Japanese pitch accent and the English-speaking learner: A study of production, perception and teaching

Kaoru Umezawa

Submitted for the degree of PhD in Phonetics, University College London, 2001 ProQuest Number: U641889

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ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT

The pitch accent system is a prominent and characteristic feature of spoken Japanese, and an important facto* in the intelligibility and acceptability of Japanese spoken by learners of the language. The aim of this thesis is to clarify some of the major problems in the acquisition of the pitch accent of Japanese (at an isolated word level) by English-speaking learners. Extensive data and analysis from both controlled experiments and actual classroom activity are presented.

Some major charactmstics of Japanese pitch accent are described in Chapter 1, followed by Chapter 2 which presents a survey of how Japanese pitch accent is currently taught A questionnaire distributed to teachers of Japanese in the UK, Japan and Canada was used to gather information about the attitudes of teachers to pronunciation teaching and the practical problems encountered. The results show that pronunciation teaching in general, and pitdi accent teaching in particular, are often accorded low priority and are restricted from lack of time. The chapter also includes a systematic analysis of the methods and materials offered by a range of current textbooks and teachers' manuals. Chapter 3 deals with previous studies of second language acquisiti(XL Chapter 4 repots on an e^qxriment seeking common tendencies in the pitch accent errcxs made by advanced Enghsh-speaking learners. It is clear however that individual speakers seem to have their own favourite patterns which they impose on various target types; the absence of uniform trends indicates that straighfr(^ard interference from EngUsh cannot be an explanation for errors at this level. Chapter 5 reports an e?q)eriment conducted with English monolingual subjects to induce intoference fron English word-stress rules on Japanese-like words embedded in English; the results are in accordance with prediction, but remc^ from the errors made by subjects in the actual process of learning Japanese. Chapter 6 reports data gathered in teaching a cohort of 31 students over a period of eleven weeks in a British university. A range of language-laboratory tasks covered discrimination, identification, imitation and notation of pitch-accent patterns. Considerable differences m the relative difGculty of different tasks are revealed. Among major findings is the result that tasks depending on perceptual or imitative skills produce hig^ scores, while many of the learners' own production errors can be explained as lack of lexical knowledge.

The thesis demonstrates that the difSculties faced by English-speaking learners are more conq>lex than has generally been supposed, and it is hoped that the thesis will lead to concrete and practical improvements in the teaching of pitch accent. Acknowledgements

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Mr Michael Ashl^, my supervisor at University College London^ for his patient and constant advice and positive encouragement throughout the lengthy period of time I spent to complete this research. My thanks should also go to all the members of staff of Phonetics section at Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, UCL, for their warm and patient support, especially. Professor John Wells, Mrs Jill House, Mr Y. M. Le Clezio, Mr Stephen Nevard, Dr Andrew Faulkner, and Mrs Molly Bennett. I would also like to thank all those who helped / participated in my experiment or questionnaire survey; Professor D.W.Anthony and all the staff at the Centre of Japanese Studies, in Cardiff Business School, University of Wales College of Cardiff, for giving me an opportunity to teach Japanese for a year and at the same time to collect precious data from the students. Ms Kyoko Yuri at that department later helped me to distribute and respond to my questionnaire. Mr Teruyuki Zushi at the Institute of International Education in London has also given me an opportunity to teach in the Japanese teachers’ training course at his institute from which I received many insights about the situation of teaching Japanese, and he later helped me with distributing the questionnaire. Mrs Miwako Kashiwagi at SOAS not only helped me with the questionnaire but also agreed to have an informal interview and explained about her original method of pronunciation teaching, 'pronunciation clinic*. Ms Yasuko Shirasu at King Alfred’s College Winchester also helped with the questionnaire and an interview. Ms Ruth Horie helped me distribuing the questionnaire at University of Victoria, in Canada. Professor Tanomu Kashima at Nagoya University also helped me with the questionnaire and gave an encouragement to my study. My special thanks go to Ms Ikumi Ozawa at the International Christian University, who gave me precious advice based on her long experience in teaching Japanese; helped me with distributing all the questionnaires in Japan; and with collecting many of the relevant research articles from Japan. I am most grateful to the Heiwa NaJkajima Foundation, who gave me the funding for my study in the UK for my first 2 years. I am also very grateful to the staff at International Lutheran Student Centre, where I stayed over a long period of time, for providing me with warm emotional support; without that warm and stable environment, I could not have achieved my goal. My deepest thanks go to all my fnends, especially. Dr Mervin Hutabaiat, Mrs Vickie Wong and Mr Micky Chan, Mr Tony Tiaboulsee and Mrs Valerie Dahl,who spent long hours helping me solve my computer problems. I am also grateful to Ms Chikako Hashimoto and everyone at St Gregorius Hause in Japan for their warm support. Lastly, I would like to thank my mother for being so patient and understanding about me studying abroad. TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of tables...... 8 List of figures ...... 10

Introduction...... 15

Chapter 1 Pitch accent in Japanese 1.1 General characteristics 1.1.1 Pitch accent amoung various accent systems of world languages ...... 19 1.1.2 Definition...... 21 1.1.3 Mora vs. syllable...... 21 1.1.4 Pitch levels ...... 22 1.1.5 Pitch types and characteristics ...... 23 1.1.6 Function...... 24 1.1.7 Pitch accent and intonation ...... 25 1.1.8 Tsuzuki-agari' (=continuous H) and Tsuzuki-sagari' (=continuous L) pitch accent in connected speech ...... 26 1.2 Pitch accent and part of speech 1.2.1 Nouns...... 27 1.2.2 Verbs...... 32 1.2.3 Adjectives ...... 32 1.3 Accent pattern in relation to word length ...... 33 1.4 Pitch accent with long syllables ...... 36 1.5 Pitch accent marking system ...... 37 1.6 Pitch accent in teaching J^anese 1.6.1 The importance of teaching pitch accent ...... 40 1.6.2 How it can be taught ...... 41 1.6.3 Some recent research on pronunciation teaching of Japanese ...... 42

Chapter 2 Treatment of pitch accent in teaching Japanese as L2 2.1 Introduction...... 44 2.2 Questionnaire 2.2.1 The design...... 44 2.2.2 Subjects...... 44 2.2.3 Results...... 45 2.2.4 Summary and discussion...... 84 2.3 Pronunciation teaching in teaching materials 2.3.1 Irttroduction...... 91 2.3.2 The textbodcs ...... 92 2.3.3 Pronunciation teaching textbooks for teachers ...... 102

2.3.4 The video of a model class of pronunciation teaching ...... 106 2.4 Discussion and conclusions...... 109

Chuter 3 Some studies on L2 phonology 3.1 Foreign accent ...... 114 3.2 SLA overview 3.2.1 LI interference and Contrastive Analysis ...... 116 3.2.2 Interference and phonology ...... 119 3.2.3 Interlanguage ...... 119 3.2.4 Age factor in L2 phonology ...... 120 3.3 Some research in IL phonology 3.3.1 Some characteristics of IL phonology ...... 123 3.3.2 Some researches on IL {«"osody...... 126

Chapter 4 Error analysis I 4.1 Introduction...... 128 4.2 Method 4.2.1 Subjects...... 129 4.2.2 Text...... 129 4.2.3 Procedure...... 132 4.2.4 Auditory analysis...... 132 4.3 Observations 4.3.1 Rate of errors...... 134

4.3.2 Favoured patterns ...... 138

4.4 Discussion and conclusions...... 141

Chapter 5 Error analysis II: English stress intereference on J^>anese/Japanese-like words 5.1 Introduction...... 145 5.2 Method ...... 145 5.2.1 Subjects...... 145 5.2.2 Texts...... 146 5.2.3 Procedure...... 154 5.3 Result...... 154

5.4 Discussion and conclusions...... 158

Chapter 6 Error analysis m 6.1 Introduction...... 159 6.2 Method 6.2.1 Subjects...... 159 6.2.2 Data (tasks)...... 159 6.2.3 Procedure...... 160 6.3 Observations 6.3.1 Scores of 6 tasks...... 161 6.3.2 Tendencies of the errors ...... 164 6.4 Discussion and conclusions 6.4.1 Scores of 6 tasks...... 199 6.4.2 Tendencies of the errors ...... 199 6.4.3 Summary...... 203

Chapter 7 Discussion and conclusions 7.1 Problems in teaching {H'onunciation / pitch accent ...... 205 7.2 LI interference fiom the English stress accent system to the Japanese pitch accent system ...... 206 7.3 Tendency of errors in different tasks...... 208 7.4 Further studies...... 209

Bibliography ...... 211

Appendices 1. Phonemic inventory of Japanese ...... 217 2.(^estionnaire (in Japanese) ...... 219 3.(Questionnaire (in English) ...... 227 4. Test words (chapter 4 ) ...... 234 5. Test words (chapter 5 ) ...... 237 6. Test words (chapter 6 ) ...... 239 7. Boxplot ...... 248 8. The number of errors according to the number of mora ...... 249 9. The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern...... 255 10. Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns ...... 261 11. Errors sorted by syllable structures (task a...... ) 272 12. Errors sorted by syllable structures (task b...... ) 276 13. Errors sorted by syllable structures (task c...... ) 281 14. Errors sorted by syllable structures (task d )...... 288 15. Errors sorted by syllable structures (task e...... ) 291 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Accent types of noun...... 28 Table 1.2 Accent pattern in relation to word length ...... 34 Table 1.3 Number of cases for each accent pattern in relation to word length (horn the full list of the words used for the pitch accent learning task in chapter 6 ) ...... 35 Table 1.4 Number of cases for each accent pattern in relation to word length (fitnn the list of the words used for the pitch accent learning task in chapter 6: redundancy omitted) ...... 35 Table 1.5 Various ways of pitch accent maiking ...... 38

Table 2.1 Japanese pronunciation teaching in textlxx*s (i) ...... 94 Table 2.2 Japanese pronunciation teaching in textbooks (ii) ...... 99 Table 2.3 Japanese pronunciation teaching in textbooks (iii) ...... 101

Table 4.1 Fourteen types of pitch accent for 1-4 mora nouns ...... 131 Table 4.2 Rate of errors / 1*^ reading / subject 2 ...... 136 Table 4.3 Favoured patterns and forbidden patterns each subject made ...... 140 Table 4.4 The number of words each subject marked the same as their performance 142

Table 5.1 Twenty test words categorized by the syllable structure into 10 types ...... 147 Table 5.2 Prediction of the stress placement according to Fudge’s rule ...... 151 Table 5.3 Texts A and B ...... 153 Table 5.4 Stress realisation of the 20 test words by each subject ...... 155 Table 5.5 Result vs. prediction...... 157

Table 6,1 The most frequent error [Htch patterns and the types of pliable structure for words of different lengths / task a ...... 194 Table 6.2 The most frequent error pitch patterns and the types of syllable structure for words of different lengths / task b ...... 195 Table 6.3 The most frequent error ptch patterns and the types of syllable structure for words of different lengths / task c ...... 1% Table 6.4 The most frequent error pitch patterns and the types of syllable structure for words of different lengths / task d ...... 197 Table 6.5 The most frequent error pitch patterns and the types of syllable structure for words of different lengths / task e ...... 198 Table 6,6 Favoured patterns in task a & b...... 200

Table 7.1 The prediction and the result of the LI interference of English stress accent onto J^>anese pitch accent ...... 207 10

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 An example of Chinese tone system ...... 19 Figure 1.2 Examples of pitch accent in Japanese ...... 20 Figure 1.3 The types of phonetic units which can form a mora in Japanese ...... 22 Figure 1,4 DowndriA ...... 23 Figure 1.5 Pairs of words differentiated by accent ...... 24 Figure 1.6 Words which cannot be differentiated by the pitch ...... 24 Figure 1.7 An example where 'togo-kino' functions to indicate phrasal boundaries (i) ...... 24 Figure 1.8 An example where 'togo-kino' functions to indicate phrasal boundaries (ii) ...... 25 Figure 1.9 Some examples of 'tsuzuki agari' (a and b) and 'tsuzuki sagari' (c and d )...... 26 Figure 1.10 Examples where the accent avoids falling on /Q/, /N/, /R/ and the second element of a vowel sequence ...... 37 Figure 1.11 Examples where accent avoids falling on an unvoiced vowel ...... 37

Figure 2.1 Time devoted to pronunciation teaching in the classroom (UK) ...... 47 Figure 2.2 Time devoted to pronunciation teaching in the classroom (Japan) ...... 47 Figure 2.3 Time devoted to pronunciation teaching in the classroom (Canada) ...... 47 Figure 2.4 Time devoted to pitch accent teaching in pronunciation teaching (UK)...... 49 Figure 2.5 Time devoted to pitch accent teaching in pronunciation teaching (Japan) ...... 49 Figure 2.6 Time devoted to pitch accent teaching in pronunciation teaching (Canada) ...... 49 Figure 2.7 Is the pitch accent presented every time new vocabulary is introduced? (UK)...... 54 Figure 2.8 Is the pitch accent presented every time new vocabulary is introduced? (Japan)...... 54 Figure 2.9 Is the pitch accent presented every time new vocabulary is introduced? (Canada)...... 54 Figure 2.10 Once introduced, how often do you give the students instruction in pitch accent? (UK) ...... 55 11

Figure 2.11 Once introducol, how often do you give the students instruction in pitch accent? (Japan) ...... 56 Figure 2.12 Once introduced, how often do you give the students instruction in pitch accent? (Canada) ...... 57

Figure 2.13 Any practice of sound contrast in listening comprehension'? (UK) ...... 58 Figure 2.14 Any practice of sound contrast in listening comprehension'? (Japan) ...... 59 Figure 2.15 Aiy practice of sound contrast in 'hstening comprehension'? (Canada) ...... 59 Figure 2.16 Use sound contrasts for pitch accent practice? (UK) ...... 61 Figure 2.17 Use sound contrasts for pitch accent practice? (Japan) ...... 61 Figure 2.18 Use sound contrasts for pitch accent practice? (Canada) ...... 61 Figure 2.19 Is there sufficient pitch accent practice in the materials you are using? (Japan)...... 64 Figure 2.20 Are the pesent teaching materials good enough? (UK) ...... 65 Figure 2.21 Are the present teaching materials good enough? (Japan) ...... 65 Figure 2.22 How much emphasis (%) is put on the pronunciation in each task? (UK)...... 67 Figure 2.23 How much emphasis (%) is put on the pitch accent in each task? (UK)...... 67 Figure 2.24 How much em^Aasis (%) is put on the pronunciation in each task? (Japan)...... 68 Figure 2.25 How much emphasis (%) is put on the pitch accent in each task? (Japan)...... 68 Figure 2.26 How much emphasis (%) is put on the pronunciation in each task? (Canada)...... 69 Figure 2.27 How much emphasis (%) is put on the pitch accent in each task? (Canada)...... 69 Figure 2.28 Is pronunciation carefully and systematically taught in your institute? (UK)...... 70 Figure 2.29 Is pronunciation carefully and systematically taught in your institute? (J^an...... ) 71 Figure 2.30 Is pronunciation carefully and systematically taught in your institute? (Canada)...... 71 12

Figure 2.31 Why pronunciation teaching is difficult (UK) ...... 72 Figure 2.32 Why pronunciation teaching is difficult (J^xui) ...... 73 Figure 2.33 Why pronunciation teaching is difficult (Canada) ...... 73 Figure 2.34 Are you confident in teaching pronunciation? (UK) ...... 75 Figure 2,35 Are ywi confident in teaching pronunciation? (Japan) ...... 76 Figure 2.36 Are you confident in teaching pronunciation? (Canada) ...... 76 Figure 2.37 Do the students show improvement? (UK) ...... 78 Figure 2.38 Do the students show improvement? (Japan) ...... 78 Figure 2.39 Do the students show improvement? (Canada) ...... 79 Figure 3.1 Relationship of interference and developmental processes to time ...... 125 Figure 3.2 Relationship of interference and developmental processes to style ...... 125 Figure 3.3 The traditional representation of four tones of Mandarin Chinese ...... 127 Figure 4.1 An example firom the auditoiy transcription ...... 133 Figure 4.2 Two ways of correctAvrong labelling ...... 133 Figure 4.3 Rate of correct production. The errors are counted by word...... 136 Figure 4.4 Rate of correct production. The errors are counted by mora...... 136 Figure 4.5 Rank ordering of accent pattern scores / N J ...... 139 Figure 4.6 Rank ordering of accent pattern scores / EL ...... 139

Figure 5.1 En^ish stress in simple roots ...... 149

Figure 6.1 Scores in six types of task...... 163 Figure 6.2 Error rate in words of different length - Read by knowledge ...... 165 Figure 6.3 Error rate in words of different length - Mark by knowledge ...... 165 Figure 6.4 Error rate in words of different length - Listen & mark ...... 166 Figure 6.5 Error rate in words of different length - Listen & repeat ...... 166 Figure 6.6 Error rate in words of different length - Read from marks ...... 167 Figure 6.7 Error rate in words of different pitch type - Read by knowledge...... 169

Figure 6.8 Error rate in words of different pitch type - Mark ty knowledge ...... 169 Figure 6.9 Error rate in words of different pitch type - Listen & marie ...... 170 Figure 6.10 Error rate in words of different pitch type - Listen & repeat ...... 170 Figure 6.11 Error rate in words of different pitch type - Read from maries ...... 171 Figure 6.12 The number of errors in words of different error type - Read by knowledge ...... 173 13

Figure 6.13 The number of errors in words of different error type - Marie by knowledge ...... 173 Figure 6.14 The number of errors in words of different error type - Listen & mark...... 174 Figure 6.15 The number of errors in words of different error type - Listen & repeat ...... 174 Figure 6.16 The number of errcas in words of different error type - Read from marks...... 175 Figure 6.17 The number of errors in words of different type (in groiq)) - Read Ity knowledge ...... 177 Figure 6,18 The number of errors in words of different type (in group) - Mark by knowledge...... 177 Figure 6.19 The number of errors in words of different type (in group) « Listen & mark...... 178 Figure 6.20 The number of errws in words of different type (in group) - Listen & repeat ...... 178 Figure 6.21 The number of errors in words of different type (in group) - Read from marks...... 179 Figure 6.22 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / taska /2 mora words ...... 181 Figure 6.23 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task a / 3 mora words...... 181 Figure 6.24 The rate of outrait pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task a /4 mora words...... 181 Figure 6.25 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task a / 5 mora words...... 181 Figure 6.26 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task b /2 mora words...... 182 Figure 6.27 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task b / 3 mora words...... 182 Figure 6.28 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task b /4 mora words...... 182 Figure 6.29 The rate of ouqmt pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task b /5 mora words...... 182 Figure 6.30 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task c / 2 mora words...... 183 14

Figure 6.31 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / taskc/3 mora words ...... 183 Figure 6.32 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task c /4 mora words...... 183 Figure 6.33 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / taskc /5 mora words ...... 183 Figure 6.34 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task d / 2 mora words...... 184 Figure 6.35 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task d / 3 mora words...... 184 Figure 6.36 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task d /4 mora words...... 184 Figure 6.37 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task d / 5 mora words...... 184 Figure 6.38 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task e /2 mora words...... 185 Figure 6.39 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task e/3 mora words...... 185 Figure 6.40 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task e /4 mora words...... 185 Figure 6.41 The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern / task e / 5 mora words...... 185

Figure 7.1 Scores in six types of task...... 208 15

INTRODUCTION

This thesis focuses on the teaching of Japanese pitdi accent to English native speakers. The issue of pitch accent teadiing is aR)roached mainly fix>m the point of view of what is actually happening in the field of education (actual classroom activities). Thus, the material in this thesis Wls mainly into two parts: i) the actual state of affairs in the teaching of pronunciation and pitch accent, and ii) observations concerning pitch accent errors made by learners.

Part i) is conducted by means of textbook analysis and a questionnaire survey of Japanese teaching institutes in UK, Japan, and Canada. Part ii) consists of three chapters of error analysis performed on data gathered under different conditions. In part i), the importance of pronunciation / pitch accent teaching is analysed and discussed together with the commonly stated practical problems. The intention of the textbocdc analysis and survey questionnaire is to establish the real present situation of pronunciation / pitch accent teaching. Nfy hypothesis is that, generally, pronunciation teaching tends to be put aside. There are several possible reasons for that Firstly, there is some doubt about its importance, especially among the teachers. Secondly, time restriction due to the low priority of teaching pronunciation compared to other items such as grammar, vocabulary and so o i l Thirdly, the inherent difGculty of mastering it: jHommciation is generally more difGcult to correct for adult learners. Aimther possibili^ is that the teachers do not have a clear idea of how it should be t a u ^ There may not be good enough teaching materials readÿ made for such teachers. These problems could also interact in a vicious circle. If the teachers are not aware of the importance of pronunciation teaching, it will be more difScult to teach it within the existing limitations of time, materials and so on. Its difficult nature may also hinder the improvement of teaching methods and materials. But without good methods and materials, it will be more difGcult to teach the pronunciation within the limited time. As a part of pronunciation teaching, pitch accent teaching will also be very limited. By means of the survey questionnaire and textbook anafyses, I hope to confirm the existence of these problems and analyse the way th^r are perceived by teachers.

The first two experiments in part ii) (chapters 4 and 5) examine interference from the English stress accent ^stem onto the Japanese pitch accent ^stem. By examining the way the interfereiKe occurs, I am trying to make more concrete and clear the general and rather vague statements, which can often be seen in the teaching texdxx^s. Normally textbooks sinqily mention that errors result fi*om the interference of the learner’s first language, but fail to specify exactly how this comes about Theoretically there could be several possible ways in which the En^sh stress accent system might interfere with J^)anese pitch accent (chapters 1,4, and 5).

The third experiment of part ii) (chapter 6) focuses on the difSculties associated with different tasks. When learners are having (hfQculties in pronouncing the target language, there could be several causes. It could be due to the lack of the ability to perceive any difference between the sounds of the 16 target language and their own attempts. Or it could be that they can perceive the differences, but cannot control the speech organs in order to pronounce the foreign sounds. Or again, it could be the case that learners can mimic sounds immediate^ after hearing a sample pronunciation, but caimot maintain the correct acoustic image for a longer period of time. Also, certain pitch movements may be easier to acquire than others. For instance, it could be easier to acquire a falling pitch similar to an English nuclear tone than to maintain a level pitch over several syllables. It may be that an exact alignment of pitch change relative to segmental sounds is more difficult to acquire than the overall pitch movement of a word. Pitch accent marking systems are often used as a visual device for teaching, but how much pedagogical usefolness th^r have is not clear. In foct, considering that it is sometimes difficult for native speakers themselves to mark the pitch accent, it may be that learning a pitch accent marking ^stem only gives learners an extra burden. By examining the difficulties of various tasks, such asmimicking, distinguishing sounds, marking the pitch accent and so on, I am hoping to present the data of pedagogical usefulness and discuss the priorities and usefulness of using these tasks in teaching.

In these experiments, the focus is description not evaluation or experimental testing of hypotheses formulated beforehand.

The structure of the thesis is as follows: In chapter 1, some major diaracteristics of Japanese pitch accent are described. Apart from the general characteristics of Japanese pitch accent in Tokyo dialect, things that are relevant in teaching pitch accent, such as accent pattern in relation to word length, pitch accent with long pliables, and pitch accent marking ^sterns are considered.

In chapter 2, a survey of the treatment of pitch accent in teaching Japanese as L2 is conducted A questionnaire was distributed to Japanese teaching institutes in UK, Japan and Canada, and the responses (together with some follow-up interviews) are analysed A number of textbooks are also analysed to see how much of importance is put on pronunciation, and how efficient and comprehensive the (^enunciation instructions and explanations are. The results of this survey confirmed that |>ronunciation teadiing in general has low priwity because of various reasons: many teachers are not convinced of its importance, they do not know how it should be taught, it is naturally not easy to correct pronunciation, they do not feel there are good enough teaching materials or thqr are not confident about teaching and so on. These reasons (uompt teachers to neglect pixmunciati(»i training, and development of good teaching materials for it tends to be also delayed

In chapter 3, general concepts and some previous studies of second language acquisition are introduced. The main areas considered are the nature of foreign accent, first language interference as a cause of foreign accent, the characteristics of interlanguage, and the major hy(X)theses in the field of L2 (Aonology. 17

Chapter 4 consists of error analysis of the pitch accent of Japanese words read in isolation ly advanced English-speaking learners. It was expected that common tendencies in the pitdi accent errors would be observed and those would be due to interference from English stress accent However, it turned out that iixlividual speakers seem to have their own favourite patterns which they impose on various target ty ^ . The absence of uniform trends indicates that straightforward interference from English cannot be an explanation for errms at this level.

In order to observe how interference frmn English stress accent mig^t influence Japanese pitch accent, chapter 5 reports an experiment conducted with English monolingual subjects to induce interference from English word-stress rules on Japanese-like words embedded in En^ish. The results are in accordance with predictions, but this highly-controlled data is remote fiom the errors made by subjects in the actual process of learning Japanese. In other words, this type of straightforward interference can occur only if the subjects had no exposure to the target language. During the actual process of learning the learners’ interianguage will develop in a mudi more complex and idiosyncratic way. More interestingly, even if straightforward LI interference can not be observed as learners become more advanced, their speech will still be recognised as having foreign accent* from their first language. If advanced learners’ speech is still characterised as having English foreign accem* by native speakers of Japanese, it must presumabty mean that the major diaracteristics of their interianguage are still the result of LI interference. The possibility of individual differences in LI interference needs to be examined fiirtho^.

Chapter 6 reports data gathered in teaching a group of 31 students over a period of eleven weeks in a British university. A range of language-laboratory tasks covered discrinnnatioii, identification, imitatirm and notation of pitch-accent patterns. Considerable differences in the relative difficult of different tasks are revealed. Major findings of the analysts are as follows.

1. The result that tasks depending on perceptual w imitative skills produce high scores, while many of the learners’ own production errors can be explained as lack of lexical knowledge. 2. It seems to be more difficult for the learners to perceive and produce correctly the place where pitch fdls within a word than the place where pitch rises. 3. Most of the errors the learners made were within the range of acceptable pitdi patterns in Tokyo dialect This means that althou^ it is difficult for the learners to maintain lexical knowledge of the pitch accent of each word, they tend to pronounce Japanese words in more or less 'Japanese- like* pitch accent pattern. 4. The learners seem to acquire the overall shape of acceptable pattons first, before the accurate positioning of pitch 6 1 1 s and rises. 5. An examination of the correlation between the target pitch type and the error pitch type revealed that the learners seem less sensitive to pitch change at the beginning of a word than towards the end. 18

6. As the word gets longer, the number of errors tends to increase in most of the tasks, except those tasks which requires lexical knowledge. 7. Unexpectedly, the results indicated that syllable structure of the word does not affect which output error pitch pattern tends to be chosen.

The pedagogical implication from these results were as follows: Learners should learn firstly the overall pitch shape of each word, then the place where the pitdi falls- The pliable structure does not seem to be directly connected to p tdi accent, but are necessary when students learn the precise place where the pitch 611s/rises.

Among the tasks, perceiving the difference and mimiddng a sample are easier, and therefore more use of these exercises should be made in the early stages. On the other hand, those activities whidi require lexical knowledge should be used in the later stage, after suffident jxactice of discrimination and imitation. 19

CHAPTER 1 Pitch accent in Japanese

1.1 General characteristics 1.1.1 Pitch accent among various accent systems of world languages The Japanese language is well known for its characteristic accent system, called pitch accent. There is a large literature on the pitch accent in Japanese (including various dialect differences, which are considerable) and extensive surveys of this literature are contained in Haraguchi (1988), McCawley (1978), Pierrehumbert & Beckman (1988), Shibatani (1990), Vance (1987), Tsujimura (1996). I would like here to give a description of the general outline of the various approaches. Since this dissertation is meant to be mainly a contribution to teaching Japanese as a foreign language. Standard Japanese (present Tokyo dialect) will mainly be considered hereafter.

In surveys of world languages, a distinction is commonly drawn between the two categories of pitch accent and stress accent. Nakajo (1989: 93) classifies Japanese, Vietnamese, South East Asian languages such as Burmese, Central African languages such as Sudanese, Bantu, American Indian language, Lithuanian, Serbo-Croat, Ancient Greek, and Latin as examples with pitch accent, and English, German, Russian, Spanish and Italian etc., as having stress accent. He also allows the possibility of languages having both stress accent and pitch accent (his examples are Peking Chinese and Swedish) and languages having no accent (French, Indonesian, Seoul dialect of Korean, and Sendai dialect in Japanese are given as examples). Other approaches use a three-way classification of accent type: stress accent languages, pitch accent languages, and tone languages (Tsujimura, 1996: 72-78). Stress is said to be realised by the prominence of a tyUable (prominence being a combination of pitch, vowel duration, and intensity). Syllable where the stress falls tend to be pronounced higher in pitch, longer, and louder. In stress accent languages, the location of the primary stress in a word is frequently predictable (for example, many languages have a pattern of antepenultimate stress).

In tone languages such as Chinese, each syllable is assigned with a tone, which consists of high pitch, low pitch, etc., and/or of tone movements (contour tones). Which specific tone is assigned to one particular syllable is not predictable. So, for a learner of the language, tone has to be learned together with new vocabulary.

Chinese a. [mâ] "mother” (high) b. [mi] "hemp" (high-rising) c. [mi] "horse" (dipping/falling-rising) d. [mi] "scold" (high-falling) Figure 1.1 An example of Chinese tone ^stem (firom Tsujimura, 1996: 73). 20

Pitch accent, such as in Japanese, also is marked by different pitch levels. The location of the accent is not predictable. However, the pitch pattern of the entire word is predictable, if the location of the accent in a word is known. In this sense, it is the place where the pitch falls fix>m high (=H) to low (=L), if any, which matters, since the last H mora is the oi£ which is accented. a. so'ra "sky" (high-low) b. kawa* "river" (low-high) c. koko'ro "heart" (low-high-low) d. otoko* "man" (low-high-high) e. katati "shape" (low-high-high) Figure 1.2 Examples of pitch accent in Japanese (from Tsujimura, 1996: 74). Accent is indicated by " * ** after the accented mora.

The main difference between pitch accent and tone may be e?q>ressed as follows. In pitch accent, there is one place in a word where pitch Mis which is singled out as an accent, and pitch pattern is realised for each word. Once the place of the accent is given, the whole pitch pattern of the word is known. By contrast, in tone languages, each syllable potentially bears an independent tone, which is not predictable and has to be learned.

Pitch accent in Japanese is commonly contrasted with stress accent in English. The common view of this contrast is well summarized in Takeuchi (1999: 43):

The use of the term, pitch accent language, in reference to MJ is intended to provide a contrast to stress accent languages such as English (Beckman 1986). MJ resembles English in that only one syllable inside a phonological phrase is prominent, but the means of achieving prominence differ. In stress accent languages, prominence is realized by intensity on the accented syllable as well as quantitative and qualitative modifications in both the accented syllable and the adjacent ones, e.g. the English pronunciation of [ikilxinid] ‘ikebana’. By contrast, MJ pitch accent cues prominence exclusively by pitch, e.g. ike’bana [ikebana] ‘ikebana’.

As is mentioned above, stress accent consists of hitter pitch, longer duration, and greater loudness (intensity). The association of higher pitch with greater loudness may be considered a natural one. In the past, there were some people who argued that the role of intensif in Japanese pitch accent is significant; however, experiments have proved that pitch height is the main fiictor in J^janese pitch accent (Sugito,1990: 353-354; Sugito,1986: 78-80). Moreover, these same experiments, ccmfirm that pitch is the main component also in stress accent in English (rather than intensity). According to Sugito (1990), the main phonetic difference, then, in pitch accent in Japanese and stress accent in English is that, in Japanese, the vowel duration and intensity will not change according to the {utch accent, whereas in English, the vowel in an accented pliable tend to be longer, and an associated consonant will be pronounced with more intensity. The vowel quality also changes according to the stress accentuation. At the same time, the syllables that are not stressed are pronounced with vowel quality reduced. In fret English has an extreme degree of inequality among syllables. As long as 21 stressed syllables are pronounced clearly, the rest do not have to be (and indeed must not be) pronounced accurately and clearly. There is no reduction or obscuration of unaccented moras in Japanese. Another point is that Japanese pitch accent is realised as a pitch pattern for each entire word, but the realisation of English stress accent is also governed by the importance of words within an utterance. (For research on accent at the utterance/sentence level, see Sugito, 1986 ). The unit of the English stress accent is i^llable, and that of Japanese pitch accent is mora. In Japanese, there is only one place in a word where the pitch is high, but it can last over several moras. The place where the pitch falls eventually is the accented mora. In English, there can be two or more places in a word which are accented (e.g. primary stress and secondary stress), though the cues to stress (e.g. high pitch and strong intensity) affect only one syllable at a time, and are never maintained over several syllables. In Japanese, there are words which bear no accent (i.e. unaccented type), whereas in stress accent languages such as English, there are no content words lacking stress (Tsujimura, 19%: 77),

Another w ^ of looking at tW accent in the world languages is tty the variability in location of the accent in the word. Shirota (1993: 117-8) makes a distinction between two types. One type of accent is called "Kotei" accent (= fixed accent), tjecause the syllable where the accent Mis always is fixed on the same location. For example in certain languages (e g. Czech), accent always Mis on the first syllable of the word. Another language vdiich belongs to this accent type is Polish, where the accent always falls on the second syllable from the last. The other type of accent is "Jiytra" accent (= free accem), such as in Russian, in which the place of the accem in a word is not predictable. The Tokyo dialect of Japanese Mis imo this category.

1.1.2 Definition The definition of the pitch accent of Japanese, according to most of the pronunciation textbooks for teachers of Japanese, (such as Uatsuon* by Imada, 1992) is as follows: 1. It is decided for each word as a social convention (arbitrarily), 2. It consists of a relative arrangemem of high (=H) and low (=L) pitch, having moras as the unit. The first point is indicating the difference between pitch accent and intonatiort Intonation can be changed according to the speaker's feeling, imention etc., and there are some common characteristics among different languages. Pitch accent, however, is decided for each word and specific to each language or dMect The second poim is e?q)laining the 6ct that it is not the absolute pitch height which forms the accent but relative pitch height among adjacent moras.

1.1.3 Mora vs. syllable There have been numerous attempts and to defihe the notion "^liable" in terms of sonority, prominence, articulatory effort, etc (CrysM, 1990; Vance, 1987). Though many people have an intuitive or subjective concept of "tyllable", I would like to define here the syllable as a unit containing a single peak of prominence. Native speakers seem to agree in most cases on the number of syllables in an utterance, though not necessarily on the location of the boundaries between them 22

The mora is a unit of timing equivalent to a short pliable. A long syllable consists of two moras. McCawley defines mora as "something of which a long syllable consists of two and a short pliable of one" (McCawley, 1978). He calls Japanese a "mora-counting pliable language", since the accent placement and movement take place on specific syllables, and on the other hand, moras operate as a unit to measure the distance and length. Each mora is said to be roughly equivalent in its timing.

(i) V e.g. [a, e, i, o, u] (ii) cv e g. [ka, ki, ku, ke, ko] (iii) yV, wV e g. Da, ju, jo, wa] (iv) CyV e.g. [kja, kju, Igo] (v) 'N' e.g.[ifi] in [hoifi] hon "book" •Q' e.g. the first [t] in [hatto] hatto "suddenly" •R' e.g. the latter part of long vowel: [e] in [heeja] heiya "field' Figure 1.3 The types of phonetic units which can form a mora in Japanese (Hattori, 1991: 9)

1.1.4 Pitch levels Modem treatments identify each mora as either H or L in pitch. Older accounts sometimes used more than two levels (Terakawa & Kusaka, 1944: 19-26). (There may, however, be pitch accent languages in the worid which have more than 2 level pitch heights. See Nakajo, 1989: 95).

Pitch levels here are relative within each q>eaker's range. So, what is H in absolute FO in one speaker's utterance is not necessarily assigned as H in another speaker's. Whether the syllable is H or L is in general relative to other nearby syllables. For example, in a teacher's manual CHatsuon* by Imada, 1981: 94), it is explained that the pitch height of "sa ku ra" (LHH) in a little girl's utterance and in an adult male's utterance are different in terms of "absolute FO", and the "L" in the former can be higher than "H" in latter. Vance also calls attention to "downdrift", that is, the "the pitch falls gradually fix)m the beginning to the end of a ^ta c tic unit such as a phrase or clause" (Vance, 1987: 78). Because of the influence of this, "in a sequence HH or LL, the second mora is on a significantly lower pitch than the first mora." (Vance, 1987: 78). 23

voice range ZJ

H underfying / H varying L voice L register

za ra za ra

Figure 1.4 Downdrift - even within the same qieaker's utterance, what is H is not always higher than what is L. (Vance, 1987: 79).

1.1.5 Pitch types and characteristics There are some general characteristics of pitch accent in the citation forms of words. Firstly, the first mora and the second are always difTerent in pitch. In other words, if the first mora is H, the second mora is L, and vice versa. Thus, types such as LLHH, HHLL, LLLH etc, are not possible. However, if the first two moras compose an unaccented long i^Uable with W or V/N/, they are either HH or LH depending on the speaker. If the unaccented long syllable is with V/Q/, it could be treated either LH or LL. When a long syllable is accented, the accent a lw ^ falls on the first mora of that syllable(=HL). The second characteristics is that, once the pitch drops after the mora which bears the accent, it will never go up again within a same word Cword* includes any attached particles). Thus, the types like HLLH, LHLH, HLHH etc, are not possible. In this way, an n-moia noun has oH-l types of pitch accent (See section 1.2.1, table 1.1). Verbs and adjectives generally have fewer possibilities.

The most common classification for the pitch accent types is to divide firstly between accented and unaccented words, then the accented words are classified according to the place where the pitch falls, that is, the accented mora. The accented words are traditionally classified into three types, which are, ’’head-high" type, "middle-high" type, and "tail-high" type. (See section 1.2.1, tablel.l)

The final accented type and unaccented type, which are both ending with H, can be distinguished when the subject marker particle 'ga' or ’wa’ is attached to it. When the word is unaccented, the pitch keeps H on the following particle ’ga’, but in case of final accented type, the pitch goes down to L on the following particle. For the analysis of accent shift and so on, accent type is conunonly categorised, first, into accented and unaccented, and second, the place of accent is indicated, if any, by counting 24 the number of moras from the end of the word to the accented mora. For example, /ka ta tsu* mu ri/ (=snail) has an accent on the third mora from the end.

1.1.6 Function It has been pointed out that there are two main functions of Japanese pitch accent, whidi are called, *benbetsu-kinoo' (=the function to differentiate the meaning of the words), and 'toogo-kinoo' (=the function to indicate the phrasal boundaries in a sentence). The examples of the henbetsu-kinoo' are as follows: a. /ha* si/ (HL) (=chopsticks) vs. /ha si'/ (LH) (=bridge) b./a* me/(HL) (=rain) vs. /a me/(LH, unaccented) (=candy) c. /a* ki/ (HL) (=autumn) vs. /a Id/ (LH, unaccented) (^vacancy) d. /ha'i/ (HL) (=yes) vs. /ha i/ (LH, unaccented) (=ashes) e. /ka'n/ (HL) (=can) vs. /ka n/ (LH, unaccented) (=sense) Figure 1.5 Pairs of words differentiated by accent, (from Tsujimura, 1996: 76).

Complete homophony, including identical pitch accent treatment, can of course be found in Japanese. In these cases, it is only from context that we can differentiate the meaning. a. /ko’oki/ (HLL) (=second semester) b. /ko'oki/ (HLL) (=noble) c. /ko'oki/ (HLL) (=chance) Figure 1.6 Words which cannot be differentiated ly the pitch, (from Tsujimura, 1996: 76).

In fact, the differentiation of otherwise identical words by means pitch accent is not particularly common in Japanese:

Yet it is diffcult to maintain that differentiation of homonyms is the essential function of the accent in view of the fact that accent distinguishes fewer than 9 per cent of 417 homophones and that more than half of all words in standard modem dictionaries are unaccented. (Takeuchi, 1999:47)

The other function 'toogo-kinoo' is said to be more 'primary*. Exanq)les are as follows:

a. /o'o 0 000 / (HLL/LHH) (=cover the king) b. /o'o 0 00 *0 / (HLL/LHL) (=let’s chase the king) c. /o' 0 oo'o/ (HL/LHL) (=let’s chase the tail) d. /o' o 000 / (HL/LHH) (=cover the tail) Figure 1.7 Examples where 'toogo-kiixx)' functions to indicate phrasal boundaries (1) (from Otsubo, 1990: 31).

Another exan^le of this function is as follows. 25

a. /niwa ni’wa niwatorigairu/ (LH HL LHHHHHEQ (=There are chidcens in the garden.) b. /niwa ni’wa ni’wa torigairu/ (LH HL HL LHHHH) (=There are two birds in the garden.) Figure 1.8 Examples where ’toogo-kinoo’ functions to indicate phrasal boundaries (2) (from Nagara, 1993: 95).

This second function is claimed to be more important and more productive in the Japanese language.

1.1.7 Pitch accent and intonation This particular study does not go beyond the level of word accent. An examination of pitch accent in longer sequences must be left for future work. However, a brief mention must be made of the interaction of pitch accent in an utterance with intonation, and the implications for teaching. Intonation also is marked ly pitch movement like pitch accent. The unit of the pitch accent is a word, whereas intonation is the change of the pitch over time in a sentence. Each ’breath group’ is the unit of intonatioiL In Japanese, the pitch accent of the word does not change according to the change of the imonation. Even though certain aspects of intonation patterns appear to be universal (for example, most languages have rising pitch at the end of interrogatives) the w ^ that rising intonation is imposed upon the pitch accent of the final word is unique in Japanese. There is thus scope for potential mistakes 1^ learners, whose native language is, for instance, English. Mizutani (1990: 94- 96) gives an example of the problem an English native speaker could 6ce when they leam the pitch accent, by the intervention of intonation. Suppose, they are taught the foUowing verbs with accent in isolation.

a) /i ku/ (LH) (=go), /su ru/ (LH) (=do), /Id ni/ (LH) (=wear) b) /no’ mu/ (HL) (=drink), /mi’ru/ (HL) (=look), /ku ru/ (HL) (=come)

When the above two pitch pattern groups have been acquired, then learner might move on to conversation drill using these verbs. For exanq)le:

A) ” jaa, ^ ? " (=Are you going, then?) B) ” un, iku. ” (=Yeah, I’ll go.)

Substituting verbs fiom the two groups for the underlined verbs is likely to give rise to a systematic pattern of errors. The problem likely to occur for the words in group a) would be that they would change the pitch accent fiom LH type to HL ^pe in the statement sentence B). This is because, in English, the pitch generally has a final fall for a statement. On the other hand, when the learners insert the words fix)m group b) into those sentences, th^r tend to make a mistake in the way they superimpose the rising intonation in the interrogative sentence A) onto the felling pitch accent. In correct (native) pronunciation of that sentence, the pitch rising of the intonation should h^rpen within the last mora, but learners tend to change the pitch accent itself firom HL to LH, so that a rising pitch 26 replaces the pitch accent fell. Thus, "jaa, /ku* ru/ (HL)?** would be pronounced as /ku ru/ (LH), when the correct pitch movement would be to add the rise in the mora /ru/ (i.e. /ku* ru/ (HLH)).

1.1.8 Tsuzuki-agari* (=continuous H) and *tsuzuki-sagari' (=continuous L) pitch accent in connected speech. When individual words are connected into a longer sequence such as phrase or sentence, the individual word accents will be 'smoothed* into a continuous curve. The terms *tsuzuki-agari* and *tsuzuki-sagari* are ^ lie d by Tashiro (1975: 21) in his **Utsukushii nihongo no hatsuon** (=beautiful pronunciation of Japanese). a) /ta na ka/ (LHH) + /i chi ro o/ (LHHH) > /ta na ka i chi ro o/ (LHHHHHH), not (LHHLHHH) b) /o ha yo o/ (LHHH) + /go za i ma su/ (LHHHL)

> /o ha yo 0 go za i ma su/ (LHHHHHHHL), not (LHHHLHHHL) c) /ya ma shi ta/ (LHLL) + /ka zu o/ (LHH) > /ya ma shi ta ka zu o/ (LHLLLLL), not (LHLLLHH) d) /shi ra be te/ (LHLL) + /mi te/ (HL) + /ku da sa i/ (LHHL) > /shirabetem itekudasai/ (LHLLLLLLLL),not(LHLLHLLHHL) Figure 1.9 Some examples of “tsuzuki-agari** (a and b) and **tsuzuki-sagari** (c and d) from Imada (1992:116).

If those sequences are spoken with the individual pitch accent realised separately, the meaning does not change and it would certainly be understood. However, the speech sounds unnatural , like computer or machine speech. Mizutani (1990: 93-4) e7q>lains this phenomenon as *jun-akusento* (=quasi-accent). That is, when the individual word accents are combined into a longer sequence, the secondary accents (i.e. the aœent of all the words except for the first one) will dis^ypear. Thus: /eki no/ (HLL) + /mae ni/ (HLL) + /nani ga/ (HLL) + /arimasu ka/ (LHHLH) > /eld no mae ni/ (HLLLLL) + /nani ga arimasu ka/ (HLLLLLLLL not (HLLHLL) + (HLLLHHLL). This is due to the effect of *downdrtft*. So, pitch *H* of /ma/ in /mae ni/ will drop to the same level as the *L* in the previous word /eki no/. Also, *HH* of /ri ma/ in /arimasu ka/ will drop to the same level as *L* in /nani ga/. In addition, he points out that *L* in /mae ni/ and /arimasu ka/ will dr<^ fiuther down, as is marked with the underline in the example above. 27

Thus, the pitch movement of the sentence above will be something like this,

H /e /na L Id no ma nigaarim a L e ni/ su ka/ instead of,

H /e ma /na ri ma L Id no e ni/ ni ga a su ka/

1.2 Pitch accent and part of speech 1.2.1 Nouns Favoured accent patterns vary according to part of speech, and the range of possible accent types is different in each part of speech. Nouns utilize all the possibilities of the accent types. As mentioned before, the unaccented noun and the final accented noun are distinguished by the presence or absence of the pitch fall on the subject marker particle attached to the noun. Thus, the n mora noun has n+1 accent types. 28

1 mora 2 mora 3 mora 4 mma

Unaccented unaccented hi(ga) sald(ga) sa ku ra (ga) su na ha ma (ga)

Accented tail-high yama(ga) 0 to ko (ga) ha n tsu Id (ga)

mid-high Aoka shi Sa)l sB 0 ka ze (^ ) /w * A ka ta ka na (ga) /V head-high hi(ga) ne ko (ga) mi do ri (ga) shin se tsu (ga) % "w

Table 1.1 Accent types of notm (firom Nagara, 1993: 99) N.B. 1 mora word 'hi* in unaccented type means 'sun', whereas Id' in accented, head-high type means 'fire'. 29

In terms of frequency, nouns most commonly have either unaccented or -3 type (i.e. the accent falls on the third mora from the end). The accent tends to avoid Mling on a mora preceded by W (=/R/), V/N/ or V/Q/. If such a mora is in the location where the accent frills, the accent tends to move one mora before (=to the left). As a result, words with this type of segmental structure have the -4 type. The accent also tends to avoid falling on a mora which contains an devoiced vowel. In this case, the accent shifts one mora later (=to the right) (Imada, J;q)an Foundation, 1992:105-106; Vance: 80-1). There are broadly three approaches to the phonological treatment of pitch accent: the traditional ai^roach (e g. Terakawa & Kusaka, 1944), the generative approach (e g. McCawley, 1977), and the autosegmental approach (e.g. Haraguchi, 1977a). However, we would like to focus here on more pedagogically oriented e^lanation of pitch accent phenomena, since we cannot normally teach the phonological rnles to learners of the language.

The accent type of a noun can show alternations depending on suffixation (Vance, 1987: 81-85). To take the example of 4 mora nouns, they mostly have type 0 (unaccented), followed by type -3, then -4. Type -4 is often the result of accent shift applied to type -3, when the place where accent 6 1 1 s is the 'tokushu on* (= the second element of long vowel, geminate or morale *n*). There are fewer cases of type -2, and -1 is even less. Among nouns which consist of 5 moras or more, -3 is the most common type. But these accent patterns may be affected by what is attached. For instance, there are 2 mora sufBxes which make the noun into -3 type, (examples from Bunkacho (ed ), 'Onsei to Onsei-kyooiku', 1987).

/yin/ (=people) e.g. /a me ri ka’ ji n/ /-ken/ (=prefecture) e.g. /na ga sa Id’ ke n/ /-gun/ (=district) e.g. /ka to ri’ gi gu n/ /-ken/ (=ticket) e.g. /te : Id’ ke n/ /-shitsu/ (=room) e.g. /ka i gi* shi tsu/ /-kan/ (=mansion, public building) e g. /to sho’ ka n/ /-kai/ (=meeting) e.g. / kyo : ju’kai/ /-sho/ (=ministry) e.g. /mo n bu’ sho:/ /-in/ (=member) e.g. /ka i sha’ i n/ /-kyoku/ (=office/centre) e g. /de n wa’ kyo ku/ /-ten/ (=shop) eg. /Id s sa* te n/ /-gaku/ (=field of stutfy) e.g. /re ki shi' ga ku/ /-eki/ (=station) e.g. /o : sa ka’ e Id/ /-jo:/ (=castle) e.g. /o: saka’jo :/ /-kawa/ (=river) e.g. /o : i’ ga wa/

These represent only a small sample of sufBxes having this effect.

Certain sufBxes with 2 moras make a noun into type 0. 30

/-mura/ (=village) e.g. /naga’saki/> /nagasakim ura/ /-iro/ (=colour) e.g. /mi do n i ro/ /-kata/ (=type) e.g. /ka mi ga ta/ /-ka/ (=specialist) /-kyo:/ (=religion) /-jo:/ (=a place where an event takes place) /-se:/ (=made in) /-dai/ (=price, charge) /-iki/ (=heading to, bound for) /-chu:/ (= in the middle of a certain action) /-yama/ (=mountain)

One-mora su&xes making nouns into the -2 type. The following are one-mora sujBBxes which make the accent &lls at the end of the original word, that is, just before the sufOx. (This gives the same apparent effect as sufBxes like /-ken/ shown above, except that the number of moras in the sufBx itself is different).

/-shi/ (=city) /-ku/(=ward) /-shi/ (= a man with a qualification) /-fu/(=originally a woman with a job such as cleaner, nurse etc.) /-ki/ (=instrument, container) /-shu/ (=a person with a type of job, role) /-hi/ (=cost) /-bu/ (=department) /-sha/ (=company)

Three-mora suffixes which make the resulting compound word into the -3 type. /-shirushi/ (=maik) /-kusuri/ (=medicine) /-jidai/ (=era) /-do:gu/ (=device, instrument) /-uriba/ (^counter) /-kaisha/ (^company) /-jinja/ (=shrine) /-ryo:ri/ (=cuisine, cooking) /-se:fu/ (=govemment)

Four-mora suffixes that make compounds of the -4 type. 31

/-daigaku/ (=imiversity) /-kyoikai/ (=association) /-bango:/ (=number) /-gakko:/ (=school) /-iinkai/ (=comimttee) /-ginko:/ (=bank)

Two-mora suffixes that make compounds of the -2 type.

/-shugi/ (=an ism) /-kiji/ (=aiticle) /-toshi/ (=city, town)

While there are rules (or tendencies) concerning accent pattern for nouns with 4 or more moras, there are very few generalizations to be made concerning the accent types of nouns with three moras or fewer. For the learner, memorising accent patterns would be an easier and more effective strategy than trying operate with these rules. Overall, 3 mora nouns have 0 type as the most common, followed by the -2 type. The -1 type is decreasing nowadays.

Loanwords Loan-word nouns which are written in *katakana' have most commonly type -3 or a derivative of this type affected by the length of the word (e.g. type -2 in the case of a two-mora word). Long established or frequently used loan words tend to have 0 type. Other loan words show an irregular range of types, probably because they are pronounced in the similar way as original pronunciation.

Proper nouns 4 and 5 mora proper nouns have mostly either type 0 or type -3.

The numerals There are no useful generalisations, and the pitch type needs to be memorised.

Accent effects from the addition of various particles.

The following serve to differentiate the 0 type and -1 type: /ga/ /ka/ /ya/ /to/ /mo/ Id /de/ /in/ /ga/ /ka/ /yo/ /o /. The auxiliary verb (jo doushi) /da/, also has the same effect. 32

When a 2 mora particle such as /ni'wa/ is attached to 0 type, the accent placement will be in the original position of the particle (e.g. /na ma e ni' wa/ ). If the particle is attached to other accent types, the accent placement will be in the original place of the stem (e.g. / a na' ta ni wa/ ). Among other 2- mora particles with the same effect are /dewa/ /demo/ /nado/ kamo/ hfotU /made/ /ewa/ /emo/ /sae/ /toka/ /tomo/ towa/. The possessive particle /no/ is exceptional, in that it always makes the preceding words into type 0. Words originally of type 0 will become the -1 type; e.g. /hi/ (=day), /tokoro/ (=place), /hito/ (“person), /ue/ (= up), /shita/ (=down), /uchi/ (“inside). For instance /shi ke' n no/ + / hi' ni/ (“the day of the exam). Onomatopoeia There are characteristic pitch pattern changes according to the form of onomatopoeia. /pi' ka pi ka/ > /pi ka't to/ > /pi ka ri' to/ > /pi ka pi ka da'/ /ki'rakira/>/kira'tto/>/kirari'to/>/kirakira da'/

1.2.2 Veibs Verbs and adjectives have more restriction in the possible type of accent. Verbs, in the citation form and non-past, have only two possible accent types; that is, unaccented or -2 type (i.e. the accent falls on the second mora from the last), with a few exceptions. Exactly as is with nouns, the accent shifts one mora backward or forward when the accented mora is preceded by a long syllable or when it contains a devoiced vowel. The place of the accent in verbs also varies according to its form (i.e. negative, polite, conditional form etc).

0 type verb and -2 type verb's conjugation table with the pitch accent marked: /ki ru/ / kite/ / ki nagara//ki naitoki/ 0 type

/mi'ru/ /mi' te/ /mi na'gara/ /mi' naitoki/ -2 type /i so' gu/ /i so' ide/ /i so gi na'gara/ /i so ga' naitoki/

The verb conjugation with the exceptional pitch accent pattern,

/ka' eru/ /ka' ette/ /ka e ri na' gara//kaera' naitoki/

/mo' 0 su/ /mo' o shi te/ /mo o shi na'gara/ /mo o sa'naitoki/

When /sum/ /shite/ etc. are attached, the pitch accent of the original word (stem) will remain. For more complete information about accent in verbs, see Hirayama, 1960: 918-923; Akinaga, 1985: 87-98; Martin, 1967: 251-257; McCawley, 1977: 265-266.

1.2.3 Adjectives There are only -1 or 0 accent types to be found among adjectives (similar to the case of verbs). 33

/yo' i/ /a tsu' i/ /a ka i/ /a ka ru i/

All the 2-mora adjectives are HL type (-2). All the 5 mora adjectives except for /muzukashii/ can be pronounced with LHR.L type, as well as 0 type. There are only around 30 adjectives which are type 0 among the 3 to 4 mora adjectives.

Even in Tokyo accent, the 0 type tends nowadays to show accent, e.g. / a ka i/ > /a ka' i/, /a ka ru i/ > /a ka ru' i/

Conjugations; /a ka i/ /a ka i mo no/ /a ka ku na* ni/ /a ka' ka t ta/ type 0 /ko'i/ /ko'imono/ /koTomaru/ /ko*katta/

When /ka/ or /desu/ is attached, all the accent type will become -3 or -4 type respectively: /a ka i/ /a ka' i ka/ /a ka' i de su/. Adverbs also have two possible accent types: unaccented and -2 type. The adverbial form, which ends with /ku/, is unaccented if the correqx)nding adjective is unaccented. If the adverb is derived from an accented adjective, the accent is one mora before /ku/ for some speakers, and two moras before /ku/ for other speakers. (For other forms of the adjective, see Hirayama, 1960: 928-930; Akinaga, 1985:98- 103; Martin, 1967,1968; and McCawley, 1977: 265-266).

There are, therefore, regularities in accent pattern related to parts of speech, and the summary above covers the main points which are pedagogically useful. The regularities are complex, and present a considerable memorization task, but even then are still subject to specific exceptions. From a practical point of view, there is little to choose between learning specific words and attempting to leam all the rules. In most cases, students learning Japanese appear to make consistent mistakes whichever part of speech the word belongs to. Therefore, to know which type of pitch pattern is more difficult for learners to perceive / pronounce, and to know what pitch patterns they tend to form as a result ot for instance, LI interference, will be cmdal.

1.3 Accent pattern in relation to word length The following table is simplified fium a table of "Accent pattern in relation to word length". It is based on Hattori (1991; 17), which in turn was reclassified and tabulated from Akinaga (1958). 34

1 mora 2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora 6 mora 0 fewer than almost no 0 # fivquent un­ the accented [+W] i|Extto(-3) accented nouns PÜL. -1 very rare -2 -3 ahnost a ïï relatively f+W| frequent; % W oo# to some of them. (0)

very rare very rare rather frequent

very rare; > very rare (-3) very rare

Table 1.2 Accent pattern in relation to word length. Observations from Akinaga reclassified and tabulated (Hattori 1991: 17). [+S-J]: Sino-Japanese nouns [+W]: Western loanwords most frequently found patterns

1 # ^ second most frequent patterns 35

pitch type 2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora HL... 13 LH... 14 "25 31 l 4 "38 TÏ HL-K-3) 1(HLHLL)

Table 1.3 Number of cases for each accent pattern in relation to word length (from the full list of the words used for the pitch accent teaching/test in chapter 6) pitch type 2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora HL 10 LH 11 19 22 -2 10 -3 26

HL+C-3) ICHLHLL)

Table 1.4 Number of cases for each accent pattern in relation to word length (from the list of the words used for the pitch accent teaching/test in chapter 6; redundancy omitted.) 36

Although the words ûom my tests are chosen randomly firom the vocabularies which the students had already learned, both tables 1.3 and 1.4 are roughly corresponding to the table 1.2 (by Hattori).

The words used for the tests consist mainly of nouns, but there are also quite a few verbs, adjectives, and loan words as well. The verbs are /i ku/ (=go), /su vJ (=smoke a cigarette), /a ke ru/ (=open), /a ra u/ (=wash), /a so bu/ (=play), /u ta u/ (=sing), /ha na su/ (=talk), /ta be ru/ (=eat), /o ku re ru/ (=delayed), /o shi e ru/ (=teach), /wa su re ru/ (=forget), /na ga re ru/ (=flow), /ta no shi mu/ (=enjoy), /to t te ku ru/ (=go and fetch), /de n wa su ru/ (=phone), /kai in iku/ (=go to bty), /ka t te i ku/ (=buy and go), /so 0 ji su ru/ (=clean) /i ra s sha ru/ (honorific form of 'come'), /ka t te ku ru/ (=buy and come) and /ma chi ga e ru/ (=make a mistake). The adjectives are /su zu shi i/ (=cool), /a ta ra shi i/ (=new), /a ta ta ka i/ (=warm), /i so ga shi i/ (=bu^), /me zu ra shi i/ (=rare), /mu zu ka shi i/ (=di£ficult), /o mo shi ro i/ (=interesting) and /tsu ma ra na i/ (=boring). The loan words are /pa a ti i/ (=party), /re su to ra n/ (=restaurant), /a fii ri ka/ (=Afnca), /a me ri ka/ (=America), /ko o hi i/ (=coffee), /ha i ki n gu/ (=hiking), ./ba iorin/ (=violin), /fii ra n su go/ (=French language), /supe i n go/ (=Spanish language), /cho ko re e to/ (=chocolate), /ku ra shi k ku/ (=classical), /ku ri su ma su/ (=Christmas) and /ro shi a ji n/ (=Russian person).

1.4 Pitch accent with long syllables In Japanese, the three elements /Q/, /N/, and /R/ are called "tokushu-on". All three are cases T ^re the unit 'mora' does not correspond with the unit ‘syllable' (c.f. 1.1 3). /Q/ includes part of the duration of double stop consonants or double fricatives; usually it is voiceless. Examples are /ki t te/ (=stamp), /za s shi/ (=magazine); the underlined portions represent /Q/, and are reckoned as one mora in length. Similarly, 'morale* /N/ also has one mora length, and is realised as a nasal consonant at differing places of articulation. Examples are /ho N / (=book), where the nasal may be velar, /ho n to/ (=book, where the nasal is alveolar because followed by a particle /to/, /ho m mo/ (bilabial nasal, because of the initial sound of the particle /mo/). /R/ is the second element of a Icmg vowel (e.g. /o ba a sa n/ =grandmother). In English, a long vowel such as [a:] is treated as one long syllable, but in Japanese a comparable long vowel is regarded as two moras, and twice as long as one mora. (c.f. /o ba sa n/ =aunt)

As is mentioned before (1.2), according to Imada (1992: 106), accent tends to avoid 6Uing on these 'tokushu-on' (/Q/, /N/, /R/) or on the second element of a sequence of dissimilar vowels. The accent tends to shift 1 mora to the left. Therefore, words such as the following examples can be regarded as the results of accent shift. 37 a) /ge' n ka d / (HLLL) < (HHLL) b) /bu’ k kyo0/ (HLLL) < (HHLL) c) /ka’ aten/ (HLLL) < (HHLL) d) /ma’ i ni chi/ (HLLL) < (HHLL) Figure 1.10 Examples where the accent avoids falling on /Q/, /N/, /R/, and the second element of a vowel sequence (from Imada, 1992; 106).

Accent also tends to avoid filing on a vowel which has become unvoiced. a)/kfkai/ (LHL) < (HLL) b) /shi ki n/ (LHL) < (HLL) Figure 1.11 Examples where accent avoids Mling on an unvoiced vowel (firom Imada, 1992: 106). The first vowel (italicized) is the vowel which has been unvoiced.

As is described above, it is a feature of the treatment of pitch patterns in the Tokyo dialect, that when the initial mora of a word is not accented (=L), the second mora will be H. However, when the word begins with a long syllable such as /(C)(y) W / or /(C)(y)VN/, not all the speakers will start with the pitch accent LH, but some speakers will pronounce it as HH (e.g. /ko 0 ko0 / (=high school) (LHHH) or (HHHH), /ke N to’0 / (=guess) (LHHL) or (HHHL) ). From the analogy of the LH pitch type above, when the word begins with a long syllable which includes the geminate element /Q/ (that is, /(C)(y)VQ/) and if initial mora is not accented, the pitch pattern of that syllable will be LH. This can be guessed by analogy, even though the second element of this long pliable is /Q/, which is without voice, and the pitch of that part of the sequence cannot be heard. However, some have claimed that the pattern is LL rather than LH (e.g. Haraguchi, 1977a: 34-5; Vance, 1987: 80-1). Some experiments show that the pitch movement of adjacent moras can indicate whether the pitch of an unvoiced vowel is H or L, even though strictly the unvoiced vowel has no pitch (Han, 1962: 81-2; Hattori, 1991: 78). Vance (1987) suggests that the pitch level of /Q/ could also be determined by the same means.

1.5 Pitch accent marking system Since sound is not visible and transient, we need some kind of visual cue to aid teaching pronunciation. There are several different ways of marking pitch accent The following is the 21 different ways of pitch accent marking listed in the teacher’s pronunciation manual "Hatsuon’ (Imada, 1992:101-104), plus the marking Qrstem which I used later (Chapter 6) to conduct a series of tasksto facilitate students in their learning of pitch accent (22), and the one which I both presented to students as another option of marking system than 22) and also used to indicate pitch accent throughout this thesis (23). Four mora nouns of eadi accent pattern are used to present the types of accent marking 38 A) Accented Unaccented B) head-high mid-high tail-high flat

I) (TV

2) T T T T T i i T T T ± _ h T T_h±J: (T) T±_h± (T)

3) lÉÜ üM (iÉ) (Ü5)

4) •OOOA oeooA oeeoA o e e # A © • • • ▲

5) r ; t ' / 7

6) 7 : f V 7 ^ t 7 b

7) 7 v -9 ->

8) ■7v-9-> 7 7 7 7 ^ t 7 h (m (m —t —n ______9) 7v-9-> 7777 ^ t 7 h h —j /-A y----y y----- \ ______10) 7 7 7 7 ^ t 7 h

11) 7 7 ^ 7 y t 7 h

12) Fu jisan shi^\uki a^zJra ifnotol toGiodachi

13) fpuljisan shiWyuki a/ozolra i/moto1 tomodachi

14) / 7 I y'* ry / / V 7-^r / / 7 7 7 ~ ] 7 / / ^ t 7 n / /

15) /(51 0 0 0 / /ool 0 0 / /O O Ô 1 0 / / o o o o l / /OOOO/

16) © © © © © 17) G G 0 0 18) 0 a 0 a a / 19) Hiizisan sirayuki aozoca imooto tomodad / / / // / / / / / 20) Fujisan sirayuki aozora imooto tomodachi-(ga)

21) 7 7 7 7 % 7 h (m y - ^ y V 7.4r 7 7 ^ (m h

22) j J ^ à

23) HLLL LHLL LHHL LHHH LHHH

Table 1.5 Various ways of pitch accent marking 39

A) and B) show the traditional classification of pitch accent type. The first division is 'accented* and 'unaccented* (A)). Then the accented type is subdivided into "head-high*, *mid-high*, and "tail-high*, and the unaccented type s sub-categoiy is called "flat* (B)). From 1) to 22), pitch accent is indicated using 4-mora words for each type as examples. The words are "Fujisan* (=ML Fuji), "shirayuki* (=white snow), "aozora* (=blue sky), "imooto* (=younger sister), and tomodachi* (=friends). Each marking system has its own advantages and disadvantages, depending on the purpose for which it is required. That is, some are better for phonological analysis, and others are more useful for teaching, and so OIL I now examine each marking system in detail, and consider the question of which ones are better for pitch accent practice in teaching and learning.

Firstly, the marking systems can be divided into two groups. One type consists of all those which only show the pitch accent (i.e. 1), 2), 3), 4), 15), 16) and 17) ), and the other of those which show both the segmental compoâtion and the pitch simultaneously (i.e. 5) ~ 14), 18) - 22) ). In those which show both segments and pitch accent, some of the words are written in Japanese characters ( in Katakana ^llabary in 5) ~11) and 21), Hiragana ^llabary in 22) ), and others are written in the roman alphabet,. Within these 12), 13) and 20) are in Hepburn style, and 19) is in "Kunrei-shiki' style. Among those which indicate only the pitch accent (without segments), 1), 4) and 15) use a circle symbol to represent the unit ‘mora’. In 1), the change pitch is shown visually by a change in the position of a line (above and below). The corresponding visual presentation can be seen in 21) where the Katakana syllabary is used to indicate the segments. The representation in 4) is using black circle for high pitch and white circle for low pitch. The triangle shape in both 1) and 4) represents a particle, which will differentiate the tail-high and unaccented type. The correqwnding types to 4) would be 5) and 7), where the Katakana syllabary indicates the segments, with bold tymbols for high pitch. The only difference between 7) and 5) is in the way of differentiating tail-high and unaccented. The representation in 2) uses the Chinese characters that mean "up* and "down* for high and low pitch. Similarly, 3) uses the Chinese characters that mean "high* and "low", and 23) is using the capital letters "H" and "L" to represent "high" and low".

There are several ways to superimpose the pitch accent marking on the segmental indication. Apart firom using the bold letters to indicate high pitch, as in 5) and 7), there are those in which the high pitched segment is indicated by a line over the segment as in 8),9), 10) and 11). While 8) has only the line for the high pitch indicated, 9) on the other hand has the place where the pitch Mis (if any) also indicated. In 10) both the location of the pitch rise and of the pitch Ml are indicated. There are representations which indicate only the accented mora (i.e. where pitch fidls) as in 6), 14), 15) and 19). Like 8), the form in 20) indicates all the high pitches but this time with a symbol like the IPA stress mark. 16), 17) and 18) are all indicating only the stressed mora. 18) shows the segments of the stressed mora in the Katakana tyUabary. 16) and 17) employ the numbering of moras; 16) employs counting finm the beginning of the word, and 17) counting fijom the end of the word. 40

In this thesis, I have used the system 23) whenever I needed to indicate the pitch accent pattern in the text, without indicating segments at the same time. This system is conveniem for word processing and printing, and also easy to understand for English speaking students. For teaching and giving tasks to students, system 22) was used. The pitch accent pattern is superimposed on Hiragana characters, which students leam early in their exposure to Japanese. System 22) has the further advantage (shared only with 1)) of presenting the complete pitch pattern of the word as a connected sequence - it presents, in fact, a stylized version of the pitch curve.

Hattori's experiment (1991: 97) shows that the pitch accent pattern can be retrieved from an overall pitch curve, even if there are unvoiced gaps related to e.g. unvoiced vowel, or voiceless double stop consonant such as /tt/, /pp/, /kk/. She explains this as a process of inference on the part of the listener. She concludes, ”[...]the overall pitch contour, not the place where a prominence (in our case a pitch drop) is placed, is important for the identification and differentiation of a pitch accent" (1991: 78). From this perspective, marking ^stems 1) and 22) seem more likely to be helpful as visual aids in pitch accent teaching. All in all, system 22) combines an indication of the identity of the word and the most helpful presentation of pitch accent pattern, and thus seemed the best approach to pitch accent marking in this thesis.

1.6 Pitch accent in teaching Japanese 1.6.1 The importance of teaching pitch accent We have been describing so 6 r the general characteristics of pitch accent in Japanese. It is one of the unique characteristics of this language, and needs special attention in teaching. Even if there is limited class time to devote to it, students need at the very least to be shown its main characteristics, and made aware of the difficulties it may present for them as learners.

Language learners recognize the importance of speaking skills, and most desire to develop 'good' pronunciation. To have pronunciation praised by native speakers is a great encouragemem for learners. It will reinforce good performance and boost their motivation Komai (1990: 3) points out that in most of the Japanese language teaching institutes in Japan, speaking is regarded as one of the most crucial items to teach, and considerable emphasis is placed on it.

However, the importance of pronunciation teaching itself seems a rather controversial issue. There is an entire field of academic inquiry concerned with acquisition of L2 (second language) pronunciation (much of it devoted to the investigation of LI interference). From teaching point of view, it is usually concluded that since pronunciation is extremely difficult to correct in learners who have passed puberty, it must be tackled at the earliest stage possible (i.e. begiimeFs level), and that since it is difficult to teach, anything that can be done to increase the awareness of it among teachers and learners is valuable. However, there are also teachers who think that pronunciation will be acquired naturally in the course of learning the language, and take the view that it need not be taught systematically. Native speakers of Japanese are often relatively unaware of the pitch accent system of 41

their own language, compared to the awareness they are veiy likely to have of the stress accent of English which they leam as a foreign language. Nomoto (1990: 13-15) points out that there are even native speakers of Japanese who did not know that 'accent* of any kind exists in Japanese, although they know veiy well that English has stress accent. As one of the reasons for this, he points out that there are certain dialects in Japanese which have no phonological contrasts carried by pitch, whereas stress accent always has the potential to mark phonological contrasts in every variety of English. The variability of pitch accent among native q)eakers m ^ provide another reason why it is not regarded as being of the first importance: the accent transcription of a word can be different in different dictionaries, and among native q)eakers it is possible to find accent placements different firom those indicated in the dictionaries.

One of the fimctions of Japanese pitch accent mentioned before is the *benbetsu-kiaoo' (^function to differentiate the meaning of two or more words which are otherwise homoplmnes). Some point out that the number of pairs which will be distinguished by pitch accent in this w ^ is rather low across the entire vocabulary. The teaching and learning of pitch accent is not therefore so crucial if only the differentiation of homophones is considered. But for the other fimction, toogo-kinoo' (=fiinction of segmentation of the syllables), pitch accent has a significant role. (Nakajo, 1989: 99-102; Otsubo, 1990: 31-2)

However, whatever may be its linguistic fimctions, pitch accent is one of the elements which determine the Toreignness' of Japanese speech. Being aware of the importance and the difficulty of teaching it and yet choosing to put the priority on other teaching items is a different stmy finom not even paying attention to it. Mizutani (1990:96-7) points out some of the possible reasons why accent and intonation tend not to be taken seriously and indeed to be ignored, in spite of the fact that they have a cmcial role in communication by spoken language. Firstly, native speakers of the standard (Tokyo) variety of Japanese, are not conscious of their own pronunciation, and therefore, it is difficult for them to give an appropriate instructions to the learners. Secondly, native speakers who speak other dialects often have little confidence in their own accent. Another possible reason is the inefficiency of the methodology which the teacher follows. If th ^ try to teach too much of the phonological rules for accent, students will get tired of this, and thus lose interest generally in the learning of accent

Given the range of opinions which have been expressed, it was considered worth conducting a survey on the attitudes of teachers and of teaching institutes to pronunciation teaching (especially pitch accent teaching) to see how seriously it is taken, what are thought to be the main difficulties and so otL This survey, conducted Ity questionnaire, is discussed in the next chapter.

1.6.2 How it can be taught Mizutani (1990) describes some crucial aspects in the learning of pitch accent. Firstly, he reconunends femüiarization exercises focusing mainly on pitch movement using nonsense word materials. Secondly, he advocates teaching some basic accent rules. He points out, for instance, that 42 most words (especially long words) tend to have the accent fall on the third mora from the end, and that this rule also applies productively to nonsense sequences.

Told (1989:121-135) categorises the various pronunciation practice methods. First comes physical preparation, which includes massage of &cial, neck, and shoulder muscles. A second group consists of auditoiy exercises, 1) using minimal pair, 2) comparing the model with the students pronunciation in LL(Language Lab.), and 3) temporary exaggeration of the target sound in order to draw the learner's attention. His third category is visual methods, 1) using drawings on paper such as phonetic symbols, accent marking etc., 2) anatomical explanation using the cross-section drawing of the speech organs, 3) gestures by hands, 4) showing the lip rounding etc., by the mouth, 5) the use of simple instruments such as matches (blown out by pronouncing voiceless bilabial fricative etc.), or even use of a spatula to control the tongue shape, 6) moving head, shoulder and arms in order to control the area where the tongue touches on the palate, 7) making the body tense or lax to help pronouncing certain sounds, and 8) other physical movement such as facial expressions. Comprehensive as this list seems, it consists essentially of suggestions advanced by specialists in pronunciation. We need to examine how, in real teaching situations, pronunciation teaching is normally conducted. We will make an attenqjt to observe and describe it in Chapter 2.

1.6.3 Some recent research on pronunciation teaching of Japanese When we talk about pitch accent teaching, we often do so in comparison with English stress accent Especially when the learners' first language is English, we expect the transfer of English stress accent onto pitch accent of Japanese. Sugito (1980: 107-184) presents substantial research on the comparison between English stress accent and Japanese pitch accent and also the intonation patterns of the two languages.

Research on Japanese interlanguage studies has not yet progressed veiy far. According to Nagatomo (1998), "The research on Japanese acquisition has merely started in 90's. [...] the quantity of the research on this has been increasing a lot. [...] However, the quality of this type of research has not been always sujBBcient"

In Ayusawa's experiment on French learners of Japanese (1999: 4-12), it is observed that the students' length of stay in Japan is not necessarily reflected the acquisition of pitch accent, and she points out that this result shows that the pitch accent cannot be learned naturally, but needs to be taught Sukegawa (1999: 13-25) analysed the pitch curves of advanced level learners of Japanese whose native language was Brazilian Portuguese. He comments on some interlanguage phonological effects which cannot be e^ained by first language interference alone.

Kashima (1992: 305-319; 1999: 43-51) and Told (1995: 83-94) focus on such errors as the lengthening of short vowels etc., and advocate the application of 'rhythm unit' teaching for pronunciation training. 43

Thus interlanguage phonology in the teaching of Japanese is a topic which has started getting more attention, but the range and quality of research hitherto are somewhat limited In this thesis, mainly two things are investigated. One is the questionnaire survey to get a concrete idea of the real situation of pronunciation teaching within class activities (Chuter 2). The other is the detailed anatysis of both LI interference (Chapters 4 and 5) and interlanguage phenomena (Chapter 6) in pitch accent as produced and perceived by English speakers. 44

Chapter 2 Treatment of pitch accent in teaching Japanese as L2

2.1 Introduction In this chuter, we will observe how pitch accent teaching is dealt with in the actual teaching context The general view is probably that pronunciation teaching in Japanese language teaching tends to be ignored or given low priority. There seem to be various possible reasons for that and we here make an attempt to clarify them.

In order to gather information about the general attitude of teaching staff and of the teaching institutes towards pronunciation teaching, a questionnaire was designed and distributed to Japanese teaching institutes belonging to universities in UK and Japan.

A small scale interview with a small number of Japanese teachers, who are aware of the importance of the pronunciation teaching, was conducted to support the results of the questionnaire.

In addition to the questionnaire, this chapter also presents results from a review of published materials on pronunciation aimed at students and at teachers. To see how much pronunciation is systematically presented to students, we have examined 11 of the most commonly used Japanese textbooks. To see how systematically pronunciation teaching methods and materials are presented to teachers themselves, pronunciation teaching textbooks for teachers (and a teacher's manual to accompany a textbook) are examined.

2.2 Questiormaire

2.2.1 The design The questionnaire was designed in three parts: 1) About the general view of pronunciation/pitch accent teaching Japanese language teaching institutes, 2) About pronunciation/pitch accent teaching within class activities, and 3) About individual teacher's opinions. For the content of the questionnaire, see appendices 2 and 3. The questiormaire was written and distributed in Japanese; an English version of it was sent on request.

2.2.2 Subjects The questionnaires were distributed to 26 Japanese teaching institutes, most attached to a UK university. Replies were received from 11 institutes, some giving more than one reply each; as a result, the total number of questiormaire replies was 17. The same questiormaires were distributed to 26 universities in Japan. Replies were received from 8 institutes, and the number of returned questiormaires in total was 16. 45

In addition, 3 copies of questionnaires were returned from the University of Victoria, Canada.

2.2.3 Results а) Japanese teaching institutes in universities in UK Replies were received from the following:

1) Cardiff Business School, University of Wales, Cardiff 2) Department of East Asian Studies, University of Durham 3) Japanese Language Department, European Business School, London 4) East Asian Studies, University of Leeds 5) The Japan Centre, The University of Manchester, Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) б) University of Newcastle 7) Oriental Institute, Oxford University 8) East Asian Department, School of Oriental and Afncan Studies (SOAS), University of London 9) University of Stirling 10) University of Sunderland 11) Institute of International Education in London*

b) Japanese teaching institutes in Japan 1) Chiba University, Ryuugakusei (=oversea students) Centre 2) International Christian University (ICU) 3) Kobe University, Ryuugakusei Centre 4) Nagoya University, Ryuugakusei Centre 5) Sendai Kokusai Nihongo Gakkoo* 6) Tookai University, Ryuugakusei Kyooiku(=oversea student education) (Centre 7) Tsukuba University, Ryuugakusei (Centre

*= not a part of university, private organisation

The following analysis presents the results for each question in order.

About the general view o f pronunciation/pitch accent teaching in the Japanese language teaching institute where you teach 46

Q1 Please attach a separate sheet with the timetable of the courses you offer for the beginners' level. Please circle (underline) all which include pronunciation practice.

UK It had been hoped that information like that in the following example would be gathered. <2nd year> conversation 4 hours conversation 2 hours LL 2 hours LL 1 hour grammar 2 hours grammar 2 hours Kanji 1 hour translations 1 hour culture 1 hour culture 1 hour test 1 hour composition 1 hour tutorial

This example is from one teacher at the University of Cardiff. The underlined classes involve some kind of pronunciation practice. Unfortunately, however, most of the replies were not as detailed as the above. From, Japan, again, very few institutes sent back a usefril reply to this question.

Q2 How much time in the classes is devoted to pronunciation teaching? Answers depend upon the teachers’ estimates, and may thus be affected by their estimate of the importance of this activity as well as by actual class time. 47

Fig. 2.1 Time devoted to pronunciation teaching in the ctassroom(UK) No. of answers 30

scale 1 to 5

■ 1...0% 03 2...-5% ^ 3...-10% □ 4...~15% □ 5...-20%

Fig.2.2 Time devoted to pronunciation teaching in the classroom (Japan) no. of answers

scale 1 to 5

■ 1 . 0% ga 2 ...-5% W 3..-10% 0 4...-15% □ 5...-20%

Fig.2.3 Time devoted to pronunciation teaching in the classroom(Canada)

no. of answers 30

■ 1..0% a 2. -5% W 3.-10% □ 4.-15% □ 5. .-20% 48

UK Almost all have chosen around 5% on the scale of 0 to 20%, irrespective of the type of class (conversation, LL, post beginner, speaking/listening etc.). In one case, a teacher chose 20% for all the classes; in another case, a teacher selected 10% in the post beginner level, and another teacher selected 20% for an LL class.

Japan Many have chosen 0 to 5 %, or 5 to 10 %. However, no reply claimed that more than 20% of the time is spent in the class on pronunciation. One teacher stated that pronunciation teaching in the classroom is approximately 10%, but she also does it outside the classroom activity. Another teacher stated that in the first couple of classes for the beginners, when the teacher introduces and practices "hiragana' and 'katakana' syllabary, pronunciation teaching takes place intensively. After that, in any class activity, whenever the students speak, the teacher would pay attention and give instruction about the pronunciation whenever necessary. But on the other hand, there is no activity which is only devoted to pronunciation. Another teacher pointed out that the percentage of pronunciation teaching in a class varies from time to time, depending on the class of the day. One teacher suggested that the pronunciation teaching takes place in Reading class, Kanji class (reading characters) or even in Granunar class (e.g. conjugation or inflexion), when students say items aloud, the teacher would correct the pronunciation. One teacher pointed out that, although there is no specific time set aside for pronunciation teaching, during the conversation class, listening comprehension class or Kanji character learning class etc., they correct the pronunciation when they noticed and when they think is necessary. According to her, time spent for pronunciation teaching in the whole class is within 5 %, and within that time, pitch accent teaching is 20%. Other pronunciation practice items are consonants, vowels, which are approximately 50%; the rest is prominence or intonatioiL Another teacher pointed out that they spend within 5% for pitch accent teaching when new vocabulary is introduced, or in the reading class. They also have 'hanashi-kata' (=how to speak) class, where they give individual instruction for pronunciation, using a cassette recording. In that class, they spend around 10%. Several teachers pointed out that they do not teach pitch accent (or pronunciation) independently, but correct pronunciation whenever necessary, listening to the students' speech. Also, many teachers suggested that pronunciation teaching is taken more seriously in the 'zero-start' stage, when the students are real begirmers.

Q3 Among the whole pronunciation teaching above, how much (%) is spent for pitch accent teaching? 49

Fig.2.4 Time devoted to pitcti accent teactiing in pronunciation teactiing (UK)

no. of answers

15 -

m 1...0% 10 - a 2...-5% m 3...-10% 0 4...-15% 5 - □ 5... -20% B □ 6...80% 0 -

Fig.2.5 Time devoted to pitcti accent teaching in pronunciation teactiing(Japan)

no. of answers 20

15 -

10 -

■ 1 . 0% a 2...~5% H 3...-10% 0 4...~15% □ 5...-20%

Fig.2.6 Time devoted to pitcti accent teactiing in pronunciation teactiing(Canada)

no. of answers 20

15 -

10 -

■ 1 .0% a 2..-5% 5 - M 3.-10% 0 4..-15% □ 5..-20% 50

UK The responses were counted by each class activity; the number of replies can thus be more than the number of the teachers. Quite a few replied "none" to this question, meaning they have several class activities where they ignore the correction of pitch accent completely. From the results in the previous question, where the majority replied 5% for pronunciation teaching, it could be concluded that in most class activities, the teachers try to pay attention to pronunciation in general, but very rarely to pitch accent. The rest of the responses vary from 5% to 20%, with one teacher claiming 80%. This means most of the teachers (apart from those who said "none") feel they spend around 5 to 20% of the pronunciation teaching time on pitch accent One teacher feels that 80% of her pronunciation teaching is focused on pitch accent.

Japan There were not so many cases where they teach no pitch accent as for UK, meaning that whatever type of activity the class is focused upon, they would pay some attention to pitch accent teaching, along with other aspects of pronunciation teaching. It can be concluded that in Japan, teachers seem more aware of pitch accent teaching among all the other aspects of pronunciation teaching.

Canada Three teachers are from the same institute. However, the variation of the answers here was not between the individual teachers but across different classes and levels. About pronunciation/pitch accent teaching in the class activities

Q4 In which stage do you introduce the pitch accent system? (e.g. the first class of the beginners course)

How much time is spent on it? In which way do you introduce pitch accent? Please explain with some examples. i) In which stage? UK The answers were quite similar to each other. Five responded that they introduce pitch accent either in the first class or at least at an early stage of the begiimers’ course. One claimed that it will be introduced in the 7th or 8th class of the beginners’ course, and another teacher claimed that it takes place in the last class of the 12 day course of complete beginners. One claimed that they will introduce pitch accent when they introduce and practice Hiragana syllabaiy, 'a i u e o', and the other claimed that it will be introduced when kinship terms are introduced (e.g. 'ojiisan' vs. 'ojisan' = grandfather vs. uncle). Four responded, "We have no specific time to be spent for pitch accent". 51

Japan Here as well, most answered that they introduce pitch accent in the eaily stage. Nine said that they introduce it in the first class or at an early stage in the beginner’s course. Among them, one commented that it takes place when th ^ teach "survival Japanese", and another claimed that it takes place in the language aptitude test which is conducted in order to decide each student’s level. Another commented that in the induction course, which includes grammar, writing, pronunciation and culture, they will spend one whole class (75 minutes) lecturing in English about the pronunciation of Japanese, during which, th ^ also explain about Japanese pitch accent The ones who answered that they teach pronunciation in the "early stage" commented that they teach pitch accent when the student speaks with wrong accent (such that is likely that a listener would have problems in understanding). This teacher also commented that even in later stages, they will teach pitch accent when they assume that "student doesn't seem to be aware of the existence of pitch accent".

Two other cases which did not specifically mention the time to teach pitch accent as the "early stage" or "first class" of the beginner's course, were; "when Hiragana syllabary is introduced", and "when homonyms appear". Here, by "homonym" they meant the pair of words which are pronounced the same apart from the one characteristic of pitch accent (e.g. /ha' shi/(=chop sticks) vs. /ha shi'/(=bridge) ).

Canada Here as well, all three claimed to introduce pitch accent in the first class or at an early stage of the beginners’ course. ii) How much time? / In which way? The comments are listed as follows: UK • "In the early stage of beginners’ course, the students are only copying the teacher’s utterance. Therefore, no specific pronunciation (pitch accent) teaching is conducted. When the students are used to Japanese sounds, and able to produce longer sentences, the teachers start the error correction of pronunciation (pitch accent). • "Until the students stop producing errors. The practice is done by using minimal pair etc." • "When the Hiragana syllabary 'a i u e o...' is introduced, the pitch accent is introduced at the same time. The teachers do not give an explanation by words, but show the existence of it by giving the model pronunciation with the gesture of the hands drawing the pitch accent curve in the air", fri addition, when the teachers introduce their name, they indicate the existence of pitch accent: "They first write their names in both Hiragana and alphabet, then, draw the pitch accent marking on the Hiragana writing, and pronounce accordingly". • "Pitch accent practice is conducted by making them read minimal pairs aloud. They are told to listen and repeat after the cassette recording, looking at the pitch accent marking at the same time". 52

• "Only for the students who are majoring in Linguistics, the existence of the pitch accent is introduced However, we normally do not introduce pitch accent on its own. We try to make students naturally aware of pitch accent during the listening tasks / activities, and make them acquire it naturally in the same way as when they acquire their native language". • "By playing games". • "We introduce pitch accent together with the introduction of Hiragana and Katakana characters during the first couple of weeks". • "About 10 minutes are spent for pitch accent practice. First, we explain to the students that Japanese is a pitch accent language not a stress accent language like English. Then, we make them pronounce a phrase such as 'ohayoo gozaimasu* (= good morning) with Enghsh stress accent inqx)sed on it, and then, make the contrast with the correct Japanese pronunciation". • "Pitch accent correction takes place during reading practice. We do not specifically practice the pitch accent on its own". • "The teacher who is in charge of grammar explains in his/her class about pitch accent of Japanese. In the conversation class, the teacher will use fiash cards of Hiragana, and get the students accustomed to pitch accent, although no specific explanation is given to the students about pitch accent".

Japan • "We practice pitch accent teaching in the reading practice, following the model reading.” • "Pitch accent is introduced when Kanji / new vocabulary is introduced". • "It is introduced in "hanashikata'(=how to speak) class, when the teacher gives the feedback to the recorded practice by students". • "It is introduced as the daily expression and basic classroom expression etc. are introduced". • "Every time the students speak, the teacher pays attention to it, and whenever the teacher felt it necessary to correct or practice pitch accent • "In the beginning of every class, the important pronunciation of the day is briefly introduced". • "There is a class called 'sound practice' once in every week, where half of the class (45min.) is spent for the prommciation teaching. Pitch accent is introduced during that class, usually aroimd the 6th week". • "After explaining about the pitch accent in the induction course, the list of the new vocabulary with pitch accent marked, is distributed in every lessen, when the new vocabulary is introduced. The students are asked to repeat after the sample, and the teacher will give the feedback (I5min.). Later on, the rules of the compound accent, and prosody at the sentence level will be explained". • "We try not to spend so much time on things like pitch accent. An explanation is given with diagrams; then, we make the student pronounce or discriminate the difference of the pitch accent etc." • "The students will practice pitch accent in the class, using model speech from a cassette recording and teacher's model pronunciation". • "We conduct discrimination practice using the minimal pairs". • "Every time when new vocabulary is introduced, the pronunciation of the word is also checked". 53

• "In the first class, Japanese pronunciation in general is lectured in English as well as other topics such as *kana' character etc. We first point out that accent in JapatKse is not stress accent as in English, but pitch accent Overall time spent for pronunciation lecture (explanation) is about 15 minutes. For the pitch accent explanation, time spent is around 1 to 2 minutes. After that, 2 to 3 minutes of practice follows. Then, after that, being aware of the pitch accent, the survival expressions practice takes place".

Canada • "Firstly, pitch accent is practised by using minimal pairs. Instead of us teaching the theory, the students should learn by ear. One or 2 weeks after that, whether they have learnt the accent correctly or not is tested, by making the students memorise and record a conversation". • "Within one hoiur’s class, it is practised in the form of the contrast drill for 15 to 20 minutes. First, we make them listen and discriminate the sound, then, make them pronounce". • "First, the general mle of the pitch accent is explained. Then, pronunciation is practised by using various vocabulary items".

Q5 Do you present the pitch accent of a word every time new vocabulary is introduced? 54

Fig.2.7 Is the pitch accent preserved every tine newf vocabulary is iitroduced?(UK) no. of answers

I 1 every time E9 2 mostly 2 0 3 sometimes S 4 rarely □ 5 not at al o 1 2 3 4

Fig.2.8 Is the pich accent presented every time the new vocabulary is introduced? (Japan)

no. of answers

6

4 ■ 1 everytime B 2 mostly B 3 sometimes 2 0 4 rarely □ 5 not at al H 6 when necesary I 0

1..3(a)*, 3..5(b) +=There were 3 responses "1..every time", one of which carried the comment (a). (a) "Also indicated in the textbook". (b) "Varies depending on the level (beginner, intermediate etc.)"

Flg.2.9 Is the pitch accent presented everytime the new vocabulary is introduced?(Canada)

no. of answers

6

4

I 1 everytime B 2 mostly 2 ^ 3 sometimes 0 4 rarely □ 5 not at al 0 1 2 34 5 Answers vary considerably from teacher to teacher. There seems no fixed policy about this. 55

Q6. Once the general topic of overall pitch accent is introduced, how often do you teach/give instruction in pitch accent to the student?

Fig.2.10 Once introduce, how often do you give the students instruction of pitch accent?(U<)

no. of answers 10

8 -

6 -

4 -

1 frequently

2 occasionally 2 - 3 rarely 4 none at all

1..1(a), 2..7(b)(b)(c)(e)(f)(g)(g), 3..4(b), 4..1(d) (a)"Including cassette tape homework, every week instruction for reading etc.". (b)"Only to correct major errors". (c)"There is no need for pitch accent teaching. Long vowel, geminate etc. are considered important, but not pitch accent Pitch accent should be acquired naturally like in the LI acquisition". (d)"For otherwise homophonous items(e.g. Tia shi' (chopsticks) vs. "ha shi'(bridge) ), or in the case when the pitch accent changes in the words in isolation and in sentences". (e)"Only when it was noticed". (f)" According to the individual student". 56

Fig.2.11 Once introduced, how often do you give the students nstruction of pitch accent?(Japan)

no.of answers 10

8 -

6 1

1...frequently 2 H 2 occasionaly 3 ..rarely

1 2 3 2..9(a)(b)(c)(c), 3..4(d) (a)"It is more frequently done in the early stage of the beginners course". (b)"We make a distinction between individual difficulties and common difficulties". (c)"Whenever the teacher noticed during the speaking practise and the drill etc.". (d)"We only conduct a practice with repeating and imitating after the sample pronunciation, but we do not teach pitch accent independently". 57

Fig.2.12 Once introduced, how often do you give the studerts instruction of ptich accent?(Canada)

10

■ 1..frequently B 2..occasionally ^ 3..rarely 0 4. not at all

1 2 3 4 2..3(a)(b)(c) (a) "When the students repeat the same kind of mistakes". (b) "Only the ones which is difficult to pronounce". (c) "Rather than dealing with the individual vocabulary, deal with the whole text of sentences, and correct the pronunciation according to the necessity". 58

Q7 In the class activity of 'listening comprehension', do you do practice which draws the students' attention to sound contrast?

Fig.2.13 Any practice of sound contrast In 'listening comprehension’ ? (UK)

no. of answers

1 yes 2 no

yes no 1..10(a), 2..5(b)(0) (a)"But not so often. Only when there was a distinct error". (b)"We do not do such a practice only in the listening comprehension'. Not only in the 'listening comprehension', also in vocabulary learning, Kanji learning activities, whenever appropriate, we remind the students of the pitch accent contrast etc.". (c)"Possibly the 1st year students do some of these practice". 59

Fig.2.14 Any practice of sound contrast in 'listening comprehension"? (Japan)

20

10 -

1 yes 2 no

yes

1..10(a) (a)"When necessary"

Fig.2.15 Any practice of sound contrast in listening comprehension'? (Canada)

no. of answers 20

10 -

1 yes 2 no 60

Q8 Do you use the above method (sound contrast) for pitch accent practice? The choices of the answer are as follows: 1 Never use it 2 Occasionally use as a part of pitch accent practice. 3 Regularly use as a part of pitch accent practice. 4 Sound contrast is the main method of pitch accent practice. 61

Fig.2.16. Use the sound contrast for pIch accent prctce?(UK) no. of answers

1 never 2 ocassionally 3 regiiarty 4 main method

Fig.2.17 Use the sound contrast for pitch accent practice?(Japan)

20

1 never 2 occasionaly 3 regularly 4 main method

Fig.2.18 Use the sound contrast for pitch accent practice?(Canada)

no. of answers 20

10 -1

1 never 2 occasionally 3 regularly 4 main method 62

Q9 What other method of pitch accent practice do you use apart from the sound contrast?

UK There was only one respondent who gave an answer to this question. The summary of the answer is as follows: “Using the cassette tape which accompanies the textbook 'Situational Functional J^anese', make the students listen to the each chapter’s 'note', pick up the pitch accent, and repeat after the model. Categorise the words systematically and make them accustomed to the rule of pitch accent pattern where it is clear. From week 5, start practice in which the students are asked to pronounce according to the pitch accent marking, and the sound contrast is used as a part of this practice. The pitch accent of loan words, and of Chinese origin words are given special attention and practice.” This seems like an account of well-structured pronunciation teaching, but it is a rare case, and most institutes in UK appear to have no specific teaching plan for pronunciation.

Japan The answers to the question were as follows: • “The pronunciation practice takes place when the students are asked to read the text mimicking the model tape or teacher’s reading.” • “Repeatedly practice according to the model reading, focusing on the difference between the 1st and the 2nd mora's pitch height, characteristic of the unaccented type.” • "There is no listening comprehension as such in our course, but when the student makes errors, we try to point out and give instruction with sound contrast etc.." • "We do not only focus on pitch accent, but treat the pitch accent as a part of whole prosodic pattern, including intonation, duration of moras, etc. We try to make students perceive and produce the pitch accent as a part of the whole prosodic pattern." • "We draw the accent pattern of each word on the white board, using an accent marking system.” • “Have the student listen to a model utterance, make them get used to it, then ask them to pronounce it by themselves.” • "We don't particularly practice pitch accent during the class, but the words have pitch accent marking in the vocabulary list of begiimer's and intermediate textbooks. Also, we advise the students to listen to the model pronunciation of the cassette tape in their free time." • "We don't spend time for the pitch accent practice, and we don't think it is necessary. Especially, when most of the students are not English speakers but Koreans as in our institute."

QIO Which teaching material do you use for pronunciation teaching? N.B. The number in parentheses shows the number of replies. UK •'Situational Functional Japanese ' (2) •'Bunka shokyuu Nihongo I, H' (no pronunciation teaching) (1) 63

•'Japanese for Busy people' (1)

•'Situational Functional Japanese' (3) •'Tanoshiku kikoo I, II' (2) •'Minna no Nihongo supplement' (1)

•Cassette tape recorded by the teacher (4) •'Tanoshiku kikoo' (1) •'E to task de manabu Nihongo' (1) •'Waku waku bunpoo listening' (1)

Japan •'Hatsuon chookai' (araiake shi^pan) (1) •'Onsei to onsei shidoo' (bunka-cho) (1) •'Yan san to nihon no hitobito' workbook (1) •'Nihongo hatsuon kyooshitsu' (1) •'Shin nihongo no kiso I, II' (1) •'Minna no nihongo 1,2' (I)

•Our original 'Basic Japanese for college students' (ICU) (1)

•'Hatsuon chookai' (aratake shiq)pan) (1) •The students' own recording (repeat after the sample) (I) •Our original cassette tape 2 (1) •'Shin nihongo no kiso 1,11' (1) •"Minna no nihongo 1,2' (1)

•'Shin nihongo no kiso I, IF (1) •'Minna no nihongo 1,2’ (1) 64

'Our original teaching material (2) •Picture card (1)

Q11 In the materials listed above, is there sufficient pitch accent practice?

Fig.2.19 Is there sufficient pitch accent practice in the materials you are using?(Japan)

no. of answers ®

|1...hardly any 12...more or less perfectly adequate q

In one answer from the UK, it was commented that the material does not have to be designed solely for pitch accent, but can still provide adequate material and teachers can make the students practice reading a paragraph as accurately as they can by listening to the model intensively and mimicking it Also from UK, one suggestion was made that it would be useful if materials included a summary of pitch accent rules (e.g. for compound words, etc).

Q12 Do you tliink tlie present teaching materials are sufficient and effective enough in order to achieve your goals of pitch accent teaching? 65

Fig.2.20 Are the present teachng materials good errough?(UK)

no. of answers q

5 -

4 -

3 -

2 -

yes 1 - no don't know

yes don't know 1..3(b), 2..5(c), 3..2(a) (a) "Never analysed about that, so I don't know." (b) "The correct pitch accent can be acquired by carefully listening to and imitating it." (c) There is no good pronunciation teaching material in the Japanese language teaching. 'An Introduction to Modem Japanese' has a chapter of pronunciation practice, and the detailed explanation for pronunciation is made in the Introduction of this textbook. In 'Japanese; The Spoken Language', pitch accent is marked.

Fig.2.21 Are the present teaching materials good enough?(Japan) no. of answers g

don't know yes no don't know 66

Q13 If you answered ''No” to the above question, what do you think is needed? How could it be improved?

From this question, we expect to see teachers' ideas of how the pronunciation can be taught within their language programmes. UK • "There are not many Japanese language teaching institutes where you can spare lots of time for pronunciation teaching. Therefore, it would be useful if there were a module type of pronunciation practice each of which can be used in 5 minutes practice every time.” • "It would be useful if there is a kind of drill, workbook type of pronunciation / pitch accent practice, which will help students to be aware of Japanese pronunciation / pitch accent.” • "I don't know because I have never dealt with pitch accent only in the classroom." • "At least, the teachers should explain that there is a pitch accent system and its characteristics. However, it is not always necessary to mark the pitch accent to every single word which spears in the textbook. How much it should be mentioned depends on the teachers' judgement” "There were some students who finished beginners course and didn't even know what pitch accent was. That kind of situation should be avoided."

Japan • "It is better to take 'holistic' approach to the prosody and teach rhythm and intonation etc. altogether, as well as pitch accent. So, I don't think it's important to have the teaching material which deals with only pitch accent" • Cassette tape, CAI software • "In general, we tend to focus on pitch accent practice at the level of isolated words. I think it is important to develop teaching material where it is taken into consideration how the pitch accent is realised on a larger scale level than words in isolation, that is, at the sentence level for example. Also, it is important to consider how pitch accent changes according to the speaker’s intention or mood etc." • The whole view of the state of pitch accent teaching need to be recognised.

Q14 Among each task below, how much emphasis is put on pronunciation / pitch accent in the final exam? 67

Ftg.2.22 How much emphasis(%) is put on the pronunciation in each task? (LK)

no. of answers 10

tasks

I conversation S role play ^ listening comprehension 0 reading test n 2nd year LL H 4th year interview

0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100

Fig.2.23 How much emphasis (%) is put on the pich accent in each task?(UK)

no. of answers 10

tasks I conversation 0 role play 0 listening comprehension 0 reading test O 2nd year LL H 4th year interview

0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -100 (%) 68

Fig.2.24 How much emphasis(%) is put on the pronunciatton In each task?(Japan)

10

tasks

conversation role play listening

Fig.2.25 How much emphasis(%) s put on the pitch accent in each task?(Japan)

no. of answers 10

8 -

conversation role play listening

0 ~5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 (%)

Other comments: • "We make correction only when it is regarded to interfere the communicatioa" (2) • "Caimot disclose the detail of evaluation without the consent of other teachers." • "We don't mark the pronunciation independently. 69

Fig.2.26 How much emphasis(%) is put on pronunciation in each task?(Canada)

no. of answers

■ conversation B role play 0 listening comprehension 2 - 0 Oral presentation

20 (%)

Fig.2.27 How much emphasis(%) is put on pitch accent in each task?(Canada)

no. of answers 10

8

6

4 ■ conversation B role play B listening comprehension 2 0 oral presentation

0 (%)

About the individual teacher's opinion

Q15 In the institute where you are teaching, do you think that pronunciation teaching is systematically and carefully conducted? Or do you think it tends to be put aside compared to other subjects such as grammar?

Choices for the answer are as follows: 1 It tends to be put aside 2 There is an effort to teach it well, but because of the situation, teachers etc., there are some problems 3 It is very carefully and systematically taught 4 Others 70

Fig.2.28 Is pronunciatbn carefully and systematically taugW in your institute?(lK)

no. of answers 8

6 -

4 -

I 1 tend to tie put aside 3 2 effort, but some problems ^ 3 carefully taught ^ “ # B 4 less time than grammar

1 2 3 4 4..1(a) (a) Compared to the grammar, not so much time is spent for pronunciation teaching. 71

Fig.2.29 Is pronunciation carefiily and systematically taught In your institute?(Japan)

no. of answers ®

■ 1 tend to t>e put aside B 2 effort, but some problems B 3 carefully taugtt 1 2 3 1..1(a) 1 (a) I am teaching only once a week for 90 minutes, and there is no time to spare for pronunciation.

Fig.2.30 Is pronunciation carefully and systematically taught in your institute?(Canada)

no. of answers 8

6 -

4 -

■ 1 tend to be put aside 2 B 2 effort, but some problems ^ 3 carefully taught

0

2..1(a) (a) Lack of time. 72

Q16 If you answered 1 or 2 from the above question, what do you think are the reasons?

Choices for the answer are as follows: 1 There is no time for pronunciation teaching 2 There is a problem in its teaching method 3 Lack of teachers' abihty to teach pronunciation 4 Compared to the other items such as grammar, pronunciation teaching is naturally difficult. 5 Lack of ability in students to correct pitch accent or acquire the pitch accent system. 6. Students may improve temporarily but the improvement doesn't last long. 7. (If your institute is outside of Japan) There is httle opportunity to listen to native speakers in daily life. 8 Others (please specify)

Fig.2.31 why pronunciation teaching is difficult(UK)

no. of answers 20

H 1 no time 0 2 problem in method ^ 3 lack of teacher ability 0 4 naturally difficult O 5 lack of student ability B 6 improvement doesn't last O 7 no opportunity to hear native OD 8 others 73

Fig.2.32 Why pronunciation teaching is difficult(Japan)

■ 1 no time (9 2 problem in method ^ 3 lack of teacher ability E 4 naturally difficult □ 5 lack of student ability B 6 improvement doesn't last Q 7 no opportunity to hear native O 8 doesn't feel important [71 9 lack of teaching material Q 10 focus on communication 123456 789 10 8 ..1(a), 1(b), 1(c), 1(d), 1(e). (a)l Because I don't feel it is very important (b)l Lack of adequate teaching material. (c)l Rather than individual sound's pronunciation, the focus should be on whether holistic communication is made or not. (d) 1 The goal of the course is the communication achievement. Therefore, we should correct the pronunciation when the error would cause the communication disruption. (e) The error which will cause the recognition of the meaning only will be corrected intensively. The error other than that should not be overcorrected, otherwise, it can disrupt the development of language performance ability.

Fig.2.33 Why pronunciation teaching is difficult(Canada)

no. of answers 20

B 1 no time 10 - B 2 problem in method B 3 lack of teacher ability E 4 naturally difficult O 5 lack of student ability B 6 improvement doesn/t last □ 7 no opportunity to hear native 3 4 5 6 74

Q17 Are you personally confident in the pitch accent correction/instruction? Choices of answer are as follows: 1 Not confident at all 2 Managing, but less good at than other items such as grammar, conversation etc.. 3 Able to teach equally to the other items such as grammar, conversation etc.. 4 More confident than some other aspects such as grammar, conversation etc.. 5 Very confident/Never have any difficulty 75

Fig.2.34 Are you confident in leaching pronuncation? (UK)

no. of answers 8

■ 1 not confident B 2 less good than granrvnar etc. B 3 as good as grammar etc. 0 4 better than grammar etc. □ 5 very confident

4..1(b), 5 1(a) (a) There is no need for correction (b) Since I speak the standard Japanese, there is no problem 76

Fig.2.35 Are you confident in teaching pronunciation?(Japan)

no. of answers 8

6

4 ■ 1 not confide rÉ 9 2 less good than grammar etc H 3 as good as grammar 0 4 better than grammar etc. 2 □ 5 very confident

0

3..1(a), 4..1(b) (a) In beginner's level. If it is intermediate level etc., and the students' error pattern is fossilised, it would be (2). (b) My own accent is sometimes different from the standard Japanese, relatively confident

Fig.2.36 Are you confident in teaching pronunciation?(Canada)

no. of answers g

9 1 not confident 9 2 less than grammar etc. ^ 3 as good as grammar etc. g - H 4 tjetter than grammar etc. Q 5 very confident 77

Q18 Do you think students show improvement during pitch accent teaching?

UK 1 Almost nothing 2 Only a few students improve 3 Some students shows improvement, but others don't 4 Although there are some differences among the students' abilities, on the whole, there is some improvement. 5 Almost all the students show improvement. 78

Fig.2.37 Do the students show improve ment? (UK)

no. of answers 5

I 1 almost nothing 0 2 only a few students 0 3 some students 0 4 except for a few problem Q 5 almost all the students 0-1------

4..1(b), 5..1(a) (a) The most important thing is to repeat after the model over and over again. (b) Until the students become aware of the pitch accent, almost every students show improvement.

Fig.2.38 Do the students show improvement? (Japan) no. of answers 5

4

3

I 1 almost nothing 2 0 2 onty a few students 0 3 some students 1 13 4 except for a few problems □ 5 almost all the students 0 1 2 3 4 5 79

Fig.2.39 Do the students show improvement?(Canada)

no. of answers 5

1 almost nothing 2 onty a few students 3 some students 4 except for a few problem □ 5 almost all the students 80

Q19 What are the main obstacles/problems you notice in the course of pitch accent teaching?

1 Teachers' side UK • In the Japanese language teacher's training course, there is no practice on pitch accent teaching. • They do not take time to teach the pitch accent systematically. • They do not have enough knowledge about pronunciation teaching. • "There are occasions when the teacher (including myself) is not sure if s/he is speaking with the correct pitch accent" • "I am myself from Kyushu and not sure whether my accent is the standard Japanese. It will be useful to have teachers' pronunciation training course." • "It is necessary to improve the curriculum for the whole year." • "As for any other items, we also need to set up a clear goal for the pitch accent acquisition." • "The teacher is required to have the ability to help the students whose pronunciation is quite good but has some odd characteristics. They need to be able to pick up the errors and correct them, give them appropriate advice."

Japan • "The lack of his/her own proficiency in Japanese and the ability to evaluate." • "For the teacher to think that it is not necessary to give instruction in pronunciation." • "There is no syllabus for that. There is no core material which can be systematically used." • "The lack of ability to teach pronunciation."

Canada N.A.

2 Students' side UK • "Once they have habitualized (learned) wrong accent, it is very difficult to correct it afterwards." • "There are many students who caimot recognise the pitch accent We have to start from making them aware of the existence of pitch accent itself." • "In order to improve the pronunciation, listening' activity is indispensable but there are students who are focused only on 'speaking'. This attitude need to be changed."

Japan • "The students do not recognise its importance." • "The students' LI interference." • "Their attention tends to go first to the accuracy of the grammar, vocabulary etc., and not to the pronunciatioa" • "The lack of ability to listen and discriminate sounds accurately and practise by themselves." 81

• "The lack of motivation to achieve near-native pronunciation." • "It is difticult to catch the mora-timed rhythm."

Canada

*" There are few students who have a good 'study habit', i.e. regularly listening to the cassette tape etc. Japanese language is an intensive course, but the students tend to take too many other courses, which makes it impossible for them to concentrate and practice Japanese regularly." • "They don't seem to be interested in pronunciation."

3 Others (methodology, time restriction etc.) UK • "The students don't have enough opportunities to listen to the language spoken with the correct pitch accent. Most of the new vocabulary is learned visually from the textbook in the first place."

• "We are required to finish three volumes of SFJ within one year and half (3 terms), and because of this, we are always short of time." • "In the 'speaking' class, we don't take the pitch accent issue separately, since we don't want to break the stream of the class activity."

Japan • "I have not felt it (pitch accent) to be a major problem, compared to the problems of long vowels, geminates etc. It could be because my lack of skill." • "In the begiimer's stage, there is not so much problem as long as they understand the difference between stress accent and pitch accent [Problems appear] in the intermediate stage or above, when they have already fossilisation due to the fact that they have not had proper instruction in the early (beginner's) stage." • "We need good and appropriate teaching materials in order to give proper instruction for pronunciation teaching." • "The time restriction. There is no time to deal with the pitch accent only. Even during the speaking class, there are lots of other things to focus on, and we cannot spare enough time for pronunciation teaching." • "We think that pitch accent teaching cannot be separated from speech as a whole. In our opinion, the main base for achieving the correct pitch accent system is the duration of each sound. For the duration of sounds, we aim to realise the placement of the length of the sound in rhythmic type, rather than mora theory, c.f. " Nihongo kyooiku" No.86 (article by Kashima). Therefore, accent teaching is not only about teaching the placement of the accent, but to teach the length positioning. Also, we need to consider intonation, accent in the phrase, accent in sentences etc., in teaching pitch accent." 82

Canada •''There are too many items for the students to learn, and there is little time to spend on pronunciation teaching unless the student is very interested in pronunciation." •"We cannot spare so much time for pronunciation teaching. So, we try to make students listen to the sample pronunciation on tape. But it doesn't seem to help so much. I think we need to improve the effectiveness of pronunciation teaching by making use of the cassette tape for the small tests, and language lab. " • "We tend to spend most of the time explaining grammatical items, and no time for pronunciation teaching. " • "Since there are not enough opportunities to use the language outside of the classroom, they hardly acquire the pronunciation."

Q20 Any other suggestion UK • "It can be said that there is almost no pronunciation teaching in the present situation. There are very few students whose pronunciation is very bad if you take their overall level into consideration. There are not so many students whose pitch accent is distinctively bad. In general, the student who is good at hstening comprehension is good at pronunciation as well. Also, the student whose native language pronunciation is not very clear tends to be also poor at L2 pronunciation. For the 'tokushu-on' (syllabic /n/, long vowel, geminate), I always pay special attention to the pronunciation, since it can affect the meaning of the word. Students seem to understand the importance of it, but to listen or pronounce correctly seems to be difficult for them."

• "In our institute, we don't have classes which only deal with pitch accent teaching. However, since the students are supposed to use only Japanese during the class (=direct method), students always have to listen to the teacher’s model speech and imitate, in which they are made aware of pitch accent as well. After that stage, when the students can freely speak, the teacher is suRwsed to correct their accent only if it is very wrong. The teacher's speech will directly become the input to the students. The teacher's job is to correct the students' speech after listening to their pronunciation. These are our main pronunciation teaching activities. " (There were 2 more replies which state almost the same as above.)

• "There are more students who have problems with voiced consonants, and long vowels. It is because they are different from English."

Japan • "We are planning to start providing pronunciation teaching every day (including pitch accent). I think it is better to do practice on intonation, individual sound pronunciation etc., rather than pitch accent training." • "Maybe because we are in Japan, much of the pronunciation acquisition can take place outside 83 the classroom (in daily life). So, we don't feel pronunciation is a big problem in the beginner's stage. We often feel it necessary to correct the students who had studied Japanese outside Japan, and whose level is more advanced. It is also more difficult to correct such students." ' "We are trying to improve the pronunciation teaching of students from various language backgrounds. However, the lack of the time is the main problem. Personally, 1 am hoping to teach a wide range of pronunciation items such as vowels, consonants, prosody etc. 1 don't understand why you are focusing only on pitch accent." ' "In order to acquire Japanese pitch accent, it is important to understand the concept of morae..." 84

2.2.4 Summary and discussion

Concerning the amount of time they spend for pronunciation teaching in the classes (Q2), it can be said that in all three countries, teachers tend to spend a small amount of time on pronunciation teaching. It is mostly around 5% among all the other teaching items, and considering that courses do not focus only on conversation and daily usage of the language, this result seems reasonable. However, it is surprising that there are some cases when the teachers answered 0%, which means they do not spend any time at all on pronunciation, even though the course does involve some conversation classes. On the other hand, as one teacher in Japan commented, pronunciation teaching may take place in any class activity, even in a grammar class, if the students have the opportunity to speak responses aloud.

Many teachers claimed that there is no specific time which reserved exclusively for pronunciation, and that they teach pronunciation by correcting when it is necessary, e.g. when the student's pronunciation error is as bad as to disrupt the communication. Therefore, the amount of time spent on pronunciation teaching varies from day to day, and from class to class.

In general, the classes where pronunciation teaching (or pronunciation correction) tend to take place are: Hanashi-kata(=how to speak)', 'Introduction' where *Hiragana and Katakana' syllabaiy are introduced, reading class or Kanji class (when the students read the characters aloud) etc.

There were a few teachers who conduct the pronunciation teaching outside of those class activities listed above. One teacher from SOAS in London University organises a 'pronunciation clinic'. For this, she creates original pronunciation exercises for the students and gives them homework including working from a recording. She spends time correcting them and gives a tutorial to each student She uses one of the most used Japanese Language textbooks, "Situational Functional Japanese" and its model reading cassette tape for this exercise. According to the sample of her exercise she showed to me, she lists words from the textbook excerpt and categorises them according to pitch accent type, and requires students to practise and record this material, both as separate words and combined into sentences. She listens to each tape carefully, and gives individual feedback. This exercise continues outside of the class on a fortnightly basis. The students are told to practise mimicking the model tape, and try to be able to read the text in almost identical pronunciation. From this, students will get a substantial amount of feedback on their pronunciation, develop the ability to self-monitor their pronunciation from a recording, and increase confidence and motivation. However, to conduct such a clinic outside the classroom is time consuming, and moreover only a teacher with good knowledge and skill will be able to structure and organise such exercises.

In addition to the questionnaire, this teacher kindly agreed to be interviewed. In the interview, she expanded on her own views and experience concerning pronunciation teaching. As a Kansai dialect speaker of Japanese, she herself had to correct her own pitch accent as a Japanese teacher in order to teach the Standard Japanese pitch accent system to the students. She emphasised the importance of 85 making students aware of the pitch accent in the early stage. If this is not done, by the intermediate and advanced stages, students will have a strong "foreign accent", and it will be very difficult to correct them. On the other hand, if the students manage to become capable of self monitoring their own pitch accent, their pronunciation will improve as they move to the next level. She is still monitoring the longer-term effects of her "pronunciation clinic" and will pay particular attention to the way students develop after their year abroad.

Another place where they are ejq>loring a new pronunciation method is Nagoya University, Ryuugakusei Centre, in Japan. Tanomu Kashima, who has published on this issue (1999: 43-51; 1992: 305-319; 1996: 103-115), also replied to the questionnaire and claimed that by acquiring the rhythm of the target language, i.e. Japanese in this case, the students can achieve near-native pronunciation. Kashima and others (Told, 1995; Told and Murata, 1989) advocate a pronunciation teaching method based on the "speech rhythm" of the language, in contrast to the traditional method based on "mora timed" structure of Japanese words (Q19.3). They classify each word by "rhythm unit", and train the students in familiarity with the rhythm of the language. They claim that pitch accent should be acquired as a part of this, not independently, since the length of the vowels and consonants of the word, and its rhythmic pattern as a whole, all associate with the pitch accent of the language. Kashima commented in the questionnaire that even if the pitch accent (high and low pitch of each mora) is pronounced correctly, it would not sound natural if the rhythm is wrong. However, according to his reply to my questionnaire, he and his co-workers are still in a trial period and in the process of constructing the method of how to combine the pitch accent placement with their "rhythm unit" theory.

These two cases, in SOAS and Nagoya University, are quite exceptional among all the responses to the questionnaire. In general, the amount of time and attention spent on pronunciation teaching seem rather restricted.

Concerning how much pronunciation teaching is specifically on pitch accent (Q3), even more teachers claimed that they spend "no time" at all on pitch accent teaching, especially in UK. There is some possibility that this result is due to the fact that some teachers do not teach pronunciation or pitch accent separately from other items. However, from the overall result to the whole questioimaire, it is very unlikely that many institutes have a well structured method to combine the pronunciation (or pitch accent) teaching into other class activities. When and how to correct pronunciation or introduce the theoretical background seems to be left to individual teacher's judgement. Therefore, when respondents answered "none" to this question (Q3), it most likely means that th ^ do not even mention the existence of pitch accent in Japanese language, leaving students to pick it up "naturally" by themselves. It could be the case that they believe in the "communicative approach" and expect students to pick up and acquire pronunciation as they did for their native language (in this case, English). [On the other hand there was one teacher in UK who made the unusual claim that 80% of pronunciation teaching goes on pitch accent teaching]. 86

In contrast to the result from UK, there were not so many cases from Japan which answered "0%" to the pitch accent teaching. So in that context, pitch accent has more significance among all the other aspects of pronunciation teaching.

Another characteristic from this result (Q3) is that there are considerable differences among individual teachers rather than between institutes. The replies from Canada were from 3 teachers all fix>m the same institute. However, the answers varied not by the individual teacher here, but by the different type of classes.

Although eadi teacher’s perception of the {voportion of time they spare for the pronunciation teaching varied a lot (Q2, Q3), there was a considerable agreement in the stage where pitch accent is introduced, and how it is introduced (Q4). As for the stage, most of them replied that the pitch accent teaching (and presumably pronunciation teaching on the whole as well) mostly takes place at the beginner’s level, or another early stage. This means that most of the teachers are aware that pronunciation teaching (perhaps especially pitch accent teaching) should start in the earfy stage of language learning, and that it will be difficult to correct a learner’s foreign accent once it is fossilised.

The ways to introduce the pitch accent system also showed agreement; maiy responses mentioned (a) when they introduce "hiragana" and "katakana" syllabary, (b) kinship terms such as the contrast of 'ojiisan’(=grandfather) vs. ’ojisan'(=uncle), (c) "survival Japanese" in the introductory class, or (d) daily conversation such as greetings and so on. Several reqwnses mentioned use of minimal pairs. On the other hand, some said that they correct the student prxmunciation only when it is noticed by the teacher and when s/he thinks necessary. There as even one case where the teacher said that they try not to spend so much time on things like pitch accent This may show that the teacher feels that pitch accent teaching takes up too much time without having immediate effect. It could also mean that they are not so confident in teaching pronunciation and end up q)cnding more time than expected on correcting pronunciation (this is not something the teacher can plan beforehand).

The conventional view is that the pronunciation teaching should be conducted in the early stages, and traditionally it is often taught in the first couple of classes along with "Hiragana" syllabary. After that, the teacher will correct the individual student's pronunciation during the conversation class (Kashima 1996:104). Results from the questioimaire reflect this general view.

Once pitch accent has been introduced in the "early stage", or "first couple of lessons", it varies from teacher to teacher whetha- they present the pitch accent of words every time new vocabulary is introduced (Q5). However, to the question of how often the teacher gives instruction on pitch accent after it is once introduced (Q6), most respondents chose "occasionally", with the comments such as "when it is necessary", "only when it is noticed", "only to correct major errors", "when the students repeat the same kind of mistakes", "for otherwise homophonous items" or "only the ones difficult to pronounce" and so on This means that although individual teadiers have different opinions about 87 introducing the pitdi pattans of new vocabulary, thqr seem to have almost the same attitude about how often and on what occasions they need to "correct" the pitch accent of individual students in class activities. On the whole, the teachers tend to give minimum instruction about pitch accent and make corrections when they feel it is necessary and justified within the natural stream of the class activity. They do this rather than focusing attention on pitdi accent and providing structured exercises on it

"Sound contrast" is commonly used to improve the students' listening skill, but again most of the teachers use it when they feel necessary^ not regularly as an exercise to draw students' attention to the pronunciation. For the pitch accent specifically, sound contrast does not seem to be a pcpilar method (Q8), and it seems that listening and mimicking a model t ^ or teacher’s reading is the commonest way of learning pitch accent There were some cases, though, where respondents say that they teach pitch accent specifically, by using pitch accent marking, or by making students listen to a model pronunciation focusing on the certain feature of pitch accent (e.g. the pitch difierence between the 1st and the 2nd mora, unaccented pitch pattern etc.). Some claimed that they do not teach pitch accent on its own, but "as a part of whole prosodic pattern, induding intonation, duration of the mora, etc", but no example of how this is done was provided.

For the teaching material (QIO), in UK, they tend to use some of the coitunonly used general textbooks for Japanese teaching and accompanying cassette tapes rather than using q>ecific material for pronunciation. However, there are very few in the UK who are perfectly satisfied with the (resent teaching materials (Q11, Q12) and many are not happy at aU with what is available.

In Japan, on the other hand, they tend to use textbooks which are designed for pronunciation or listening practice, both for students and for the teachers. They also have quite a lot of original materials, such as recordings made by teachers, or by the students (QIO). In J^jan too, there are quite a few teachers who are not satisfied with the present materials, but unlike the UK findings there are also some who are quite satisfied.

In UK, whm they tend to use a general textbook for die pronunciation teaching, as described above, a corrunon request was for some kind of drill or workbook type of exercise, which can be used on a regular basis for about 5 to 10 minutes in daily class (Q13). In Japan, where they are alreatfy using original material or todbooks which are specially meant for pronunciation practice, the deficiencies of prormnciation drills etc., are felt, and respondents point instead to the necessity of developing "holistic materials" for prosody, (not words in isolation, but including all prosodic elements, such as intonation, rhythm and so on). As far as pronunciation teaching is concerned, it seems the institutes in J^an are more advanced than those in UK.

In evaluation (examinations, etc), pronunciation and pitch accent are generally taken into account to some extent (Q14). Depending on the type of the exam. (i.e. conversation, role play, listening comprehension or others), the emphasis on pronunciation / pitch accent varies, but most figures are in 88 the range up to 20 %. This more or less corresponds to the results of Q2 and Q3. However, there are notably more cases where they daim to put more emphasis than that (e.g. 50%, 80%^ 90% on the scale) in the result of Q14. This means the institute recognises that it is supposed to guide students to achieve a certain goal in pronunciation / pitch accent. The fact that there were quite a few teachers in Q2 and Q3 saying that there is no time devoted to pixmunciatitm teaching implies that th^r ha\'e some problems in teaching ponunciation / pitch accent, such as they have no time, or they do not know how to do it, etc.

According to the individual teacher's views, prommciation teaching is commonly put aside, or, even if taught systematically, gives rise to some problems (Q15). The reasons for that are mary. Lack of time is the main reason, followed by problems in methodology, lack of teacher's ability, and lack of good teaching material (Q16). In the UK, quite a few teachers said that there is no q^xutunity to hear native speakers in daily life, since the students are learning Japanese outside Japan Several teachers in Japan emphasised here that "pronunciatiw teaching is not so important”, ”the focus should be on whether holistic communication is made or not” and ”the goal of the course should be the achievement of communication ” and so on. This will lead to the fundamental question ”Is pnmunciation teaching necessary at all?” Some teachers commented that lack of teachers' awareness of pronunciation teaching is the problem, but some teachers do not think it is important at all, eq>ecially those who emphasise the ”communicative approach”.

Whether it is necessary or not, the teacher needs to be able to teach pronunciation when it is necessary, even as a part of communication strategy. Both in UK and in Japan, mai^ replied that they can teach it as well as otho* aspects such as grammar (Q17). In the UK, many teachers estimated their own ability with pronunciation lower than their ability with grammar, but in Japan, more teachers expressed the reverse self-ranking. However, in both countries, there were comments such as ”Since I speak standard Japanese, there is no problem” (UK), or ”My own accent is sometimes different from standard Japanese, but relatively confident” (Japan). This implies that teachers only need to be able to speak with a correct accent themselves in wder to teach pronunciation well, and ignores the skills and knowledge which in fact tmderlie effective prommciation teaching of any kind. However, there was one teadiei's comment in Japan, which says ”able to teach as good as grammar in the beginner's level, but at the intermediate level and above, and when student's error is fossilised, can teach less well than other items such as grammar”. This teacher seems to be more aware of linguistic badcgrmmd to the teaching of pronunciation than those who commented on their own prmmnciation only.

As for the students’ improvement as a result of pronunciation teaching (Q18), although the teachers are aware of students’ individual differences, they think they can see some inqrrovement. Compared between countries, it seems those in Japan are slightly more confident in the result of their teaching pronunciation than those in UK. Also, in (Canada, they think they arc more or less successful in correcting students’ pronunciatioiL We have to take into accoimt the fact that these results depend on how good is the teachers’ judgement of students' pronunciation. It can happen that teachers get more 89 used to the students’ "foreign" accent than lay people because they are exposed to it more often, and start perceiving it as natural. In fact, I have myself noticed a couple of cases where Japanese language teachers were pronouncing certain J^anese words in student-like "foreign" accent For example I saw a class where a teacher was making students repeat after her saying "sooji shimasu", with the pitch accent of "sooji" as /so' o ji/ (HLL) like many English speaking students do, instead of /so o ji/(LHH) with an unaccented pitch pattern. This is something for future research.

The teacher's possible problems in pronunciation teaching (Q19.1) include their lack of knowledge of or skill in pronunciation teaching, or, sometimes, they are not themselves sure about their own pronunciation. Also, there was a comment that a further problem is "for the teacher to think that it is not necessary to give instruction of pronunciation".

The student's side of these problems (Q19.2) includes: LI interference, fossilisation, lack of awareness about pronunciation, priority problem (e.g. overemphasis on speaking rather than listening, or on grammar, vocabulary etc., rather than pronunciation), lack of ability to discriminate sounds, lack of motivation or interest to achieve near-native pronunciation, or lack of good study habits which would enable them to manage the study of pronunciation in the tight schedule with other stu(fy subjects.

Other problems (Q19.3) include time restriction, ladt of good teaching material, too much else for the students to learn, or no opportunity for the students to listen to native speakers and use the language outside the classroom (the last in UK and (Zanada). Also, some teachers repeated here again that they feel pitch accent is not a problem compared to other items such as vowel and consonant duration, or they believe in the "holistic approach" in teaching pronunciatioa

Other comments from the teachers (Q20) emphasised the fact that some teachers do not think pitch accent is a major problem in students' pronunciatioa T h^ claim that students will learn the correct pronunciation at the beginner’s stage by listening to the teacher's pronunciation. Another teacher who supported the importance of the iiq)ut in the beginner's stage said that the problem of pronunciation occurs only when the student first learned Japanese outside of Japan and developed and habitualized strong accent, often difficult to correct. Some teachers believe that the pronunciation of Japanese as a second language is acquired in exactly the same way as pronunciation of a native language (LI). So, the sound of the language is picked up by the learners "naturally". Some teachers feel that pitch accent is not a major problem among the other aspects of pronunciation, and they also think it inqx)rtant to take a "holistic" approach. However, it is not certain that all teachers have enough knowledge about all items (including pitch accent), to be able to teach all items combined together efficiently. The result of the questionnaire shows that quite a few teachers are not ceitain about how to teach pronunciation, as they pointed out (Q19.1), that they do not have good training or good materials (Q13).

It is probably more difficult to train all teachers to be able to teach pronunciation very efficiently than to train them to be able to teach other items such as grammar. Some people are not good at 90 distinguishing sounds, and some teachers are never certain about even their own pronunciation. However, the existing teaching materials, especially the way that the pronunciation of Japanese is presented in textbooks for students need to be examined a little further. Therefore, in the next section, I would like to analyse the way in which the pronunciation of Japanese is presented in both commonly used students’ textbooks and teachers’ pronunciation manuals. 91

2.3 Pronunciation teaching in teaching materials

2.3.1 Introduction

In this section, we analyse the way that pronunciation/pitch accent teaching is presented in teaching materials. We will examine some of the widely used textbooks and see how extensively, how systematically, and how thoroughly they describe the pmiunciation/pitdt accent of Japanese. Also a video called Hatsuon no Shidoo* (pronunciation teaching) which shows several models of pronunciation/pitch accent teaching, in actual class will be analysed.

From the results of the questionnaire, we concluded that teachers' generË perception was that pronunciation teaching is less important than other items such as grammar, and also, because of various problems such as time restriction or lack of teacher's knowledge etc., it tends to be put aside. Teachers also seem to think that there are not sufficient teaching materials for pronunciation teaching which can be used effectively within the classroom activities. As for pitch accent teaching, quite a number of teachers think that it should not be taught on its own, but should be taught as a part of prosody, including intonation, rhythm etc. The 6ct that some of them also make their own {Honunciation teaching materials (e g. recording teacher's and student's speech) also indicates that they are not totally satisfied by the existing teaching materials. The teachers who think pronunciation/pitch accent teaching is necessary comment on the various problems such as lack of time, good matoials, or teachers’ limited knowledge and awareness. The teachers who think it is not necessary cormnent that prcmunciation should be learned "naturally" as in the case of LI acquisition, and pitch accent should be taught "holistically". But very few suggested a well established methodology or any other alternative, (jood pronunciation teaching methods and materials need to be devel(q)ed, and to complement this each teacher should be trained well enough to conduct pronunciation teaching effectively and flexibly, according to necessity or different circumstances. Even when a good methodology is established, much will still be left to individual teachers’ judgement of how to apply it in a certain teadiing plan So, there are two questions here; one is whether the teacher can make the most use of the existing teaching materials, and another is how good are the present materials and how they can be improved.

We would like to determine whether there are sufficient teaching materials for prommciation, and whether they are clear, practical, and ^stematic enough for teachers to use and for students to understand, without too much expenditure of time. (For instance, too much linguistic detail would not be practical.) There should also be priorities among the items to be taugbt If we conclude that there good enough teaching materials, the ^oblems in pronunciation teaching must He mainly in teachers' ability to use them effectively within a limited time. If not, more development of better teaching materials is required, and also it would be necessary to raise the awareness of those teachers (revealed by the questionnaire) who do not recognise the problems involved, or the necessity for pronunciation teaching. 92

2.3.2 The textbooks The following is a list of 11 of the most commonly used beginner's textbooks plus 1 teacher's manual that accompanies one of the textbooks. Textbooks 1. 1989 Nihongo kiite hanashite (24 tasks for Basic Modem Japanese Vol 1 & 2) 2. 1984 : Business Japanese - a guide to improved communication - 3. 1994 : Bunka sholqiiu nihongo I & H, 4. 1990 : Japanese for everyone - a functional approach to daily communication 5. 1997 : An Introduction to Modem Japanese 6. 1994 : Japanese for Busy People I - The new version of the most effective course of spoken, everyday Japanese - revised edition 7. 1991 : Situational Functional Japanese, volume 1 : notes 8. 1974 : Kanji-Kana edition of Nihongo no Kiso I 9 1984 : Basic Structures in Japanese 10 1995 : Japanese for Today 11 1987 : Japanese; the Spoken Language, part I

Teacher's manual

12 1993 : Nihongo no oshiekata no hiketsu, vol. 1

The textbodcs are analysed according to the following points, and the results are shown in table 2.1.

Points of observation: 1) Whether there is any section where anything about Japanese pronunciation in general is mentioned + + = explained in considerable detail, + = mentioned / included - = not mentioned

2) If there is, which of the following aspects are covered? a) Hiragana (and Katakana) Syllabaries - a table of Japanese sounds (gojuu*on), b) syllable (mora) and rhythm ( long vowel, geminate, syllabic /N/, glides (you-on) ), c) prominence, d) intonation, e) pitch accent, f) vowel devoicing, g) velar nasal [g], h) vowel centralisation Cchuuzetsu%a') /su, tsu, dzu, zu/ 93

3) Whether there is a) pitch accent explanation, b) pitch accent jnactice (drill). (+ or -)

In the table below, from 1 to 11 in each row are the textbook numbers given above, while the codes in the rows show the types of pronunciation material included. 94

(1) (2) (3) a b c d e f g h A b 1 ------2 + + + -- + + + - + - 3 ------4 + + + + + + + + + - + - 5 + + + + + - + + - + - 6 + + + --- - + -- - 7 + + + + - + + -- - + - 8 + + + ------9 + + + - + + - - - + 10 + +■ + -- + + ■f - + - 11 + + + + - + + + + - + + 12 + + + - -- + - - - -

Table 2.1 Japanese pronunciation teaching in textbooks (1) anything about Japanese pronunciation in general (2) (a) Hiragana/Katakana syllabary (b) mora duration, rhythm (i.e. long vowel, syllabic /N/, geminate) (c) prominence (d) intonation (e) pitch accent (f) vowel devoicing (g) velar nasal (h) vowel centralisation (3) (a) pitch accent explanation, (b) pitch accent drill The textbooks 1 and 3 have no mention of pronunciation teaching. However, they are both widely used. Among those which have arqihing about Japanese pronunciation in general, all have (2.a) Hiragana / Katakana syllabary and (2.b) mora duration / rhythrtL None of the textbooks chosen had an e?q)lanation of vowel centralisatiorL Prominence (2.c) is mentioned in the textbooks 4 and 5 and only textbook 9 and 11 had pitch accent drills (3.b). Intonation is e^glained in textbooks 4, 7 and 11. The textbodcs in which (2.e) pitch accent is mentioned in some way are 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 11. Most of the textbooks have a general e?qplanation of pronunciation in the beginning. Among the prosodic features, pitch accent is mentioned the most in textbooks. The textbooks 4, 5, 7, and 11 have the most detailed pronunciation description in general. The textbook no.4 covers the most items of pronunciation, followed by no. 11. The manual for teachers does not have a better description for pronunciation teaching compared to the textbooks for the students. The explanation of pitch accent and practice drills focus only on pitch accent (not combined with other prosodic features such as intonation, prominence). So, if students are to practice pitch accent as a part of prosody, (i.e. "holistic" approach, as was 95 suggested in some questionnaire replies), then it will have to be done by using excerpts from an ordinary text (i.e. not specifically meant for pronunciation practice) or by creating original pronunciation teaching materials. On the whole, most of the textbooks have Hiragana/Katakana syllabary and mora duration/rhythm as a minimum basis for the description of pronunciation. But these fairly elementary issues can be easily presented by teachers in the begitming of the course, without need for extensive treatment in the textbook. Textbooks vary in emphasis, but on the whole most of how to bring pronunciation teaching into the class is left to the teacher's own judgement

Told (1986) made a similar survey, selecting 14 textbooks, in English, French, and German, which he found to have quite a lot of description on pronunciation, or to have rather unique description of pronunciation. Among the textbooks I have listed here, 5, 9 and 10 are included in his survey as well All three of them deal with pronunciation description quite well. No. 5 especially includes a detailed description and some exercises, and in Toki's analysis too was judged to contain the best pronunciation teaching guidance (including prosody).

According to my analysis, textbooks 4,5,7, and 11 have pronunciation explained in considerable detail. Here, I would like to look at each of these and describe their characteristics.

4. Japanese for everyone: The section for the pronunciation teaching is attached at the beginning of the textbook. It consists of the descriptions of rhythm, sounds and syllables, and word accent In the section on sounds and syllables, the characteristics of Japanese vowels in comparison to those in English, consonants that are found in Japanese but not in English, and pliable structure of Japanese including the sequence of two or more vowels, syllabic consonants and syllabic nasal are described. In tl% section on word accent, an explanation of Japanese pitch accent is given in detail. In this book, the accented syllable is counted from the beginning of the word, not the end of the word. Although the existence of intonation and prominence (here it is called as stress) is mentioned, there are no details or examples. It is simply mentioned that "Intonation and stress operate in Japanese is much the same way as in English. The best way to learn is to listen carefully to sentences on the tape and imitate as closely as possible". Hiragana / Katakana syllabary is introduced in the section on "the Japanese writing qrstem" rather than as a part of pronunciation section, with some notes on pronunciation. The rest of the book has no mention of pronunciation, but pitch accent is marked in the vocabulary list of each chapter.

5. An introduction to modem Japanese : This textbook is the most detailed and thorough in terms of pronunciation. In the beginning of the textbook, there is a section of pronunciation explanation like most of other textbooks. First, the book is using a romanized transcription "to aid the reading of the hiragana text" and "to show which pait of the sentence should be spoken with more stress", using ▲ on the top of the sentence. One of the unique features of this textbook compared with the others is that each lesson contains pronunciation practice. It 96 is designed "so that the student can shift naturally firom the sound ^stem of English to that of Japanese". R consists of three parts. A, B, and C, and the student is supposed to go through all three steps, as the textbook says, "Only when the student can pronounce entire sentences correctly has he really completed the pronunciation exercise". The first step (A) is to practice mora-timed rhythm by using groups of meaningless syllables. The second s t^ (B) is practice with individual words and phrases, to make the student pay attention not only to the syllable lengths, but also to the pitch accent The third stq> (C) is practice at the sentence level, where attention is also drawn to intonatioTL

This textbook also states that the romanized transcription, written together with the Hiragana transcription, is in the Hqibum system rather than Kunreishiki system, because, "it is easier to switch firom the sound system of English to that of Japanese with this system".

JapaiKse segmental sounds (i.e. each sound of the entire Hiragana syllabary) is described one by one in comparison to those in English. The syllabic /N/ and ^minâtes are introduced together in the section "Syllabic consonants".

The differences between writing and pronunciation are also explained, (e.g. that the particle that is written in hiragana as "ha" is pronounced /wa/>.

There is also an e?q)lanation of Japanese syllable structure and rhythm, in comparism to those of English. This section serves as an introductory explanation to the pronunciation practice in each lesson. Pitch accent is explained in consider^le detail at the begirming of the texAook. However, it is mainly at the word level, or when the word is followed only by a particle etc. Pronunciation at the sentence level appears in a dialogue in eadt lesson There are also "Supplementary Pronunciation Practice (1) & (2)" that is accompanied by a cassette recording. (1) has inactice for long vowels and syllabic consonants (i.e. geminates and qrllabic /N/) using minimal pairs. (2) has practice for "nasalized sounds" (i.e. the velar nasalX and voiceless sounds (ie. unvoiced vowels).

7. Situational functional J^ranese : Like most of the other textbooks, this textbook has several introductory pages explaining Japanese pronunciation in general. Syllable structure and the mora-timed rhythm of Japanese are explained in particular detail. Ifowever, the rest of the text does not include any pronunciation instruction, or indications of pitch accent etc. The book claims "Compared with other aspects of learning the J^mese language, pronunciation is relatively easy” (p24), but at the same time it is mentioned that to master native-like pronunciation of J^mese is another matter. Among the textbooks labelled by me as "+-H=very much detailed", this one is among the less informative.

11. Japanese: the spoken language, part I 97

This textbook has a substantial amount of pronunciation explanation it the beginning, include sound practice materials in eadi section. In the practice material, the sounds which are to be pronounced in high pitch are indicated with capital letters (e g. KA i gi = conference). The explanation of pitch accent is also detailed, and not (udy at the word level; it is presented in combination with intonation. Hiragana / Katakana transcriptimi is not used in this textbook, but roma-ji (=alphabet) transcription is used instead. Firstly, the whole Japanese syllabary is presented (using the alphabet), and each sound is explained in comparison to the closest English sound. Pitch accent is indicated by printing the mora sequence which is siqjposed to be pronounced in high pitch, on a raised line, like a music score. Intonation marking is indicated at the end of the sentences.

Throughout die textbook, there are pitdi accent marking, intonation marking, and drills where it is considered appropriate. This textbook also is one of the most detailed ones in terms of pronunciation.

The textbooks vary considerably in how much detail they include on pronunciation. Whichever textbook the teacher will use, s/he needs to have some knowledge of the sounds of Japanese and of learner's native language, English, and skill to teach and correct the learner's pronunciation. If teachers are using textbooks with detailed pronunciation explanation, they need to be able to explain it to the students, and if they are using the textbook with litde explanation about enunciation, they need to either use separate materials for pronunciation teaching or use their own knowledge and skill to supplement the textbooks.

The textbooks which the teachers claimed, in the questioimaire, to be using specifically for pronunciation teaching included dififerent ones from those I have introduced above. I would now like to examine those textbooks which were listed by the teachers, in comparison with those I have selected, to see if thQT have detailed and useful pronunciation explanations.

The following are the textbooks used for pronunciation teaching according to the questionnaire reply:

3.1994: Bunka sholgmu nihmgo I & II 6.1994: Japanese for busy people 7.1991: Situational functional Japanese 13.1995: Tanoshiku kikoo I, H 14.1998: Nfinna no nihongo; siq)plement 15.1989: E to task de manabu nihongo 16.1995: Waku wakubunpoo listening 17.1994: Hatsuon chookai 18.1992: Onsei to onsei kyooiku 19.1986: Yan san to nihon no hitobito 20.1990: Shin nihongo no kiso I, II 21. Nihongo hatsuon kyooshitsu 98

Apart &om no. 21, all were available for the analysis. No. 3, 6, and 7 were also included in my selection, and no. 20 (Shin nihongo no kiso) is the new version of no. 8 (Nihongo no kiso) in my selection.

The result of the analysis is as follows. 99

(1) (2) (3)

+

13 IT IT IT IT IT + IT IT

Table 2.2 Japanese pronunciation teaching in textborfcs (ii) (1) Anything about Japanese pronunciation in general (2) (a) Hiragana/Katakana syllabary (b) mora duration, rhythm (i.e. long vowel, syllabic /N/, geminate) (c) prominence (d) intonation (e) pitch accent (f) vowel devoicing (g) velar nasal (h) vowel centralisation (3) (a) pitch accent explanation, (b) pitch accent drill As is mentimed before, nos 3,6, and 7 were also included in n^ selection, and no. 20 (Shin nihongo no kiso) is the new version of no. 8 (Nihongo no kiso) in my selectioiL All of these are general- coverage basic textbooks. In no. 20, although mora duration (b) is e?q}lained in terms of long vs. short vowels and double consonants, there is no mention of syllabic /N/; in addition, there is no explanation of prosody properties such as pitch accent, inttmation and prominence. No. 14 is also the same kind of textbook as these in terms of pronunciation e;q)lanatioiL However nos 13, 15, and 16 are more like supplementary materials, which are acconq>anied by recordings, and used for listening comprehension. No 16 is, as the title says, designed for the students to improve their grammatical skills. No. 19 is from a TV series; there is no general pronunciation explanation in the beginning of the textbook, but each chapter includes a section on "Writing and pronunciation", which introduces basic information on Japanese sounds, little by little. No. 17 and 18 are pmnmciation textbooks for teachers which are also used to teach the students in the class room. 100

From this further analysis, it appears that many teachers are probably not making use of the pronunciation material (typically at the beginning of the textbook); rather, they are using listening comprehension material etc., which was not specifically designed for pronunciation teaching. This suggests that the approach they tend to take is "holistic" and "natural". They are not "teaching" pronunciation specifically. They probably explain the general characteristics of Japanese pronunciation when they introduce Hiragana / Katakana i^llabaiy, and correct pronunciation by making students listen and imitate model examples. They may not be conducting intensive (focused) practice that is designed to increase the awareness of the pronunciation, or to practice those sounds which tend to be problems for learners. However, for the students to aim at native-like pronunciation, or for the teacher to prevent students to develop strong "foreign" accent, these partial exercises are also important, especially at an early stage. Also, in the questionnaire, quite a few teachers had claimed that they need better pronunciation teaching material It is not enough just to listen to the model conversation and imitate, in order to acquire a good pronunciation skill. The teacher has to raise the students' awareness to the difference and similarity between the target language and their native language. Practice using the sound contrast with the minimal pairs etc., is a traditional and effective way to raise their awareness to pronunciation. The natural aj^roach (listening to a model and acquiring naturally) requires ability in the teacher to pick up problems and to explain on the spot when appropriate with good examples. This is more demanding for the teachers than to use specifically designed practice material.

Those textbooks which Toki (1986) has selected as containing relatively detailed pronunciation explanations, are also quite different fi'om those mentioned by teachers in questionnaire replies. Three of them are included in those that I have selected, and the rest shows similar characteristics, in terms of the amount the of pronunciation explanation and the way it is presented, to those I have selected. My analysis of the textbooks chosen by Told (excluding the ones I have already selected and considered), is given below.

Textbooks chosen by Told (excluding the ones already dealt with, and excluding also textbooks for learners whose native language is not English).

22.1981: (Colloquial Japanese 23.1962: Beginning Japanese, part 1 24.1977: Intensive course in Japanese (Elementary) 25.1984: Modem Japanese for university students, part 1 26.1976: Essential Japanese 27.1978: Fundamentals of Japanese 101

(1) (2) (3) a b c d e f g h a b 22 + + + - - + + - - + - 23 -H- + + - + + + + - + + 24 ++ + + -- + - + + + + 25 + + + - - + + + - + - 26 + - + - - + + + - + + 27 ++ + + - + + + - - + -

Table 2.3 Japanese pronunciation teaching in textbooks (iii) (1) Anything about Japanese pronunciation in general (2) (a) Hiragana/Katakana ^llabary (b) mora duration, rhythm (i.e. long vowel, syllabic /N/, geminate) (c) prominence (d) intonation (e) pitch accent (f) vowel devoicing (g) velar nasal (h) vowel centraUsation (3) (a) pitch accent explanation, (b) pitch accent drill 102

Most of them contain considerable amount of pronunciation explanation. As Toki points out, it is not always the case that the newer textbooks have more detailed pronunciation explanation. Some of those chosen here are relatively old and have a substantial amount of pronunciation explanation. But it is not always the case that they are thorough or clear and comprehensive. For example, no. 22 tends to have lengthy explanation for each characteristic of Japanese pronunciation. However, pitch accent is only explained in words, without visual aid fiom diagrams. The same thing can be said for nos 26 and 27. No. 24 is slightly better, but the explanations of syllabaiy, orthography and pronunciation is mixed together in the same section, and the example words for the pitch accent are limited to Japanese place names. No.23 is also detailed and thorough; pitch accent and intonation are i»esented visually; it is quite similar to no. 11, since the author is the same. In general, maiy of these accounts are quite pronunciation-conscious and devote quite a number of pages to px>nunciation; but the manner of presentation means that they might not be very easy to use directly in the classroom, especially if the teacher's overall approach is focused on communicatioa It would be probably better for the teacher to have a separate textbook for pronunciation, such as nos 17 and 18, refer to it when necessary and choose exercises to use as a part of their class activities.

Choice of texAook depends a lot on the teacher's approach to pronunciation teaching. In ny opinion, the newer textbooks tend to have better presentation, without too much uimecessary explanation etc., leaving more fireedom for the teachers to add exercises or to make individual pronunciation correction when necessary. If there is too much lengthy phonetic explanation about Japanese sounds, it is difBcult for the students to go through it by themselves, or for the teacher to go through within the class activity. Examples using words which they have not yet learnt, or sentences which they cannot yet construct by themselves, will not be so effective for learning pronunciation. It will be better if the textbooks for the students have a clear and concise presentation of the basic characteristics of Japanese pronunciation within a few pages; for detailed pronunciation explanation, the teacher can refer to pronunciation textbooks such as nos 17 and 18.

2.3.3 Pronunciation teaching textbooks for teachers

In this section, we would like to examine pronunciation teaching texAooks teachers. The main points observed are as follows: 1) How the teaching items are presented in the textbooks. 2) How the books rate the importance of pronunciation/pitch accent teaching. 3) What they have to s ^ on the conduct of pronunciation teaching. 4) The treatment of problems in learning/teaching pronunciation. 5) What they have to say about the teacher's responsibilities. 6) Their accounts of students* attitudes. The following are the pronunciation textbooks chosen for this anafysis: 1. (1998). Yoku wakaru onsei - nihoneo kvooshi bun-va betsu master series- 2. (1979), Japanese pronunciation guide for English speakers 103

3. (1987) Onsei to onsei-kvooiku - nihoneo kvooüai shidoo sankoosho I- 4. (1990) Hatsuon-shidoo no hoohoo 5. (1989) Nihongo no on-in to accent 6. (1992) Hatsuon - kvooshivoo nihongo kvooiku handbook" 7. (1993) Nihongo no onsei nvumnon - kaisetsu to enshuu-

1) How the teaching items are presented in the textbooks.

These textbooks are designed for the teachers to learn about Japanese phonetics and use the information and examjdes for their teaching. They normally introduce the segmental sounds (consonants and vowels) then mora-timed rhythm, and then prosody such as intonation, pitch accent, and prominence. Usually they focus on characteristics which are unique to Japanese sounds, and most of the basic characteristics are covered in all the textbooks. Some of the textbooks contain exercises or lists of minimal pairs, which can be used in the classroom. Nos 2 and 3 in particular have a very detailed explanation and considerable amounts of exercises or lists of minimal pairs for pitch accent practice.

2) How the books rate the importance of pronunciation/pitch accent teaching • Book no. 1: "it is important for the Japanese teachers to learn a basic knowledge of phonetics. The reasons for that are firstly for the teachers to pass the qualification test for the teachers. Secondly, they need to be able to use the knowledge in the classroom teadiing. However, in reahty, it is rather rare to have a systematic pronunciation teaching combined in a course. In most cases, pronunciation is introduced together with Hiragana* syllabary, and after that, it is only in conversation, presentation, and reading aloud activities when the teachers will listen to the students' pronunciation and make corrections if necessary. It is the same when we (Japanese) learn Enghsh at high school. Pronunciation is taught while the alphabet is introduced, and then it tends to be largely ignored except when the learner makes a serious error. Even in examinations, pronunciation is tested by asking the accent placement, or to chose the word ^(riiich contains the different vowel among the list of words etc., which means only the learner's memorising ability or strategy for the exam is tested." This textbook also states that although pronunciatimi receives little emphasis in Japanese language teaching, a survey shows that learners think that {uonunciation is more important than teachers do. Many teachers tend to think that even if the pronunciation is a little odd, it is all right as long as the meaning is understood by the Ustener.

• Book no. 2 states specifically the importance of pitch accent teaching: "Perhaps the most difficult aspect of Japanese pronunciation for an English speaker to learn is pitch accent The rules for pitch in Japanese are rather intricate and their complexly might cause students and teachers alike to despair". • Book no. 3 also emphasises the importance of pitch accent teaching: "Pitch accent has a considerably important role in Japanese phonetics. The length of each syllable and its pronunciation has a strong 104 connection to the accent, and it is not possible to avoid the issue of pitch accent when you teach Japanese language.” • Also, according to tiie textbook no.l, "it is said that the element of pronunciation where the LI interference will remain strongjy is in prosocfy, rather than segments. Also the element which makes the speech more 'Japanese-like' is prosody ratha than segments.”

3) What they have to say on the conduct of pronunciation teaching. pronunciation in general • Book no.1 : "Some people say that jxactice with minimal pairs is monotonous, or students don't like it, so they do not want to do it But to think of the effective use of minimal pair and tiy to develop the good material is important There is nobody who says that they do not want to teach Kanji or grammar because memorising Kanji or learning grammar is monotonous.” • Book no.2: The instructs repeating many times is not satisfactory. If the instructor can briefly point out differences between the taiget language and the student's native language, then understanding might come more easily and make progress more quickly.” "Once they distinguish sound, the next stage is the production stage. Repeating words with the relevant sound is one helpful way d improving it.” This textbook also points out that using minimal pairs is also a common and effective method. • Book no. 4: "It is better to start prcmunciation teaching as early as possible. The younger the better, and also better in an early stage than a later stage”. "In the begirmet's course, where the learners start from the very beginning (zero stage), it is better to start pronunciation practice with the introduction to the Tiitagana' syllabary.” "For the teaching of pronunciation, use kana characters, not the alphabet Because if you use the alphabet for Japanese pronunciation, the learners can experience LI (English in this case) interference.” "For vocabulary practice, don't forget always to attach the pitch accent indication" "It is important to jxedict errors (bad habits in the learner's pronunciation) beforehand and try to avoid them, in the same way that it is better to prevent a disease than to try to cure i t ” • Book no. 7 says "The ability to pick up the new sounds and pronounce them will gradually deteriorate, so it requires lots of effort to acquire a second language after a puberty. Thus, in order to acquire natural native-like pronunciation, the earlier the learners start practising the pronunciation, the better the result will be.” pitch accent teaching • Book no.3: "It is not practical to teach the pitch accent just by introducing the accent pattern each time they learn a new word. It is not enough to teach by telling them, for example, *yokohama' is /yokohama/, not ^okoha'ma/ etc.” It points out that since words with certain munbers of moras tend to have a pattern in their pitch accent, it is useful to do practice which make ûns students acquire certain patterns. For example, for nouns with more than five moras, the most common accent pattern is the ^pe with a pitch Ml on the 3rd mora finm the last So, the pactice like /aiu'eo/ /kakiku'keko/ etc., or /mamimumemu'memo/ /aiueu'eo/ are helpful to acquire certain pattern. This book also suggests, among all the useful instruments for pronunciation teaching, a cassette tape recording with m inim al pairs, for practice in phoneme discriminatiorL In addition, "even after they have learned to distinguish minimal 105 pairs, it is normally still difficult for them to distinguish them in natural speech. It will help to inçrove the student's skill by making them aware of the accent and intonation etc., which are normally not indicated in a written text, by training them to draw the pitch accent or intonation." "There are also drills to make the students listen to sample minimal pairs read by the teacher and repeat" 4) The treatment of problems in learning/teaching pronunciation. • Book no.l: "The main problems pointed out are, 1) there is little time for pronunciation teaching, since we have to teach grammar and Kanji, 2) the number of students is too great and it would take too much time for individual pronunciation instmction, 3) the learners feel shy attempting to pronounce in front of other students in the classroom, 4) our organisation is too poor and does not have enough facilities for pronunciation teaching etc." It says that the problem 1) above is the most common, but the teachers have to be prepared to teach jM-onunciation when it is required at any time. For example, in response to a request from a student, or if asked to be in charge of pronunciation within an institute. However, "it seems that most of teachers I) do not know the effective way of pronunciation teaching, 2) do not know what to teach and to what extent, 3) do not have (cannot find) appropriate teaching material. Concerning teaching material, even though facilities such as language labs, t ^ recorders etc., have been improving a lot recently, the content of the teaching material itself is not much improved."

5) What they have to say about the teacher's responsibilities. • Book no.l: "One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to make the learners aware of their own pronunciation, and help them inq)rove their ability to imitate the model pronunciation". It is pointed out that it is not possible to eliminate every trace of 'foreigness' and speak exactly like a native speaker. So the teacher needs to set priorities on items to correct, i.e. from serious pronunciation enws (often phonemic ones) to less serious ones, which do not change the meanings of words. Also, it is pointed out that the teachers should have a positive attitude about pronunciation teaching, not deciding that because all the errors come from LI interference it is not possible to correct the pronunciation perfectly. • Book no.4: "The most important conditions to become a good language teacher 1) to have the ability to understand objectively, the standard modem Japanese separately from the teacher's own language (dialect) background, and at the same time, use it fully, 2) to have the skill to teach (Japanese) language to the learners, and 3) to have the good contact with the learners. • Book no.7: "For the teacher's side, first of all, the teacher's own pronunciation needs to be checked to see if it is ideal as a model. In the beginners (introductory) stage especially, the influence of the teacher's pronunciation is strong. The pronunciation liabit' which the learner acquires during the begiimer’s stage is hard to get rid of. In addition, learners who cannot pronounce correctly often carmot hear (discriminate the sounds) correctly. It is important for teachers to check and monitor their pronunciation strictly". "It is required that teachers have a basic knowledge of Japanese phonetics, and knowledge about the learner's native language, enabling prediction of likely problems." 106

"It is important for teachers to be aware of their own accent. They need to be able to read according to the pitch accent, often indicated in the beginner's textbook. Also it is not enou^ for a teacher that s/he can speak in the correct pitch accent They need to be able to notice the problems of learners and give them appropriate instruction. In order to do that they need to understand the system, rules, tendency etc., of the modem Tokyo accent". • Bode no. 9 says that even during the introductory stage, if the teacher repeats the correct words over and over again to the students, the result of pronunciation correction is not necessarily satisfactory. They say that if the teacher can briefly and clearly point mit differences between die target language and the student's native language, the students will understand more easily and the speed of the progress will be 6ster.

6) Their accounts of students’ attitudes.

• Book no. 1 : "What are the main inroblems of learners’ pronunciation? In a stutty of English learning in US, what make learners good or bad at pronunciation are: 1) the learner's native language, 2) the learner's ability to imitate, 3) their length of the stay in US, and 4) how much the learner is interested in the pronunciation. How long the learners have been learning the language, or whether the learners have studied [dionetics or not, are irrelevant” • Book no. 7: "In reality, various problems occur in the process of learning, when the learners need to acquire sounds which do not exist in their native language, or sounds which are similar to - but slightly different from - sounds in the native language. For adult learners, pronunciation practice can become difBcult boring, and make them feel conscious and slqr". • Book no. 9: "The next poblem is how to deal with those stWents who, although they can distinguish sounds, are not good at reproducing them. One good way to help these students is to make them repeat words containing the relevant sounds various times both for listening and pronunciatioa"

2.3.4 The video of a model class of pronunciation teaching Now, I would like to consider the video "Hatsuon no shidoo" (=pronunciation teaching) which shows several model class activities where teachers are giving pronundation instruction in three different Japanese language teaching institutes in Japan. Some are classes m ainly focused on pronunciation, and in other cases, pronunciation was taught as a part of the class activity. It would be useful to know when exactly this video was made, in order to check if the style of the class activity is contemporary. Unfortunately, the video carries no date; according to the NACSIS database, the video was made in the 1980s, but the exact year is not given.

The institutes presented were 1) Kokusai Kirisuto-lq^oo Daigaku (Imemational Christian University), 2) Tokyo Nihongo Gakkoo, Gengo Bunka Kenkyuujo Fuzoku, and 3) Todcai Daigaku Ryuugakusei Kyooiku Centre. All together, 6 lessons are shown, with the institutes in the order 1)2)3) 1)2)3).

The following is a description of each class activity. 107

1) Kokusai Kirisuto-kyoo Daigaku, Teacher Nakamura Taeko Number of students: 23 (English speaking country) Level: beginners (Intensive Japanese) Pronunciation practice during the introduction of Hiragana', practice pronouncing Hiraganas*

The teacher puts the Hiragana cards *ta' 'chi' tsu' 'te' to' one after another on the blackboard, as she makes the students repeat after her.

2) Gengo Bunka Koilgmyo Fuzoku, Tokyo Nihongo Gakkoo Teacher Mori Hiroko Number of students: 7 (Europe, Asia) Level: beginners 2/3 (315th hour/lesson) 'Sokuon' (geminate) pronunciation practice in a rather advanced beginners level

The teacher introduces the words 'gakkoo', tûRwn', using fingers to count the mora rhythm, and shows that the second mwa fix>m the beginning is without sound. The teacher then introduces 'zasshi'. Although the second mora of this word is also spelled with small 'tsu', it is not an absence of sound but a fricative. The teacher demonstrates and makes the students repeat The teacher e?q)lains the difierence between the geminate "kk' 'pp' (stops) and 'ss' fricatives.

The students first practice by listening to a sample pronunciation from the teacher, then practise reading fiom a textbook. In both kinds of practice, the mora rhythm is counted on the fingers. Speed of repetition is changed from slow to 6st. The teacher tells the students that even if you speed up, still there is one mora absence of voicing.

3) Toukai Daigaku Ryuugakusei Kyooiku Centre Teacher: Bizen Tooru Number of students: 15 (South East Asia) Level: beginner (3rd month) The class is not specifically for teaching pronunciation. 5 to 10 minutes pronunciation practice Qkuchinarashi') was conducted at the beginning of eveiy class.

The teacher makes the students repeat the words 'utsu uttsun', Trata katta', 'oto, otto', 'machi macchi', 'utsu utssu utsun' etc. One of the students says 'utsunn' instead of 'uttsun'. (Correction takes the form ‘No. It's not.... It is '. When the error persists, the teacher exaggerates the geminate by lengthening the hold phase ( ^ u t twice as long). First the students repeat all together, then individual students 108 repeat Most of them manage to repeat correctly on their own, but a couple (rf students make consistent errors.

4) Kokusai Kiiisuto-lgroo daigaku Teacher Kawamura Yoshiko Number of students: 23 (from English speaking countries) Level: beginners This is a ’Hiragana’ class, using the textbook. The teacher reads aloud the vocabulary, and gives instmction about pitch rise and pitch 6 1 1 .

The difference of the pitch accent pattern between the words ’ishi* (stone) and ’ushi’ (cow) is indicated on the blackboard, by adding a particle ’ni’ after each word. Thqr are both low -hi^ but when ’ni’ follows each word, the pitch goes down in the former one and stays high in the latter. The pitch accent mark is drawn on the blackboard as well.

Also, the teacher uses her arm moving high and low, to indicate the pitch height The difference between Englidi stress accent and Japanese pitch accent is explained. The teacher demonstrates what it sounds like if Japanese words are read with English stress accent instead of pitdi accent. All the instmction and the explanation is in English.

5) Gengo Bunka Kenkyuujo Fuzoku Tokyo Nihongo Gakkoo Teacher Mori Hiroko Number of the students: 7 (Europe, Asia) Level: beginners 2/3 (315th hour/class) The teacher makes the students read vocabulary items and sentences aloud, and focuses on pronunciation correction and reading practice.

Sentences to repeat were; ’Osatpo wa doko ni arimasu ka’. (Where is sugar?) 'todana no naka ni arimasu’ (It’s in the cupboard) Division into spoken phrases is considered Todananonakani / arimasu - correct Todanano / nakaniarimasu - not acceptable Todanano / nakani / arimasu - not acceptable

The teacher says that the latter two ways of breaking the sentence are not good, because the meaning is not clear. The main method is to make the students repeat the teacher’s pronunciation. The teacher corrects the pitch accent of 'ano iremono’ individually. The teacher points out that it is not easy to read correctly fi’om the texAook, compared with repeating after the teacher’s exançle. In order to correct pitch accent, the teacher is using arm movement to show the height of the pitch. She also uses magnets on the white board to show the relative pitdi height of each pliable. 109

6) Kokusai Kirisuto-l^oo Daigaku Teacher Watanabe Kumiko Number of the students: 23 (&om English speaking countries) Level: beginners Pronunciation pactice language lab. The class is the Intensive Japanese Class; they have one language lab class for each lesson.

Individual students practise the drill fix>m tape. The teacher keeps monitcxing than individually. From time to time, the teacher will call students individually through the language lab facility, practise the drill or conversation with him/her, and make corrections. In the video, it is said that this language lab is m ainly focused on pronunciation practice. However, thae is no point when the teacha is seen correcting pronunciatioiL

Summary: It seems the video is meant to give teachers a rough idea of how the pronunciaticm teadiing can be conducted in various class situations. It shows that there are various points to be focused upon, and various ^roaches that can be taken Some of them are simple repetitiœ afla the teacha, the others involve the teacher's ability to present examples of an error or imitate common errors made by students. Some of the sessions take place in language lab, or others consist of 5 to 10 minutes pronunciation at the beginning of every class almost like a physical warm-up exercise. As it was pointed out in the results of the questionnaire, these pronunciation practice sessions take place mostly in the begirmer's classes, often with the introduction of Hiragana syllabary, or basic vocabulary. This video analysis shows that there are various ways of conducting prommdation teaching, but to conduct it effectively requires the individual teacher to have knowledge of the pronunciation of both native and tai^get language, ability to pronounce correctly by him/herself, ability to point out the exact problem of the learner, and sometimes even imitate them. So, even if on the surface the pronunciatitm teaching activities presented here look simple and sometimes quite spontaneous, quite a lot of background knowledge and skill is required in the teacher.

2.4. Discussion and conclusions When we talk about pronunciation teaching, the first question to be asked is "is pronunciation teaching necessary? - and if it is, to what extent?". Then, follow the questions, "what kind of problems exists in the present pronundation teaching?", "what is required of teachers?", "what is required of students?", "in which way should pronunciation teaching be conducted?", and then, we even come to the question of "is pronunciation teaching really worthwhile?". We need to know to what extent it is worth spending time and energy in correcting the students' pronunciation errors. This is related to the issue of second language acquisition (chapter 3). 110

In this chuter, we have been looking at the way pronunciation teaching is regarded and treated in reality. From the results of the questionnaire, we saw that, apart from a couple of teachers who are specifically interested in pronunciation teaching, their awareness of its inqx>rtance is rather poor. Some teachers think that it will be acquired naturally in the same way as a native language, so they do not think it is necessary specifically to teach it Other teacha^ blame lack of time, or lack of good accessible teaching materials.

It is, of course, not true that the pronunciation of the second language is naturally learned. MacCarthy (1978: 13) states, "To leave pronunciation to take care of itself is virtually to ensure that a really acceptable standard is never reached - save possibly by a quite exceptional individual". Concerning the problem of the lack of time, he claims: "In the average language teaching/leaming situation, with every branch dem anding attention, naturally pronunciation competes with all the rest for time, and to claim for it more than a fair share would be unrealistic. It will fall to each teacher to decide what is the proper share for pronunciation, taking everything into account; but the point needs to be emphasised that some time will obviously have to be given to pronunciation if pronunciation is to get any attention at all, and clearly that time should be used as effectively as possible". Naturally, learners need to be taught to focus on certain characteristics of the sounds of the target language, and contrast the differences with his/her native language, since his/her perception is already biased by the sound system of his/her native language. More than one survey has shown that learners are likely to think pronunciation is more important teachers do; while many teachers tend to think it is all right as long as the meaning is understood by the listener. According to Otsubo (1990), "one survey (by nihongo kyooiku gakkai course design iinkai) showed that when the question "what do you want to learn?* was asked of 93 learners of Japanese, 86.4% answered, *1 want to be able to speak in a natural pronunciation and intonation*.

Teachers need to be aware of the exact tasks and difficulties that 6ce learners. According to Toki (1989) they need to 1) distinguish the differences from similar sounds in their native language, 2) imitate the target sound, listening and evaluating their own attempts, 3) taking several characteristics/dimensions of the target sounds into consideration, make a self correction, and 4) when the learner thinks s/he has achieved the target, repeat the sound many times in order to stabilise it In each stage above, the learner needs to have the ability to self-evaluate. Also, according to the result in section 2.3.3, students need to be motivated, and to overcome psychological problems such as shyness. For this, the teacher needs to guide them in the right direction. Also, some students can distinguish sounds, but are not good at reproducing them. The teacher needs to be able to notice the individual student's actual problems and guide them accordingly.

As was mentioned in the pronunciation textbook analysis, prosody is probably more difficult to acquire than other elements of pronunciation, since LI interference rem ains a strong influence; at the samm time prosody is an important factor in making speech sound more "Japanese-like" or more "foreign". It would seem then that teaching of prosodic features such as pitch accent and intonation should be one of Ill

the most important aspects of prommdation teaching. However, the reality is that Japanese pitch accent tends not to be paid enough attention.

According to Nomoto (1990), stress accent as in English has a stronger influence than pitch accent as in Japanese. The existence of the stress accent in English is commonly known even to lay pet^le, but there are some Japanese native q)eakers who do not even know that there is 'accent* as such in Japanese. A word m ^ have several different accent patterns according to the accent dictionary - and in reality some people may pronounce the word with an accent different again flom any one of the possibilities in the dictionary. These 6cts show that accent in Japanese is not a crucial &ctor in intelligibility. Mizutani (1990) points out the reasons the accent acquisiticm tend to be ignored:

1) Speakers of standard Japanese are not aware of their own ability to pronounce their own language correctly and th ^ cannot give appxypriate instruction to learners. 2) Teadiers whose native dialect is not standard Japanese have not enough confidence to teach pitch accent 3) It often puts the students off if an attempt is made to force them to learn the detailed rules of pitch accent. Sugito (1990: 349) also points out that Japanese people usually do not know anything about pitdi accent The results of a questionnaire put to university students in Japan show that they hardly know anything about Japanese pitch accent Some say that Japanese accent as in English, is distinguished by a difference of intensity. Others say that unlike English, Japanese has no accent" In 6 c t Mizutani (1992, 93) explains that not only prosody, but pronunciation education in general tends not to be paid enough attention in Japan. Therefore Japanese people tend to fed that pronunciatioit eqxcially pitch accent is of lesser importance, and many teachers remain unconvinced of its importance.

As most of the teadiers pointed out in the questionnaire, it is inqxirtant to start pronunciation teaching in the beginners' stage. This feet is also pointed out in many research articles (Nakamura: 1973: 29). As Kashi ma (1995) points out if learners do not received suffident pronunciation teaching in the beginner's stage, their pronunciation habits will be fossilised and will be more difficult to correct at the intermediate and advanced stages. For this reason pronunciation cannot be left to be learned naturally, and needs to be taught or at least given some direction, if learners are to avoid having a foreign accent so severe as to cause communicaticm disruption, and which is difficult to correct afterwards.

Apart from the practical requirement to make communication smooth, good p^onunciatimi of the language also has psychological effects on both the listener and the speaker. "One speech sound can have a positive image in some sodety, but negative image in another sodety. This kind of difference also can cause a difficulty in achieving a certain pronunciation. For example, German qyeakers tend to add rounding of the lips in vowels when they speak in Japanese due to their LI interference, but in Japanese, it sounds like the person is complaining In this way, you can be easily misunderstood" (Told, 1989: 116; Toki, 1993: 49). It is also said that the further advanced a learner's level becomes, so 112 that there are almost no {H’oblems in basic communication, the more likely it is that pronunciation errors will cause misunderstanding and offence to native listeners (Kato and Ayusawa: 1993: 81). In addition, even if communication is not prevented, poor pronunciation can cause it to be "slow, partial or delayed" (MacCarthy, 1978:8).

From all the facts and views reviewed above, we can conclude that pronunciation teaching IS necessary, at least to some extent To what extent, exactly, will depend on various factors such as the nature of the course, teachers’ judgement of priority in teaching items, the goals of the course, time restriction and so on. From the result of the questionnaire, it seems that in university courses, time restriction is the main problem for pronunciation teaching. If a course is mainly for reading and writing, pronunciation will be low in priority. If the aim is communication, a teacher would put priority on items which can disrupt communication Pronunciation errors which can cause communication problems will be given higher priority, and those which do not, but can nevertheless m ake speech sound foreign, will be lower in priority. To prioritise the teaching items is important and teaching materials should also reflect this prioritisation. Whatever the goal is, the teacher needs to be able to teach pronunciation to learners of various levels. Needless to say, the teacher's role in pronunciation teaching is veiy important "Teachers must know the language background of the students to a certain extent They also need to have knowledge of general phonetics and its application to teadiing pronundaticHL" (Toki, 1997:6-11).

"It is very desirable that a language teacher be able to put into words reasons why good pronunciation should be aimed at if the point is ever raised by his piqiils. It is even more desirable that he himself be firmly convinced of the inqwrtance of good pronunciation, and that this should at all times emerge implicitly fiom the mere fact that he pays attention to their pronunciatioit notices mistakes and takes time and trouble to put them right" (MacCarthy, 1978: 9). So, teachers need to have knowledge of and skill in pronunciation teaching and need to be convinced that it is important From the responses to the questionnaire, it does not look as if most teachers meet this requirement. Toki (1989) listed the important points for the teachers to be aware of:

1) To consider the priority of teaching items depending on the learner's level. 2) To make a clear distinction between perception and production difSculties. 3) To bear in mind that the speech range and intensity can be quite different in tire learner’s native language fiom what is expected in Japanese, and that this can affect their motivation 4) When pointing out a learner's error, a teadier should try to make the criticism more objective (eg by using a cassette t ^ recorder). Some students dislike having the teacher imitate their pronunciation. 6) Before starting pronunciation teaching, a teacher should inq>ress upon students the importance of it 7) After teaching efBcient ways of practising pronunciation, the teacher should try to guide students towards practising by themselves voluntarily. 113

Apart from these, there are many reqwnsibilities for teachers as has been described in the section 2.3.3. These include; 1) teachers need to make learners aware of their own pronunciation and help them impove their ability to imitate the model pronunciation, 2) the teachers need to be aware of their own pronunciation, 3) teachers need to have a basic knowledge of Japanese phonetics and about the learner's native language, and need to be able to predict potential problems based on this knowledge. In fact the requirements on teadiers are extensive, and as the result of the questiormaire shows, not all teachers meet these requirements.

As for the methodology of pitch accent teaching, as Kashima (1995) says, and as the results of the questionnaire also indicate, it has commonly been introduced in the first couple of lessons together with Hiragana ^Uabary, daily expressions, or basic vocabulary and so o i l Although some attempts have been made to inqnove the teaching methodology (eg Kashima at Nagoya University; Kashiwagi at SO AS) the questionnaire makes plain that most teachers are still using the conventional methodology - if they teach pronunciation at all. Toki (1989) cormnents that although minimal pair practice and language lab facility are most commonly used for pronunciation teaching, there is actually no evidence that these are the most ^ective and easiest ways to practice pronunciation. Another conunon method used for [xonunciation practice is not to focus only on the sounds to be acquired as in m inim al pair practice, but to practice entire conversations and make corrections if necessary or leave the students to pick up the pronunciation by themselves. Although many say that pitch accent should be taught in whole sentences together with intonation etc., still much of the inactice is at the word level - or when it is at sentence level, students are left merely to imitate and are corrected only when teachers feel it necessary.

Sounds are best taught not only by listening, but also by visual aids (Toki: 1989). Phonetic transcription and pitch accent marking are examples of this, and so are hand gestures which can be used to convey pitch accent patterns. In the pronunciation teaching video, there were some teachers using this method. Of course, to use certain visual methods (e.g. pitch accent marking) learners also have to learn the marking system and get accustomed to it, and this itself can be an extra burden to the learners. There is further analysis later in this thesis about the effectiveness of pitch accent m arking

Some teachers do not believe pronunciation teaching is necessary, because none of these teaching methodologies seem to work, and they think that because of LI influence it is not possible or worthwhile to teach pronunciation. It is true that effects may not be shown immediately, and that existing methodology may need some improvement, but it does not follow that pronunciation teaching is not necessary.

In the following cheers, I attempt to observe pitch accent errors made by learners of J^anese, and discuss the relative difhcul^ for learners of different types of task (imitation, auditory discrimination, visual marking, production jfrom knowledge, and so on). 114

Chapter 3 Some studies on L2 phonology

3.1 Foreign accent

When your native language is spoken by a non-native speaker, you can detect the 'foreignness' of the speech. Moreover, it is, in most cases, possible to tell the native language of the speaker. That is, if your native language is English, you can detect the French accent of English, or Spanish accent of English and so on. You might also detect some grammatical errors in such speech, but it is much less easy to tell from them what the speaker's native language is. When the language is written by a non­ native speaker/writer, it is still hard to tell the native language of the person who wrote the text without specialist knowledge. By contrast a foreign accent is easy to detect, even for someone without special linguistic background. Even if we cannot speak or understand a certain language, we often have an idea of what it should 'sound like', just by having heard the language spoken several times. It is an overall 'sound image' of the language, which we perceive without knowing its detailed composition. Our ability to do this may be similar to the ability to distinguish Beethoven's works from Mozart's (without recognizing a specific composition) or an example of Monet's painting from Van Gogh's.

To take an example much closer to foreign accent, we can detect the dialects of our own languages - mostly by the pronunciation, and we can often mimic the sound of different dialects. More interestingly, this 'sound image' is in common among native speakers. As a result, when someone talented in mimicking a sound image speaks with the various assumed foreign accents, as is often done by the TV comedians, all the viewers would recognize whether it is English with French accent or with Japanese accent and so on, and can share the jokes which result. (It would be far more difficult to understand jokes which depended on the comedian using the syntax of another language, instead of the pronunciation). It is interesting to think of how we can often mimic foreign accents of our own language without being able to speak that foreign language ourselves. From the viewpoint of the native speakers’ perception, 'foreign accent' is something which carries a feeling of 'foreignness', which originates from the speaker's native language. When they perceive foreign accent in a sample of speech, untrained listeners are not detecting the individual foreign characteristics in phonological term (such as VOT differences etc.). They may be able to mimic speech with a foreign accent even though they may not be able to point out any of the individual elements of 'foreigimess' in the speech. This 'sound image' of foreignness is largely shared in common by any native speakers of a language.

Not only is it difficult to pinpoint the precise elements of 'foieignness'; correcting speech in the direction of a native-like pronunciation is more difficult than to make corrections in the domains of syntax, semantics, morphology etc.. Indeed, as most of us have experienced, correcting someone's pronunciation is never easy, whether it is one's dialectal accent or foreign accent. It is much easier to 115

make syntactic changes than to change the way you pronounce. Changing word order, for example, can be done consciously, and it is easy to present granunatical and ungrammatical examples for learners to see the differences. However, changing pronunciation involves many processes, such as perceiving unfamiliar distinctions between sounds, and controlling the articulatory apparatus in new ways. These processes are not normally conscious but depend on habits formed in childhood during the first acquisition of language.

The difierence between LI acquisition and L2 acquisition is often described by saying that the former is 'acquired' but the latter is 'learned'. Thus, in L2 acquisition, pronunciation seems less easy to 'leam' than syntax etc.

Common experience tells us firstly that in spoken language, we can detect 'foreign accent' quite easily and it contains some common characteristics which are associated with the speaker's first language •(LI), and secondly, that it is difficult to correct this 'foreign accent'. It is also a matter of common experience that there is a substantial difference between children and adults in the ability to modify or lose foreign accent. These facts are more distinct in the domain of pronunciation than in other domains such as syntax.

Foreign accent seems to exist as a common image in native speakers' perception even though they have no knowledge of phonology:

"It is a popular belief that second language acquisition (SLA) is strongly influenced by the learner's first language (LI). The clearest support for this belief comes from 'foreign' accents in the second language (L2) speech of learners. When a Frenchman speaks English, his English sounds French." (Ellis, 1985).

However, when we teach foreign languages, this common perception is not enough to correct students' pronunciation. We need to know what characteristics exactly make speech sound foreign; to correct these so that communication will not be disrupted by pronunciation errors is the aim of the pronunciation teaching. Pronunciation errors can be divided into two categories. The first one consists of phonological errors, which can affect the meaning of the words, and the second of phonetic errors, which do not affect the meaning, but make the speech seem 'foreign' and thus affect the fluency of communication.

The study of language teaching and learning belongs to the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA); from this, different approaches have emerged, and been applied to language teaching in the hope of making it more efficient and successful. In the 50s and 60s, the study of SLA was mainly focused on the teaching perspective, and from 70's, the focus has been shifted from teacher to learner (Archibald, 1998: 1). What follows is a brief historical overview of SLA research, mainly focusing on phonology. 116

3.2 SLA overview

3.2.1 LI interference and Contrastive Analysis

In the studies of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), one of the main characteristics of foreign accent is explained as the result of the speaker’s first language (LI) interference. This concept became most popular in 1950s andl960s, and it was based on the theories of behaviourism and structuralism, which were dominant in the fields of psychology and linguistics, respectively, at that time.

"According to behaviourist learning theory, old habits get in the way of learning new habits." (Ellis, 1985: 21) "those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language" (Weiiu-eich, 1953: 1)

Also, according to Weinreich, interference can appear in both "the actual speech of the bilingual and the bilingual's knowledge of language." (Cook, 1993: 8), in other words, interference affects both competence and performance.

Interference was the central notion of the behaviourists' learning theory. According to them, transfer from the learner's LI to second language (L2) will take place.

"individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture" (Lado, 1957: 2)

When the transfer is negative, it constitutes LI interference and errors will occur. When it is positive (which means that that system of LI and the target language (TL) are the same, no error will result in perception and production of the L2 by learners. Thus, the idea of Contrastive Analysis (CA) emerged in order to help the effective teaching of L2. Fries (1945) set up this hypothesis, and Lado (1957), Whitman (1970), Prator (1967), for example, all supported the claim. The idea is that a systematic comparison of language systems will yield indications of likely areas of difficulty for learners. "The teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them" (Lado, 1957).

The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) claims specifically that, by comparing two language systems (LI and TL), teachers will be able to predict learners' errors. A central part of this hypothesis is that the difficulty of acquiring L2 depends on the degree of difference between the structures of the native language and TL. The closer the two systems are, the quicker (or easier) the acquisition will be. 117

and conversely, the more the two languages are different, the more difficult acquisition will be, and the greater the LI interference will be. By comparing the descriptions of the native language (ML) and the target language (TL), it was said to be possible to 'predict' the errors the learner will make, and this is called the 'strong' form of CAH.

By the early 1970s, empirical, theoretical, and practical criticisms of CAH were mounting (Ellis, 1985: 27). For example, a number of research results cast doubt on the predictability of errors in this hypothesis. Many errors are in fact non-interference errors, and researchers in error analysis (BA) have even claimed that the majority of errors are not due to interference of the native language but rather are developmental. Another criticism is that it is doubtful that the notions of difference, difficulty, and error are related in the manner claimed.

Wardhaugh (1970) suggested a 'weak' form of the hypothesis in contrast to the strong" form which was initially proposed. The strong form claims that all the errors are predictable; the weak form of CA only helps to identify some of the errors.

It also became apparent that, in contrastive analysis, it is not enough just to look at the similarity and the difference of NL and TL. Based on the assumption that the degree of learning difficulty corresponds to the degree of difference between NL and TL, Prator (1967) has suggested a six-level hierarchy of degree of difficulty. However, it is sometimes not easy to determine which contrast of NL and TL belongs to which level of hierarchy. Eckman (1977) suggested the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH), based on the linguistic notion of'maikedness':

'A phenomenon A in some language is more marked than B if the presence of A in a language implies the presence of B; but the presence of B does not inqjly the presence of A.' (Eckman, 1977).

Eckman (1977) proposed the MDH as follows:

"The areas of difficulty that a language learner will have can be predicted on the basis of a systematic comparison of the grammars of the native language, the target language and the markedness relations stated in universal grammar, such that, (a) Those areas of the target language which differ from the native language and are more marked than the native language will be difficult. (b) The relative degree of difficulty of the areas of the target language which are more mariced than the native language will correspond to the relative degree of markedness. (c) Those areas of the target language which are different from the native language, but are not more marked than the native language will not be difficult.' (Eckman 1977, p61).

One of the well-known examples of this hypothesis concerns the voicing contrast for consonants, which appears differently in German and English. (For details, see Eckman 1977, Archibald 1998). 118

Eckman (1977) suggested: 'rather than being abandoned altogether, the CAH should be revised to incorporate a notion of degree of difficulty which corresponds to the notion of typological markedness.' However, there are cases where MDH itself fails to yield the expected result - for instance where no difficulty is found even though the TL is more marked (Altenberg & Vago, 1983,pl59).

Eckman (1991) later proposed what he calls 'Structural Conformity Hypothesis', which is a revised version of MDH, using the firameworic of typological universals. The language-leamer's language (later mentioned as 'interlanguage' in this paper, see section 3.2.3) conforms to the universal (typological) principles found in primary languages. He gives an example involving the acquisition of consonant clusters:

1. Fricative-stop principle. If a language has at least one final consonant sequence consisting of stop + stop (as in apt), it also has at least one final sequence consisting of fricative + stop (as in ask). 2. Resolvability principle. If a language has a sequence of three consonants in either initial or final position, which we will here call m, it will also have at least one subsequence consisting of m - 1 3. So the presence of a word-initial sequence such as str, for example, indicates that the language will also contain at least one of the subsequences st or tr in the same position.

According to Flege (1987), similar sounds are more difficult to acquire than dissimilar sounds because a speaker classifies or perceives them to be equivalent to those in his/her LI, although there are important exceptions (Bohn and Flege, 1992).

Major and Kim (1999) summarize studies concerning markedness, and the issue of similar versus dissimilar sounds. They point out that these two factors - similarity and markedness - 'can compete'. They propose a possible solution to this dilemma: 'a high degree of markedness will overrule the dissimilarity factor, or perhaps the dissimilarity factor will overrule a low degree of markedness'. Their general hypothesis is that similar sounds are more difficult to acquire than dissimilar sounds, and making this general statement more specific, they present the data which supports the Similarity Differential Rate Hypothesis (SDRH), which is proposed in contrast to MDH. SDRH claims that 'similar phenomena are acquired at faster rates than dissimilar phenomena and that markedness is a mediating factor that slows rate.' They also call SDRH as 'reinterpretation of the MDH in terms of rate'. In MDH, 'areas of difficulty' is the key, whereas in SDRH, the key becomes 'rate of acquisition'. However, they point out that the term 'areas of difficulty* is problematic and vague, and that MDH takes into account only 'markedness' but not 'similarity* whereas SDRH takes account of both of them.

Both researchers and teachers have utilized Error Analysis (EA) in order to analyze the difficulties of language learning. Its procedure involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying and describing the errors, and categorizing them according to the possible causes, and evaluating the seriousness of them. The cause of the errors can be, for instance, LI interference, or developmental. 119

E A can be used to investigate the various processes that contribute to interianguage development. The universalists, who challenged the structuralists in 1970s, suggested the possibility that SLA follows a universal route, in other words, a 'natural* sequence of development. The L1=L2 hypothesis states that the process of SLA is very similar to the process of LI acquisition. Several EA investigations show that some errors are developmental; that is, L2 learners may make errors very similar to those observed in LI acquisition. Errors are now looked at not as 'mistakes' but as evidence of learner language's development. *

Various ways of analyzing and predicting the errors of the language-leamers' language has been proposed and all may have some relevance in conducting SLA studies. At the same time, we need to be aware that each area of study (pronunciation, syntax etc.) may need a somewhat different approach. For example, pronunciation errors are said to contain LI interference more distinctively than syntax errors.

3.2.2 Interference and phonology

In spite of the criticisms, CA still remained a popular research methodology, particularly in the area of phonology. One of the reasons was that the idea of LI interference was revised and looked at in several different aspects such as avoidance, learner strategy etc. (Ellis, 1985). Another reason is that most of the criticism of CA was in the area of grammar rather than phonology. Also, as was mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, 'foreign accent' provides a clear indication of the influence of LI on L2. The existence of LI interference in pronunciation is widely accepted as a fact in the practical teaching of languages. We also consider LI interference as one of the main characteristics in IL (=interlanguage) phonology in this research.

Indeed, several studies conclude that interference really is a major source of errors in phonology. As Brown (1987: 161) explains, "...it is really only in the phonological component of language that contrastive analysis is mildly successful. In early stage of second language acquisition, learners produce the sounds of a foreign language in fairly consistent patterns, largely because pronunciation is a osvchomotor skill, and with its reliance on muscular coordination, is a factor of more predictable interference." He claims that, because of this "psychomotor skill", the learner's habit of LI pronunciation is difficult to change in L2 learning, and that causes the LI interference.

3.2.3 Interianguage

’ Archibald (1993: 18) differentiates two types of mistakes depending on those that are the result of competence and those of performance. As he explains, ‘Conventionally, idiosyncratic forms which are systematic for the learners are thought to be the result of non-standard competence (what Corder referred to as errors), while idiosyncratic forms which are unsystematic are thought to result from performance factors (what Corder referred to as mistakes).' 120

In early 1970s, as generativists attacked the behaviourist/structuralist theory, the concept of 'interianguage (IL)’ emerged and has influenced the whole concept of language-leamer language. The term was first introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) and the idea became very popular in examining the L2 learner's language system. Nemser (1971) had called the same phenomena 'approximative systems', and Corder (1971), 'idiosyncratic dialects' and 'transitional competence'. The idea is that an L2 learner uses a language system which is neither the LI nor the L2; in other words, "a third language system is involved" (Cook, 1993) in the development of the language-leamer language.

IL designates the L2 learners' own language systems of their own. Though idiosyncratic and constantly changing, they are nevertheless systematic. According Nemser (1971), IL (approximative systems, in his own words) is distinct from the LI and L2; form an evolving series; and roughly coincide when they are at the same stage of proficiency.

According to Selinker (1972) interianguage has five principal processes: 1. language transfer 2. overgeneralisation of L2 mles 3. transfer of training 4. strategies of L2 learning 5. communication strategies

Each of above is 'fosslizable'. Fossilization can occur in most language learners and can not be corrected any more. The idea of interianguage (IL) has become widely accepted, and a range of investigations has attempted to And out more about its nature and characteristics. In general, errors are said to arise from two sources: LI transfer and developmental errors. The former are those which are related to the learner's LI, while all errors for which a cause cannot be traced in LI are so far regarded to be developmental. Archibald (1993: 18) calls the former contrastive errors, and the latter constructive errors:

1. those which result from LI transfer (contrastive errors), and 2. those which are found in all learners' interianguage regardless of LI; the kind of errors that children make when acquiring the language as an LI (constmctive errors).

The notion of 'interianguage' caused teachers to consider that the errors the learners make are not necessarily 'mistakes' to be constantly corrected, and led teachers towards a communicative approach. Teachers need to maintain in their minds the target of effective L2 use, "not that of a pretend native speaker" (Cook, 1996: 7).

3.2.4 Age factor in L2 phonology 121

There are several factors affecting SLA, among them individual differences, affective factors, and cognitive factors (Archibald 1998: 15-19). Of particular importance in a phonological context is the age factor. It is commonly believed that younger learners are better at acquiring native-like pronunciation than adult learners. Studies on child-adult differences in SLA have provided results in terms of leamability and age differences. Ellis (1985: 106-107) summarizes as follows:

1 Starting age does not affect the route of SLA. 2 Starting age affects the rate of learning. Where grammar and vocabulary are concerned, adolescent learners do better than either children or adults, when the length of exposure is held constant. Where pronunciation is concerned, there is no appreciable difference. 3 Both number o f years o f exposure and starting age affect the level of success. The number of years' exposure contributes greatly to the overall communicative fluency of the learners, but starting age determines the levels of accuracy achieved, particularly in pronunciation.

Krashen, Long, and Scarcella (1982) summarize various results relating to age, rate, and eventual attainment both in long and short term studies. According to them, adults and older children are faster in acquiring morphological and syntactic development, but younger children have better attainment in the long run. Asher and Garcia (1982), in their long term study on Cuban children acquiring English pronunciation, found an inverse relationship between age of arrival at the US and the achievement of near-native pronunciation.

A number of researchers have observed that learners' speech includes pronunciation characteristics which are a part of their NL: Flege and Hillenbrand (1984), Weinreich (1953), Valdman (1976).

Phonological fossilization of the interianguage (IL) is the cause of foreign accent. It appears inevitable when adults leam an L2. Lenneberg (1967) stated that although adults can communicate in a foreign language, foreign accents cannot be overcome easily after puberty. Scovel (1969) stated that no adult ever achieves perfect native pronunciation in a L2, discussing the case of Joseph Conrad, who acquired English as a young adult. Although Conrad became a major English writer, his pronunciation never lost its characteristic non-native accent. As loup and Tansomboon (1987: 333-4) point out:

"Many researchers observed that a near-native fluency in syntax seems much more attainable for the adult learner than a native-like pronunciation.'

There are some researchers (Hill, 1970: Neufeld, 1977), who claim that it is possible for an adult learner to attain native-like pronunciation. Neufeld (1977) introduces his teaching method, where he focuses on perception training in introducing the new TL sound system, and does not allow the learners to repeat the sounds until a certain stage. By not repeating after the model at the initial stage. 122 the learner is supposed to avoid building up the wrong acoustic image contaminated by their own output.

Archibald (1998) concludes that some studies, such as that of Neufeld (1977), the studies by Flege and his colleagues on the acquisition of VOT (1981) and vowels (1992), and Archibald's own study on stress patterns (1993) imply that achieving native-like pronunciation is not hopelessly impossible.

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) was first stated by Lenneberg (1967). It claims that there is a period when learning a language can proceed effectively and effortlessly, but that around puberty the acquisition of a language will become increasingly difficult. Lenneberg linked this with lateralization of brain function along with biological maturation. Scovel (1969) also took the view that neurological maturation was the reason for adults' inability to achieve native-like proficiency in learning L2. However, Krashen (1973) re-examined Lenneberg's data and concluded that lateralization could actually be complete by the age of five, thus dismissing the neurological explanation of CPH. However, 'the exact age at which the critical period ends is still unresolved; so is the question of whether there is a critical period at all' (Major and Kim, 1999: 151). Leather (1999) also sununarizes studies relevant to CPH, concluding 'While there is considerable scientific as well as anecdotal evidence that adults are usually less capable than children of attaining nativelike pronunciation in L2, it does not follow that this is a direct consequence of biological aging'.

Tarone (1978: 80-83) offers the following classification of the possible causes of phonological fossilization: 1. Physiological explanations. Lenneberg (1967), Scovel (1969) (lateralization). 2. Psychological explanations. A) The critical period is related to the onset of Piaget's stage of formal operations, in which adolescents begin to consciously construct abstract theories about the world (Krashen, 1977; Rosansky, 1975). B) Psychological habit formation: 'language transfer has its strongest effect on pronunciation of a second language.' 'The problem is that we expose adults to inappropriate learning situations where they form inaccurate acoustic images of the target language sound patterns. Once formed, those acoustic images are set, and so are the learners' pronunciation patterns' (Neufeld, 1977). 3. Affective fectors: the role of empathy and cultural identity Guiora and his associates (1975) suggested that the sound system is tied so intimately to self- identification that it is not possible to change after the learner is grown up. Schumann (1975) also examined affective factors, and Krashen (1982) suggested that apparent age differences are primarily the result of social and psychological changes related to puberty. Also, children are particularly susceptible to pressure to conform to their peer group in all matters, including pronunciation (Peck, 1977). 123

There are still further suggested explanations on why especially in the area of pronunciation, young learners said to have better attainment than adult learners do. For instance, young children are claimed to be cognitively more 'open* than adults and thus able to leam L2 naturally and automatically. Another suggestion is that children are less culture-bound than adults, and they go through the stages of acculturation more quickly and thus acquire the language more quickly than adults. All in all, there are many possible reasons for the difference in the ability of children and adults to leam L2. Whatever the causes, the fact remains that very many L2 leamers are adults. More research is required in this area for the practical purpose of improving the methodology of teaching pronunciation. loup (1984) states that 'foreign accent', which is mainly characterized by interference errors, is predominantly found in IL phonology. In his study, he found that linguistically trained speakers of English could group together the leamers of the same NL background, solely on the basis of phonological information. However, they were not able to do so by using only syntactic cues.

Since the age factor is apparently so strong in pronunciation learning, it can be assumed that the L1=L2 hypothesis mentioned above cannot really be invoked in a simple way unless the L2 leamer is a child. However universalists maintain, "some of the PPs (phonological processes) apparent in L2 acquisition are similar to those of child language development and may be interpreted as a kind of reactivation of LI strategies and processes. Others are transfer processes representing interference from the structure of the leamer's LI. Still others carmot be accounted for by either explanation." (Macken and Ferguson, "Phonological Universals in Language Acquisition" in loup and Weinberger, 1987: 11).

The universalist view is not unlike that formulated by Jakobson: "[...] there is a universal hierarchy of stmctural laws that determine the inventory of phonemic systems and the relative frequency, combinatorial distribution, and assimilatory power of particular phonemes” (Jakobson, 1941).

3.3 Some research in IL phonology

3.3.1 Some characteristics of IL phonology It has been often pointed out by researchers that the focus of SLA research has been mainly on grammar, and other levels of language such as phonology and lexis have tended to be ignored (Cook, 1996: 39; Leather, 1999: 1). "While the L2 acquisition of grammar has been widely studied, these other components have been covered much more patchily and are hardly referred to in most standard introductions to L2 learning research Nor despite their obvious relevance to teaching, has much yet been done to apply them to actual teaching." (Cook, 1996: 39). 124

Brown (2000: 6) states the necessity of applying phonological theory to L2 acquisition theory as follows: Using the tools of current phonological theory, we are now in a position to develop a theory of L2 phonological interference which includes a principled explanation for the existence of LI influence in some instances and its absence in others, as well as a description of the mechanism(s) by which this influence is exerted.’ There are some lines of research (covered below) which are investigating how much LI influence is included in an IL. As yet, though, the research is not extensive enough to permit formulation of a general theory.

Major (1987) classifies the errors in IL into two types, i.e. transfer and developmental. Sometimes it is difficult to tell these two types of errors apart. Major classifies all the errors that are not explainable as LI interference as developmental errors. He proposes an 'ontogeny model' (1987,1999) of second language acquisition which shows that transfer errors will decrease as the leamer's stage moves from beginner to the advanced, and the developmental errors will increase from the beginner’s stage till the intermediate level, but then will decrease towards the advanced level: 125

error error

^ time time interference developmental ^

Figure 3.1 Relationship of interference and developmental processes to time. (Major, 1987: 103) Major also proposed the similar model with the relationship of interference and developmental process to style (i.e. casual, normal, and formal):

error error

( asual normal formal casual normal formal interference developmental Figure 3.2 Relationship of interference and developmental processes to style

Beebe (1984) examined several ’widely-held myths’ of L2 phonology acquisition by adults, using the data of six English phonemes pronounced by the speakers of five Asian languages. Her conclusions were:

1. Most errors do not result from the substitution of a LI phoneme for a L2 phoneme. 2. Many of the phones produced were found in neither the NL nor the TL but were unique to the IL. 3. As the learner becomes more proficient, the number of phonetic variants decreases rather than increases. 4. Interlanguage phonologies are subject to the same sociolinguistic variation found in native languages. Beebe (1984: 165-175)

These studies indicate the complexity which results from attempts to explain the source of errors which cannot be straightforwardly explained as arising from the learner’s NL. However, the fact that the L2 learners’ speech is in general recognized as having ’foreign accent’ coming from their NL cannot be denied. 126

3.3.2 Some researches on IL prosody Cook (1996) summarizes some works of L2 prosody acquisition as 'the learning and teaching of intonation':

"Adult L2 learners have no problems in distinguishing Chinese tones, though with less confidence than native speakers of Chinese. (Leather, 1987). Adults learning Thai, another tone language, were much worse at learning tones than children (loup and Tansomboon, 1987). [...] L2 learning of Portuguese and English, which are 'intonation' rather than 'tone' languages (Cruz-Ferreira, 1986). [...] In this case learners have no problems with similar intonation patterns in LI and L2 but use strategies for unfamiliar intonation patterns based on their ideas of the range of intonation and the extent to which they can deduce meanings from the actual words in the sentence. " (Cook, 1996: 47) loup and Tansomboon compared the acquisition of tone by children and adults learning Thai. They found that tone is one of the first aspects of the target grammar to be mastered by children, and the last to be mastered by adults. They argue that cognitive processing strategies employed by children and adults are different, and that only the child's approach is amenable to the complete acquisition of a new intonation system.

Neufeld (1978), using his teaching method where the learners are not allowed to produce the TL sounds until a certain stage, reports that adult acquisition of prosodic contours in a language whose structure is completely unknown to the learner was successfully done. English speaking subjects are given unlimited exposure to a short passage of either Japanese or Chinese, and in their final production, they are judged to be native-like. The key to successful prosody teaching in this experiment is that none of the subjects had prior contact with the TL, and during the pronunciation training, oral production was delayed in order to minimize contamination of the acoustic image imprint.

Broselow, Hurtig, and Ringen (1987) conducted a study which focused on the L2 acquisition of tone, using the data on English-speakers acquiring Mandarin Chinese. They questioned whether transfer at the phonological level is restricted to the production of the TL, that is, if it is only the learner's motor skills that cannot be adapted to TL. There are 4 Mandarin tones (Broselow et. al. 1987: 353): 127

FO(Hz)

1®* tone tone 3"* tone 4*^ tone

time Figure 3.3 the traditional representation of four tones of Mandarin Chinese, (from Broselow et al., 1987; 353)

The fourth tone is 'markedly similar to its acoustic properties to a common English intonation contour.' As a result, this tone was perceived significantly better when it occurred in the position corresponding to an intonation nucleus at the end of an English sentence. Also, 4* tone was often misidentified as 1*‘ tone in the final rather than in the non-final position of the string of the syllables. The investigators interpreted this type of error as interference from English intonation contours. They concluded that transfer affects the learner's perception as well as production.

Munro and Derwing (1999) studied about the correlation of foreign accent with comprehensibility and intelligibility. Their results showed that the 'strength of foreign accent is indeed correlated with comprehensibility and intelligibility', but 'a strong foreign accent does not necessarily cause L2 speech to be low in comprehensibility or intelligibility'. They also state the implication that 'prosodic errors appear to be a more potent force in the loss of intelligibility than phonetic errors'. They point out two problems for the teachers: first, owing to the lack of empirical research, 'instructors are left without much guidance as to what to teach (or how to teach it)', and second, there are individual differences in the perception of normative speech.

As is described in chapter 1, the Japanese pitch accent system and English stress accent system are widely different and it is not easy to compare the two systems directly and apply any of the hypotheses described above (i.e. CAH, MDH, SCH, and SDRH). Besides, studies of interlanguage have hitherto been patchily done, and it is hard to state any generalization of the theory that covers all languages and all elements of phonological systems (consonant clusters, VOT, vowel inventory, intonation, rhythm, pause, pitch etc.). For instance, consonant cluster evidence may support SCH, but this does not mean that this hypothesis is universally applicable. The aim of my research is to establish as much useful information as possible for the teaching of pitch accent. Therefore, in the following experiments, I have not focused on any theoretical aspect of interlanguage, but instead made detailed observations of actual pitch accent acquisition by English learners of Japanese. 128

Chapter 4 Error analysis I

4.1 Introduction Since the pitch accent errors made in Japanese by English-speaking learners are said to be mainly caused by the LI interference, a preliminary experiment was conducted to observe the general tendency of pitch accent errors made by advanced English learners of Japanese. Subjects at the ‘advanced’ level are selected here, because they have acquired basic vocabulary and grammar, and they can speak Japanese relatively fluently. (For the criteria of ‘advanced’ level in this thesis, see 4.2.1) Thus, we assumed that prosodic errors or habits from their native language, which are fossilised and habitualised by this stage would be clearly observed. (If the subjects have difhculties in pronouncing fluently, it might be difficult to observe the LI interference in prosody.)

As many studies of L2 acquisition confirm, it is very unlikely that a learner will acquire native-like pronunciation after the so-called 'critical period', and that seems to apply to L2 prosody as well, though the timing of the declines in the abilities to acquire segments and to acquire prosody seem to be different. (Tahta et al., 1981a,b).

It is commonly said that the main strategy for L2 acquisition is that the learner tends to apply his/her Li's characteristics to L2 if there is any corresponding factor in their LI. It was initially assumed that there would be a common tendency or a pattern in the pitch accent errors among the English-speaking learners and it would be due to their LI (English) interference. In other words, the learners will apply some characteristics of their LI accent system, which is the so called "stress accent" of English, to that of their target language, that is "pitch accent" of Japanese. However, the precise way their LI accent system may interfere with the pitch accent of Japanese would remain to be determined. For instance, it could be that the falling pitch movement typical of English words spoken in isolation that is the main factor of the interference. In this case, it could be predicted that a word like / ha shi /, meaning 'bridge' if with LH (=Low-High) accent would tend to be pronounced with a falling pitch movement as HL, with which the meaning of the word would be 'chopsticks'. Or, another possible factor for interference could be the placement of the English word stress. One example of this phenomenon can be seen in loan words such as / o re n ji /, from English orange with the stress at the first syllable. It can be predicted that English LI learners would pronounce the word with the pitch accent on the first mora instead of on the second mora (as it should be in its Japanese version). At the same time, the rhythm and segments of the word will also be affected by the LI interference. First mora /o/ may be pronounced as a diphthong [ou] instead of the short monophthong [o] as in Japanese, and syllabification of this word will be / o-ren-ji / instead of mora-timed / o-re-n-ji /. This type of phenomenon can be predicted as likely to occur also with words other than loan words, when the syllabification of the Japanese word is different fi'om that of English, and accent is placed on the syllable where it would be in English. 129

Since LI interference could have appeared in a rather complex way, before getting into the detailed analysis of pitch accent errors, an initial exploratory experiment was conducted in this chapter to see if there is a common tendency of errors among the English-speaking learners of Japanese. The words used in the text are from 1 mora to 4 moras, which makes 14 different accent types of nouns. Each accent type has 4 sample words of that type. For example, there are 5 types of accent pattern in 4 mora words, i.e. LHHH(H), LHHH(L), HLLL(L), LHLL(L), LHHL(L), and each of these types has 4 example words included in the text. Subjects included 5 advanced learners of English and 3 native speakers of Japanese. Also, two different ways of maridng the errors and two different ways of counting the number of errors are explored, to make sure that these factors do not affect the result so greatly as to obscure the pattern of errors. Thus the effects of individual subject differences, of word length (in moras), different accent types, and different ways of marking accent and of counting errors are all taken into consideration in this experiment.

At the same time, one of the marking systems of the accent, which is one way of visualising the pitch accent, was tested to determine whether it is effective to mark the pitch accent for pedagogical purposes.

4.2 Method 4.2.1 Subjects The subjects were five British English native speakers of RP or near RP whose Japanese is at an advanced level. Subject 1 (=S1) has studied Japanese for 8 years, visited Japan for a few weeks several times and has a Japanese wife. All the others (S2-S5) have studied Japanese for 1.5-2.0 years. Their exposure to Japanese is a little longer than that, and their level of Japanese is such that they can have daily conversation without problems and also can read aloud fiuently a text which is written in Hiragana characters. I used these two factors, i.e. the ability 1) to have daily conversation and 2) to read Hiragana text fluently, as the criteria for labeling the learners as "advanced".

Three native speakers of Japanese (S6-S8) are included as a control group. All of them are basically Tokyo Japanese speakers, although S6 and S8 have some exposure to Kansai dialect, and S7 was brought up in Saitama, which is a suburb of Tokyo. As far as I noticed from the conversation with them, none of them has a noticeable regional accent

All the subjects are either university students or members of staff in a university department. Their aptitude for L2 is probably average or more.

4.2.2 Text The text is the list of 84 words in isolation. The number of moras in the words in the texts range from one to four, which makes 14 pitch accent types. As is well known, nouns with n moras have n+1 possible types of pitch accent in Toltyo Japanese. Thus, words from one to four moras make 14 types 130 of accent. (Table 4.1) "L' represents 'Low' pitch, and TT, High' pitch. The pitch indicated in brackets ( ) is associated with a subject marker particle, 'wa' or 'ga'. Two accent types which end with TT are distinguished by adding a subject marker particle, whether the pitch falls on this following particle or not distinguishes the two underlying patterns, i.e. LHH(H) vs. LHH(L) Each accent type contains around 4 sample words in the texts. The order of the words within the texts was randomised. (See appendix 4.) 131

Number of moras Pitch accent type Examples 1 m ora L(H) ki (=tree) H(L) te ( = hand ) 2 m oras LH (H) kaze ( = wind ) LH (L) kawa ( = river ) HL(L) chizu ( = map ) 3 m oras LHH(H) kotoshi ( = this year ) LHH (L) hanashi ( = story ) HLL (L) juusho ( = address ) LHL (L) itsutsu ( = 5 ) kokuban 4 m oras LHHH (H) ( = blackboard ) imooto ( = younger LHHH (L) sister ) HLLL (L) akachan ( = baby ) LHLL (L) fukeeki ( = recession) LHHL (L) sensee ( = teacher )

Table 4.1 Fourteen types of pitch accent for 1-4 mora nouns: H = High, L = Low, ( ) = particle 'ga' 132

4.2.3 Procedure The recording was recorded in a cassette tape recorder and laryngograph. Each subject was asked to read each text twice, first, without pitch accent marked on the text, and second, with the correct pitch accent marked on it. Before the recording, each subject was given some time to read through the text silently to check if the words were familiar to them.

Between the first and the second recordings, each subject was asked to mark the pitch accent on the text. This was to test the subjects' knowledge of pitch accent.

4.2.4 Auditory analysis An auditory transcription was made by listening to the recorded tape (Figure 4.1). There are two possible ways of labeling correct or wrong. One is by judging the pitch of each mora in absolute terms. The other is by assessing the pitch movement from one mora to the next (i.e. a relative measure) (Figure 4.2). In fact, relatively little difference was apparent in the rate of errors assessed by the 2 methods. 133

Correct /Ju|u bulu, / 1st reading /ju u \b u n / marking / ju u\bu n / 2nd reading /j u u jbun/

Figure 4.1 An example from the auditory transcription / subject 1

Correct LHHL LHHL H H L L H H L L

• 0*0 • • •

T ype 1 T ype 2

Figure 4.2 Two ways of correct/wrong labeUing for the above example: 0 = Correct, • = Wrong 134

To make this labeling process easy, and also to make possible counting the number of errors, only one standard accent type was fixed for each word. However, we must be aware of the fact that margr Japanese words, even within Tokyo Japanese, allow some variation of pitch accent type; i.e., ko o gi

(LHH(L)), ko 0 gi (LHH(H)), and ko o gi (HLL), meaning "lecture", and ka mi na ri (LHHH(H)>, ka mi na ri (LHHH(L)), ka mi na ri (LHHL), meaning "thunder" are all accepted accent types according to an accent dictionary, Nihongo hatsuon akusento iiten. (Nihon Hoosoo kyookai (ed.) 1966). Fixing only one type of correct accent for each word is done purely for experimental purposes. Since the same criteria were applied for the native speakers' data analysis, naturally, they also came to have some errors from this cause. In general, the type of "error" the native speakers made was not the same as most of the errors made by the learners. It is possible of course that the learners' errors also include some of the same type of errors as the native speakers made. For consistency at this stage, all 'errors were counted equally.

The following observations are focused mainly on the result of the first reading of the text. Detailed observations are made in terms of the rate of errors and error pitch patterns. The subjects’ marking of the pitch accent on the text, and their second reading according to the pitch accent marked on the text were also roughly observed in order to assess the effectiveness of the pitch accent marking for teaching purposes.

4.3 Observations 4.3.1 Rate of errors The number of errors was counted, first, by words, which means that no matter how many moras were wrong in a word, if there is any error in the word, it is counted as one error. Secondly, the number of errors was counted by mora. In the first way (i.e. errors counted by words) the rate of errors is expected to increase naturally as the number of moras in the word increases. Obviously, the longer the word is, the chance of its having errors will naturally increase. Secondly, the longer words have more types of possible accent pattern, reducing the probability of guessing the correct pitch accent.

The curves representing the rate of correct production in native speakers are almost identical in Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4, and native speakers consistently did better than the learners. In the learners' graph, when the errors are counted by word, the number of correct productions slightly decreases as the word becomes longer, as was expected. However, when the errors are counted by mora, as is in Figure 4.4, the correct productions increases as the number of word increases. This may be because of two reasons. Firstly, it is difficult to judge the pitch type of one-mora words when they are read in isolation. Therefore, perhaps, one-mora words should be excluded from the analysis. Secondly, two-mora words are found to have a consistent tendency to be pronounced with the accent on the first mora; i.e. High - Low. So, for instance, when the correct pitch pattern is supposed to be LH, the subjects tend to make an error with the pattern HL, rather than HH or LL. This means that both the first and the second moras are counted as wrong. However, for three or four mora words, there was no consistent tendency like this. So, the set of erroneous pitch patterns includes examples 135 with only one mora wrong out of 3 or 4, for instance, and in this case, the rest of the moras are counted as correct. For instance, an erroneous performance of a 3-mora word may yield a count of 1 mora wrong and 2 moras correct, and similarly a 4-mora word give a count of 1 mora wrong and 3 moras correct. It is therefore imderstandable that the number of correctly pitched moras may increase as the number of moras in the word increases.

As an example, the data for one subject S2 (Table 4.2) shows the tendency for two-mora words to have the accent on the first mora, and that it is not only the number of moras which affect the numbers of error. Rather, the chance of making errors seems to vary a great deal according to the accent type. This implies that the subject tends to make certain types of error consistently. In the next section, we will search for common error trends across subjects. These, if found, would be a clear indication of LI interference. 136

{%) 100

80“

60 " NJ EL

40-

20 0 1 2 3 4 5 The number of moras

Figure 4.3 Rate of correct production. The errors are counted by word. NJ=Native speakers of Japanese, EL=English learners of Japanese, Each value is the average discrepancy that the subjects exhibited.

(%) 1 00

90-

80-

70- NJ EL 60-

50-

40 0 1 2 3 4 5

The number of moras

Figure 4.4 Rate of correct production. The errors are counted by mora. NJ=Native speakers of Japanese, EL=English learners of Japanese, Each value is the average discrepancy that the subjects exhibited. 137

labellingby labellingby labellingby labellingby pitch pitch each mora each mora movement movement errors errors errors errors number of accent type counted by counted by counted by counted by moras word mora word mora 1 L 4/4 4/4 4/4 4/4 H 0/4 0/4 0/4 0/4 whole 4/8 4/8 4/8 4/8 2 LH 9/9 18/18 9/9 9/9 LH' 4/4 8/8 4/4 4/4 HL 0/8 0/16 0/8 0/8 whole 13/21 26/42 13/21 13/21 3 LHH 8/8 12/24 8/8 10/16 LHH' 3/3 3/9 3/3 3/6 HLL 6/9 11/27 6/9 12/18 LHL 1/7 1/21 1/7 1/14 whole 18/27 27/81 18/27 39/44 4 LHHH 7/8 11/32 7/8 8/24 LHHH' 4/4 5/16 4/4 4/12 HLLL 1/4 2/16 1/4 2/12 LHLL 2/4 2/16 2/4 4/12 LHHL 3/8 6/32 4/8 7/24 whole 17/28 26/112 18/28 25/60

Table 4.2 Rate of errors /1st reading/ subject 2 : The number on the left of slash represents the number of errors, and on the right, the total number of word or mora. 138

4.3.2 Favoured patterns As is mentioned in the last section, the rate of errors seems to vary according to the accent type, rather than according to the number of moras in a word. Checks were made to see if there was any pitch accent type which was easier than the others, in other words, if there was a pitch movement which was commonly favoured by the English learners of Japanese. If there was, it would very likely be an indication of LI interference.

The rank ordering of accent pattern score is shown in Figure 4.5 (for native speakers of Japanese) and in Figure 4.6 (for the English learners). Figure 4.5 does not show much difference among accent patterns, except for the one-mora words with L pitch accent. As has been mentioned before, the pitch accent of one-mora words is difficult to judge when they are pronoimced in isolation. So, there is no special favoured pattern observed in the native speakers' results. In Figure 4.6, still no very clear tendency is observed, though there is a possible indication that English learners tend to prefer falling patterns (i.e. H, HLLL, HL); all of these start with high pitch. If this is really the case, it might be attributed to interference from the English nuclear tone system. This hypothesis needs to be examined in greater detail with closer analysis of individual subjects.

Individual subject data was examined more closely to see if there is any consistent tendency in his/her way of making errors. This was done first to see whether the learners tend to make a certain type of error pattern for a certain pitch accent pattern only or whether they tend to favour consistently a certain pitch pattern irrespective of the original correct accent pattern of the words.

In this data it seems that the subjects always tend to prefer a certain pitch pattern whatever the correct accent pattern of the word is. Thus, for instance, if the subject prefers a falling pattern, s/he tends to pronounce words with HLL (High-Low-Low) accent correctly but s/he also pronounces LHL words with the HLL pattern. It seems that subjects do not have enough lexical knowledge of pitch accent, and generalise a certain pitch movement to any word.

The main question here is whether this tendency of favouring a certain type of pitch movement is due to LI interference or not. If it is purely from LI, it is likely that all or the majority of the subjects would have common favoured patterns. From the data observed, it turned out that each subject has his/her own favoured pattern. (Table 4.3) Although this cannot rule out completely the existence of LI interference, we have to say that there seems to be something more than interference affecting these results. Interference from LI may be a factor, but we cannot observe it straightforwardly in the data. 139

Accent patterns

LHHH

LHHL

LHHH'

120

(%)

Figure 4.5 Rank ordering of accent pattern scores / NJ

Accent patterns

LHHH' LHHH

Figure 4.6 Rank ordering of accent pattern scores / EL 140

Subject Favoured patterns Forbidden patterns H, HL, HLL, HHL, HLLL, S i HHL, HHLL, HHHL HHLL, HHHL S2 LHL. LHHL HHL, HHLL, HHHL S3 LHH.LHHH HH. HHH, LLH, LLHH, HLL, LHLH S4 HLL, (LHL), LHHH, (LHHL) HH. HHL, HLH, HHLL.LLHL S5 LHH, LHHH, HLL, HLLL HHL, LLH, HHLL, HHHL

S6 ------HHHL (1) S7 HHHL (1) " ------

S8 " ------HHL(i), HHLL (1)

Table 4.3 Favoured patterns and forbidden patterns each subject made: H = High, L = Low, patterns in ( ) are less frequently occured than those without ( ). (1) = occured once. 141

4.4 Discussion and conclusions To sununarise, the following are the findings of this experiment: a. General tendency of pitch accent errors: First of all, native speakers do far better than learners do except for the one-mora words. One-mora words are a special case because it is difficult to judge if that one mora is H or L when it is read in isolation.

Secondly, the number of the errors does not necessarily increase as the number of the moras in the word increases. This can be explained for two reasons. First, as is mentioned above, the accent type of one-mora words are difficult to judge in isolation. Second, two mora words tend to be pronounced with accent on the first mora, and this error tendency is more consistent than the errors made in the words of more than 2 moras. When the data was observed closely (Table 4.2), it was found out that it seems to be the accent type, rather than the number of moras in a word, which affects the number of errors. There seems to be certain favoured pitch movement patterns for each subject.

From an examination of individual subject data, it was observed that there is no special common tendency in the favoured patterns by each speaker. There may overall be a preference for falling patterns, which could be the result of English interference. Individual subjects seem to have different favoured accent patterns. A possible interpretation of this is that it may not be LI interference from English only which is reflected in the errors. In another words, it may be that each learner has developed individual characteristics in his/her interlanguage by the mixture of fossilisation and overgeneralisation, etc., and at this advanced level, the results are very much idiosyncratic.

Preliminary analysis shows that both native speakers of Japanese and English made fewer errors in the reading of the text with the pitch accent marking than the one without the marking. However, the reading according to the accent iwking sounded uimatural even when read by native speakers of Japanese.

The marking of the text was to test the speakers' knowledge of the accent. However, it turned out that the marking does not necessarily correspond to the performance of the pitch accent, nor does it show the speakers' knowledge of the accent pattern. The subjects sometimes read differently from the marking they made in the text, and even native speakers of Japanese could not mark perfectly correctly. Table 4.4 shows the number of words each subject marked the same as their performance. The total number of words was 84. What is indicated here is that this accent marking system is of limited pedagogical usefulness. 142

Subject SI S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 NS/NT 38/84 4/84 20/84 28/84 20/84 18/84 5 0 /8 4 4 2 /8 4

Table 4.4 The number of words each subject marked the same as their performance: NS = number performed the same as the marking, NT = total number of words 143

b. Factors to be considered: 1. Two ways of labeling correct/wrong: The labeling of correct or wrong could be done in two ways. The one is by mora, and the other is by the pitch moventent from one mora to the next. No important difference between methods has been found so far.

2. Two ways of counting errors. To calculate the rate of errors, two different ways of counting errors have been used. One is by word; on this method, each word contributes at most one error, no matter how many moras are wrong in a word. In this way of counting, the chance of making errors increases as the number of the moras in the word increases. Also, the longer the word is, the more difficult it tends to be for learners to perform the accent correctly.

The other way of counting the errors is by mora. In this way, the result was quite different from when the errors were counted by words; that is, shorter words (one and two mora words) tend to have more chance of having errors. It would be possible to choose between these two ways of counting by means of a small experiment to test for both native speakers and learners whether they perceive accent errors on a mora-by-mora basis or treat each word as a unit. This could be done by testing whether the subject perceives a word with one mora wrong as less wrong than a word with more than one mora wrong. If that is the case, it means that severity of the error depends on the number of the moras wrong within a word, in which case counting errors by word may not be accurate enough as a criterion of performance. However, this test could not solve the problem perfectly either, since not only the number of but also the place of the mora(s) with the wrong pitch might affect the apparent severity of error in the perception of the subject. It is not easy to say which way of counting the errors is more accurate to indicate the degree of difficulty among the words with different length and different pitch pattern etc., without a detailed experiment investigating the native speaker’s perception. For the following experiments, however, counting errors by words will be used for the analysis. Although this method has the disadvantage that the number of errors will naturally increase as the words get longer, it is probably more straightforward than dividing the words into moras to analyse the difficulty of the pitch accent patterns. One reason for this is that the Japanese pitch accent is assigned one for each word, rather than by syllables as in tone languages such as Chinese (c.f. Chapter I). Also, as indicated above, experiments have shown that native speakers can perceive pitch accent correctly even if a part of the pitch contour is missing (Hattori, 1991).

c. The question of LI interference Contrary to the hypothesis, the result showed that, from this data, it is difficult to state that there is interference from English (LI). There is no obvious common tendency in the pattern of the accent errors among the subjects. If there was LI interference, it is likely that there would be some common tendency in the favoured pitch patterns among all the subjects. Although there is a small tendency for all subjects to prefer falling pitch movements, it is shown only weakly in the data. Instead, individual 144 subjects showed different patterns of errors - that is, favoured pitch accent patterns. This is probably an indication that the interlanguage of individual learners at the advanced stage shows considerable individual differences.

Although it was not observed operating in a straightforward way, it seems unlikely that LI interference could be altogether absent. For example a number of studies show that LI interference is observed in acquisition of prosody of Scandinavian languages such as Swedish, which has 'tone accent', similar in some ways to Japanese pitch accent. (Schmid, 1986; Bannert, 1984).

Therefore, further experiments need to be conducted to explain this individual variation in the pattern of errors, and to find out how, if at all, LI interference affects the acquisition of Japanese accent. 145

Chapter 5

Error analysis II:

English stress interference on Japanese/Japanese-like words

5.1 Introduction In the previous chapter, we examined the general tendency of pitch accent errors by from English speakers. Apart from the application of falling pitch movement to 2 mora words, there was no common pattern of interference observed among the subjects. Two possible reasons may be hypothesized for this. One is that there are factors other than (or in addition to) interference at work, while another possibility is that there are several different types of interference, the combined effects of which appear differently from one subject to another. Another way of expressing the diversity would be to say that each subject may have reached a different stage in the development of his or her 'interlanguage'.

Most of the Japanese language textbooks and pronunciation guide-books talk only about the tendency of English speaking students to transfer their native language's stress accent onto the Japanese pitch accent, but give no details. This is not enough for the teachers, who need to understand the trend underlying each student's errors, and where possible to anticipate likely errors. In this chapter, we attempt to observe as directly as possible the transfer of English stress accent onto Japanese words.

In order to make the interference appear more directly, we used a mixture of real Japanese words and Japanese-like nonsense words, embedded in English carrier sentences. In this way, the word in question will tend to be pronounced in English rhythm along with the rest of the sentence and this will show clearly the productive effects of English stress accent applied to the word. The results were to be analysed according to existing accounts of English word stress rules, such as that of Fudge (1984). In addition, we employed subjects with almost no exposure to Japanese in the past, rather than advanced learners of Japanese as in Chapter 4. This was to enhance the probability of English stress accent being applied to Japanese words.

Surprisingly, nonsense word performance as a means of investigating productive knowledge of English stress rules is an approach that has been little used. There is a precedent in Nessly (1974) which sets out to test the stress rules of Chomsky and Halle (1968) using English nonsense words and words of low frequency. It was recognised that this is a highly controlled experiment, rather remote from the real language teaching context. It would, however, be a useful first step showing how English stress accent is likely to be manifested on words which have the segmental structure of Japanese.

5.2 Method 5.2.1 Subjects 146

Subjects (SI-88) are eight British English native speakers of RP or near-RP who have had no or very little exposure to Japanese. Their knowledge of Japanese words would be limited to a couple of well- known Japanese words such as ko n ni chi wa (“heUo”), or brand names such as Toshiba, Mitsubishi, Suzuki, whose pronunciation is Anglicised.

5.2.2 Texts Twenty Japanese (or Japanese-like) words were each embedded into twenty English carrier sentences. All the test words are written in the ordinary roman alphabet, since none of the subjects could read Japanese characters. In an attempt to indicate a long vowel in an open syllable, 'h' w ^ put as an lengthening mark after the vowel, e.g. 'sukoh' intended to be /suko:/.. Since the subjects do not have any knowledge of Japanese language, we could use real Japanese words for this experiment as well as Japanese-hke nonsense words. By “Japanese-like words”, we mean the words which are perfectly acceptable as possible Japanese words, in terms of phonological arrangement (syllable structure), but which happen to be non-existent. The words are either 2 mora or 3 mora words. Table 5.1 shows the 20 test words, which comprise 2 words for each of 10 difierent syllable structure types. 147

no. of syll. type o/ol/c test words s/w syll. structure 1 2 0.0 ta. ta bana, kocbi w.w 2 2 o.c ta. tan totan, jiman w.w 3 2 o.ol ta. tab sukob, tekeb w.s 4 2 CO tan. ta sanda, anza s.w

5 3 0.0.0 ta. ta. ta sakana, takara WWW 6 3 o.c.o ta.tan.ta amanza, kadenki w.s.w 7 3 C.0.0 tan. ta. ta sancbika, renraku s.w.w

8 3 O.O.C ta. ta. tan katapan, sunakan WWW 9 3 ol.o.o tab. ta. ta dobbutsu, sebkuka s.w.w 10 3 o.ol.o ta.tab.ta kasobba, tokebga w.s.w

Table 5.1 Twenty test words categorized by the syllable structure into 10 types

Abbreviations: tyll. = syllable, o = open syllable, c = closed syllable, ol = open long syllable, s = strong syllable, w = weak syllable 148

The ten categories of words were based on Fudge’s (1984) account of English stress, in order to make predictions of the way English stress accent will be placed on the test words. This stress placement rule is based on the concept of ’syllable strength’ or ’syllable weight’. Fudge defines ’weak syllable’ (in English) as ’one with short vowel peak and no coda with, for word-final syllables, additional possibility of a one-consonant coda.’, and ’strong syllable’ in his definition will be either a syllable with a long vowel, or with a short vowel with at least one consonant in its coda (or, at least two, if it is word final). Figure 5.1 is the summary of stress in simple roots, according to Fudge (1984).

As can be seen in table 5.1, to give the test words the ’syllable weight’ according to the definition of Fudge, ’h* was added to the open syllable with a short vowel in order to make it a long vowel, which makes the syllable ’strong’. Similarly, *n’ was used as a coda to make the syllable ’closed', because syllabic ’n’ is the only sound which can come in the coda position in Japanese. In order to make the word final closed syllable ’strong’, at least two consonants would have to be placed in coda position, and it is not possible to emulate this within Japanese phonotactic constraints. 149

The rules given by Fudge relate to the SP(=stressable portion, what is left of the word when certain suffixes and prefixes have been removed from it). 1) If the SP is monosyllabic, there is no choice of place for stress. 2) If the SP is disyllabic, stress is normally penultimate (e.g. 1-3 below). 3) If the SP is trisyllabic, or longer, its stress is either penultimate or antepenultimate, depending on a number of factors:

(a) If the final syllable is strong, stress falls two syllables back from that syllable, i.e. three syllables from the end of the SP of the word (e.g. 4,5 below). (b) If the final syllable is weak, then: i) If the penultimate syllable is strong, then it is stressed (e.g. 6-8 below). ii) If the penultimate syllable is weak, then the pliable before it is stressed (e.g. 9.10 below)

1. ozone 0. zon s s 2. Arab a. rab w w 3. uncivil (un.) si. vil w w 4. antelope an te lope s w s 5. cummerbund cu. mer. bund w s s 6. veranda ve. ran. da w s w 7. panorama pa. no. ra. ma w w s w 8. spaghetti spa. get. ti w s w 9. asparagus a. spa. ra. gus w s w w 10. America a. me. ri. ca w w w w

Figure 5.1 English stress in simple roots (Fudge, 1984: p30) 150

Following this rule, we made a prediction of how the stress accent will be imposed upon the 20 Japanese/Japanese-like test words.(table 5.2) Thus, the words in table 5.1 can be predicted to have accent as follows according to the Fudge's rule. The stress mark is indicated by " ' attached in front of the accented syllable. 151

syll. type s/w Fudge's rule test words prediction structure 1 ta. ta w.w 2) 'ha.na, 'ko.chi 2 ta. tan w.w 2) 'to.tan, ji.man 3 ta. tab w .s 2) su.koh, te.keh 4 tan. ta s.w 2) san.da, an.za 5 ta. ta. ta w .w .w 3)(b )ü ) 'sa.ka.na, 'ta.ka.ra 6 ta.tan.ta w.s.w 3)(b )i) a. man. za, ka. den.ki san.chi.ka, 7 tan. ta. ta s.w .w 3 )(b )ü ) ren.ra.ku kata.pan, 8 ta. ta. tan w .w .w 3 )(b )ü ) su.na.kan doh.bu.tsu, 9 tah.ta.ta s.w.w 3)(b)ii) seh.ku.ka ka.soh.ba, 10 ta.tah.ta w.s.w 3 )(b )i) to.'keh.ga

Table 5.2 Prediction of the stress placement according to Fudge's rule 152

Table 5.3 shows the twenty sentences containing the test words described above. Each word was placed at the end of the English sentence and the sentences were constructed in such a way that the last word will bear the nuclear accent. Text A and text B consist of the same set of sentences, except that the order of the sentences are changed. Text A was read first, then text B. Thus, the same test word is read twice. There are 2 words in each syllable structure group (table 5.1), so each type of word will have 4 tokens per speaker. For example, type 1 is a 2-syllable word in which both syllables are open syllable. It contains two test words, 'hana' and *kochi', and each of them are read twice, each in text A and text B. So, four tokens of this type were read in total by each subject. 153

TextA TextB a) The man who visited yesterday was Mr a) what I bought them yesterday was hana. sukoh. b) He visited the nearest and the quietest b) One of my favorite foods is sakana. kasohba c) They import the rare material called c) The new material I used was tntan sehkuka. d) The smallest village on the hill is d) What i found in the box was takara. kadenki. e) In the soo, there were huge fish called e) She was eating the exotic food called kochi. katapan. f ) The name of that Japanese restaurant is f) What I found in the box was takara. ümam g) It was very hard to find the gtmakan g) The new material I usedd was totaiL h) In Africa, there were a lot of fierce h) The famous park on the mountain is dohbutsu. renraku. i) The man who visited yesterday was Mr i) In the shop there was a new product sukoh. called anza j) The book I am reading at the moment is j) The oldest of all my collection is tekeh amanza k) They import the rare material called k) What I bought them yesterday was hana sehkuka. 1) The oldest of all my collection is tekeh. I) It was very hard to find the sunakan. m) He visited the nearest and quietest m) In the zoo, there was huge fish called kâSQhhâ. kochi. n)The book I am reading at the moment is n) What I cooked for dinner was sanda. amanza o) The smallest village on the hill is o) In Africa, there were a lot of fierce kadenki. dohbutsu. p) The famous park on the mountain is p) One of my favourite foods is sakana. renraku. q)In the shop there was a new product q) That shopping area is called sanchika. called g n a r) She was eating the exotic food called r) The name of that Japanese restaurant is katapan. iiman. s^ That shopping area is called sanchika. s) What I cooked for dinner was sanda. t) The rich man opened the shop called t) The rich man opened the shop called tokehffa. tokehea.

Table 5.3 Texts A and B 154

5.2.3 Procedure The recording was made in domestic settings with a small portable tape recorder, with one subject at a time. First, the subject was given the text A. They were given some time to examine it silently before the recording. This is to allow them read the text as fluently as possible in order to get English rhythm all the way through the sentences. At the beginning of the recording, each subject introduced her/himself, telling their name, age, occupation, place of birth and other places they have lived, their exposure to Japanese and their knowledge of Japanese, if any. After recording text A, about 10 minutes break was given before the recording of text B.

5.3 Result An auditory transcription of the accent pattern was made by listening to the recorded tape. The stress realisation for each test word by each subject is shown in table 5.4. The numbers in the columns of each subject are the numbers of uses of each stress pattern by the subject. For example, SI pronounced type 1 test word 'hana' with the stress on the first syllable (i.e. /"ha na/) 2 times, and another type 1 test word 'kochi' with the stress on the first syllable (i.e. /'ko chi/) 2 times. Thus, 81 pronounced type 1 test words with the stress on the first syllable 4 times out of 4 trials. 81 never pronounced this type with stress on the 2nd syllable. 155

Stress SI S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 88 1 2 'hana 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ha'na 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •kochi 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ko'chi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 'totan 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 to'tan 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •Jiman 0 0 1 0 2 2 2 0 ii'man 2 2 1 2 0 0 0 2 3 2 'sukoh 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 su'koh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'tekeh 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 te'keh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 'sanda 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 san'da 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 anza 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 an'za 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 3 'sakana 0 0 2 2 0 0 1 0 sakana 2 2 0 0 2 2 1 2 saka'na 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'takara 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 talcara 0 2 0 1 2 2 2 2 taka'ra 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 6 3 'amanza 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 a'manza 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 aman'za 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 "kadenki 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 ka'denki 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 kaden'ki 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 3 'sanchika 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 san'chika 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 sanchi'ka 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'renraku 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 ren'raku 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 renra'ku 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 3 •katapan 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 ka'tapan 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 kata'oan 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 'sunakan 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 2 su'nakan 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 suna'kan 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 3 'dohbutsu 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 doh'butsu 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 dohbu'tsu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'sehkuka 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 seh'kuka 2 2 0 1 2 2 2 2 sehku'ka 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 3 •kasohba 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ka'sohba 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 kasoh'ba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'tokehga 0 0 1 2 0 2 1 0 to'kehga 2 2 1 0 2 0 1 2 tokeh'ea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 5, 4 Stress realisation of the 20 test words by each subject. (Number of occurrences). 156

The result in table 5.4 is compared with the prediction we made (Table 5.5). Results are very largely according to our predictions. We can say that transfer of English stress has clearly appeared in this experiment. However, there are some exceptions as in type 5, 7, and 9, where the stress realisation does not reflect the prediction. In type 5, the prediction was that stress is put on the anti-penultimate syllable, i.e. /"ta. ta. ta/. However, there were only 9 cases out of 32 where it was pronounced as /’ta. ta. ta/, and 22 cases pronounced as /ta. ’ta. ta/, with the stress on the penultimate syllable. Similarly, in type 7, there were only 7 cases out of 32 which were pronounced as predicted (/’tan. ta. ta/), and 24 cases was pronounced as /tan. 'ta. ta/). In type 9, 7 cases went as was predicted (/’tah. ta. ta/), but 25 cases were pronounced as /tah. 'ta. ta/).

The explanation to this could be that the subjects had a different syllabification to these words, which has changed the ’syllable weight' in those words. Thus, type 5 may have been syllabified as /ta. tat. a/, instead of /ta. ta. ta/, type 7 was /tan. tat. a/ instead of /tan. ta. ta/, type 9 was /tah. tat. a/ instead of /tah. ta. ta/. This made the penultimate syllable ’strong*, then. Fudge's rule 3)(b) i), instead of 3) (b) ii) was applied, (cf. table 5.2) However, why type 8 did not have the same phenomenon (to have syllabification and stress as /ta. 'tat. an/ instead of /'ta. ta. tan/) is unknown.

On the whole, however, we could say that the prediction based on Fudge's rule was valid, and English stress transfer was clearly seen on those Japanese/Japanese-like words, when they were embedded into English sentences. 157

type prediction result SI S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 SUM 'ta.ta ta.ta 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 32 1 ta. ta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ta. tan ta. tan 1 2 3 2 4 4 4 2 22 2 ta. tan 3 2 1 2 0 0 0 2 10 'ta. tah ta. tah 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 32 3 ta.'tah 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 tan. ta tan. ta 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 32 4 tan. ta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'ta. ta. ta 'ta. ta.ta 2 0 4 2 0 0 1 0 9 5 ta. ta.ta 2 4 0 1 4 4 3 4 22 ta. ta. ta 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 ta. tan. ta 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 5 6 ta. tan. ta ta.tan.ta 3 4 2 1 4 4 4 4 26 ta. tan. ta 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

tan. ta.ta tan ta.ta 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 7 7 tan.'ta.ta 4 4 0 0 4 4 4 4 24 tan. ta. ta 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 'ta.ta.tan ta. ta. tan 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 4 26 8 ta. ta. tan 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 4 ta. ta. tan 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 tah.ta.ta tah. ta.ta 0 0 4 3 0 0 0 0 7 9 tah. ta.ta 4 4 0 1 4 4 4 4 25 tah.ta.ta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ta.tah.ta 0 0 1 3 0 2 1 0 7 10 ta.tah.ta ta.tah.ta 4 4 3 1 4 2 3 4 25 ta. tah. ta 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 5.5 Result vs. prediction 158

5.4 Discussion and conclusions In the previous chapter, we have observed that in the speech of advanced level of learners of Japanese whose first language is English, there is no clear tendency of Li interference of accent realisation. Instead, each leahier seemed to have his or her own 'favoured' accent pattern. However, in the case of the complete begiimer, who had almost no exposure to Japanese before, the clear interference from English stress accent was observed. This may suggest that interference can be observed more straightforwardly in the early stage of learning, but as the stage advances, the learners start developing an individual form of interlanguage. It is difficult to correct pitch accent even of a native speaker, into Tolq^o dialect, when his/her dialect is other than Tokyo dialect. In the same way, once the learner's interlanguage is fossihsed, it is almost impossible to correct it. Therefore, the pitch accent of the learners has to be corrected in as early a stage as possible, before th g develop their own pitch accent pattern. This result also implies that the type of interference, which we expect by prediction based on phonological theories, can be observed only under a highly controlled situation as in this experiment. (The Japanese/Japanese-like words were embedded in English sentences and only in the final position where the nucleus falls.) For pedagogical purposes, to know only the interference prediction may not be enough, since the individual difference of interlanguage is apparently considerable , and also interlanguage itself apparently somewhat complex.

In this chapter and in the previous chapter, we conducted highly controlled experiments in order to observe the LI interference of the word accent. In the next chapter, natural data from actual Japanese language classes is presented. Our observation will be focused on what aspects are more difficult for the learners in the course of pitch accent acquisition. 159

Chapter 6 Error analysis III

6.1 Introduction • In this chapter, we will make an analysis from actual teaching data from a Japanese language course, which took place in the Japanese Studies Centre, Cardiff Business School, University of Wales, College of Cardiff from 1995 to 96. The students' interlanguage pitch accent is analysed in terms of the 1) comparison of the scores on different tasks and 2) tendency of errors according to various factors. We are hoping to observe what type of tasks in the course of acquiring pitch accent are more difficult than others. We also hope to observe general tendencies in pitch accent errors, in terms of the number of moras of the word, target pitch pattern, commonly favoured error pitch patterns, what is most difficult to achieve in the pitch accent pattern (e.g. place of pitch fall, pitch rise, overall pitch shape etc.), and syllable structure and so on. Unlike the previous two chapters, which dealt with controlled experiments, this analysis concerns data from natural class activities. From the results reported in the previous chapters, we concluded that the transfer of the English stress accent system is clearly observed in the beginner’s stage, after which learners seem to develop individual complex characteristics of interlanguage. Whether or not the common LI interference can be observed clearly in an actual teaching situation is uncertain. In this chapter, under less controlled conditions, we would like to focus more on the difficulties for the learners which actually emerged in the course of learning the pitch accent, rather than problems predicted in theory.

6.2 Method 6.2.1 Subjects The subjects are 31 first year students whose mother tongue is English. They had already finished 10 weeks of introductory course during the first semester by the time the tests were conducted in the second semester. There were two students who were considered ’bilingual’ or whose proficiency in Japanese was advanced, and were therefore excluded from the pronunciation lab at the beginning of the course. Most of the students had at least had some exposure to the Welsh accent of English because of the environment where the course took place. Because of this, there may be some dialectal influence on their pronunciation. However, this kind of factor is also expected in any language learning environment, and therefore, cannot be removed. The tests were conducted for 11 weeks. During the 10 weeks of the first semester, the subjects learned a reasonable amount of vocabulary, which will appear in the tests conducted during the second semester. The subjects were also trained to be aware of the pitch accent of Japanese by discrimination tests, and multiple choice tests, etc. Thus, by the time they started the tests in the second semester, the subjects had a reasonable amount of vocabulary and awareness of the pitch accent.

6.2.2 Data (tasks) The tests were part of a programme designed to increase students’ awareness of pitch accent, and to improve their perception and performance in the direction of near-native pitch accent patterns. To 160

The tests were part of a programme designed to increase students’ awareness of pitch accent, and to improve their perception and performance in the direction of near-native pitch accent patterns. To reduce the burden of memorizing new vocabulary, all the words that appeared in the tests had already been learned in the first semester. The tests were part of a regular teaching course, and there are therefore some inconsistencies in terms of the types of the tests over weeks, the number of the questions etc. Altogether, the following 6 different tasks were conducted over 11 weeks.

Auditory discrimination test (same or different). Read according to knowledge. Mark according to knowledge. Listen and mark the pitch accent. Listen and repeat after the model. Read according to the marks, without listening to a model.

The discrimination test was conducted every week throughout the semester (11 times altogether). The other tasks were conducted 5 times, from week 7 to week 11.

6.2.3 Procedure 1) Discrimination test The discrimination test consists of 15 pairs of nonsense words constructed from the sequence /ta ta.../ with various pitch patterns. The students were asked to listen to the pairs and answer whether the pair has the same (S) or different (D) pitch pattern. Each time, the list of nonsense words contained one 2-mora sequence, two 3 mora sequences, four 4 mora sequences, and eight 5 mora sequences. The pitch patterns were not only types attested real words, but included patterns which do not normally occur in real Japanese words. This task was designed to evaluate the students' ability to distinguish pitch patterns at a perceptual level, and help them learn to focus specifically on the pitch accent of words.

2) A set of 5 tasks The other 5 tasks formed a set. A list of 15 words was provided each week (W7 - W11), and the same list was used throughout 5 tasks. a) Read from knowledge The students were asked to read and record a list of Japanese words, which had already been introduced in class, according to their own knowledge of pitch accent. T h^ were told to be aware of the pitch accent of each word, to read it as correctly as they could. They were not yet allowed to listen to a sample pronunciation nor to look at the correct pitch accent marking. b) Mark from knowledge 161

The subjects were asked to mark the pitch accent of each word on the sheet given to them, according to their knowledge. They were told that the marking is supposed to correspond to their previous reading task. In this task, they were not yet allowed to listen to the sample pronunciation, and their answer depends entirely on their knowledge of the pitch accent of individual word. c) Listen and mark The subjects were asked to mark the pitch accent by listening to a recorded sample of the same list of words. T h^ are asked to mark the pitch accent on their sheet, as they hear in the recording. This task is testing the subjects' ability to symbolize pitch accent visually in accordance with their perception. d) Listen and repeat The subjects were asked to listen to the sample pronunciation of the list of the words firom the recording, and repeat after each word, paying particular attention to the correct pitch accent. e) Read from marks The subjects were given the answer sheet, which contained the same list of words as all the above tasks, but with the correct pitch accent marking written on it. They are asked to read the list of words, performing the pitch accent as accurately as possible. This time, they do not listen to a sample pronunciation, but they have the visual cue of pitch accent marking.

During the 1st to the 6th weeks fewer tasks were given, in order to build up the students’ skills progressively. In the 1st and the 2nd weeks, a sheet containing a list of 30 nonsense words was presented to the students. The list consisted of the sequence /ta ta../ from a minimum of 2 moras to a maximum of 5 moras. The students were asked to listen to the recorded voice reading those words with various pitch patterns, and asked to mark the pitch movement on the sheet. On the 2nd week, after the marking test, they were asked to repeat according to the sample pronunciation.

From the 3rd to 6th weeks, the list of 30 real Japanese words, which had been already introduced in class, were presented to the students, and they were asked to mark the pitch accent, listening to the recorded sample reading. At the students' request, the same list of words was repeated in the 6th week. They were also asked to repeat after the sample pronunciation after the marking test, as they did in week 2. See appendix 6 for the list of words. The lengths of the words are 2 to 5 moras in each test. The proportion of the number of word according to the length is, 6.7%, 13.3%, 26.7%, and 53.3%, respectively. The students’ recordings and the test sheets were collected at the end of each class, and they were all transcribed as the source of the raw data.

6.3 Observations 6.3.1 Scores of 6 tasks The results of the 6 tasks were scored according to the number of errors, (c.f. Figure 6.1) 162

1) Discrimination test Overall, the scores are consistently high. This means that the learners can perceive pitch accent contrasts quite well if they are made consciously to focus on the pitch movement of the word. Discrimination is good, even though it does not correspond directly to any phonological contrast of their native language. Whether they can describe the difference of the pitch patterns is another matter. They might be able to tell that the pitch accent patterns of two words are same or different, but they might not be able to say precisely how they are different; e.g. the location of a pitch fall or of a rise. (See appendix 7 for the explanation of boxplot.)

2) A set of 5 tasks There are clear differences in the scores for the other five tasks. Task d)(listen and repeat) has the highest scores of all tasks; it is even higher than task 1), the discrimination test. This means that learners normally have the ability to repeat exactly like a model, immediately after listening to it. In fact, to repeat automatically seems even easier than telling if a pair of words are the same or different. The next highest scores were for task e)(read from marks) and then task c)(listen and mark). Both c) and e) had a wider distribution of scores, which means that there are differences among students in the results. In c), there are more cases with lower scores than median, while in e), the distribution is skewed to the higher range (there are more cases with higher scores than median). The relatively good scores for e) probably result in part from the practise during tasks a) to d). Task c) shows the difficulty or learners of visualizing the pitch accent just heard. This plainly poses much greater difficulty than simple repetition aloud. As shown by the results for e), pitch marks have a value as an aid to correct pronunciation; but for students to draw the pitch marks by themselves is not an easy task.

The tasks a) (read by knowledge) and b) (mark by knowledge) had the poorest performance. Task b) has poorer result than a), because it involves the further difficulty of visualizing pitch. In both a) and b), the scores are rather low, which shows the poor lexical knowledge of the learners. 163

Figure 6.1 Scores in six types of task 20

15

10 0 1 8

5

0 same or different mark by knowledge listen and repeat read by knowledge listen and mark read from marks

Task 164

6.3.2 Tendencies of the errors The tendencies of the errors were observed according to several different dimensions. In order to sort the data, the Excel spreadsheet application was used. Information included in the data sheet (column headings) are: Subject number: (1-31) Week the tests were conducted: (1-11) Test words: e.g. ko do mo Number of moras in the word: 2, 3, 4 or 5 (e.g. 3, for a word Tco do mo') Target pitch pattern of the word: How the pitch pattern of the word should be. e.g. LHH for "ko do mo' Error pitch pattern: How they read/marked/repeated etc.. e.g. LHL (for Tco do mo') Error type: A, B, C, C*, D or combinations of these, (c.f. Analysis n in the following pages.)

Three types of analyses have been made. •Analysis I In this analysis, we observe what characteristics in the target words are more difficult to achieve. For each of 5 tasks, the errors were sorted by i) The length of the word, and ii) target pitch type, in order to see if there is any tendency of making more errors in certain types of words. The length of the word is divided into 4 types that is, (1) 2 mora, (2) 3 mora, (3) 4 mora and (4) 5 mora words. The target pitch type is divided into 5 types as follows: (1) HL..(=falling pitch. The first mora is H, and the rest is L.) (2) LH..(=rising pitch. The first mora is L, and the rest is R) (3) LH..L (-2) (=rise-fall pitch,with the last H before the falling on the2nd mora from the last) (4) LH..L (-3) (=rise-fall pitch,with the last H before the falling on the3rd mora from the last) (5) LH..L (-4) (=rise-fall pitch, with the last H before the falling on the 4th from the last) i) Number of errors as a function of word length In order to see whether the word length affects the performance of pitch accent by each subject in each different 5 tasks, the number of errors are compared between 2 to 5 mora words. Errors were sorted according to the numbers of moras in the words, then, the percentages of the errors out of the number of relevant trials are compared, (c.f. Figures 6.2 - 6.6) 165

Figure 6.2 Error rate in words of different length

Read by knowledge 100

021 10> a. f §

* 7 6 0 7

2 3 4 5

word length in moras

Figure 6.3 Error rate in words of different length

Mark by knowledge 120

100 OB 021

1(U a. I I a 018 0 7

07

2 3 4 5

length of word in moras 166

Figure 6.4 Error rate in words of different length

Listen & mark 100

0)I B I

I0)

3 4

word length in moras

Figure 6.5 Error rate in words of different length

Listen & repeat 10 *19 8 I 6 *19 I 4 0)I 2

0 2 3 4 5

word length in moras 167

Figure 6.6 Error rate in words of different length

Read from marks

3 4

word length in moras 168

The figures 6.2 - 6.6 are boxplots showing the pitch accent error rate (percentage) for 2, 3, 4, and 5 mora words respectively. A single wrong-pitched mora in a word causes that word to be counted as an ‘error’. Because of that, as the number of the moras increases, the chance of error will naturally be expected to increase. However, it is only in task c) (listen and mark), where we can observe a clear increase of error rate as the word gets longer. In d) (listen and repeat), in which there is also a listening and perceiving process involved as in c), there is a slight tendency for the error rate to increase as the length of the word increases, although the total number of errors is very low. In both d) and c), listening and perception are involved as the first step involved. This fact may imply that short-term memoiy storage of pitch pattern is more difficult for longer words. In case of d), the second process is to repeat it immediately after hearing the correct pitch. This process is evidently simpler and easier than in c), where the learner has to visualize and realize it in a pitch marking system. This process of symbolization will also be harder as the word gets longer.

In task e) (read from marks), the overall error is less than a), b) and c), but there is a wide range of difierencesat each length, and it is hard to tell whether the error rate increases as the word gets longer.

In tasks a) and b), the 4-mora words have higher error rate than 2, 3 and 5 mora words. In b), there is, in general, a slight tendency of the error rate increase as the word gets longer, too. ii) The number of errors according to the target pitch type In order to see whether the target pitch type affects the performance of pitch accent in the 5 tasks, the number of errors were compared across target pitch types. Errors were sorted according to the 5 different target patterns, and the percentage errors out of the number of relevant trials compared. (Figures 6.7-6.11) 169

Figure 6.7 Error rate in words of different pitch type

Read by knowledge 100

(Uc 5 Q. I i0)

LH -2 -3

correct pitch type

Figure 6.8 Error rate in words of different pitch type

Mark by knowledge 120

100

c

Q.I i

d)I

LH -2 -3

correct pitch type 170

Figure 6.9 Error rate in words of different pitch type

Listen & mark 100

1 S 3 2 o

HL LH -2 -3

correct pitch type

Figure 6.10 Error rate in words of different pitch type

Listen & repeat 20

0)c 2 (U 10 * 7 3 2 § * 1 9

0 HL LH 2 3 -4

correct pitch type 171

Figure 6.11 Error rate in words of different pitch type

Read from marks

0) 20

LH -2 -3

correct pitch type 172

In this observation, the errors were spread more evenly among the different target pitch types. There was no clear tendency towards any particular pitch type having more errors. In the task d) (listen and repeat), the peak of the distribution was on the 0 line. This means that about half of al trials involve no errors at all. Among all pitch type, type LH (unaccented) has slightly more errors than other types. This corresponds to what is generally said in Japanese language textbooks, that the unaccented type where the H pitch has to be maintained over a long sequence without any pitch fall, is problematic to English learners of Japanese. However, in task c) (listen and mark), where similar a process to d) is taking place, the LH type has one of the lowest error rates, and type (-4) is slightly higher than others. In task e) (read firom marks), errors are again more or less evenly spread, and type (-4) has slightly fewer errors than other types. In the two tasks which depend upon lexical knowledge, it is found that b) (mark by knowledge) has a evenly spread errors for all target pitch types and a) (read by knowledge)has evenly spread errors apart from type (-4), which has a lower number of errors than others.

On the whole, it would be safe to say that, there is no clear tendency of difficulty among the target pitch types when they are categorised this way. It might be the case, though, that there is a different way of categorisation where a clear difference in difficulty might be shown. For instance, it would be possible to consider the number of H in sequence. The longer the H continues, the more difficult it could be for the learners.

Analysis II Here, the type of errors are categorised according to the following 5 criterion. A = error in the place where the pitch falls e.g. /go ga tsu/ HLL>HHL B = error in the place where the pitch rises e.g. /ju u ga tsu/ LHHH>LLHH C = error in overall pitch movement e.g. /ko do mo/ LHH>LHL i.e. rising > rise-fall C* = error pattern in which pitch rises after falling once within a word e.g. /sa n ka i/ LHHH>LHLH D = an error specific to a particular word e.g. The target word was /ni ji go fii n/ ( = two hours five minute = five past two), and for this the correct pitch pattern is either HLHLL or HLLLL (see chapter 1,1.1.8, ‘tsuzuki sagari’.) In case of the variant HLHLL, the pitch is permitted to rise having once fallen due to the compoundness of the word. (Normally pitch cannot rise after it once falls within a word). The alternative pitch pattern ‘HLLL’ is the case of ‘tsuzuki sagari’. However, many subjects realised this as ‘HHHLL’ in ‘tsuzuki agari’ form.

An analysis was made to see which of these type of pitch error (or combinations of them) are more likely to occur. Each different task was treated separately. (Figures 6.12-6.16) 173

Fig. 6.12The number of errors in words of different error type

Read by knowledge

T

Î » * 2 9 * 3 0 B ABCC* AB ACC* AC* BCC*

error types

Fig. 6.13The number of errors in words of different error type

Mark by knowledge

12 30

A B ABCC* AC ACC* AC* BC* ABC AC BC D C* BCC*

error types 174

Fig. 6.14The number of errors in words of different error type

Listen & mark

0 2 2 O

error types

Fig. 6.15The numer of errors in words of different error type

Listen & repeat 10

8 *12

I 6 0

.a £3 4 C 021 1 2

*79 0 ABC AB AC BC

error types 175

Fig. 6.16The number of errors in words of different error type

Read from marks

ABC AC s e e * AB

error types 176

For tasks a) (read by knowledge) and b) (mark by knowledge), the combination of error types A, B, C was the most frequent. Also, errors are spread across various combinations of types. Task c) (listen & mark) also has a variety of combinations of error types. But here, error type A is the highest, followed by the combination of A, B, and C. In task d) (listen & repeat), the overall error rate is much less than in other tasks, arid less variety of combination of error types appeared. In this task, type A was most prominent among all error types, followed by AC and B. In task e) (read by marks), the most common error type is AC, followed by A, then ABC. The one general trend which emerges from this is that type A (or combinations which include A) are the most common errors. This indicates that the place where pitch falls is the most difficult thing to perceive or produce correctly.

We now assess the separate rates of incidence of error types, whether alone or as components of combinations. In figures 6.17-6.21, ‘with A’ means the number of cases when the error type is A, or includes A (e.g. AB, ABC, AC). In all the tasks, error type A has more errors than type B does. This implies that it is more difficult for the learners to perceive and produce the place where pitch falls than the place where pitch rises. 177

Fig. 6.17The number of errors in words of different error type

(in groups)

Read by knowledge 60

"o I E g 0)

* 1 2 —*29. with A with B withC with C* with D

error type in groups

Fig. 6.18The number of errors in words of different error type

(in groups)

Mark by knowledge

60 £ 2 (U o

I 30. g 20.

with A with B W ithC with C* with D

error type in groups 178

Fig. 6.19The number of errors in words of different error typ<

(in groups)

Listen & mark

3E C (U £

31 31 with A withB W ithC with C with D

error type in groups

Fig. 6.20The number of errors in words of different error type

(in groups)

Listen & repeat 10

012 8 o o 0 6

E 4 g 1 2

0 with A with B with C WithC* with D

error type in groups 179

Fig. 6.21 The number of errors in words of different error type

(in group)

Read from marks

o> 10

30 30 30 30 with A WithB with C with C* with D

error type in groups 180

•Analysis III In this analysis, wc made an attempt to sec whether there is any correlation between each target pitch and the error pitch patterns. For each of the 5 tasks, a table and a bar chart were created to see if there is certain error pitch pattern that is more frequently occurring for each target pitch type. We wished to establish whether the most frequent error pitch pattern is occurs consistently for every target pitch pattern, or whether different error pitch patterns are associated with each target pitch pattern. If the former is the case, it means that the subjects’ lexical knowledge of the pitch accent is lacking and they tend to produce the same pitch pattern whatever the target pitch pattern. If the latter is the case, it would mean that the error pitch types are the result of specific failures to achieve certain target patterns. This may have implications for the influence of interference. (See figures 6.22-41) 181 Figure 6.22.The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task a. 2 m orawords.

70 60 50 40 □ HL 30 HLH 20 10 0 HH HL LH LL output pitch patterns

Figure 6.23.The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task a. 3 mora words.

60 50

40 □ HL m 30 E3LH m-2 20

JZJ, HHH HHL HLHHLL LHH LHL LLH LLL output pitch patterns

Figure 6.24. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task a. 4 mora words.

60 50 40 □ HL I □ LH 30 ■ -2 20 ■ -3 o 10 I i i I I i I i 11 I i output pitch patterns

RgLre6i2S The rate cfo iip it pitch psÉtems il each tar^ptctipB ttEfn □ H. Tasfca5mDravwid& BLH #42 ■ -3 ■ 4

-i -I a#Upit*patans 182

Figure 6.26. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task b.2 mora words.

80 -| 70 - 60 - se . ■ I 50 - 2 □ HL 40 3 EJLH 30 - w o 20 - 10 - : i 0 -i H H HL LH LL output pitch patterns

Figure 6.27. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pi tch p a tte r n . Task b.3 mora words.

□ H L Q L H

ï Æ HHH HHL HLH HLL LHH LHL LLH output pitch patterns

Figure 6.28. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task b. 4 mora words.

OHL 2 OLH ■ -2 Io ■ -3

I _l X X X —I X X X X X X X i! X X —I —I X X

output pitch patterns

Figure 6.29. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task b. 5 mora words. □ HL OLH 50 -r- 45 - ■ -2 40 - ■ ~3

output pitch patterns 183

Figure 6.30. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task c. 2 mora words.

00

80

60 □ HL QLH 40

20

HH HL LH LL output pitch patterns

Figure 6.31. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task c. 3 mora w ords.

90 80 70 60 OHL 50 □ LH 40 30 20 1 0 0 HHH HHL HLH HLL LHH LHL LLH LLL output pitch patterns.

Figure 6.32. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task c.4 mora words.

70 60 ? 50 □ HL i 40 1i 1 OLH 3 30 n 1 f 20 ■ -3 1 0 m 1 n-m. ------i i I i output pitch patterns

Flgure6.33L The rate of output pitch patterns In each target pitch pattern.TaskcSnnawonls

80 OH. QLH 50 "m-2 MA ; j 10 0 ^ 1 — 1 - - 1----1--- - 1—-I 1 , . ,r iiii. X H X I X X X I X ouiputpKchpettems 184

Figure 6.34. The rate ofoutputpitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task d.2 mora words.

1 20

1 00 A 80 OHL 60 OLH 40

20 0 H H HL LH LL output pitch patterns

Figure 6.35. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task d.3 mora words.

1 20 n 80 ■ □ HL 60 '.'■I OLH m-2 40 I 20 1 0? 0 ■ HHH HHL HLH HLL LHH LHL LLH output pitch patterns

Figure 6.36. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task d.4 mora w ords.

120 1 GO 80 □ HL □ LH 60 a - 2 40 20 0 I X -j X —I X X 5 = 1 X I 5 zl X X 5 X X 5

output pitch patterns

Ftguv 6.37. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. OH. Task d. 5 mora words. OLH m-2 120 0-3 ^100 0^ S’ 80 a- «

outpU pitch patterns 185

Figure 6.38. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task e. 2 mora words.

1 20 1 00 80 □ HL 60 OLH 40 20 0 HH HL LH LL output pitch patterns

Figure 6.39. The rate of output pitch patterns in each target pitch pattern. Task e. 3 mora words.

1 00

80 SS □ HL 60 I ? E3LH 40 Q. 1 m-2 g 20 L 0 HHH HHL HLH HLL LHH LHL LLH LLL output pitch patterns

90

70 □ HL 60 50 OLH

30

output pitch patterns

Figure 641. The rate of output pitch patterns In each target pitch pattern. Task e. 5 mora words.

OHL

■ -2 i2 » 60 F- ■ -3 I 40 - ■ -4

oulpti pitch patterns 186

The graphs show the rate of each output pitch type for each target pitch pattern. The X-axis shows all the possible output pitch patterns for words with a specified number of moras. For instance, Fig.6.22 is the result of 2 mora words from the task a (= read by knowledge). As is shown in the legend, 2 types of target pitch patterns, i.e. HL and LH, are indicated in difierent bars (one in white, the other in light grey). The output rate of the target pitch pattern HL is divided in two pitch patterns, i.e. HL and LH, and indicated in percentage. Thus, the output rate of the bar in white in HL and LH in total will make 100%. Obviously, one of the output pitch patterns is the correct pitch pattern. Thus, the white bar in HL and grey bar in LH are the percentage of correct output. So, 33.3 percent of the white bar is in the output pitch pattern HL, that is, the correct answer. Similarly, 66.7 percent of the target pitch LH (grey bar) appears with the output pitch pattern LH, that is the percentage of correct answer for LH.

In longer than 2 mora words, the legend HL means falling pitch, thus, HLL for 3 mora, HLLL for 4 mora, and HLLLL for 5 mora words. LH means rising pitch, thus, LHH for 3 mora, LHHH for 4 mora, and LHHHH for 5 mora words. -2 means rise-fall pitch with falling on the 2”^ mora from the last, thus, LHL for 3 mora, LHHL for 4 mora, and LHHHL for 5 mora words. -3 means rise-fall pitch with falling on the 3'^'^ mora from the last, thus, LHLL for 4 mora and LHHLL for 5 mora words. -4 means rise-fell pitch with falling on the 4* mora from the last, thus, LHLLL for 5 mora words.

As an example of the observation, we can now look at the 2 mora words results across 5 different tasks (Figs 6.22, 6.26, 6.30, 6.34, 6.38). In Fig.6.22, one can tell that the subjects tend to chose pitch pattern LH rather than HL no matter which pitch type it is supposed to be, that is, in both white and grey bars. This indicates that subjects lack lexical knowledge. There is no correlation between the target pitch pattern and output pitch pattern.

The same thing can be said in Fig. 6.26, the results for 2 mora words from the task b (= mark by knowledge). Here again the lack of the lexical knowledge is clearly indicated, with no correlation between the target pitch pattern and output pitch pattern.

However, Fig.6.30, the result of 2 mora words from the task c (= listen and mark), shows quite a different result from the above two. Where the target pitch pattern is HL (white bar), the output is also predominantly HL. Similarly, where the target pitch pattern is LH (grey bar) output is predominantly LH. The big difference between this task and the two previous tasks is that subjects are made to listen to a model pronunciation. Therefore, they do not depend on their lexical knowledge, but on their perceptual ability. The results show many more correct answers.

Fig.6.34, the result of 2 mora words from the task d (= listen and repeat), also shows that the subjects are good at perception and reproduction. The white bar shows target HL correctly reproduced as output HL, and grey bar shows target LH correctly output as LH. 187

Fig.6.38, the result of 2 mora words from the task e (= read by marks), also shows similar tendency to the Fig.6.30 and Fig.6.34.

Where there are more possible output pitch patterns (which are indicated across the X-axis) as in words longer than 2 moras, one can also observe the tendency of errors relating the target pitch pattern and output pitch pattern. For example, if we look at the Fig.6.33, the target pitch pattern HLLLL, (white bar) mostly yields output pitch patterns HLLLL(correct), and HHLLL and HHHLL. For the two main error patterns (HHLLL and HHHLL), the error is in the place of the mora where pitch falls. The overall pitch shape is correct (i.e. falling).

What is common in all the graphs including all the 5 tasks is that the output pitch patterns are mostly acceptable pitch patterns in Tokyo dialect. Unacceptable pitch patterns such as HHHH, LLLL, HLLH, HLHL are rare. This may indicate that learners acquire the overall shape of acceptable patterns first, before accurate place where pitch falls/rises. Learners have probably more or less acquired the basic overall pitch patterns of Tokyo dialect in the process of listening to Japanese words and learning new vocabulary, and they have generalised the pitch patterns occurring. Thus, even when they make errors, they tend to pronounce Japanese words in more or less ‘Japanese-like’ pitch accent patterns.

Task a and task b

2 mora words (cf. Figures 6.22 and 6.26) (Target pitch pattern > output pitch pattern) Underlined bold is the correct output.

HL > LH, (HL) LH>LH.(HL)

The output pitch pattern LH is fevoured, whichever the target pitch pattern may be. This means that cause of the error is the learner’s lack of lexical knowledge and there is no correlation between the target pitch pattern and output pitch pattern, in case of 2 mora words in task a (= read by knowledge) and task b (= mark by knowledge).

3 mora words (cf. figures 6.23 and 6.27)

HLL > HLL, LHH, LHL, (HHL, LLH) LHH > LHH. LHL, HLL, (HHL, LLH) LHL > LHH, LHL, HLL, (HHL, HLH, LLH)

Here, also, there is a rather strong preference for output pitch pattern LHH, which corresponds to the result in 2 mora words above. The pitch patterns LHL, HLL, and HHL are the next favoured patterns. 188

Similarly to the result in 2 mora words above, it can be said that the main problem is the lack of lexical knowledge, and there is no correlation between the target and the output.

4 mora words

Task a (cf. Figure 6.24)

HLLL > HLLL. LHHH, LHHL, HHLL, LLHL, LLHH LHHH > LHHH. HLLL, HHLL, LHHL LHHL > LLHH, LHHL. LHHH, HLLL, HHLL LHLL > LHLL LHHH, HLLL, LHHL, HHLL

Task b (cf. Figure 6.28)

HLLL > LLHH, LHHL, LHHH, HHLL, HLLL LHHH > LHHL, LHHH. LLHL, LLHH, HHLL, HLLL LHHL > LHHL. LLHH, HHLL, LHHH LHLL > HHLL, LHHL, LHLL. LHHH, HHHL

Here again, no correlation between the target and the output is observed. The error types are relatively random, with a tendency to prefer the patterns that exist as acceptable patterns in Tokyo dialect, especially, LHHH, LHHL, and HLLL. Patterns such as HHLL and LLHH are also favoured however. These patterns are those where learners have failed to achieve the initial pitch rise, whereas the overall pitch shape is correct.

5 mora words

Task a (cf. Figure 6.25)

HLLLL > HLLLL. LHHLL, LLHHH, HHHHL, HHHLL, LHHHH, LHHHL LHHHH > LHHHH. HLLLL, LHLLL, LHHHL, LHHLL LHHHL > LHHHL. LHHHH, LHHLL, HHHLL LHHLL > LHHLL. LHHHH, LHHHL, HLLLL LHLLL > LHLLL. LHHHH, HLLLL, LHHLL

Task b (cf. Figure 6.29)

HLLLL > LHHLL, HHLLL, HHHLL, LHHHL, HHHHL, LHHHH, LLHHL, LLHLL, HLLLL LHHHH > LHHHH. LHHLL, LHHHL, HHHLL, HHLLL, LLHHH, LLHHL 189

LHHHL > LHHHL. LHHLL, LHHHH, LLLHH, LLHHH, HHHLL, LLLHL LHHLL > LHHLL LHHHL, LLHHL, HHHLL, LHHHH, HHLLL LHLLL > LHHLL, LHHHL, LHHHH, HHHLL

As the word gets longer, it naturally gets more difficult to see directly if there is any tendency in the output patterns. However, it seems safe to say that there is no correlation between the target and the output in case of 5 mora words, too. In tasks a and b, the lack of the lexical knowledge seems to be the major cause of errors. The output patterns are scattered in various patterns with the tendency to favour patterns such as LHHHH, LHHLL, HLLLL, LHHHL, HHHLL, LHLLL etc. in case of task a, and LHHLL, LHHHL, LHHHH, HHHLL, HHLLL etc., in task b. One clear difference in the results for tasks a and b is that in task b, HLLLL and LHLLL are not so much favoured even though they are acceptable patterns in Tokyo dialect, and are not common even when they are the correct answers. Task b is more difficult than task a, since there is one more step in the process of producing the answer: i.e. to visualise the pitch accent into marking system.

Taskc

2 mora words (cf. Figure 6.30)

HL > HL, (LH) LH > LH. (HL)

Mostly correct. No correlation between the target and output pitch nor &voured pitch pattern.

3 mora words (cf. Figure 6.31)

HLL > HLL. HHL, LHL, LHH LHH > LHH. LLH, HHL, LHL LHL > LHL. LHH, HHL, (HLH, HLL)

Mostly correct. There is the error tendency of having LLH where the target is supposed to be LHH, and output HHL where the target is HLL. In both cases, the overall pitch patterns are the same, and only the place where the pitch rises/falls are wrong. Also, there is a tendency to mix up LHH and LHL, that is, when the target is LHH and output is LHL, and visa versa. On the whole, no matter what the target pitch is supposed to be, there is a tendency to favour the patterns HHL and LHH.

4 mora words (cf. Figure 6.32)

HLLL > HLLL. HHLL, (HHHL, LHHL, LLHH, LLHL, LHLL) LHHH > LHHH. LHHL, LLHH, (LHLL, HHLL, LLHL, LLLH) 190

LHHL > LHHL. HHLL, LHLL, LLHH, LHHH, (HHHL, LLHL) LHLL > LHLL. LHHL, (LHHH, HHLL, LLHH, LLHL...)

The output is scattered all over the different pitch patterns. Among them, there is strong tendency to have HHLL (and HHHL) in place of the target HLLL, which is a failure of achieving the place where the pitch falls. Another tendency is LHHL in place of the target LHLL. This again, is a failure in the placement of the pitch fall, overall pitch shape being correct. Otherwise, the rest of the errors are not consistent.

5 mora words (cf. Figure 6.33): Results exhibit a wide scatter.

HLLLL > HLLLL. HHLLL, HHHLL, (HHHHL, LHHLL, LHLLL, LLHHL, LHHHL, HHHLH, HLLHH.. etc.) LHHHH > LHHHH. LHHHL, LHHLL, (LLHHH, HHHLL, LLHHL, HHHHL, HHLLL, LLLHH, LLLLH, LHLLL, etc.) LHHHL > LHHHL. LHHLL, LHHHH, HHHLL, (LLHHL, LLHHH, LLHLL, HHHHL, LHLLL, LLLHH, HLLHH, etc.) LHHLL > LHHLL. LHHHL, LLHHL, HHHLL, LLHLL, (HHLLL, LLHHH, HHHHL, LHHHH, LHLLL, etc.)

The results are quite similar to those for 4 mora words above. One trend is inaccuracy in location of the pitch fall (i.e. HHLLL, HHHLL, and HHHHL in place of the target HLLLL; LHHHL and LHHLL in place of the target LHHHH; LHHLL and LHHHH in place of LHHHL. ) Also, there are some errors where the failure is in the place of pitch rise. (i.e. LLHHH, LLLHH and LLLLH in place of the target LHHHH; LLHHH, LLLHH in place of LHHHH; LLHHL in place of LHHHL; LLHLL and HHHLL in place of LHHLL. )

On the whole then task c (= listen and mark) tends to elicit errors in the location of pitch falls (and to a lesser extent pitch rises) even though the overall pitch shape is correct.

Task d

2 mora words (cf. Figure 6.34)

HL>HL LH>LH

All correct. There were no errors.

3 mora words (cf. Figure 6.35) 191

LHH > HHH There is only one case of an error, which is the failure of the initial rising. The rest were all correct

4 mora words (cf. Figure 6.36)

HLLL > HLLL. (HHLL) LHHH > LHHH. (LHHL, LHLL, HHHH) LHHL > LHHL. (HLLL) LHLL > LHLL. (HHLL)

Mostly correct. Some cases of the failure of the place of initial pitch rise such as LHLL > HHLL, LHHH > HHHH, also the failure of the place of pitch fall, i.e. HLLL > HHLL, LHHH > LHHL are observed.

5 mora words (cf. Figure 6.37)

HLLLL > HLLLL. (HHLLL) LHHHH > LHHHH. (LLHHH, HHHHH, LHLLL, LHHLL, HLLLL) LHHHL > LHHHL. (LLHLL, LHHHH) LHHLL > LHHLL. LHLLL, LHHHL, LHHHH, HLLLL, (HHHLL, LLHHH, LLHHL, LLHLL) LHLLL > LHLLL. (LHHHH)

In this task (listen and repeat) very few errors were made. As was observed in 6.3.1, this task was the easiest of all.

Task e

2 mora words (cf. Figure 6.38)

HL > HL. (LH) LH > (HL)

Most are correct. There are more errors on HL > LH than others. Slight preference of LH type is observed.

3 mora words (cf. Figure 6.39)

HLL > HLL LHL, HHH, LHH, LLL, HHL 192

LHH > LHH. LHL, HHL, HLL, LLH LHL > LHL. LHH, LLH, HHL

Most are correct. The errors are spread among various output patterns. The favoured output errors are LHH and LHL, and these two types of pitch patterns are also confused with each other (i.e. LHH > LHL, LHL > LHH).

4 mora words (cf. Figure 6.40)

HLLL > HLLL. LHHH, LHHL, LHLL, (HHLL, HLHL) LHHH > LHHH. LHHL, LHLL, HLLL, LLHH, (LLHL, HHLL) LHHL > LHHL. LHHH, LHLL, LHLL > LHLL. LHHH, (HLLL, LHHL, HHLL)

Apart from the majority that is correct, output is concentrated into accepted Tol^o dialect pitch patterns, i.e. HLLL, LHHH, LHHL, and LHLL. The patterns LHHH, LHHL and LHLL are particularly favoured, and tend also to be mixed up with each other, showing failure to achieve the correct place where pitch falls. The type LHHH is especially favoured for all target pitch patterns. This could be a result of generalisation, its rising pitch (instead of typically falling nuclear pitch) and long sequence of high pitched moras being very different from anything likely to result from interference of English stress accent.

5 mora words (cf. Figure 6.41)

HLLLL > HLLLL. LHHLL, LHHHH, HHHLL, (HHHHH, HHHHL, HLHLL, LLLHL) LHHHH > LHHHH. LHHLL, LHHHL, LHLLL, (HHHHH, LLHHH, HLLLL, LLHHL, HHHHL, LLHLL, LLLHL, HHHLL, HHLLL, HLHHH) LHHHL > LHHHL. LHHLL, LHHHH, (HHHLL, LLHHL, HHHHL, HLLHL, LLHHH, LLHLL, LLLHL) LHHLL > LHHLL. LHHHL, LHHHH, HHHLL, LHLLL, (HHLLL, LLHHH, LLHHL, HHHHL, HLHHH, LLHLL) LHLLL > LHLLL. LHHHH, HLLLL, LHHLL, LHHHL, (HHHHL, HHHLL, LLLHL) Again, most responses are correct. A preference for output patterns such as LHHLL, LHHHL, LHHHH and so on can be observed. As the word gets longer, it seems to be more difficult to retain the lexical knowledge of the pitch accent (even immediately exposure and practice in tasks a - d).

Analysis IV 193

In this analysis, we took the syllable structure of the word into consideration for the error tendency analysis. As was explained in chapter 1, in Japanese, the unit of the rhythm is ‘mora’, and it does not always match the rhythm unit of English, which is ‘syllable’. This can be predicted as a possible case of interference, and certain syllable structure may induce a certain error pitch pattern.

We set out to observe if certain pitch patterns occur for words with any particular syllable structure. If some of the most frequently occurring error pitch patterns can be shown to be associated with certain syllable structures, it would suggest that the above hypothesis is true. However, if the most frequently occurring error pitch patterns are scattered across various syllable structures, this hypothesis is more likely to be false. The following are the most frequent error pitch patterns broken down by length of word and task. 194

No. Frequent error pitch patterns Syllable structure type of No Types mora 2 LH(2/2), HL(2/2) 2 cv.cv v.cv 3 LHH(2/3), LHL(2/3), 3 cv. cv.cv cv.cv. V HLL(2/3) V. cv.cv 4 HHLL(9/10), HLLL(8/10), 10 cv./N/.cv./N/ cv./N/.cv.cv LHHH(7/10), LHHL(5/10) cv./N/.cv.V cv.cv.cv./N/ LLHH(4/10) cv.cv. cv.cv cv.cv.cv.V cv.V. cv.cv cv.V.cv.V cv.V.v./N/ v.cv.cv./N/ 5 HLLLL(ll/20), 20 cv./N/.cv./N/.cv cv./N/.cv.V.cv LHHHH(10/20), cv./Q/.cv.cv./N/ cv./Q/.cv.cv.cv LHHLL( 10/20), cv./Q/.cv.V.cv cv. cv./N/.cv.cv LHHHL(10/20), cv.cv./Q/.cv./N/ cv.cv.cv.cv./N/ LHLLL(7/20), cv. cv.cv. cv.cv cv. cv.cv. cv.V HHHLL(7/20), cv. cv.cv. V.cv cv.cv. V.cv./N/ HHHHL(5/20) cv.V.cv./N/.cv cv. V.cv. cv.cv cv. V.cv. V.cv v.cv.cv./N/.cv

V.CV.CV.CV./N/ V. cv.cv. cv.cv

V. cv.cv. cv.V v.cv. V.cv./N/

Table 6.1 The most frequent error pitch patterns for words of different lengths and the types of syllable structure actually represented in data / task a (= read by knowledge) An indication such as HLLLL(11/20) means that pitch pattern HLLLL has occurred in 11 out of 20 types of syllable structure found in 5 mora words.

In 2 mora words in table 6.1, both LH and HL occurred in both types of word structures. However, the number of occurrence of LH is much higher than HL in v.cv., whereas both LH and HL occur about equally in cv.cv. As is seen in appendix 11, LH occurs 18 times in cv.cv. structure, and 16 times in v.cv. structure. On the other hand, HL occurs 18 times in cv.cv., but only 3 times in v.cv.. This would simply mean that subjects tend to favour LH in general irrespective of the syllable structure. As another example, in 4 mora words, LHHH occurs in 7 different syllable structure out of 20 varieties of syllable structure. It occurs in syllable structures such as cv./N/.cv./N/ and cv./N/.cv.cv., which have syllabic consonants in the second mora, as well as cv.cv.cv./N/ and v.cv.cv./N/, which do not. It does not look as if this error pitch type is associated with particular syllable structures, but the pitch pattern LHHH tends to occur whatever the syllable structure may be. Similarly, the error pitch type HLLL is 195 another favoured pitch pattern no matter what syllable structure the word may have. (More detail can be found by looking at the appendix 11).

No. Frequent error pitch patterns Syllable structure type of No Types mora 2 LH(2/2), HL(2/2) 2 cv.cv v.cv 3 LHL(3/3), LHH(2/3), 3 cv.cv. cv cv.cv. V

HLL(2/3), HHL(2/3) V. cv.cv 4 HHLL(10/10), LHHL(8/10), 10 cv./N/.cv./N/ cv./N/.cv.cv LLHH(6/10), LHHH(6/10) cv./N/.cv.V cv.cv.cv./N/ cv.cv. cv.cv cv.cv.cv.V cv.V. cv.cv cv.V.cv.V cv.V.v./N/ v.cv.cv./N/ 5 LHHHL(14/20), 20 cv./N/.cv./N/.cv cv./N/.cv.V.cv HHLLL(11/20), cv./Q/.cv.cv./N/ cv./Q/.cv.cv.cv LHHLL(ll/20), cv./Q/.cv.V.cv cv.cv./N/.cv.cv HHHLL(ll/20), cv.cv./Q/.cv./N/ cv.cv.cv.cv./N/ LLHHL(9/20), cv.cv.cv.cv.cv cv. cv.cv. cv.V LLHHH(8/20), cv. cv.cv. V.cv cv.cv. V.cv./N/ LHHHH(5/20) cv.V.cv./N/.cv cv. V.cv. cv.cv cv. V.cv. V.cv v.cv.cv./N/.cv

V.CV.CV.CV./N/ V. cv.cv. cv.cv

V. cv.cv. cv.V v.cv. V.cv./N/

Table 6.2 The most frequent error pitch patterns for each word length and the types of syllable structure actually represented in data / task b (= mark by knowledge).

Similar to task a, in case of 2 mora words, the number of occurrences of LH is much higher than HL in v.cv., whereas LH and HL are about equally frequent in cv.cv. (Actual number of occurrence can be seen in appendix 12.) In the case of 4 mora words, pitch types such as LHHL, HHLL, LLHH and so on occur frequently, and they are also spread across different syllable structures. Notably, HHLL (first two moras on the same pitch level) is found in all 10 types of syllable structures actually presented in data. They include not only those with syllabic consonants or the 2“* element of the long vowel in the 2"^ mora, but also those without this complication. Therefore it looks again as if there is no correlation between the error pitch type and the syllable structure. 196

No. Frequent error pitch patterns Syllable structure type of No Types mora HL(4/4), LH(2/4) cv.cv cv.V v.cv v.V HHL(7/8), LHL(4/8), 8 cv./N/.cv cv./Q/.cv LLH(3/8), LHH(3/8) cv.cv./N/ cv. cv.cv

cv.cv.V V. cv.cv v.cv.V v.V.cv HHLL(12/15), LHHL(11/15), 15 cv./N/.cv./N/ cv./N/.cv.cv LLHH(7/15), LHLL(6/15), cv./N/.cv.V cv.cv.cv./N/ LLHL(5/15), LHHH(4/15), cv.cv. cv.cv cv.cv.cv.V HHHL(4/15) cv.cv. V.cv cv.V.cv./N/ cv.V. cv.cv cv.V.cv.V cv.V.v./N/ v.cv./Q/cv v.cv.cv./N/ v.cv. cv.cv v.cv. V.cv

LHHHL(24/35), 35 cv./N/.cv./N/.cv CV./N/.CV. cv.cv HHHLL(16/35), cv./N/.cv.V.cv cv./Q/.cv.cv./N/ LHHLL(14/35), cv./Q/.cv.cv.cv cv./Q/.cv. cv.V LLHHL(13/35), cv./Q/.cv.V.cv cv. cv./N/.cv./N HHLLL(12/35), cv.cv./N/.cv.cv cv.cv./Q/.cv./N/ LLHHH(ll/35), cv.cv. cv./Q/.cv cv.cv. cv.cv./N/ LLHLL(8/35), cv.cv.cv.cv.cv cv.cv. cv.cv.V HHHHL(6/35) cv. cv.cv. V.cv cv.cv. V./N/.cv cv.cv. V.cv./N/ cv.cv.V. cv.cv cv.cv. V.cv.V cv.cv. V.v./N/ cv.V.cv./N/.cv cv. V.cv. cv.cv cv. V.cv. V.cv cv.V.v.cv./N/ cv. V.cv. cv.cv v./N/. cv./N/.cv v.cv./N/.cv.V v.cv./Q/.cv.cv

v.cv.cv./N/.cv V.CV.CV.CV./N/

V. cv.cv. cv.cv v.cv. cv.cv.V

V. cv.cv. V.cv v.cv. V.cv./N/

V. V.cv.cv./N/ Table 6.3 The most frequent error pitch patterns for each word length and the types of syllable structure actually represented in data / task c (= listen and mark). (See appendix 13) 197

No. Frequent error pitch patterns SyUa )le structure type o f No Types mora v.V.cv HHLL(4/7), HLLL(3/7), cv./N/.cv.V cv.cv.cv./N/ LHHL(2/7) cv.cv.cv.cv cv.V.cv.cv

cv.V.cv.V V.CV.CV./N/ v.cv. cv.cv LHLLL(ll/20), 20 cv./N/.cv./N/.cv cv./N/.cv. cv.cv LHHHH(6/20), cv./N/.cv.V.cv cv./Q/.cv.cv./N/ LLHHH(6/20), cv.cv./N/.cv.cv cv.cv. cv./Q/.cv LHHHL(5/20), cv.cv.cv.cv.cv LHHLL(4/20) cv.cv. cv.cv. cv.V cv. cv.cv. V.cv cv.cv. V./N/.cv cv.cv. V.cv./N/ cv.cv. V.v./N/ cv.V.cv./N/.cv cv. V.cv. cv.cv v./N/. cv./N/.cv v.cv.cv./N/.cv

V.CV.CV.CV./N/ V. cv.cv. cv.cv

v.cv. cv.cv.V V. V.cv.cv./N/

Table 6.4 The most frequent error pitch patterns for each word length and the types of syllable structure actually represented in data / task d (= listen and repeat)

This task is the easiest of ail, and the overall number of errors is much less. But still, the same error pitch type is spreading across various syllable structures. (See Appendix 14). For example, in 4 mora words, HHLL is one of the most frequent error pitch patterns. It is occurring only once or twice in each syllable structure, but in 4 out of 7 syllable structures actually represented in data. In 5 mora words, LHLLL, for example, is the most frequent error pitch pattern. It is occurring in 11 different syllable structures out of 20 actually represented in data, and these include varieties of patterns such as cv./N/.cv.V.cv, cv.V.cv.cv.cv, v./N/.cv./N/.cv, cv.cv.cv.cv.cv, cv.cv./N/.cv.cv, cv.cv.cv./Q/.cv, cv.cv.cv. V.cv, cv.cv. V.CV./N/, and so on. To have the same error pitch pattern occurring in so many varieties of syllable structures as this, even though the total number of errors is very small, appears to indicate that there is no correlation between the error pitch pattern and the syllable structure. 198

No. Frequent error pitch patterns Syllable structure type of No Types mora 2 LH(2/2) 2 cv.cv v.cv 3 LHL(3/3), HLL(2/3), 3 cv.cv.cv cv.cv.V

LHH (1/3) V. cv.cv 4 LHHH(6/10), LHHL(5/10), 10 cv./N/.cv./N/ cv./N/.cv.cv HLLL(4/10), LHLL(3/10) cv./N/.cv.V cv.cv.cv./N/ cv.cv.cv.cv cv.cv.cv.V cv.V.cv.cv cv.V.cv.V cv.V.v./N/ v.cv.cv./N/ 5 LHHLL(11/20), 20 cv./N/.cv./N/.cv cv./N/.cv.V.cv LHHHH(8/20), cv./Q/.cv.cv./N/ cv./Q/.cv.cv.cv LHHHL(8/20), cv./Q/.cv.V.cv cv.cv./N/.cv.cv LHLLL(7/20), cv.cv./Q/.cv./N/ cv.cv.cv.cv./N/ HHHLL(7/20), cv.cv.cv.cv.cv cv.cv. cv.cv.V HLLLL(5/20) cv.cv.cv. V.cv cv.cv. V.cv./N/ cv.V.cv./N/.cv cv.V.cv.cv.cv cv. V.cv. V.cv v.cv.cv./N/.cv

V.CV.CV.CV./N/ v.cv. cv.cv.cv v.cv. cv.cv.V v.cv. V.cv./N/

Table 6.5 The most frequent error pitch patterns for each word length and the types of syllable structure actually represented in data / task e (= read by marks)

(See appendix 15) 199

The number of the words in the lists varies slightly between some tasks, and therefore the type of the syllable structure included in the list may also slightly vary. In any case, in each task, the same types of error pitch pattern tend to occur repeatedly irrespective of the types of the syllable structure of the word. It seems tMt there is no obvious correlation between the syllable structure of the word and the tendency of the error pitch patterns.

6.4 Discussion and conclusions 6.4.1 Scores of 6 tasks When we simply counted the number of errors, the 6 different tasks showed a clear difference in results. In the discrimination task, the score was maintained relatively high, which means that to perceive the pitch accent contrast is not a difhcult task, even though learners did not have good lexical knowledge of the items. In the other five tasks, each task showed a different result. Task d was the easiest; it involves perception and imitation, even without the need to discriminate or categorize. Tasks a and b had the poorest performance, since the learners had to depend on their own lexical knowledge. Task b and c both involved the visualisation of pitch, which seems to add some more difficulties to the tasks. From these results we can conclude that for the learners to draw the pitch accent marking by themselves seems not to be an effective way to learn the pitch accent. However, to read it as an aid to production as in task e seems to help, to some extent, for the learners to recall the lexical knowledge. In task e, the learners seemed to have had a better result than tasks a and b, and it seems that they have acquired some short-term memory of lexical knowledge of the test words. In addition, the pitch accent marking seems to be helping them to perform correctly. Thus, pitch accent marking can be useful to a certain extent as an additional cue to aid the learner.

6.4.2 Tendencies of the errors

Analysis I i) The number of errors according to the length of the words The prediction was that the number of error increases as the word gets longer. This tendency was clearly shown in the task which involves processes of both perceiving and visualising the pitch pattern as they heard (task c). Task d, which includes the process of perceiving, but not visualising, also shows some tendency of an increase in the number of errors for longer words. Task b, which includes the visualising process, but not the hstening and perception process has also a slight tendency towards increase in errors as the words gets longer. The rest of the tasks, which rely on lexical knowledge or on the re-processing of visual marking into actual sound (tasks a and e) showed no clear tendency depending on the word length. ii) The number of errors according to the target pitch type No clear tendency was observed in any of the tasks. There is a possibility that the way we have categorised the target pitch type could be improved. For instance, it could be categorised by the number of H in a sequence, or solely by the place where the pitch falls (if at all) so that type HL would 2 0 0

be subcategorized into -2 (HL), -3 (HLL), and -4 (HLLL) types. However, any shortcomings here will probably be picked up by analysis III, where the output pitch patterns for each target pitch pattern (not only the number of errors ) are taken into consideration.

Analysis II

Errors of type A (=error in the place where the pitch falls) seem to be the most frequent and persistent type of errors. This type of error was prominent in all the tasks, though combinations with the other types of errors such as C (=error in overall pitch movement) and B (=error in the place where the pitch rises) are added depending on the complication of the task.

Analysis III

It was observed, in this analysis, 1) whether there is any correlation between the target pitch pattern and the output pitch pattern, and 2) if there is any favoured pitch pattern the learners tend to repeat irrespective of the target pitch. The observation was made for each task separately.

Tasks a and b

Tasks a and b had similar result, since they both depend on the lexical knowledge of the learners. 1) There was no correlation between the target and output pitch patterns. The random distribution of the error pitch patterns shows lack of lexical knowledge.

2) Favoured patterns in order are as follows.

Favoured Favoured Favoured pitch patterns order types 1 LH LH, LHH, LHHH, LHHFIH 2 -2 LHL, LHHL, LHHHL 3 -3 LHHLL, (HHHLL) -4 ' "

5 L Æ : ' } : : " :...? v

Table 6.6 Favoured patterns in task a & b

Favoured pattern, here, means the output pitch patterns which happens frequently no matter what is the target pitch pattern is. Type LH seems to be the most favoured pattern in words of any number of moras. followed by t>pe -2, then -3. Those indicated (a) are the ones favoured only in task a. HHHLL in type -3 could be categorised as t>pe HL, instead of -3. 201

Taskc

In this task, there were some tendencies. Examples of errors frequently found were as follows.

Target > output; A <> B means that types A and B tend to be mixed up in both directions.

LHH > LLH LHHHH > LLHHH, LLLHH, LLLLH LHHLL > LLHLL, HHHLL LHHHL > LLHHL

These are errors with failure to achieve initial rising place accurately.

HLL > HHL HLLL > HHLL, HHHL HLLLL > HHLLL, HHHLL, HHHHL

These are errors showing failure to achieve the falling place accurately. Overall pitch shape is a falling pitch.

LHH < > LHL LHLL > LHHL LHHHH > LHHHL, LHHLL LHHHL > LHHLL, LHHHH

These are also errors in the place where the pitch falls, with the overall pitch shape being rise-fall.

Three-mora words show a tendency to favour the pitch patterns HHL and LHH, but on the whole, errors are varied and spread over the different output pitch patterns. In tasks a and b, learners commonly reverted to one or two pitch patterns no matter what was the pitch pattern of the target. But there is no such tendency to generalize in the results for task c, where the learners were making the effort to analyse, visualize and symbolize what was presented. Instead, clear causes of inacuracy and approximation can be observed in this task; i.e. the failure to locate accurately the place where pitch falls/rises. It seems that learners first achieve an ability to cope with the overall pitch shape; accuracy over the precise location of falls and rises comes later.

Taskd 202

This task (=listen and repeat) was the easiest among all the tasks conducted. There were only a couple of rare occasions of errors, which seemed to be caused by the failure to achieve accurately the place where pitch falls/rises.

Task e

There is some tendency in the errors observed for 2 mora and 3 mora words. HL>LH, LHH<> LHL However, this tendency gets less clear as the words get longer. It seems that as the words get longer, the lexical knowledge, will get poorer (or less accurate), and the tendency of the correlation diminishes.

Some favoured patterns are observed. These favoured patterns are also sometimes mixed up with one another. LH LHH, LHL LHHH, LHHL, LHLL LHHHH, LHHHL, LHHLL

The tendency to mix up the above favoured patterns (having the same number of moras) gets less strong as the word gets longer. Throughout all the tasks, it seems that type LH is always a favoured (over-generalized) pitch pattern.

From what we observed here, one of the main problems is the accuracy of the place where the pitch rises and falls, rather than the overall pitch shape of the word. Especially, the initial pitch rise tends to be ignored. Since, in English, the pitch movement of the nucleus tend to be; 1) falling, 2) contained within a single syllable (not spread over several pliables), a Japanese pitch accent type such as LHHHH is a completely new pattern for learners. Learners seem to have found it difficult to learn how long the high pitch is to be maintained within a word, rather than to learn the overall pitch shape. Thus, pitch patterns such as LHHHH, LHHHL, LHHLL tend to be mixed up. This may also lend support to the notion that pitch accent needs to be taught together with the rhythm unit in Japanese, (cf. 'Speech rhythm' in Chapter 2, section 2.2.4, and Kashima, 1999: 43-51; 1992: 305-319; 1996: 103-115)

Analysis IV

The error pitch patterns, within the same task and within each 2, 3, 4, and 5 mora words, are spread across words of different syllable structure relatively evenly. This indicates that contrary to what is commonly expected, syllable structure does not play an important role in determining the error pitch pattern of the word. 203

6.4.3 Summary

In this chapter, using the actual classroom data, we analysed pitch accent errors that arose in various tasks including perceiving, discriminating, mimicking, drawing, and reading from pitch accent marks. We examined the data from different viewpoints such as: 1) what kind of task in the course of acquiring pitch accent is more difficult than others, 2) the tendency of pitch accent errors as a function of the number of moras in a word etc., 3) what characteristics of the pitch pattern are the most difhcult to achieve and so on. We can summarise our findings as follows. First of all, learners are able to perceive a pitch pattern contrast quite easily, even if no analog of that contrast exists in their own language, and even if they do not have accurate lexical knowledge of the target items. But to specify the precise differences between pitch patterns, such as the location of pitch falls/rises, is not necessarily easy. The low score on tasks a and b indicated that the learners have poor lexical knowledge. The high score on task d showed that mimicking (i.e. listen and repeat) was easiest task. The lowered scores when the task involves the process of visualising the pitch accent indicated that for the learners to draw pitch accent by themselves is not easy. However, the marks can be effectively used as an aid to achieve an accurate pitch pattern (c.f. task e).

The length of the words affects the difficulties when the task involves the processes of perceiving and visualising the pitch. For these processes, it will get more difficult to achieve the correct pitch patterns as the word gets longer. This may mean that perceiving pitch accent or visualising it requires short­ term memory, which gets more difficult as the word gets longer. When the pitch accent is marked on the text and the learners are to read according to it, this problem will not occur. When the task requires the learners to have lexical knowledge (long-term memory rather than short-term), the length of words does not have a direct effect on performance.

No clear difference in difficulties among the different target pitch types was observed just by comparing the number of errors (analysis I, ii). But more detailed observation (analysis HI) revealed tendencies in some of the tasks (c, d and some of e) where the learners were given the correct model (either by listening to the model pronunciation or by accent marks. In these cases, the main cause of errors was the failure to achieve the place where the pitch falls/rises, but the overall pitch shape was less problematic. Overall pitch shape seems to be acquired by the learners first, without too much difficulty. From this result, we suggest that, after achieving the overall pitch shape, exercises that are focused on the place of the pitch fall/rise should be conducted. When the task requires the learner’s lexical knowledge of the pitch accent (i.e. task a, b and some of e), there is no tendency in the way the errors were made. Instead, the output pitch patterns were consistently in favour of type LH. Favouring this type could be a result of over-generalisation. 204

Another finding is that the learners tend to make more errors towards the beginning of the word (i.e. between the first and the second mora). It seems that they are relatively insensitive to pitch change when it occurs at the beginning of a word.

When we categorised the type of errors (analysis II), type A (=error in the place where the pitch falls) had the largest number of cases. Type B (=error in the place where the pitch rises) and C (=error in the overall pitch shape), and the combination of A, B and C were also relatively frequent, depending on the type of tasks.

From the observation of the output pitch patterns, we could see that most of the errors are permissible patterns within Tokyo dialect and forbidden types such as HHHH, LLLL, LHLH have occurred only rarely. This suggests that the learners have already acquired generalizations about acceptable pitch accent patterns, without acquiring pitch accent of particular words. Thus, even though their lexical knowledge is rather poor at this stage, their output pitch pattern is within the accepted patterns in Tokyo dialect.

One unexpected result is of the analysis IV, where it was indicated that syllable structure of the word does not affect which output error pitch pattern tends to be chosen. It seems that the syllable structure, especially syllabic nasal /N/, geminate /Q/, and long vowel /(c)v.V/ (or /(c)v.V.v/), which causes the rhythm difference between Japanese and the learners’ native language (English), is not a main cause of interference on Japanese pitch accent. 205

CHAPTER 7

Discussion and conclusions

In this thesis, we have been looking at the problems of teaching pitch accent in Japanese to English- speaking learners. Firstly, the practical problems which teachers encounter are examined by means of a questionnaire and textbook survey. Then, the way that LI interference appears in Japanese word accent is examined. Lastly, the tendencies among errors, according to various types of task given to learners in the course of pitch accent teaching, are described and analysed. The main findings that emerge from this work are as follows:

7.1 Problems in teaching pronunciation / pitch accent From the questionnaire and textbook survey, it emerged that teachers’ fimdamental attitude towards pronunciation teaching is one of the major problems in teaching pronunciation effectively. They tend to blame lack of time, problems of methodology, lack of good teaching materials, and so on. Many commented that pronunciation should be taught not on its own, but as a part of the whole class activities, or only 'when a problem is noticeable', or 'when it is necessary'. Some teachers, emphasising a ‘holistic’ or ‘communicative’ approach, even think that pronunciation teaching is not necessary at all, since it will be learned naturally. Some commented that pronunciation teaching is not as inqx)rtant as teaching other items such as grammar.

These problems should not be an excuse for avoiding teaching pronunciation. All these problems DO exist, but should not work as a vicious circle so as to discourage teachers from tackling pronunciation teaching. Surveys show that the teaching institutes do recognise the importance of pronunciation teaching when assessing the examinations, and also that learners are eager to acquire 'as native-like pronunciation as possible'. It is true that teachers cannot spare too much time and attention for pronunciation during class activities. But when pronunciation does get some attention, can teachers manage it effectively and without unnecessary waste of time? Even if there are relatively few occasions when the focus is exclusively on pronunciation teaching, there is still a considerable body of relevant knowledge and skill required of teachers. However, from the responses to the questionnaire, it does not look as if most teachers meet this requirement

It is probably more difficult to train all teachers to teach pronunciation effectively than it is to train them to teach other items such as grammar. Some people are not good at distinguishing sounds, and some teachers are never certain about even their own prommciatiort However, something has to be done to improve this situation. At the very least, teachers and learners need to be made aware of the importance of pronunciation teaching, rather than leaving it as a vague problem.

Most of the teachers agreed with the conventional view that pronunciation teaching should be done in the early stage of learning. If this were done, students would develop the ability to self-monitor their 206 pronunciation, and they will improve their pronunciation as their general standard advances. On the other hand, if pronunciation teaching is not done in the early stages, learners will develop a strong ‘foreign accent’ and it will be very difficult to correct it since the accent will be 'fossilised'.

In fact, training students to be able to self-monitor their own pronunciation would be pedagogically effective. Placing all the responsibility of monitoring all the students’ pronunciation errors on one teacher is too much and unrealistic. Students should be trained to be aware of their own pronunciation and be able to monitor each other’s errors.

Developing good teaching materials is also important If both the teachers and students become more aware of pronunciation teaching/learning, it will become possible for them to participate in developing their own original pronunciation teaching materials - something that was indicated in certain questionnaire responses from Japan,

7.2 LI interference from the Enghsh stress accent system to the Japanese pitch accent system LI interference is the key factor in foreign accent However, the way it appears in the learner’s IL is hard to predict Especially when the learner is at an advanced level, the IL will have developed a wide range of idiosyncrasy. The result of my experiment (error analysis 1) confirmed that, and showed that each learner had his/her favoured pattern. When the learner’s level is at the very beginning, that is, when they have not had any significant exposure to the TL (i.e. Japanese), LI interference was observed straightforwardly. 207

type syllable s/w Prediction result the structure number of cases 1 ta. ta w. w 'ta. ta 'ta. ta 32

ta. 'ta 0

2 ta. tan w. w 'ta. tan 'ta. tan 22

ta 'tan 10

3 ta. tah w. s 'ta. tah 'ta tah 32

ta 'tah 0

4 tan. ta s. w 'tan. ta 'tan. ta 32

tan. 'ta 0

5 ta. ta. ta w. w. w 'ta. ta. ta 'ta. ta. ta 9

ta. 'ta. ta 22

ta ta 'ta 1

6 ta. tan. ta w. s. w ta. 'tan. ta 'ta tan. ta 5 ta. 'tan. ta 26 ta tan. 'ta 1

7 tan. ta. ta s. w. w 'tan. ta. ta 'tan. ta. ta 7 tan. 'ta. ta 24 tan. ta 'ta 1

8 ta. ta. tan w. w. w 'ta. ta. tan 'ta ta. tan 26 ta. 'ta. tan 4

ta ta 'tan 2

9 tah. ta. ta s. w. w 'tah. ta. ta 'tah. ta. ta 7

tah. 'ta. ta 25

tah. ta 'ta 0

10 ta. tah. ta w. s. w ta. 'tah. ta 'ta tah. ta 7 ta 'tah. ta 25

ta tah. 'ta 0

Table 7.1 Predictions and results when English stress accent is applied productively to words of Japanese type. (Results in accordance with prediction are underlined.) 208

Except for types 5, 7, and 9, the results were in accordance with prediction. These exceptions themselves also show clear agreement among the subjects, and would thus give rise to a consistent pattern of interference. Divergence from prediction may be due to syllabification different from that anticipated, ch a n ^ g the syllable weight in those words. (See chapter 5, section 5.3.) Thus, these two experiments on LI interference suggested that pronunciation teaching should be done at the earliest possible stage of the L2 learning. This also coincides with the result of the questionnaire survey.

7.3 Tendency of errors in different tasks The learner’s abihty to perceive, identify and mimic the model pitch accent was on the whole good. However, maintaining a pattern in memory after hearing a model pronunciation does not seem to be easy. When the task depends on longer term memory or on lexical knowledge of learners, test scores go down remarkably. This means that those tasks depending on perceptual or imitative skills should be intensively used in the early stage of pronunciation practice. On the other hand, those tasks depending on the learner’s long-term memory or on lexical knowledge should not be used until later stages when learners have already had plenty of model input. Otherwise, there is a risk of enhancing the fossilisation of individual error patterns or LI interference.

Pitch accent marking seems useful to some extent, but only when it is used as an additional visual aid for learners when they read from text, or to support their lack of lexical knowledge. However, to make learners to draw it on a text does not seem to be useful, since it is difficult even for native speakers to draw the marking accurately.

Score Figure 7.1 Scores In six types of task 20

15

10 018

5

0 same or different mark by knowledge listen and repeat read by knowledge listen and mark read from marks

Task

The learners seem to be good at acquiring the overall shape of pitch accent patterns rather than the exact place of the word where pitch falls/rises. Also, from the fact that the learners hardly ever make error pitch patterns that are not in principle acceptable pitch patterns of Tokyo dialect, it appears that 209 learners acquire firstly a general concept of the sound of Japanese pitch accent (i.e. acceptable pitch patterns), and learn the overall pitch shapes of individual vocabulary items. The precise locations of pitch rises and falls need to be consciously learned after that. If that is the case, pitch accent teaching should also be designed systematically following this learning order.

The result of the experiments indicated that learners are better at perceiving the place where the pitch rises than where the pitch falls. On the other hand, the learners seem to be less sensitive to pitch change at the beginning of the word than towards the end of the word. This may mean that it is more difficult for learners to perceive correctly when a pitch fall starts in the earlier part of the word (e.g. 1^ or mora of 5 mora word), than when the pitch falls towards the end of the word (e.g. 4* mora of 5 mora word). In other words, pitch pattern such as LHLLL tends to be more difficult for the learners than the pattern such as LHHHL, even though they both have the same overall pitch shape.

As the word gets longer, it is in general more difficult for the learners to perceive or produce the correct pitch accent However, when their production is dependent on their own lexical knowledge, rather than imitation of a model pronunciation, this tendency related to the word length is not observed.

As is well known, English stress accent has strong connection with the rhythm of the language. The stressed syllable tends to be longer and stronger, whereas unstressed syllables tend to be shorter and weaker. In Japanese, pitch accent does not determine the rhythm of the language in the same way as English stress accent does. However, for Enghsh learners, words that include the problematic elements such as /N/, /Q/, and /R/ (where unit 'mora' does not correspond to the unit 'syllable') were expected to be associated with pitch accent errors. However, the results unexpectedly showed that the syllable structure does not affect the output error pitch patterns. At the very least this indicates that more research in this area is required, and calls into question the assumption that mastery of the syllable structure and rhythm of Japanese are prerequisites to accurate pitch accent performance.

7.4 Further studies It seems that it is essential to start teaching pronunciation / pitch accent to learners at the very begiiming stage. In the later stages, they will develop more idiosyncrasy in their TL, and fossilisation will take place. The individual characteristics of pitch accent pattern which the learners will develop need to be examined more in detail. If they still convey an English foreign accent, these idiosyncrasies could be from LI interference. As Major (1987) suggests, errors from LI interference may be decreasing as the learner’s stage advances; but the fact remains that advanced learners often have a strong 'foreign accent* which is specifically identifiable as 'English accent'. Trench accent' etc. Also, if the learner’s IL is a mixture of interference and developmental errors, we need to clarify how many errors are not due to interference, and whether that remainder can really be all explained as 'developmental'. More studies are certainly needed in this area. 210

Another thing to aim at is to minimise the fossilisation of favoured pitch patterns. Learners are good at perceiving différences among various pitch patterns and mimicking them. When it comes to the task of memorising and maintaining long-term memory of the pitch accent they have practised, their abihty goes down drastically. One suggestion is that this is where the visual aids might help. Pitch accent marking is of limited usefulness, but can support maintaining lexical knowledge.

Another point that needs to be further investigated is the intelUgibility and acceptability of learners’ speech to native listeners. We have found out that overall pitch shape is easier for learners to perceive correctly, than the precise place where the pitch falls/rises. What aspects of pitch accent should be taught in which order needs to be further clarified. In order to do so, not only the degree of difficulty for the learners should be examined, but also what aspects are more important to native speakers. For example, we need to find out if a correct overall pitch pattern is more important than the precise place where the pitch falls, in making speech seem more 'native-like'. 211

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Toki, S. (1993). Nihongo no onseil^ooiku. Nihongo onsei - monbushoo iuuten rvooiki kenkvuu - D1 han.48-50. Toki, S. (1995). Nihongo no rhythm ni kakawaru kisoteki koosatsu to sono ooyoo.(A fundamental study about the rhythm of Japanese and its application.) Handai nihongo kenkvuu 7:83-94. Toki, S. (1997). Teacher training and phonetics. Journal of Phonetic Societv of Japan. 1(1), 6-11 Toki, S. and Murata, M (1994). Gaikokuiin no tame no Nihongo reibun mondai series 12. Hatsuon Chookai.tPronunciation and listening comprehension). Japan: Aratake Shuppan. Tsujimura, N. (1996). An introduction to Japanese Linguistics. Massachusetts, USA and Oxford, UK: Blackwell publisher ltd. Tsukishima,H. (1964). Kokugogaku. Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Tsukuba Language Group. (1991). Situational functional Japanese.volume Lnotes. Japan: Bonjinsha Co.,Ltd. Tukey, J. W. (1977). Exploratory data analvsis. Massachusetts, London: Addison-Wesley publishing company. Uehara, T. and Kiyose, G. N. (1974). Fundamentals of Japanese. Canada: Fitshenry and Whiteside Ltd. Umegaki, M.(1963). Nihon gairaigo no kenkvuu. Tokyo: Kenkyuusha Umegaki,M. (ed.). (1966). Gairaigo iiten. Tokyo: Tokyodoo Uwano, Z. (1977). Nihongo no akusento. In Ono and Shibata (eds ), Iwanami koza Nihongo 5: On-in (Phonologv). Tokyo: Iwanami 1977. 281-321. Valdman, A. (1976). Introduction to French Phonology and Morphology. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Van der Hulst, H. and Smith, N. (1988). The variety of pitch accent systems: Introduction. In H. van der Hulst and N. Smith (eds ). Autosegmental studies on pitch accent 1988, Dordrecht - Holland: Foris publications, ppix - xxiv Van der Hulst, H. and Smith, N. (eds ). (1988). Autosegmental studies on pitch accent. Dordrecht: Foris Vance, T. J. (1987). An Introduction to Japanese Phonology. Albany: State University of New York Press. Vance, T.J. (1979) Nonsense-word experiments in phonology and their application to rendaku in Japanese. University of Chicago doctoral dissertation. Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analvsis hypothesis. TESOL (Quarterly 4: 123-130 Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. New York: Publication number 1 of linguistic circle of New York. Weizman, R. (1969). Word accent in Japanese. Univ. of Southern California doctoral dissertation. Werker, J. F. and Logan, J. S. (1985). Cross-language evidence for three factors in speech perception. Perception and Psvchophvsics. 1985, 37 (1). 35-44 Werker, J. F. and Tees, R. C. (1984). Phonemic and phonetic factors in adult cross-language speech perception: Journal of Acoustical Societv of America. 75 (6). June 1984. 1866- 1878. Whitman, R. (1970). Contrastive Analysis: problems and procedures. Language learning. 20: 191-97 Wright, M. (1988). A level-based model for pitch accent languages. In Van der Hulst, H and N. Smith (eds.) Autosegmental studies on pitch accent 1988. Holland: Foris publications. 295 -316 Yoshida, Y. et al. (1995). Japanese for todav. Japan: Gakken. Yotsukura, S. (1967). The Japanese tone and intonation systems. Linguistics 35.66-105 217a

A ppendix 1 :

Phonemic inventory of Japanese

For the transcriptions of Japanese words throughout this thesis, I have mainly used Hepburn romanization, except for when quoting examples from other sources, where I have not standardized transcription systems. Hepburn romanization, which is to be read in accordance with English spelling- to-sound correspondences, is said to be easier for the learners to follow. Many textbooks of Japanese and Japanese-English dictionaries use the Hepburn romanization or a modified version of it, as in 'An Introduction to Modem Japanese' (=IMJ) (Mizutani, 1997: vii):

'Of the several systems for romanizing Jq>anese, the kunreishiki system ("Official System") can be considered the most systematic, but the Hepburn system is easier to use for the native speaker of English Wio is learning Japanese; it is easier to switch from the sound system of English to that of Japanese with this system. In addition most Japanese-English dictionaries use the Hepburn system.'

Following is the romanization of 'Hiragana' syllabary used in this thesis. a 1 u e 0 ka ki ku ke ko ga gi gu ge go sa shi su se so za ji zu ze zo ta chi tsu te to da ji zu de do na ni nu ne no ha hi fix he ho ba hi bu be bo ma mi mu me mo pa pi pu pe po ya yu yo ra ri ru re ro wa 0 n kya kyu kyo sha shu sho ja cha chu cho nya nyu nyo hya hyu hyo bya

mya myu myo pya rya ryu ryo

gya gyu gyo 218

NB. Where the long vowels / a sequence of the same vowels occurred, I have transcribed those as *aa', 'oo', 'ee', W , and 'ii' and so on. The sequence 'ei' as in 'eiga' (=cinema), 'eigo' (=English language) is often pronounced as 'ee' in casual or &st speech. However, 'ei' is chosen for the transcription, since 'ee' tends to sound too informal or childish to the native speakers. Certain proper names have been treated dififently. The vowels in Tdcyo' are both the long vowels and strictly the word should be transcribed as Tookyoo' according to the ^stem described above. However, since the romanization Tokyo' is established, it is transcribed as Tokyo'. Also, authors’ names such as 'Ito', 'Sugito' etc. are spelled with single 'o's, since these spellings are widely accepted or used by the authors themselves. To do otherwise would hinder retrieval of bibliographical information from databases, etc. Appendix 2:

Questionnaire (in Japanese) U u U u o >T.& ft # R¥ ^ ^ ID i 1 1 ha or X X ë «A n f> tfr (V l h" I în LA la LA La lÊI ^ “H \ M # # 3 ?* oo r r r r hr(x - - a p '»» 0 r ' )i$ ^ A & A m -S" m ï ai>*> s ' 4 4 S as- T" ►- c 5 fi n ^ r\ -,n # a O ^ r\ or ' g 3 4^ M ' *9' 3 r ft soj. Si-\ 3ù< n ^ < d TüriV W «>4 ^ r \ s a ' 3 ^ S - 7 - 4 5 V or 3 U f ( a X # # r r 'S I fit rt S Hi>^ Or h1 r\ n ^ 1 m rt % or 4 H> i V' # -r U r %) ^ cl >Sf UJ 5 r\ o s 0 V>Sf s s fflg r\ 0 sr r m V -r[ rr ç>^ fA 5 (X r\ Ht- w- # HV OV Çffl 4 : 4 85 fi s s ! # r\ Ù4 flk ri n 3 3 # Ul '4 5 -H N bf 3 Î5* " fiiç n I4 '4 4 î t M- Ô4 S V q: fi 4" Ù4 44 'si' EU rt 3 I rt V X -9- V Df-r 4- d n i 3 (Vg' fp c s § 221

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r ÿi/^i tfc. Appendix 3:

Questionnaire (in English) 2 28 18th Jan. 2000 KaoruUmezawa Email: [email protected] Survey on the Teachins of Japanese Pronunciation

I am conducting research on the teaching of pronunciation in Japanese language teaching institutions. I would be grateful if you could answer the following questions concerning pronunciation teaching and give your own opinions about this. T would like to ensure that information provided here will be used only for research. In the following questions, please answer specifically about ’pitch accent' where the word 'pitch accent' are used. If the words 'pronunciation teaching' are used, please answer in terms of all aspects of pronunciation, such as vowel; consonant; prominence, intonation etc, but also including pitch accent. Name: Name of the institutions(university etc,): Contact(address, email etc.):

About the general view of pronunciation/pitch accent teaching in the Japanese language teaching institute where you teach

Q1 Please attach a separate sheet with the timetable of the courses you offer for the beginners' level. Please circle all which include pronunciation practice.

Q2 How much time in the classes circled above is devoted to pronunciation teaching? Please indicate on the scale where applicable for each course above. 1= very little, 2= up to 5%, 3= up tolO%, 4= up to 15%, 5= 20% or more name of the course ( )

0 5 10 15 20 : (%) name of the course ( )

1______1______1______1______1 0 5 10 15 20 : (%) name of the course ( ) 1______1______1______I______1 0 5 10 15 :20 (%) name of the course ( ) 1...... 1-...... 1______1...... 1 0 5 10 15 20 (%) 2 2 9 18th Jan. 2000 Kaoru Umezawa Email: [email protected] Survey on the Teachins of Japanese Pronunciation

03 Among the whole pronunciation teaching above, how much (%) time is spent for pitch accent teaching? Please indicate it on the scale where applicable. Consider the pronunciation component of each course as 100%. name of the course ( )

0 5 10 15 20 (%) name of the course ( ) 1______1______1______1______1 0 5 10 15 20 (%) name of the course ( ) 1----______1 1______---- 1 1______1______1 0 5 10 15 20 (%) name of the course ( )

0 5 10 15 20 (%)

About pronunciation/pitch accent teaching in the class a c tiv itie s Q4 In which stage do you introduce the pitch accent system? (e.g. the first class of the beginners course)

How much time is spent on it? In which way do you introduce pitch accent? Please explain with some examples.

0 3 Do you present the pitch accent of a word every time new vocabulary is introduced? Please circle one.

1 every time 2 mostly 3 sometimes 4 rarely 5 not at all 230 18th Jan. 2000 Kaoru Umezawa Email: [email protected] Survey on the Teachins of lavanese Pronunciation

Q6 Once the general topic of overall pitch accent is introduced, how often do you teach/give instruction in pitch accent to the students? Please circle the one applicable and give examples & comments. (Please give details if what you do varies with the levels of students & the type of class.) 1 Frequently ( ) 2. Occasionally ( ) 3. Rarely ( )

Q7 In the class activity of 'listening comprehension', do you do practice which draws the students’ attention to sound contrasts? (e.g. obasan vs. obaasan = the vowel length contrast, kite vs. kitte = the geminate, hashi' vs. ha'shi = pitch accent contrast) yes/no

0 3 Do you also use the above method for pitch accent practice? Please circle where applicable on the scale. 1 Never use it 2 Occasionally use as a part of pitch accent practice 3 Regularly use as a part of pitch accent practice 4 Sound contrast is the main method of pitch accent practice

0 9 What other methods of pitch accent practice do you use apart from sound contrast? Please give some examples and explain.

0 1 0 Which teaching material do you use for pronunciation teaching? Please list them all, and indicate the title, publisher of the textbook etc. 1 textbook ( ) 2 cassette tape ( ) 3 video tape ( ) 4 others (please list them all) ( ( ( 231 18th Jan. 2000 Kaoru Umezawa Email: [email protected] Survey on the Teachins of Japanese Pronunciation

Q 1 1 In the materials listed above, is there sufficient pitch accent practice?. 1 hardly any at all 2 more or less 3 perfectly adequate

Q 12 Do you think the present teaching materials are sufficient and effective enough in order to achieve your goals of pitch accent teaching? Yes / No Q 13 If you answered No to the above question, what do you think is needed? How could it be improved? Please indicate your opinion.

0,14 Among each task below, how much emphasis is put on the pronunciation? (please answer in % ) How much proportion of the pronunciation indicated above is dedicated for pitch accent? (consider the whole pronunciation as 100%)

pronunciation pitch accent 1 conversation %% 2 role play %% 3 listening comprehension %% 4 others (please list up all) % % %% %% %%

About the individual teacher's opinion

0,15 In the institute where you are teaching, do you think that pronunciation teaching is systematically and carefully conducted? Or do you think it tends to be put aside compared to other subjects such as grammar? 1 It tends to be put aside. 2 There is an effort to teach it well, but because of the situation, teachers etc., there are some problems. 3 It is very carefully and systematically taught. 232 18th Jan. 2000 Kaoru Umezawa tmail: kaoru( 2>phonetics.ucl.ac.uk Survey on the Teachins of Javanese Pronunciation

0 1 6 If you answered 1 or 2 from the above question, what do you think are the reasons? Choose aU the answers you think are appropriate. 1 There is no time for pronunciation teaching 2 There is a problem in its teaching method 3 Lack of the teachers’ ability to teach pronunciation 4 Compared to the other items such as grammar, pronunciation teaching is naturally difficult. 5 Lack of the students’ abilities to correct pitch accent or acquire the pitch accent system. 6 Students may improve temporarily but the improvement doesn’t last long. 7 (If your institute is outside of Japan) There is little opportunity to listen to native speakers in daily life. 8 Others (please specify) ( )

QJl 7 Are you personally confident in the pitch accent correction/instruction? 1 Not confident at all 2 Managing, but less good at than other items such as grammar, conversation etc.. 3 Able to teach equally to the other items such as grammar, conversation etc.. 4 More confident than some other aspects such as grammar, conversation etc.. 5 Very confident/Never have anv difficulty

1...... 1...... 1...... 1...... 1 1 2 3 4 5

QJL 8 Do you think students show improvement during pitch accent teaching? 1 Almost nothing. 2 Only a few students improve. 3 Some students shows improvement, but others don’t. 4 Although there are some differences among the students’ abilities, on the whole, there is some improvement. 5 Almost all the students show improvement. 18th Jan. 2000 Kaoru Umezawa Email: [email protected] 233 Survey on the Teachins of Japanese Pronunciation

Q 19 In the course of the pitch accent teaching, what kind of main obstacles/problems do you notice? Please explain. 1 Teachers' side

2 Students’ side

3 Others (methodology, time restriction etc.. please specify)

Q 20 Please give any other suggestions concerning this matter. (Use the space on the back page if necessary)

Q 2 1 Please enclose your institute's prospectus. Japanese language course syllabuses, and the timetable. If there is any inquiry concerning the questionnaire above, please contact; Kaoru Umezawa ILSC 30 Thanet street, London WCIH 9QJ1, UK Tel.020 7388-4840/4821 Fax. 020 7383-5915 email, [email protected] Thank you very much for your cooperation. Appendix 4:

Test words (Chapter 4) 235

Chapter 4 / test words / in the order read by subjects

1) koogi, 2) fiikeiki, 3) chuugaku, 4) matsu, 5) ki, 6) kikan, 7) hayaru, 8) hairu,

9)kasa, 10)ko, ll)uma, 12) daiku, 13)te, 14)juubun, 15)fuhei, 16)imooto,

17) hanashi, 18) suki, 19) akachan, 20) tooru, 21) kotoshi, 22) au, 23) monooki,

24) itsutsu, 25) arau, 26) iku, 27) yomu, 28) kaze, 29) genkin, 30) juusho,

31) tsukaeru, 32) tomodachi, 33) yononaka, 34) boonasu, 35) yobu, 36) otooto,

37) ani, 38) aida, 39) tekisuto, 40) tokidoki, 41) mago, 42) geshuku, 43) yakeru,

44) naru, 45) to, 46) kaesu, 47) ane, 48) eki, 49) shinamono, 50) hoshigaru,

51) kokuban, 52) haeru, 53) doitsu, 54) uchi, 55) me, 56) sato, 57) anohito,

58) naraberu, 59) sum, 60) supootsu, 61) kaminari, 62) kaem, 63) itoko,

64) ryoohoo, 65) wasurem, 66) shi, 67) fuku, 68) hito, 69) joozu, 70) ha,

71) shirabem, 72) ki, 73) oem, 74) atsumem, 75) sensei, 76) kawa, 77) minnna,

78) erabu, 79) chizu, 80) tanoshimu, 81) tataku, 82) asobu, 83) posuto,

84) hajimem 236

The test words / classified according to the pitch accent type and part of speech

Number Pitch accent Test words Part of of moras type speech 1 L(H) ki, te, me, ha noun H(L) ko, to, shi, ki noun 2 LH(H) uma, mago, kawa noun iku, yobu, sum, fiiku verb LH(L) kaze, ane, uchi, sato, hito noun suki adjective verb / na- adjective HL(L) kasa, ani, eki, chizu noun matsu, au, yomu, nam verb 3 LHH(H) fiihei, kotoshi, aida, geshuku noun LHH(L) hanashi, minna noun arau, yakeru, oeru, asobu verb joozu adjective verb / na- adjective HLL(L) koogi, kikan, daiku, juusho, doitsu, posuto noun hairu, tooru, kaesu, kaem verb LHL (L) itsutsu, itoko noun hayaru, tooru, kaesu, kaem verb 4 LHHH(H) tomodachi, shinamono, kokuban noun LHHH (L) imooto, otooto, tokidoki, lyoohoo noun tsukaeru, naraberu, wasurem, hajimem verb HLLL(L) chuugaku, akachan, boonasu, tekisuto noun LHLL(L) fukeiki, yononaka, anohito, supootsu noun LHHL (L) juubun, monooki, genkin, kaminari, sensei noun hoshigaru, shirabem, atsumem, tanoshimu verb

MB. I originally chose the words for combination into sentence materials. This is why different parts of speech are represented in this t^le. Appendix 5:

Test words (Chapter 5) 238

Chapter 5 / test words embedded into English sentences (c.f table 5.3)

Text A

1) What I bought them yesterday was Hana. 2) One of my favourite foods is Sakana. 3) The new material I used was Totan. 4) What I found in the box was Takara. 5) In the zoo, there were huge fish called Kochi. 6) The name of that Japanese restaurant is Jiman. 7) It was very hard to find the Sunakan. 8) In Afiica, there were a lot of fierce Dohbutsu. 9) The man who visited yesterday was Mr Sukoh. 10) The book I am reading at the moment is Amanza. 11) They import the rare material called Sehkuka. 12) The oldest of all my collection is Tekeh. 13) He visited the nearest and the quietest Kasohba. 14) What I cooked for dinner was Sanda. 15) The smallest village on the hill is Kadenki. 16) The famous park on the mountain is Renraku. 17) In the shop there was a new product called Anza. 18) She was eating the exotic food called Katapan. 19) That shopping area is called Sanchika. 20) The rich man opened the shop called Tokehga.

Text B

1) The man who visited yesterday was Mr Sukoh. 2) He visited the nearest and the quietest Kasohba. 3) They import the rare material called Sehkuka. 4) The smallest village on the hill is Kadenki. 5) She was eating the exotic food called Katapan. 6) What I found in the box was Takara. 7) The new material I used was Totan. 8) The famous park on the mountain is Renraku. 9) In the shop there was a new product called Anza. 10) The oldest o f all my collection is Tekeh. 11) What I bought them yesterday was Hana. 12) It was very hard to find the Sunakan. 13) In the zoo, there were huge fish called Kochi. 14) The book I am reading at the moment is Amanza. 15) In Afiica, there were a lot of fierce Dohbutsu. 16) One of my favourite foods is Sakana. 17) That shopping area is called Sanchika. 18) The name of that Japanese restaurant is Jiman. 19) What I cooked for dinner was Sanda. 20) The rich man opened the shop called Tokehga. Appendix 6;

Test words (Chapter 6 ) 240

Chapter 6 / test words

1) Discrimination test (Same or Different) Each mora consists of a segment ‘ta’.In the following table, pitch height (H=high, L=low) is indicated.

No Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 W edi4 1 HH/LH HL/HLHL/HL LH/LL 2 LHH/LLH LHL/HHL LHL/HHL HLL/HHL 3 HLL/HLLLLH/LHHLLH/LHH LHH/LHH 4 HLLL/HHLLHLLL/HHHLHLLL/HHHL HLLL/HHHL 5 LHHL/LHHL HHLL/HHLL HHLL/HHLL LHHL/LHHH 6 LHHH/LLHH LHHL/LHHH LHHL/LHHH LHHL/LHLL 7 LHHL/LHHH LHLL/HHLL LHLL/HHLL HLLL/HLLL 8 LHHHH/LLHHH LHHLL/LHHHL LHHLL/LHHHL LHLLL/LHHLL 9 LHHHL/LHHHH HHHLL/HHHLL HHHLL/HHHLL HHLLL/LHHLL 10 LHHHH/LHHHH HLLLL / HHLLL HLLLL/HHLLL LHHHL/LHHHL 11 LHHLL / LHHHL HHHLL/HHHHL HHHLL/HHHHL LLHHL / LHHHL 12 HLLLL / HHLLL HLLHL/HLHLL HLLHL/HLHLL LLHHL/LHHLL 13 LHLLL/HHLLL LLHHH / LLHHH LLHHH/LLHHH HHLLL/HHHLL 14 HHLLL/HHLLL LHHHH/LLHHH LHHHH/LLHHH HHHLL/HHHHL 15 LLHHH/LHHHH LHLHL / LHHHL LHLHL/LHHHL HHHLL/HHHLL

No Weeks Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 1 LH/LH LH/LH IffiL/LH LH/LH 2 HLL/LHHHLL/LHHLLH/LHHLHH/LHL 3 LHH/LLH LHH/LLHLHH/HLL HLL/HHL 4 HLLL/HLLL HLLL/HLLL HHLL / HLLL LHLL/LHHL 5 HHLL / LHLL HHLL/LHLL HLLL/HLLL LHLL/HHLL 6 LLHH/LHHH LLHH/LHHH HHLL/LHLL HLLL / HLLL 7 HHLL/HLLL HHLL/HLLL LLHH/LHHH HHLL/HHLL 8 HLHLL / HHHLL HLHLL/HHHLL LLHLL/LLHHL LHHLL / LLHLL 9 LHHHL/LHHHL LHHHL/LHHHL HHLLL/HHHLL LHHHL/LHHHL 10 LLHHL/LLHHL LLHHL/LLHHL HLLLL/HHLLL LHLLL / LHHLL 11 HLLLL/HHLLL HLLLL / HHLLL LHHHL/LHHHL HLLLL/HHLLL 12 HHLLL/HHHLL HHLLL/HHHLL LHLLL/LHLLL LLHHH/LHHHH 13 LHLLL/HHLLL LHLLL/HHLLL HLHLL / HHHLL LHHLL/LHHHL 14 LHLLL / LHLLL LHLLL/LHLLL LLHHL/LLHHL HHHLL/HHLLL 15 LLHLL/LLHHL LLHLL / LLHHL LHLLL/HHLLL LLHHH/LLLHH

No Week 9 Week 10 Week 11 1 HL/HH LH/HHHL/HL 2 HLL/HHL HLL/HHL LHH/LHH 3 LHH/LHH LHH/LHLHLL/LHL 4 LHLL/LHHLLHLL/LHHL LHLL/LHLL 5 HLLL/HHLL LHHH/LHHH HHLL/HLLL 6 HHHL/HHLL HLLL/LHHH LHHL/LLHL 7 LLHH/LHHH LLHL/LHHL LHLL/LHHL 8 LHHHH/LHHHL LHHLL/LHHHL LHHLL / LHLLL 9 LHHHL/LHHHL LHHHH/LHHHL LHHLL/LHHLL 10 LLHHH/LLHHH LHLLL/LHHLL LHLLL/LHHHL 11 LHHHH/HLLLL LHHLL/LHLLL LHLLL/HHLLL 12 HHLLL / LLHHH LHHLL/LHHLL LHHHL/LLHHL 13 LHLLL / LLHLL HLLLL / LHLLL HLLLL/LHLLL 14 LLLHL / LLLHH LHHHL/LHHHL LHLLL/LHLLL 15 LHHLL / LHHLL LHHHL/LHHLL LHLLL/LHHLL 241

2) A set of 5 tasks a) Read by knowledge

No Week 7 Weeks Week 9 Week 10 1 IKU HARU NATSU AKI 2 AKERU JUGYOO ONAKA KO DO MO 3 GOGATSU ATAMA HI TORI HANA SU 4 KONBANSANGATSUKOOEN SENSEI 5 GAKUSEI JUUGATSU SANMAI TOMODACHI 6 ICfflBAN KO KO NO KA SANKAI TA BA KO YA 7 Koomi ICHINEN SHI CHIMIN NANNIN 8 SA RAI NE N HARUYASUMI OKAASAN ICHIJIKAN 9 HAIKINGU KONBANWA ASA GO HAN NISHUUKAN 10 GETSUYOOBI ICHIBANME AKAPAJAMAATATAKAI 11 0Nil SAN KINYOOBI GETSUYOOBI GOJUPPON 12 NATSUYASUMI CHUUGOKUGO ISOGASmi KAINIIKU 13 MUZUKASHIIOMOSHIROIJUUBANME KATTEKURU 14 FURANSUGO TSUMARANAI KISSATEN KATTEIKU 15 SOOJISURU M EZURASm i SOOJISURU TOTTEKURU No Week 11 1 FUYU 2 GOGATSU 3 ASOBU 4 Sffl N BU N 5 NANGATSU 6 suzusmi 7 HA cm MA I 8 NA N YO O BI 9 NANBANME 10 JUTKAGETSU 11 MUZUKASHII 12 NI JI GO FUN 13 SUIYOOBI 14 O NI I SA N 15 TSUMARANAI 242 b) Marii by knowledge

No Week 7 Weeks Week 9 Week 10 1 IKU HARU NATSU AKI 2 AKERU JUGYOO ONAKA KO DO MO 3 GO GA TSU ATAMA mTORI HANA SU 4 KONBAN SA N GA TSU KOOEN SENSEI 5 GAKUSEI JUUGATSU SANMAI TO MO DA cm 6 I cm BA N KO KO NO KA SANKAI TABAKOYA 7 KOOffll ICmNEN sm cm NI N NANNIN 8 SA RA I NE N HARUYASUMI OKAASAN ICmjIKAN 9 HAIKINGU KONBANWA ASA GO HAN NISHUUKAN 10 GETSUYOOBI I cmBANME AKAPAJAMA ATATAKAI 11 0 NI I SA N KINYOOBI GETSUYOOBI GOJUPPON 12 NATSUYASUMI CHUUGOKUGO I SO GA sm I KAINIIKU 13 MUZUKASffll OMOSmROI JUUBANME KATTEKURU 14 FURANSUGO TSUMARANAI KISSATEN KATTEIKU 15 SOOJISURU ME ZU RA Sm I SOOJISURU TOTTEKURU No Week 11 1 FUYU 2 GO GA TSU 3 A SO BU 4 SfflNBUN 5 NANGATSU 6 s u z u s m i 7 HA cm MA I 8 NA N YO 0 BI 9 NANBANME 10 JUTKAGE TSÜ 11 MUZUKASmi 12 NI JI GO FUN 13 SUIYOOBI 14 ONIISAN 15 TSUMARANAI 243 c) listen & mark

No Week 3 Week 4 Weeks Week 6 1 HITO IKU UE UE 2 IMASUU DO KO DO KO 3 MINNA' UTAU EIGO EIGO 4 MEGA NE TA BE RU GO HAN GO HAN 5 KIPPU ARAU KIPPU KIPPU 6 SU MOO HANA SU OKA SHI OKA SHI 7 A SA ME SHI AFURIKA DO YO 0 BI DO YO 0 BI 8 ASATTE NA GA RE RU PAATII PAATII 9 AMAGASA O SHI E RU AFURIKA AFURIKA 10 MEIWAKU AKACHAN KONSHUU KONSHUU 11 SOODAN CHUUGAKU MAIASA MAIASA 12 RAINEN OKURERUAMERIKA AMERIKA 13 OTOOTO TANOSHIMU BANGOO BANGOO 14 YONONAKA WASURERU JUUGA TSU JUUGATSU 15 GAIKO KU GO I RA S SHA RU KINYOOBI KINYOOBI 16 KISSATEN ARUBAITO GAIKO KU GO GAIKO KU GO 17 EIGAKAN RE SU TO RAN OBAASAN OBAASAN 18 OKAASAN MACHIGAERUFUYUYASUMI FUYUYASUMI 19 YAMANOBORI KINYOOBI SARAISHUU SARAISHUU 20 SARAISHUU DENWASURU ATARASmi ATARASHII 21 DO CHI RA SA MA SHI HA I MI N HI RU GO HAN HI RU GO HAN 22 BIYOOIN HAIKINGUKIREINAME KIREINAME 23 NI WAKAAME KURASHIKKU ONEESAN ONEESAN 24 SENMONKASOOJISURU RO SHI A JI N ROSHIAJIN 25 OTOOSAN OBENTOOOBENTOO OBENTOO 26 HIKOOJOO KOOKANSHU CHO KO RE E TO CHOKOREETO 27 UNTENSHU BAIORIN RE SU TO RAN RE SU TO RAN 28 YOPPARAI SHINBUNSm OTOKONOKO OTOKONOKO 29 MI HO N JI N ANATAGATA I SO GA SHI I ISO G A Sm i 30 JITENSHAYAKURISUMASU SU PE IN GO SUPEINGO 244

No Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 1 IKU HARU NATSU AKI 2 AKERU JUGYOO ONAKA KO DO MO 3 GOGATSU ATAMA mTORI HANA SU 4 KONBAN SANGATSU KOOEN SENSEI 5 GAKUSEI JUUGATSU SANMAI TO MO DA cm 6 ICHIBAN KO KO NO KA SANKAI TABAKOYA 7 KOOmi ICfflNEN sm cm N iN NANNIN 8 SA RA I NE N HARUYASUMI OKAASAN ICmjIKAN 9 HAIKINGU KONBANWA ASA GO HAN NISHUUKAN 10 GETSUYOOBI ICffl BANME AKAPAJAMA ATATAKAI 11 ONIISAN KINYOOBI GETSUYOOBI GOJUPPON 12 NATSUYASUMI CHUUGOKUGO ISO GA sm i KAINIIKU 13 MUZUKASHII OMOSfflROI JUUBANME KATTEKURU 14 FURANSUGO TSUMARANAI KISSATEN KATTEIKU 15 SOOJISURU MEZURASffll SOOJISURU TOTTEKURU No Week 11 1 FUYU 2 GOGATSU 3 ASOBU 4 SHINBUN 5 NANGATSU 6 s u z u s m i 7 HA cm MA I 8 NANYOO BI 9 NANBANME 10 JUTKAGETSU 11 MUZUKASmi 12 NI JI GO FUN 13 SUIYOOBI 14 0 Nil SAN 15 TSU MA RA NA I 245 d) Listen & repeat

No Week 3 Week 4 Weeks Week 6 1 HITO IKU UE UE 2 IMASUU DO KO DO KO 3 MI N NA • UTAU EIGOEIGO 4 MEGA NE TABERU GO HAN GO HAN 5 KIPPU ARAUKIPPU KIPPU 6 SU MOO HANA SU OKA SHI OKA Sffl 7 A SA ME SHI AFURIKADOYOOBI DOYOOBI 8 ASATTENAGARERU PAATII PAATII 9 AMAGASA O Sffl E RU AFURIKAAFURIKA 10 MEIWAKU AKACHAN KONSHUU KONSHUU 11 SOODAN CHUUGAKUMAIASA MAIASA 12 RAINEN OKURERU AMERIKA AMERIKA 13 OTOOTOTANOSHIMU BANGOOBANGOO 14 YONONAKAWASURERUJUUGATSUJUUGATSU 15 GAIKO KU GO IRASSHARU KINYOOBI KINYOOBI 16 KISSATEN ARUBAITO GAIKO KU GO GAIKO KU GO 17 EIGAKAN RE SU TO RAN OBAASAN 0 BA A SA N 18 OKAASAN MA CHI G A E RU FUYUYASUMI FUYUYASUMI 19 YA MA NO BO RI KINYOOBI SARAISHUU SARAISHUU 20 SARAISHUU DENWASURU ATARASHII A TA RA Sffl I 21 DO c m RASA MA SHIHAININ HI RU GO HAN HI RU GO HAN 22 BIYOOIN HAIKINGU KIREINAME KIREINAME 23 NI WAKAAME KURASHIKKU O NE E SA N 0 NE E SA N 24 SENMONKA SO O JI SU RU RO Sffl A JI N RO Sffl A JI N 25 OTOOSAN OBENTOO OBENTOOOBENTOO 26 m KO 0 JO O KOOKANSHU CHOKOREETOCHOKOREETO 27 UNTEN SHU BA IO RIN RE SU TO RAN RE SU TO RA N 28 YO P PA RA I SfflNBUN Sffl OTOKONOKO OTOKONOKO 29 NI HO N JI N ANATAGATA I SO GA Sffl I I SO GA Sffl I 30 JITENSHAYA KURISUMASU SUPEINGOSUPEINGO 246

No Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Week 10 1 IKU HARU NATSU AKI 2 AKERU JUGYOO ONAKA KO DO MO 3 GOGATSU ATAMA mTORI HANA SU 4 KONBAN SANGATSU KOOEN SENSEI 5 GAKUSEI JUUGATSU SANMAI TO MO DA cm 6 ICHIBAN KO KO NO KA SANKAI TABAKOYA 7 KOOmi ICmNEN sm cm N iN NANNIN 8 SA RA I NE N HARUYASUMI OKAASAN ICmjIKAN 9 HAIKINGU KONBANWA A SA GO HAN NISHUUKAN 10 GETSUYOOBI icm BANME AKAPAJAMA ATATAKAI 11 ONIISAN KINYOOBI GETSUYOOBI GOJUPPON 12 NATSUYASUMI CHUUGOKUGO ISOGASmi KAINIIKU 13 MUZUKASHII OMOSmROI JUUBANME KATTEKURU 14 FURANSUGO TSUMARANAI KISSATEN KATTEIKU 15 SOOJISURU MEZURASmi SOOJISURU TOTTEKURU No Week 11 1 FUYU 2 GO GA TSU 3 A SO BU 4 SHINBUN 5 NANGATSU 6 su z u s m i 7 HA cm MA I 8 NA N YO O BI 9 NANBANME 10 JUTKAGETSU 11 MUZUKASmi 12 NI JI GO FUN 13 SU I YO O BI 14 0 NI I SA N 15 TSUMARANAI 247 e) Read from m aiiu

No Week? Weeks Week 9 Week 10 1 IKU HARU NATSU AKI 2 AKERU JUGYOO ONAKA KO DO MO 3 GOGATSU ATAMA mTORI HANA SU 4 KONBAN SANGATSU KOOENSENSEI 5 GAKUSEI JUUGATSU SANMAI TO MO DA cm 6 I CHI BA N KO KO NO KA SANKAI TABAKOYA 7 K O Om i ICmNEN sm cm NI N NANNIN 8 SA RAINEN HARUYASUMI OKAASAN ICmJIKAN 9 HAIKINGU KONBANWA ASA GO HAN NISHUUKAN 10 GETSUYOOBI I cm BA N ME AKAPAJAMA ATATAKAI 11 0 NI I SA N KINYOOBI GE TSU YO 0 BI GOJUPPON 12 NATSUYASUMI CHUUGOKUGO I SO GA sm I KAINIIKU 13 MUZUKASHII OMOSmROI JUUBANME KATTEKURU 14 FURANSUGO TSUMARANAI KISSATEN KA T TE I KU 15 SOOJISURU MEZURASmi SOOJISURU TO T TE KU RU No Week 11 1 FUYU 2 GO GA TSU 3 A SO BU 4 SHINBUN 5 NANGATSU 6 s u z u s m i 7 HA cm MA I 8 NANYOO BI 9 NANBANME 10 JUTKAGE TSU 11 MUZUKASmi 12 NI JI GO FUN 13 SU I YO O BI 14 O NI I SA N 15 TSUMARANAI 248

A ppendix?:

B oxplot

A boxplot (or box-and-whisker plot) is a way of displaying a set of data points so as to show not only their central tendency, but also the range and distribution. It consists of 'a long, thinnish box that stretches &om hinge to hinge', and is crossed with a bar at the median. A 'whisker* stretches from each end of the box to the corresponding extreme. 'Median' is 'the single middle value / the mean of the two middle values', and can be found by counting half-way from one extreme to the other. A liinge' (more commonly called a 'quaitile') is the value found by counting half-way from each extreme to the median. An 'outlier* is a value that is more than 1.5 box length from the upper or lower edge of the box. The box represents the interquartile range which contains the 50% of values. Thus, the median is at the 50* percentile, the lower hinge (or quartile) is at 25* percentile, and the upper hinge (or quartile) is at 75* percentile counting from the bottom value. (Tukey, 1977: 29-43, and Help topics in SPSS for windows release 10.0.5')

75* percentile

whiskers hinges /quartiles

50 percentile median

25 percentile

outliers Appendix 8:

The number of errors according to the number o f mora 250

2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora SI 2 4 9 10 S2 4 4 17 18 S3 2 5 12 17 S4 0 3 7 12 S5 3 5 12 14 S6 1 6 16 16 S7 1 1 2 4 S8 1 4 16 23 S9 3 6 12 19 SIO 2 4 10 17 S ll 1 4 9 11 S12 1 4 8 16 S13 2 6 15 27 S14 3 5 9 17 S15 2 4 11 22 S16 2 1 5 10 S17 1 5 7 20 S18 2 4 11 15 S19 1 5 8 19 $20 1 3 11 24 S21 3 7 17 27 S22 1 4 9 20 S23 3 6 16 32 S24 3 2 12 12 S25 2 5 11 12 S26 4 6 16 26 S27 0 5 10 23 S28 3 6 13 19 S29 1 4 9 14 S30 1 4 9 16 S31 1 3 11 10 trials per subject 5 10 20 40

Table A.8.1. The number of errors according to the number of mora. Task a (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.2) S=subject. The nunAer of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject ♦ 100 % ) was calcùlated for the bo?q)lot. 251

2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora SI 2 3 12 17 S2 4 10 17 30 S3 2 6 12 18 S4 2 5 11 22 S5 3 8 18 38 S6 2 6 15 22 S7 1 1 4 5 S8 3 10 19 39 S9 3 5 14 25 SIO 2 5 17 32 Sll 2 4 16 30 S12 4 8 13 30 S13 2 5 15 27 S14 3 6 11 17 S15 1 4 16 32 S16 1 2 8 16 S17 2 5 11 24 S18 1 2 6 10 S19 1 5 12 22 S20 0 4 14 29 S21 2 9 17 38 S22 1 5 12 24 S23 3 5 17 34 S24 3 3 13 13 S25 3 8 14 31 S26 4 5 17 31 S27 0 5 12 24 S28 3 7 16 30 S29 0 2 10 18 S30 3 2 14 23 S31 1 4 13 24 trials per subject 5 10 20 40

Table A.8.2.The number of errors according to the number of mora. Task b (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.3) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxpIoL 252

2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora SI 1 7 17 44 S2 0 4 14 39 S3 0 0 2 6 84 3 8 19 47 85 0 9 30 66 86 0 1 8 28 87 0 6 13 20 88 3 10 30 56 89 1 2 6 32 810 2 7 26 64 811 0 3 19 43 812 0 5 18 53 813 2 13 32 75 814 0 2 12 40 815 0 9 14 32 816 3 10 24 45 817 3 11 33 71 818 3 6 17 34 819 1 9 19 41 820 1 7 22 47 821 1 4 16 50 822 2 16 38 84 823 1 9 21 49 824 0 2 10 22 825 3 11 41 75 826 3 5 21 44 827 2 11 28 62 828 1 2 14 44 829 2 7 17 42 830 0 9 25 43 831 1 10 33 85 trials per subject 13 26 52 104

Table A.8.3. The number of errors according to the number of mora. Task c (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.4) S=subject. The nunÂer of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxploL 253

2 mora 3 m<»a 4 mora 5 mora SI 0 0 0 1 S2 0 0 1 0 S3 0 0 0 1 S4 0 0 1 3 S3 0 0 0 4 S6 0 0 0 1 S7 0 0 0 7 S8 0 0 1 1 S9 -- - - SIO 0 0 0 3 S ll 0 0 1 0 S12 0 0 0 6 S13 0 0 2 8 S14 ---- S15 0 0 0 2 S16 - - -- S17 -. -- S18 0 0 0 3 S19 0 0 1 0 S20 0 0 0 1 S21 0 0 0 1 S22 0 0 0 2 S23 -- - - S24 --- - S25 ---- S26 ---- S27 0 1 4 5 S28 0 0 0 2 S29 0 0 0 4 S30 0 0 1 4 S31 0 0 0 1 trials per subject 11 22 44 88

Table A.8.4. The raimber of errors according to the number of mora. Task d (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.5) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. 254

2 mora 3 mora 4 mora 5 mora SI 0 1 0 1 S2 0 0 5 2 S3 0 1 0 4 S4 0 1 4 6 S3 0 1 5 11 S6 0 0 1 0 S7 ---- S8 2 2 8 11 S9 0 0 0 1 SIO 0 3 4 8 S ll 0 0 1 1 S12 0 0 0 3 S13 0 3 7 15 S14 0 0 1 1 S15 0 2 4 12 S16 0 0 5 10 S17 0 5 8 15 S18 2 4 7 20 S19 1 3 9 13 S20 0 2 6 15 S21 0 1 5 11 S22 1 1 7 14 S23 0 0 0 0 S24 0 1 3 2 S25 1 4 10 7 S26 0 0 5 10 S27 0 5 7 18 S28 0 0 4 1 S29 1 4 4 4 S30 0 0 3 7 S31 0 2 5 4 trials per siAject 5 10 20 40

Table A.8.5. The number of errors according to the number of mora. Task e (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.6) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. Appendix 9:

The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern 256

HL... LH... -2 -3 -4 SI 9 6 4 6 0 S2 6 20 5 10 2 S3 8 11 5 11 1 S4 3 7 4 7 1 S5 9 9 6 9 1 S6 10 12 7 9 1 S7 2 5 0 1 0 S8 5 19 8 10 2 S9 8 17 8 7 0 SIO 9 10 7 6 1 Sll 6 7 4 8 0 S12 7 7 4 10 0 S13 12 17 7 13 1 S14 9 12 6 6 2 S15 7 17 6 8 1 S16 2 9 5 0 2 S17 0 15 6 10 2 S18 6 10 6 9 1 S19 7 14 4 7 1 S20 8 8 7 15 1 S21 10 25 10 9 0 S22 2 13 8 8 3 S23 7 21 11 15 3 S24 7 13 4 5 0 S25 6 8 7 9 0 S26 9 22 4 15 2 S27 2 16 7 10 3 S28 10 13 5 10 3 S29 5 9 4 10 0 S30 5 13 6 4 2 S31 8 8 4 5 0 trials per 13 27 12 18 5 subject

Table A.9.1. The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern. Task a (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.7) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. 257

HL... LH... -2 -3 -4 SI 8 11 6 8 1 S2 12 25 7 13 4 S3 10 14 6 6 2 S4 7 15 5 11 2 S5 13 21 11 17 5 S6 11 15 7 9 3 S7 3 4 0 4 0 S8 12 26 12 16 5 S9 9 18 8 11 1 SIO 11 18 8 15 4 S ll 12 15 7 15 3 S12 13 15 10 12 5 S13 9 18 8 10 4 S14 8 16 6 3 4 S15 8 18 8 16 3 S16 4 11 5 5 2 S17 6 16 8 9 3 S18 4 5 5 5 0 S19 8 15 6 8 3 S20 9 13 9 12 4 S21 12 23 8 18 5 S22 4 18 8 9 3 S23 8 19 10 18 4 S24 8 11 5 6 2 S25 11 21 11 9 4 S26 11 20 7 16 3 S27 4 16 8 10 3 S28 11 21 6 14 4 S29 5 11 5 7 2 S30 6 20 6 7 3 S31 7 10 7 15 3 trials per 13 27 12 18 5 subject

Table A.9.2. The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern. Task b (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.8) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. 258

HL... LH... -2 -3 -4 SI 17 21 7 19 5 82 11 18 5 19 4 S3 5 3 0 0 0 S4 14 25 8 22 8 S3 18 40 7 30 10 S6 7 8 4 12 6 S7 7 16 5 10 1 S8 15 40 18 20 6 S9 10 7 2 16 6 SIO 17 46 8 21 7 Sll 16 21 4 18 6 S12 12 17 13 26 8 S13 21 41 19 29 11 S14 11 16 4 14 9 S15 7 16 8 21 3 S16 15 34 10 17 6 S17 9 49 20 31 9 S18 14 20 10 15 1 S19 13 23 10 17 7 S20 12 30 14 14 7 S21 16 20 8 17 10 S22 16 59 19 36 10 S23 16 24 8 26 6 S24 6 17 3 4 4 S25 18 53 21 31 7 S26 14 21 10 21 7 S27 13 39 12 29 10 S28 14 15 4 18 10 S29 11 25 11 16 5 S30 14 29 8 18 8 S31 18 48 14 39 10 trials per 33 78 27 46 11 subject

Table A.9.3. The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern. Task c (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.9) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. 259

HL... LH... -2 -3 -4 SI 0 0 1 0 0 S2 1 0 0 0 0 S3 0 0 0 1 0 S4 0 0 1 3 0 S3 0 0 1 3 0 S6 0 0 1 0 0 S7 0 0 1 5 1 S8 0 2 0 0 0 S9 - -- -- SIO 0 3 0 0 0 S ll 1 0 0 0 0 S12 0 1 1 4 0 S13 1 2 1 6 0 S14 ----- S15 0 1 1 0 0 S16 ---- - S17 ----- S18 0 0 0 3 0 S19 0 1 0 0 0 S20 0 1 0 0 0 S21 0 1 0 0 0 S22 0 0 0 2 0 S23 - ---- S24 - -- -- S25 -- - -- S26 -. -- - S27 0 4 2 4 0 S28 1 1 0 0 0 S29 0 3 0 1 0 S30 1 1 1 2 0 S31 0 1 0 0 0 trials per 27 67 23 39 9 subject

Table A.9.4. The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern. Task d (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.10) S=subject The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. 260

HL... LH... -2 -3 -4 SI 2 0 0 0 0 S2 1 4 0 2 0 S3 0 0 1 4 0 S4 1 3 3 4 0 S5 2 6 4 4 1 S6 0 1 0 0 0 S7 ---- - S8 7 7 4 5 0 S9 0 0 1 0 0 SIO 4 3 4 3 1 S ll 0 0 0 2 0 S12 0 0 1 2 0 S13 2 11 6 5 1 S14 0 1 1 0 0 S15 1 9 1 5 3 S16 0 9 5 1 0 S17 1 13 5 6 3 S18 4 14 6 9 0 S19 3 15 2 4 2 S20 3 0 9 10 1 S21 2 8 4 3 0 S22 2 9 4 5 3 S23 1 1 1 0 0 S24 0 0 1 2 0 S25 9 4 2 6 1 S26 2 6 0 5 2 S27 2 16 4 5 3 S28 1 2 1 1 0 S29 3 6 2 2 0 S30 0 5 2 3 0 S31 6 4 1 0 0 trials per 13 27 12 18 5 subject

Table A.9.5. The number of errors according to the target pitch pattern. Task e (Raw figures corresponding to Fig.6.11) S=subject. The number of trials differs across subjects. A percentage (number of errors / number of trials per subject * 100 % ) was calculated for the boxplot. Appendix 10:

Correlation o f target vs. error pitch patterns 262

HH 0 0 * ** HL 17 21 *** LH 34 44 * ** LL 0 1 * ** Total no. 51 66 ♦ **

Table A. 10.1 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task a. 2 mora words. The numbers indicated in Italic-bold are correct answers. Columns in grey = target pitch patterns, *=N. A

w HHH 2 1 0 * * HHL 8 4 4 ** HLH 0 1 1 ** HLL 29 20 9 ** LHH 22 57 19 * * LHL 7 32 13 ** LLH 2 2 2 ♦ * LLL 0 1 0 ♦ * Total no. 70 118 48 **

Table A. 10.2 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task a. 3 mora words.

-,LKr;' HHHH 6 3 2 1 ♦ HHHL 4 8 1 2 * HHLH 0 0 0 0 * HHLL 10 24 10 7 * HLHH I 2 0 1 * HLHL 1 0 0 2 * HLLH 0 0 0 0 * HLLL 33 0 9 20 * LHHH 32 104 11 24 * LHHL 11 21 12 11 * LHLH 0 0 0 0 * LHLL 4 12 3 26 * LLHH 8 13 15 2 * LLHL 9 10 0 0 * LLLH 0 1 0 0 * LLLL 0 0 0 0 * Total no. 119 198 63 96 *

Table A 10.3 Correlation of target vs. errw pitch patterns. Task a. 4 mora words. 263

HHHHH 1 6 1 3 1 HHHHL 4 10 3 6 2 HHHLH 0 0 0 0 0 HHHLL 4 7 11 16 1 HHLHH 0 0 0 0 0 HHLHL 0 0 0 0 0 HHLLH 0 1 0 0 0 HHLLL 1 12 1 8 2 HLHHH 0 2 0 2 0 HLHHL 1 0 0 0 0 HLHLH 0 0 0 0 0 HLHLL 0 0 0 2 0 HLLHH 0 0 0 0 0 HLLHL 0 2 0 1 1 HLLLH 0 10 0 1 0 HLLLL 23 41 5 21 8 LHHHH 3 83 24 37 10 LHHHL 3 20 72 25 4 LHHLH 0 3 0 2 0 LHHLL 11 19 24 160 7 LHLHH 0 0 2 1 0 LHLHL 0 0 0 1 0 LHLLH 0 0 0 0 0 LHLLL 2 23 5 16 50 LLHHH 4 11 1 12 0 LLHHL 2 4 3 4 0 LLHLH 0 0 0 0 0 LLHLL 2 7 6 16 0 LLLHH 0 1 0 4 0 LLLHL 0 1 4 8 0 LLLLH 0 1 1 4 0 LLLLL 0 0 1 0 0 Total no. 61 264 164 350 86

Table A10.4 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task a. 5 mora words. 264

HH 0 0 * * * HL 18 24 *** LH 39 45 *** LL 0 1 *** Total no. 57 70 * * *

Table A10.5 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task b. 2 mora words. The numbers indicated in Italic-bold are correct answers. Columns in grey = target pitch patterns, *=N. A.

w HHH 1 0 I ** HHL 5 9 4 ** HLH 1 1 2 * * HLL 30 12 13 ♦ ♦ LHH 20 51 17 * * LHL 15 48 13 ** LLH 3 5 1 ** LLL 0 0 0 ** Total no. 75 126 51 **

Table A10.6 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task b. 3 mora words.

'H t::'] M'' HHHH 0 1 1 0 * HHHL 5 8 3 7 * HHLH 0 4 0 0 * HHLL 20 24 14 28 * HLHH 1 5 0 1 * HLHL 0 2 0 0 * HLLH 0 1 0 0 * HLLL 15 22 2 4 * LHHH 21 36 13 11 ♦ LHHL 23 38 21 22 * LHLH 1 1 1 0 * LHLL 3 12 1 21 * LLHH 25 25 15 3 * LLHL 10 25 1 3 * LLLH 2 4 1 0 * LLLL 0 0 0 0 * Total no. 126 208 73 100 *

Table A10.7 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task b. 4 mora words. 265

HHHHH 0 0 0 0 0 HHHHL 5 7 1 6 2 HHHLH 1 2 0 0 0 HHHLL 9 26 8 23 9 HHLHH 0 3 0 1 0 HHLHL 1 3 0 0 0 HHLLH 0 4 1 3 0 HHLLL 11 25 5 21 2 HLHHH 0 0 1 2 0 HLHHL 0 0 1 2 0 HLHLH 0 0 1 0 0 HLHLL 0 1 1 1 0 HLLHH 0 1 3 2 1 HLLHL 1 1 0 0 0 HLLLH 0 5 0 1 0 HLLLL 3 1 4 7 3 LHHHH 5 66 23 21 11 LHHHL 1 35 61 59 11 LHHLH 0 2 2 3 0 LHHLL 13 45 25 117 43 LHLHH 0 0 0 2 0 LHLHL 0 0 0 0 0 LHLLH 0 1 0 3 0 LHLLL 2 5 5 6 2 LLHHH 3 19 13 16 2 LLHHL 4 16 1 43 2 LLHLH 0 3 1 0 0 LLHLL 4 9 4 21 4 LLLHH 1 4 14 7 3 LLLHL 0 2 7 4 0 LLLLH 0 2 1 0 0 LLLLL 0 1 0 0 0 Total no. 70 289 183 371 95

Table AiO.SCorrelation of target vs. error jHtch patterns. Task b. 5 mora words. 266

HH 3 1 * ** HL 127 23 *** LH 9 173 *** LL 0 3 * ** Total no. 139 200 ***

Table A 10.9 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task c. 2 mora words. The numbers indicated in Italic-bold are correct answers. Columns in grey = target pitch patterns, *=N. A.

HHH 0 0 0 ** HHL 20 38 10 ** HLH 2 3 5 ** HLL 121 11 4 * * LHH 6 225 20 ** LHL 7 29 116 * * LLH 0 57 2 * * LLL 0 2 0 * * Total no. 156 365 157 * *

Table AID. 10 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task c. 3 mora words.

HHHH 1 5 0 1 * HHHL 17 6 8 5 * HHLH 0 9 0 0 * HHLL 121 21 18 12 * HLHH 4 8 2 0 * HLHL 5 6 4 2 * HLLH 2 3 1 2 * HLLL 128 7 2 1 * LHHH 3 400 11 11 * LHHL 10 69 90 59 ♦ LHLH 0 7 2 1 * LHLL 7 27 15 101 * LLHH 7 51 13 5 * LLHL 6 21 7 5 * LLLH 2 17 1 1 * LLLL 1 4 1 1 * Total no. 314 661 175 207 *

Table AlO. 11 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task c. 4 mora words. 267

0 # HHHHH 0 13 0 1 0 HHHHL 11 19 8 29 3 HHHLH 4 5 1 4 0 HHHLL 54 27 21 54 7 HHLHH 2 4 3 2 0 HHLHL 1 4 0 1 0 HHLLH 1 4 1 4 0 HHLLL 57 19 2 34 3 HLHHH 2 2 1 2 0 HLHHL 2 4 0 6 0 HLHLH 1 2 1 4 0 HLHLL 0 2 1 3 0 HLLHH 3 6 4 0 7 HLLHL 1 0 0 1 1 HLLLH 0 0 1 2 1 HLLLL 82 5 1 5 7 LHHHH 0 406 30 20 8 LHHHL 5 86 202 143 14 LHHLH 0 6 1 2 0 LHHLL 11 74 37 463 141 LHLHH 0 6 2 2 2 LHLHL 1 2 3 4 0 LHLLH 2 4 0 3 0 LHLLL 5 9 5 16 78 LLHHH 1 43 12 34 5 LLHHL 4 19 13 81 1 LLHLH 1 7 2 4 0 LLHLL 1 8 9 47 3 LLLHH 1 16 5 7 1 LLLHL 2 3 3 2 1 LLLLH 0 13 1 2 0 LLLLL 1 0 0 1 1 Total no. 256 818 370 983 284

Table AlO. 12 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task c. 5 mora words. 268

HH 0 0 *** HL 110 0 ** ♦ LH 0 • 154 *** LL 0 0 * ♦ * Total no. 110 154 ***

Table AlO. 13 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task d 2 mora words. The numbers indicated in Italic-bold are correct answers. Columns in grey = target pitch patterns, *=N. A.

HHH 0 1 0 ** HHL 0 0 0 * * HLH 0 0 0 * * HLL 116 0 0 ** LHH 0 289 0 ** LHL 0 0 124 ** LLH 0 0 0 ** LLL 0 0 0 ** Total no. 116 290 124 **

Table A10.14 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task d 3 mora words.

HHHH 0 1 0 0 * HHHL 0 0 0 0 * HHLH 0 0 0 0 * HHLL 3 0 0 2 * HLHH 0 0 0 0 * HLHL 0 0 0 0 * HLLH 0 0 0 0 * HLLL 230 0 2 1 * LHHH 0 SOS 0 0 * LHHL 0 2 123 0 * LHLH 0 0 0 0 * LHLL 0 1 0 158 * LLHH 0 0 0 0 * LLHL 0 0 0 0 * LLLH 0 0 0 0 * LLLL 0 0 0 0 * Total no. 233 512 125 161 *

Table AlO. 15 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Tadc d 4 mora words. 269

HHHHH 0 3 0 0 0 HHHHL 0 0 0 0 0 HHHLH 0 0 0 0 0 HHHLL 0 0 0 1 0 HHLHH 0 0 0 0 0 HHLHL 0 0 0 0 0 HHLLH 0 0 0 0 0 HHLLL 1 0 0 0 0 HLHHH 0 0 0 0 0 HLHHL 0 0 0 0 0 HLHLH 0 0 0 0 0 HLHLL 0 0 0 0 0 HLLHH 0 0 0 0 0 HLLHL 0 0 0 0 0 HLLLH 0 0 0 0 0 HLLLL 176 1 0 2 0 LHHHH 1 620 2 3 1 LHHHL 0 0 270 8 0 LHHLH 0 0 0 0 0 LHHLL 0 1 0 6S2 0 LHLHH 0 0 0 0 0 LHLHL 0 0 0 0 0 LHLLH 0 0 0 0 0 LHLLL 0 4 0 14 206 LLHHH 0 8 0 1 0 LLHHL 0 0 0 1 0 LLHLH 0 0 0 0 0 LLHLL 0 0 7 1 0 LLLHH 0 0 0 0 0 LLLHL 0 0 0 0 0 LLLLH 0 0 0 0 0 LLLLL 0 0 0 0 0 Total no. 178 637 279 713 207

Table AlO. 16 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task d. 5 mora words. 270

HH 0 0 * ** HL 45 1 * * * LH 6 64 ** * LL 0 0 * 4> * Total no. 51 65 * **

Table AlO. 17 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task e. 2 mora words. The numbers indicated in Italic-bold are correct answers. Columns in grey = target pitch patterns, *=N. A.

HHH 3 0 0 * * HHL 1 2 1 * * HLH 0 0 0 ** HLL 53 2 0 ** LHH 2 98 9 ** LHL 5 12 40 * * LLH 0 2 1 * * LLL 1 0 0 ** Total no. 65 116 51 **

Table AlO. 18 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task e. 3 mora words.

m l HHHH 0 0 0 0 * HHHL 0 1 0 0 * HHLH 0 0 0 0 * HHLL 1 3 1 2 * HLHH 0 0 0 0 * HLHL 1 0 0 0 * HLLH 0 0 0 0 * HLLL 95 9 1 5 * LHHH 11 127 7 11 * LHHL 5 25 47 3 * LHLH 0 1 0 0 * LHLL 3 14 5 70 * LLHH 0 9 1 0 * LLHL 0 4 2 0 * LLLH 0 0 0 0 * LLLL 0 0 0 0 * Total no. 116 193 64 91 *

Table AlO. 19 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task e. 4 mora words. 271

w # HHHHH 1 5 0 0 0 HHHHL 1 3 1 1 1 HHHLH 0 0 0 0 0 HHHLL 3 • 1 2 13 1 HHLHH 0 0 0 0 0 HHLHL 0 0 0 0 0 HHLLH 0 0 0 0 0 HHLLL 0 1 0 2 0 HLHHH 0 1 0 1 0 HLHHL 0 0 0 0 0 HLHLH 0 0 0 0 0 HLHLL 1 0 0 0 0 HLLHH 0 0 0 0 0 HLLHL 0 0 1 0 0 HLLLH 0 0 0 0 0 HLLLL 47 4 0 4 5 LHHHH 3 m 12 16 6 LHHHL 0 11 m 25 3 LHHLH 0 0 0 0 0 LHHLL 5 24 23 270 4 LHLHH 0 0 0 0 0 LHLHL 0 0 0 0 0 LHLLH 0 0 0 0 0 LHLLL 0 10 0 9 69 LLHHH 0 5 1 2 0 LLHHL 0 3 2 2 0 LLHLH 0 0 0 0 0 LLHLL 0 2 1 1 0 LLLHH 0 0 0 0 0 LLLHL 1 2 1 0 1 LLLLH 0 0 0 0 0 LLLLL 0 0 0 0 0 Total no. 62 259 165 346 90

Table A10.20 Correlation of target vs. error pitch patterns. Task e. 5 mora words. Appendix 11 :

Errors sorted by syllable structures (task a) 273

Task a. Read by knowledge: errors sorted by syllable structures

2 mora

cv.cv. 38 v.cv. 19 HL 18 LH 16 LH 18 HL 3 LL 1

3 mora

cv.cv.cv. 69 cv.cv. V. 19 v.cv.cv. 47 LHH 30 LHH 11 LHL 22 LHL 16 HHL 5 HLL 18 HLL 11 HHH 2 HHL 4 HHL 6 LHL 1 LLH 2 LLH 4 HLH 1 HHH 1 HLH 1

4 mora

cv./N/.cv./N/. 53 cv./N/.cv.cv. 31 cv./N/.cv.V. 56 cv.cv.cv./N/. 21 LHHH 15 LHHH 12 LLHH 11 LHHH 6 HLLL 11 HHLL 5 HLLL 9 HLLL 5 LHHL 7 LLHH 4 j LHHH 9 HHLL 4 HHLL 6 LLHL 4 LHHL 7 LHHL 4 HHHH 4 HHHH 2 HHLL 6 HHHL 1 LLHL 3 HHHL 2 LLHL 5 HLHH 1 LHLL 2 LHHL 1 HHHL 4 LLLH 1 LHLL 1 HHHH 2 LLHH 1 HLHH 2 HLL (/gohan/) 1 LHLL 1 HLHL 1 HHL (/gohan/) 1 cv.cv.cv.cv. 54 cv.cv.cv. V. 29 cv. V.cv.cv. 22 cv.V.cv.V. 22 LHHL 16 LHHH 9 HHLL 7 LLHH 10 LHLL 11 HLLL 6 HLLL 7 LHHH 4 HHLL 7 HHLL 3 LLHH 5 HHLL 3 HHHL 5 LHLL 3 HHHL 1 HLLL 3 LLHL 5 LHHL 2 LHLL 1 HHHH 1 HLLL 4 HHHL 1 LLHL 1 LLHH 3 HLHL 1 HLHH 1 HLLL 1 LLLH 1 LLHL 1 LLLL 1 cv.V.v./N/. 14 V.CV.CV./N/. 38 HHLL 6 HLLL 15 HLLL 3 LHHH 11 HHHH 2 LHHL 5 LLHH 2 HHLL 3 LHHL 1 LLHH 2 HHHH 1 HHHL 1 274

5 mora cv./N/.cv./N/.cv. 30 CV./N/.CV.V.CV. 23 CV./Q/.CV.CV./NA 20 CV./Q/.CV.CV.CV. 43 HHHHH 5 LLHLL 7 HLLLL 6 HLLLL 11 HLLLH 4 HLLLL 3 HHHLL 3 LHHLL 9 HLLLL 3 HHHLL 2 LHHHH 3 LHHHH 6 LHHHL 3 LLHHH 2 LHHHL 3 HHHHL 4 LLHHH 3 LLLLH 2 LLHHH 2 LLHLL 4 LLHHL 3 HHHHH 1 LHHLH 1 LHHHL 2 HHHLL 2 HHHHL 1 LLHHL 1 LLHHL 2 LHHLH 2 HHLLL 1 LLLHL 1 HHHLL 2 LHHLL 2 HLLLH 1 HHHHH 1 HHHHL 1 LHHHH 1 LLHHH 1 HHLLH 1 LHHHL 1 LLLHL 1 LLLLH 1 LHHLH 1

CV./Q/.CV.V.CV. 15 cv.cvTN/.cv.cv. 15 CV.CV./Q/.CV./N/. 12 cv.cv.cv.cv./N/. 17 LHHHL 4 LHLLL 7 LHHHL 3 LHHLL 5 HLLLL 2 LHHLL 3 HHHHL 2 HHHLL 4 LHHLL 2 LHHHL 2 HLLLL 2 HHHHL 2 LLHLL 2 HHHHL 1 HHHHH 1 LHLLL 2 HHHHL 1 HHHLL 1 HHHLL 1 HHLLL 1 HHHLL 1 HLLLL 1 HHLLL 1 HLHHL 1 HLLHL 1 LHLLL 1 LHHHH 1 HLLLL 1 LLLHH 1 LHHLL 1 LHHHL 1 LLLHL 1

cv.cv.cv.cv.cv. 22 cv.cv.cv.cv.V. 72 cv.cv.cv.V.cv. 24 CV.CV.V.CV./N/. 27 LHHHH 5 LHHHH 21 LHLLL 4 HLLLL 7 HHHLL 3 LHHHL 10 LLHHH 4 LHLLL 6 LLHLL 3 HHHLL 8 HHHLL 3 LHHLL 4 HHLLL 2 LHHLL 7 HLLLL 2 LHHHH 3 LHLLL 2 HHHHL 5 LHHHH 2 LHHHL 3 LLLHH 2 LHLLL 4 LHHHL 2 HHHLL 1 HLHHH 1 LLLHL 4 LLHLL 2 HHLLL 1 HLHLL 1 LLHLL 3 HHLLL 1 HLHHH 1 HLLLL 1 LLHHL 2 HLHHH 1 HLLHL 1 LHHHL 1 HHLLL 1 HLHHL 1 LLLHL 1 HLLHL 1 LLHHL 1 LHLHH 1 LLLLH 1 LHLHL 1 LLHHH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLLH 1 LLLLL 1 275

CV.V.CV./N/.CV. 25 cv.V.cv.cv.cv. 57 cv.V.cv.V.cv. 22 V.CV.CV./N/.CV. 24 HLLLL 4 HLLLL 24 LHHHL 5 LHLLL 8 LHHLL 4 LLHHH 8 HHLLL 4 HHLLL 3 LLHHH 4 HHLLL 6 LHHLL 4 HLLLH 3 HHHHL 3 LHHHL 5 LHHHH 3 HLLLL 3 HHHHH 2 LHHLL 3 HHHHL 2 HHHHL 2 HHLLL 2 LLHLL 3 HLLLL 2 LHHLL 2 LHHHH 2 HLLLH 2 HLLHL 1 LLHLL 2 HHHLL 1 LHLLL 2 LLHHH 1 HLHHH 1 HLLLH 1 HHHHL 1 LLHLL 1 HHHLL 1 LHHLH 1 LLHHL 1 v.cv.cv.cv./NA 30 v.cv.cv.cv.cv. 19 v.cv.cv.cv.V. 36 v.cv.V.cv./NA 10 LHHHH 8 LHLLL 7 LHHLL 13 LHHHH 6 HHHLL 5 LHHHH 5 LHHHH 8 LHHLL 3 LHHHL 5 HHHHH 1 LLLHL 4 LHHHL 1 HLLLL 3 HHLLL 1 LHLLL 3 LLHLL 2 HLLLL I LLHHL 2 HHLLL 1 LHHHL 1 LLHLL 2 HLHLL 1 LHLHH 1 HHHHH 1 LHLLL 1 LLHHH 1 HHHLL 1 LLHHH 1 LHLHH 1 LLHHL 1 LLLLH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHL 1 Appendix 12:

Errors sorted by syllable structures (task b) 277

Task b. Maik by knowledge: errors sorted by syllable structures

2 mora cv.cv. 36 v.cv. 28 LH 18 LH 21 HL 17 HL 7 LL 1

3 mora cv.cv.cv. 80 cv.cv. V. 22 v.cv.cv. 56 LHH 27 LHH 10 LHL 35 LHL 23 LHL 5 HLL 9 HLL 16 HHL 4 HHL 8 LLH 6 HHH 1 LLH 3 HHL 5 HLH 1 HLH 1 HLH 2 LLH 1 HHH 1 LHLL 1 278

4 mora cv./N/.cv./N/. 64 CV./N/.CV.CV. 43 cv./N/.cv.V. 58 cv.cv.cv./NA 17 LHHL 15 HHLL 10 LLHH 16 HHLL 6 HHLL 11 LLHH 8 HHLL 11 LHHL 5 LHHH 11 LHHH 7 LHHL 10 HHHL 2 LLHH 9 LHHL 7 LHHH 9 LHHH 2 HLLL 8 LLHL 6 LLHL 4 HLHH 1 LLHL 4 HHHL 2 HHHL 3 HLLL 1 HHHL 2 LLLH 2 HLLL 2 HHHH 1 HLLH 1 HLHH 1 HLHH 1 LHLH 1 LHLH 1 LHLL 1 LHLL 1 cv.cv.cv.cv. 71 cv.cv.cv. V. 48 cv. V.cv.cv. 23 cv.V.cv.V. 25 LHHL 19 LHHH 9 LLHL 5 HHLL 17 LLHL 14 LLHH 9 HHLL 4 LLHH 11 HHLL 7 LHHL 7 LHHL 4 LHHH 2 LHLL 7 HHLL 6 HLLL 3 HHHH 1 HHHL 4 HLLL 6 LHLL 3 HLLL 1 HHLH 4 HHHL 4 LLHH 3 LLLH 1 LLHH 4 HLHH 3 HHHL 1 LLLH 4 LHLL 2 HLLL 3 LLHL 2 HLHH 2 HLHL 1 HLLH 1 LHLH 1 cv.V.v./N/. 19 v.cv.cv./N/. 48 HHLL 6 HHLL 18 LHHL 4 LHHL 12 LLHH 4 LHHH 5 HHHL 1 HHHL 4 HLHL 1 HLLL 3 HLLL 1 LLHH 3 LHLL 1 LLHL 3 LLHL 1 279

5 mora cv./N/.cv./N/.cv 31 CV./N/.CV.V.CV. 36 CV./Q/.CV.CV./N/. 19 CV./Q/.CV.CV.CV. 63 HHLLL 4 LHHHL 12 HLLLL 5 LHHLL 17 LLHHH 4 LLHHL 9 HHHLL 4 HHHLL 10 LLHHL 4 LLHHH 4 LLHHL 3 HHLLL 8 HHHLL 3 HHLLH 2 LLHHH 2 LLHHH 5 HLLLH 3 HHLLL 2 LLHLL 2 LHHHH 4 LHHHL 3 HHHHL 1 HHLHH 1 LLHLL 4 LHHLL 2 HHHLL 1 LHHHL 1 HHHHL 3 LLLLH 2 HLHLL 1 LLLHH 1 HLLHH 2 HHHHL 1 HLLLH 1 HLLLL 2 HHLLH 1 LHHHH 1 HHHLH 1 HLHLL 1 LHHLH 1 HHLHL 1 HLLHH 1 LLHLL 1 HLLHL 1 HLLLL 1 LHHHL 1 LHLLL 1 LLHHL 1 LLLHH 1 cv./Q/.cv.V.cv. 21 cv.cv./N/.cv.cv. 19 CV.CV./0/.CV./N/. 23 cv.cv.cv.cv./N/. 18 LHHHL 4 LHHLL 15 LHHLL 5 LHHLL 5 LHHLL 4 HHHHL 2 LHHHH 4 HHHLL 3 LHHLL 4 LHLLL 2 HHHLL 3 HHLLL 2 HHHLL 3 LHHHL 3 LHLLL 2 HHLLL 2 HHLLL 2 HHHHL 1 HHHLH 1 HHHHL 1 LHHHH 1 LLHHH 1 HLLLL 1 LHHHL 1 LLHHL 1 LLHHH 1 LLHHL 1 LLHLH 1 LLHHL 1 LLHLL 1 LLHLL 1 LLHLL 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHL 1 cv.cv.cv.cv.cv. 42 cv.cv.cv.cv.V. 105 cv.cv.cv.V.cv. 34 cv.cv. V.CV./N/. 43 LLHHL 8 LHHHH 18 LLHHL 13 LHHLL 17 LHHHL 7 LHHHL 18 LHHHL 9 HHHLL 14 LLHLL 5 LLHHH 14 LLHLL 5 LHHHL 5 HHLLL 3 HHHLL 9 HHLLL 2 LLHHH 3 LHHHH 3 LLLHH 9 HHHHL 1 LLHLL 3 HHHLL 2 HLLLL 6 HHHLL 1 HLLLL 2 HLHHH 2 LLHHL 5 HLHHL 1 LHHHH 2 LHLLH 2 LLHLL 5 LHLLH 1 HHHHL 1 LLHHH 2 LHHLL 4 LHLLL 1 HLLHH 1 LLLHH 2 LHLLL 4 LLHHL 1 HHHHL 1 LLLHL 4 LLLHH 1 HHLLH 1 HHHHL 3 HLLHH 1 HHLLH 1 HLLLL 1 HHLLL 1 LHHLH 1 HLHHH 1 LLLHL 1 HLLHH 1 LHHLH LHLHH 280 cv.V.cv./N/.cv. 37 cv.V.cv.cv.cv. 69 cv.V.cv.V.cv. 32 v.cv.cv VN/.cv. 27 HHLLL 11 HHLLL 12 LHHHL 8 LHHLL 6 LHHHL 8 HHHLL 11 LHHLL 4 LHHHL 5 LLHHL 6 LHHLL 11 LLHHL 4 HHHLL 3 HHHHL 4 LHHHL 6 HHLHH 3 LLHHL 3 HHHLL 2 LLHHH 6 HHLLL 3 HHHHL 2 LHHHH 2 LLHLL 5 LHHHH 2 HHLLH 2 LHHLL 2 LLHHL 4 HHHHL 1 LLHHH 2 HLLLH 1 HHLHL 3 HHHLL 1 HHLLL 1 LLHHH 1 HLLLL 2 LHLLH 1 LLHLH 1 LHHLH 2 LHLLL 1 LLHLL 1 HHHHL 1 LLHLH 1 LLLLL 1 HHHLH 1 LLHLL 1 HHLLH 1 LLLHH 1 HLLHL 1 HLLLH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHL 1

V.CV.CV.CV./N/. 39 v.cv.cv.cv.cv. 18 v.cv.cv.cv.V. 51 V.CV.V.CV./N/. 49 HHHLL 7 HHLLL 5 LHHLL 11 LHHLL 32 LHHHL 6 LHHHH 4 LHHHH 10 LHHHL 6 HHLLL 5 LLHHH 2 LLHHL 7 LHHHH 5 LHHHH 4 LLLHL 2 LLLHH 7 HHHLL 2 LLHHH 4 LHHHL 1 LLLHL 4 LLHHH 2 LLHHL 4 LHLLL 1 HHHLL 2 LLHLL 1 LLHLL 4 LLHHL 1 LHHLH 2 LLLHH 1 LHLLL 2 LLHLL 1 LHLLL 2 HLHHL 1 HLHHL 1 LHLHH 1 HLHLH 1 LLLHH 1 HLHLL 1 HLLHH LLHHH LLLLH Appendix 13:

Errors sorted by syllable structures (task c) 282

Task c. Listen & mark: errors sorted by syllable structure

2 mora cv.cv. 24 cv.v. 2 v.cv. 12 v.V. 1 HL 16 HL 1 HL 5 HL 1 LH 5 LL 1 LH 4 HH 3 LL 2 HH 1

3 mora cv./N/.cv. 17 CV./Q/.CV. 51 cv.cv./N/. 11 CV.CV.CV. 49 HHL 9 LLH 34 HHL 7 HHL 18 LLH 4 HHL 10 LHH 2 LHH 11 HLL 2 HLL 6 LHL 2 HLH 8 HLH 1 LLL 1 LHL 5 LHL 1 HLL 4 LLH 3

CV.CV. V. 11 V.CV.CV. 30 v.cv.V. 23 v.V.cv. 23 HHL 3 LHL 11 LHL 11 LLH 10 LHL 3 LHH 10 HHL 9 HHL 9 LHH 2 LLH 5 LHH 1 LHL 3 LLH 2 HHL 3 LLH 1 HLL 1 HLL 1 HLH 1 LLL 1

4 mora

CV./N/.CV./N/. 31 CV./N/.CV.CV. 18 CV./N/.CV. V. 77 cv.cv.cv./N/. 12 LHHL 11 HHLL 11 LLHH 21 LHHL 6 HHLL 10 HHHL 1 HHLL 14 HHLL 3 HLHL 4 HLHH 1 LHLL 11 LHHH 2 HHHL 2 HLLH 1 LHHH 6 LLHH 1 HLLH 1 LHHH 1 LLHL 5 HLLL 1 LLHH 1 HLLL 4 LLHL 1 LLHL 1 LHHL 3 LLLH 1 HHHL 2 HLHH 2 HLHL 2 HLLH 2 LHLH 2 HHLH 1 HLLH 1 LLLH 1 LLLL 1 283

cv.cv.cv.cv. 78 cv.cv.cv. V. 17 cv.cv. V.cv. 33 cv.V.cv./N/. 37 LHHL 17 LHHL 5 LHHL 23 LHLL 8 LLHH 10 LHLL 3 LHHH 4 HHLL 6 HHLL 9 LLHH 3 HHHL 2 LHHL 6 LLHL 9 HHLL 2 HLLH 1 HLHL 3 HHHL 8 HLHH 1 LLHH 1 LLHH 3 LHLL 6 HLHL 1 LLHL 1 LLHL 3 LLLH 5 LHHH 1 LLLH 1 LLLL 3 LHHH 4 LLHL 1 HLLL 2 HLHL 3 HHHH 1 LHLH 3 HHHL 1 HLLL 2 LHLH 1 HHLH 1 HLHH 1 cv. V.cv.cv. 120 cv.V.cv.V. 42 cv.V.v./N/. 6 V.CV./Q/.CV. 18 HHLL 61 HHLL 31 HHLL 3 LHHL 10 LLHH 13 LLHH 3 LHHL 2 HHHL 2 HHHL 9 HHHL 2 LLLL 1 LHHH 2 LLHL 9 HLHL 2 HHHH 1 LHLL 7 HHHH 1 HHLL 1 LHHL 6 LHHH 1 LHLH 1 HHLH 3 LHHL 1 LLHH 1 HLHH 3 HHHH 2 LHHH 2 LLLH 2 HLLL 1 LHHH 1 LLLL 1 v.cv.cv./N/. 44 v.cv.cv.cv. 87 v.cv. V.cv. 19 HHLL 15 LHHL 32 LHHL 3 LHHL 13 LLHH 15 HHLH 2 HHHL 5 LHLL 10 HHLL 2 LLHL 4 LLLH 8 LHLH 2 LHLL 2 HLHH 5 LHLL 2 HLHL 1 LLHL 4 LLHH 2 HLLH 1 HHHH 2 LLHL 2 LHHH 1 HHLH 2 LLLH 2 LLHH 1 HHLL 2 HLHH 1 LLLL 1 HLLH 2 HLLL 1 HHHL 1 HLHL 1 HLLL 1 LHHH 1 LHLH 1 284

5 mora cv./N/.cv./N/.cv 59 cv./N/.cv.cv.cv. 20 CV./N/.CV.V.CV. 81 CV./Q/.CV.CV./N/. 35 LHHHL 9 LLLHH 4 LHHHL 26 LLHLL 11 HHLLL 8 HHHLL 3 LLHHL 12 LLHHH 7 HHHHL 7 LLHHH 3 HHHLL 8 LHHHL 4 LLHHL 7 LHHLL 2 HHLLL 8 LLHHL 4 LHHLL 5 LLHLL 2 LHLLL 6 HHHLL 3 LLLLH 5 HHHHH 1 LLHLL 4 HHHHL 2 HHLLH 4 HHHHL 1 LLHHH 3 HHLLL 2 HHHLL 2 HHHLH 1 HHHHL 2 LHHHH 1 LHHLH 2 HHLLL 1 LLHLH 2 LLLHH 1 LHLLL 2 HLHHH 1 HHHHH 1 LLHHH 2 LHHHL 1 HHHLH 1 HHHHH 1 HHLLH 1 HLHLH 1 HLHHH 1 LHLHH 1 HLHHL 1 LHLHL 1 HLHLH 1 LLHLH 1 HLLLH 1 LLHLL 1 LHHHH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHL 1

CV./Q/.CV.CV.CV. 35 cv./Q/.cv.cv.V. 16 cv./Q/.cv.V.cv. 12 cv.cv./N/.cv./N/. 23 HHHLL 8 LLHHH 12 LLHHH 4 LHHLL 16 LLHHL 6 HHHHL 1 LLLHH 2 LHLHL 2 HHLLL 4 HHHLH 1 HHHLH 1 LHLLL 2 LLHLL 4 LLHHL 1 HHHLL 1 HHHLL 1 LHHHH 3 LLHLH 1 HLLHH 1 HLLHH 1 HHHLH 2 LHHHL 1 LLHHH 1 LHHLL 2 LLHHL 1 LLHHH 2 LLHLL 1 HHLLH HLHHL HLLHL LHHHL

CV.CV./N/.CV.CV. 21 CV.CV./Q/.CV./N/. 16 cv.cv.cv./Q/.cv. 16 cv.cv.cv.cv./N/. 101 LHHHL 10 LHHLL 10 LHHHL 7 HHLLL 34 HLLHH 2 LHHHL 2 LLHHL 5 HHHLL 21 LHHLH 2 HHLLL 1 LLHHH 2 LHHHL 9 LHHLL 2 HLLHH 1 HHHHL 1 LLHHL 6 HHLHH 1 LLHHH 1 HHHLL 1 LHHLL 4 HLLLL 1 LLHHL 1 HHHHL 3 LHLHH 1 HLLLL 3 LHLLH 1 LHLLL 3 LLLLH 1 LLHHH 3 HHLHH 2 HLHHH 2 HLLHH 2 LLHLL 2 HHLHL 1 HLHHL 1 HLHLL 1 LHLLH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHL 1 LLLLL 1 285

cv.cv.cv.cv.cv. 89 cv.cv.cv.cv.V. 39 cv.cv.cv.V.cv. 87 cv.cv. V./N/.cv. 28 LHHHL 13 LLHHL 8 LHHHL 32 HHHHL 6 LLHHL 12 LHHHH 6 LLHHL 14 LHHHL 6 HHHLL 11 LHHHL 6 HHHLL 9 HHHHH 3 LLHLL 11 HHHLL 4 LLHHH 6 HHLLL 3 HHLLL 10 LLHLL 3 HHHHL 4 LLHHH 3 LLHHH 9 LHHLL 2 LLHLL 4 LHHLL 2 LHHHH 6 LHLLL 2 HHLHH 2 LLHHL 2 LHLLL 4 LLLHL 2 HHLLL 2 HHHLH 1 LLLHH 3 HHLHH 1 HLHHL 2 LHHLH 1 HHHHL 2 HLLHH 1 LHHHH 2 LLLLH 1 HLHLH 2 HLLLH 1 HLHHH 1 LHLHL 2 LHHLH 1 HLHLL 1 HLLHH 1 LLHHH 1 HLLHL 1 HLLLH 1 LLHLH 1 LHHLH 1 LHHLL 1 LHHLL 1 LHLLH 1 LHLHH 1 LHLHL 1 LHLLH 1 LLLLH 1 cv.cv. V.cv./N/. 54 cv.cv. V.cv.cv. 40 cv.cv. V.cv.V. 62 cv.cv. V.v./N/. 23 LHHHL 15 HHHLL 20 LHHLL 26 LHHLL 12 LHHLL 14 HHLLL 8 LLHHH 8 LHHHL 3 LLHLL 4 HHHLH 3 LHHHL 5 HHHLL 2 HHHHH 3 LHHLL 3 HHHLL 3 LHHHH 2 HHHHL 3 LHLLL 2 HLLHH 3 HHHHL 1 LHHHH 3 LHLHL 1 HHHHH 2 HHLLL 1 HLLHH 2 LLHLH 1 HHLHL 2 HLLHH 1 HLLLL 2 LLLHL 1 HLLLL 2 HLLLL 1 LLHHH 2 LLLLL 1 LHLHH 2 LLHHL 2 LLLHH 2 HHHLL 1 HHHHL 1 HHLLL 1 HHLHH 1 LHLHL 1 HLHHL 1 LLLHH 1 LHHLH 1 LHLLH 1 LLHLL 286

cv.V.cv./N/.cv. 63 cv.V.cv.cv.cv. 88 cv.V.cv.V.cv. 17 CV.V.V.CV./N/. 20 HHHHL 17 LHHHL 25 LHHHL 9 HHHLL 4 HHLLL 13 LHHLL 11 HLHHL 2 LHHHL 3 HHHLL 11 HHHLL 9 LLHLL 2 HHHHH 2 LHHHL 8 HHLLL 7 HHHHL 1 HHLHH 2 LLHHL 6 LLHHH 7 LHLLH 1 HHLLL 2 LHHLL 3 LHLLL 5 LHLLL 1 LLHHH 2 LLHHH 2 LLLHH 5 LLLHH 1 HHHHL 1 LLLLH 2 HHHHL 3 HLHLL 1 HHLLH 1 LLHLH 3 LHLHH 1 LLHHL 2 LHLLL 1 LLHLL 2 LLHHL 1 HHHHH 1 HHHLH 1 HHLHL 1 HHLLH 1 HLHHH 1 HLHHL 1 HLHLL 1 HLLLL 1 LHLLH 1

cv.V.cv.cv.cv. 14 V./N/.CV./N/.CV. 22 v.cv./N/.cv.V. 27 V.CV./Q/.CV.CV. 6 LHHHL 4 LHHHL 7 LHHLL 14 HHHHL 1 LLHHL 3 LLHHL 7 HHHLL 4 HHHLL 1 HHLLL 2 HLLLL 2 LHHHL 2 HLLLL 1 LLHLH 2 HHHHL 1 LLLHH 2 LHHLL 1 HHLHL 1 LHHHH 1 LLLHL 2 LLHHL 1 LHLLL 1 LLHHH 1 HHLLH 1 LLLHH 1 LLHHH 1 LLHLH 1 LHLHH 1 LLHLL 1 LLHLL 1 LLLLH 1

V.CV.CV./N/.CV. 16 V.CV.CV.CV./N/. 23 V.CV.CV.CV.CV. 44 v.cv.cv.cv.V. 91 LHHLL 3 LHHHL . 13 LHHHL 10 LHHHH 25 LLHHL 3 HHHLL 2 HHHLL 4 LHHLL 16 HHHHL 2 HHLLL 2 HHHLH 3 HHHLL 11 LHHHL 2 LLHLL 2 HLHLH 3 LLHHH 7 LLLLH 2 HHHHL 1 LHHLL 3 HHHHL 5 HHHLL 1 LHHLH 1 LLHHL 3 LLLHH 4 LHLLH 1 LHLLL 1 LLHLL 3 LLHLL 3 LHLLL 1 LLHHL 1 HHHHL 2 HHLHH 2 LLHHH 1 LHLHH 2 HHLLL 2 LLLHH 2 HLLHH 2 HHLHL 1 LHLLL 2 HLHHL 1 LLHHL 2 HLLLL 1 LLLHL 2 LHHHH 1 HHLLH 1 LHLHL 1 HLHHH 1 LHLLH 1 HLHLH 1 LHLLL 1 HLHLL 1 LLHLH 1 LHLHH 1 LLLHL 1 LHLHL 1 LLHLH LLLLH 287

v.cv.cv. V.cv 20 v.cv. V.cv./N/. 153 V. V.cv.cv./N/. 22 LLHHL 7 LHHLL 112 HHHLL 13 LHHHL 6 LHHHL 7 HHLLL 4 HLHHL 2 LHHHH 6 LLHLL 3 LLLHH 1 HHHLL 5 HLHLL 1 LLHHH 1 HLLLL 5 LLLHH 1 HHLLL 1 LLHHH 4 HHHLL 1 HLLHH 3 HHHHL 1 LLHLL 3 LHLHH HHHHL 1 HLLHL 1 HLLLH 1 LLLHH 1 LLLHL 1 LLLLL 1 Appendix 14;

Errors sorted by syllable structures (task d) 289

Task d. Listen & repeat: errors sorted by syllable structures

3 mora

V. V. cv. 1 HHH 1

4 mora

CV./N/.CV.V. 2 cv. V.cv.cv. 3 cv.V.cv.V. 1 HHLL 1 HHLL 2 HLLL 1 HLLL 1 HHHH 1 cv.cv.cv.cv. 2 cv.cv.cv./N/. 1 v.cv.cv.cv. 2 v.cv.cv./N/ 1 HLLL 1 HHLL 1 LHHL 1 HHLL 1 LHHL 1 LHLL 1

5 mora cv./N/.cv./N/.cv. 3 CV./N/.CV.CV.CV. 1 cv./N/.cv. V.cv. 3 CV./Q/.CV.CV./N/. 3 HHHHH 1 LLHHH 1 LHHHL 2 HHHLL 1 LLHHH 1 LHLLL 1 HLLLL 1 LLHHL 1 LHHHH 1 cv.V. cv./N/.cv. 5 cv.V.cv.cv.cv. 7 V./N/.CV./N/.CV. 1 V. V.cv.cv./N/. 1 HHLLL 1 LLHHH 4 LHLLL 1 LHHHH 1 HLLLL 1 HHHHH 2 LHHHH 1 LHLLL 1 LHHHL 1 LLHHH 1

CV.CV./N/.CV.CV. 1 CV.CV.CV./Q/.CV. 1 CV.CV.CV.CV.CV. 7 cv.cv.cv.cv.V. 4 LHLLL 1 LHLLL 1 LHLLL 5 LHHHL 2 LHHHL 1 LHHHH 1 LLHLL 1 LHHLL 1 cv.cv.cv.V.cv. 4 cv.cv. V./N/.CV. 1 cv.cv. V.cv./N/. 4 cv.cv. V.v./N/. 1 LHHLL 3 LLHHH 1 LHLLL 3 LLHHH 1 LHLLL 1 LHHLL 1

V.CV.CV./N/.CV. 1 V.CV.CV.CV./N/. 4 V.CV.CV.CV.CV. 3 v.cv.cv.cv.V. 5 LHLLL 1 LHHHL 2 LHLLL 2 LHHHH 2 LHHHH 1 HLLLL 1 LHHLL 2 LHLLL 1 LLHLL 1 290

Task d (listen & repeat) involves syllabification by learners when they listen and perceive the model pronunciation. If it were the case that the syllable structure greatly influences the learners’ performance of pitch accent, words with certain syllable structures should have a tendency to show more errors than others. In fact the general rate of errors in this task should be high because of the syllabification problem. However, as was mentioned before, this task posed the fewest problems for learners. Even for the few errors which did occur, there is no tendency for errors to be associated with words which contain syllabic consonants or long vowels. Notably, in 5 mora examples, the error pattern LHLLL is seen in words with syllabic consonants or long vowel, and in those which do not. It might be the case that when the second mora is the ^llabic consonant / element of the long vowel, there is a slight tendency for the learners to make error pattern with initial LL.. or HH... but apart fi^om that, any type of pitch movement is possible in this location

I am aware that more work is needed on this topic, and would not wish to maintain that syllabification has no influence on the error pitch pattern. However, it seems reasonable to claim that syllable structure is not the strongest factor determining the tendency of errors in pitch pattern. Therefore, to build pitch accent practice exercises based cheifly on the pliable division (as in Kashima, 1992) may not be so effective. In a context such as in the experiment in Chaîner 5, where Japanese words are embedded in English sentence to catch the rhythm of Englièi language, rhythm and syllabification is the main factor which determine the pitch accent pattern. In the data taken from the actual classroom exercises, the learners’ tendency to &vour certain pitch pattern irrespective of the pliable structure is rather strong. In other words, the learners tend to choose the favoured pitch pattern no matter what pliable structure type the word contains. A certain syllable structure does not jHevent learner from choosing a certain ptch pattern. Appendix 15:

Errors sorted by syllable structures (task e) 292

Task e. Read by marks: errors sorted by syllable structures

2 mora cv.cv. 3 v.cv. 4 LH 3 LH 3 LHHL (/iikuu/) 1

3 mora cv.cv.cv. 26 cv.cv. V. 6 v.cv.cv. 14 LHH 11 HLLL 2 LHL 9 (/chuugoku/Zjuugyoo/) LHL 5 HHH 1 HLL 2 HHL 3 HHL 1 LLH 2 HLL 3 HHLL (/juugyoo/) 1 LHHL (/akeruu/) 1 HHH 2 LHL 1 LLH 1 LLL 1

4 mora

CV./N/.CV./N/. 12 CV./N/.CV.CV. 12 CV./N/.CV. V. 23 CV.CV.CV./N/. 8 LHHH 4 LHHH 4 LHHH 7 LHHH 5 HLLL 2 LHHL 4 LLHH 5 HHLL 2 LHHL 2 HHLL 2 HLLL 3 HLLL 1 HHLL 1 LHLL 2 LHLL 3 HLHL 1 HHLL 2 LHL (/gohan/) 1 HHHL 1 LLHL 1 LHHL 1 LLHL 1

CV.CV.CV.CV. 31 CV.CV.CV. V. 9 CV. V.cv.cv. 10 cv.V.cv.V. 5 LHHL 15 LHHL 4 HLLL 4 LHHH 2 LHLL 12 LHLL 3 LLHH 2 LHLL 1 LLHL 2 HLLL 1 HHLL 1 LLHH 1 HHLL 1 LHHH . 1 LHHL 1 LLHL 1 LHLH 1 LHLL 1 LLHL 1 cv.V.v./N/. 7 V.CV.CV./N/. 11 LHHL 3 LHHH 6 LLHH 2 HLLL 3 HHLL 1 LHHL 1 HLLL 1 LHL (/ichin/) 1 293

5 mora cv./N/.cv./N/.cv. 9 cv./N/.cv. V.cv. 6 CV./Q/.CV.CV./N/. 13 CV./0/.CV.CV.CV. 23 LHHLL 6 LHHHH 3 LHHHL 5 LHHLL 9 HLLLL 1 HLLLL 2 LHHHH 3 LHHHH 6 LHHHL 1 HLHHH 1 HHHLL 2 HHHLL 4 LLHLL 1 HLLLL 1 HLHLL 1 LLHHH 1 HLLLL 1 LLHHL 1 LLHLL 1 LLLHL 1

CV./Q/.CV.V.CV. 8 cv.cv./N/.cv.cv. 3 cv.cv VQ/.CV./N/. 7 CV.CV.CV.CV./N/. 8 LHHLL 3 LHLLL 2 HLLLL 2 LHHLL 4 LHHHL 2 HLLLL 1 HHHLL 1 HHHLL 2 HHHHL 1 LHHHH 1 HHHHL 1 LLHHL 1 LHHHL 1 LHHHH 1 LLLHL 1 LHHLL 1 LLLHL 1

CV.CV.CV.CV.CV. 7 cv.cv.cv.cv.V. 24 cv.cv.cv.V.cv. 5 cv.cv. V.CV./N/, 12 HHHLL 3 LHHHL 8 HHHLL 1 LHHLL 3 LHLLL 2 LHHHH 7 HHLLL 1 LHLLL 3 LHHHH 1 LHHLL 6 LHHHH 1 HLLLL 2 LHHHL 1 HHHLL 1 LHLLL 1 LHHHL 2 LLHHL 1 LLHHH 1 HHHHL 1 LLHLL 1 LHHHH 1 cv.V.cv./N/cv. 9 cv.V.cv.cv.cv. 25 cv.V.cv.V.cv. 11 V.CV.CV./N/.CV. 8 HHHHH 2 LHHLL 9 LHHHL 6 LHHLL 5 LHHLL 2 HHHHH 4 HHHHL 1 LHLLL 3 HHHHL 1 LLHHH 4 HHLLL 1 HHHLL 1 HLLLL 3 LHHLL 1 LHHHH 1 LLHHL 2 LLHLL 1 LHHHL 1 HHLLL 1 LLLHL 1 LLHHH 1 HLHHH 1 LHHHL 1

V.CV.CV.CV./N/. 17 v.cv.cv.cv.cv. 10 v.cv.cv.cv.V. 19 v.cv. V.cv./N/. 5 LHHHL 8 LHHHL 3 LHHLL 8 LHHHH 3 HHHLL 3 LHLLL 3 LHHHH 5 HLLLL 1 LHLLL 3 HHHLL 2 LLHHL 2 LHHLL 1 LHHHH 2 LHHHH 2 HHHHL 1 HHHHL 1 HLLHL 1 LLHHH 1 LLLHL 1