing the ability of the poor to cope with the existing climate. If current AIDS trends continue in Africa, it is predicted that life expectancy will fall to below 30 years of age by 2010. It is already changing social structures in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, 2.2 million people are living with HIV and AIDS, and 600 000 children have been orphaned by the pandemic, losing both their immediate and extended families.

In the spirit of enhancing community participation and ownership, the government of Kenya has developed a community based surveillance questionnaire that collects information on the movement of pastoralists and the length of time and distance to fetch water supplies. This early warning system forms part of a wider natural resource and drought management program that supports building institutional capacity for contingency planning. In South Asia, the concepts and practices of community based

13 disaster management and risk reduction are receiving widespread recognition. These approaches (like the one adopted in this project), emphasise community based risk assessments and vulnerability and capacity analysis, with a prime role assumed by the communities at-risk. Community perspectives and practices need to be integrated into disaster risk reduction policies (South Asia Disaster Report, 2005: 127). Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) is a useful tool in disaster preparedness and response. The essence of PVA is for the community not only to develop community action plans, but also to have their confidence built through valuing their knowledge and to constantly seek opportunities to enhance their resilience to difficult conditions6. The RV (Reducing Vulnerability) Social Scientist is developing the livelihoods monitoring tool that will capture key issues regarding people’s livelihoods in the current environment and will act like an early warning system/disaster preparedness tool. Community volunteers will be trained on data collection- to be implemented in all our project areas under RV.

Development has tended to overlook DRR owing to ‘…a perverse architecture of incentives stacked against disaster risk reduction’, (DFID, 2004: 4). It is generally a long- term, low visibility process with no guarantee of tangible results in the short-term. Furthermore, both donors and NGOs are under pressure to disburse and expend funds efficiently and within relatively short time spans, while DRR is a longer term, lower-cost but relatively staff intensive process.

CONCLUSION This project will no doubt benefit a lot from the climate change, hazard, poverty, development and vulnerability interface, which continues to yield new lessons and trends through research on the direct experiences of communities and regions affected by climate change and hazards. Far removed from the various contestations and international relations implications of climate change ostensibly through atmospheric pollution, the poor rural communities will still need to engage in activities that protect their assets from the impacts of climate change and other hazards and strengthen their livelihood base, upon which their survival depends.

6 ActionAid, PVA Case Studies, [email protected]

14 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AREX : Department of Agricultural Research and Extension CBDRM : Community Based Disaster Risk Management CBP : Community Based Planning CFT : Core Facilitation Team DFID : Department For International Development DRR : Disaster Risk Reduction DTT : District Training Team GDP : Gross Domestic Product ICRISAT : International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics IFIs : International Finance Institutions JMT : Joint Management Team MDGs : Millennium Development Goals NGO : Non-Governmental Organization ORAP : Organization of Rural Associations for Progress PME : Provincial Monitoring and Evaluation Unit PADET : Patriots for Development Trust PRA : Participatory Rural Appraisal PVA : Participatory Vulnerability Analysis RV : Reducing Vulnerability SNV : Netherlands Development Organisation TBT : Tchinyunyi Babili Trust UNDP : United Nations Development Program

15 BIBLIOGRAPHY A Global Report, ‘Reducing Disaster Risk, A Challenge for Development’, Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery, UNDP, New York, 2004.

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