Electric Vehicle

An electric vehicle (EV), also referred to as an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity from off- vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery or generator to convert fuel to electricity.[1] EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft. EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion, providing a level of comfort An EV and an antique car on display at a 1912 auto show and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. The internal combustion engine (ICE) has been the dominant propulsion method for Around the same period, early experimental electrical motor vehicles for almost 100 years, but electric power cars were moving on rails, too. American blacksmith and has remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such inventor Thomas Davenport built a toy electric locomo- as trains and smaller vehicles of all types. tive, powered by a primitive electric motor, in 1835. In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of four miles per 1 History hour (6 km/h). In England a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and Main article: History of the electric vehicle similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten Electric motive power started in 1827, when Slovak- in 1847.[3] Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[4] By the 20th century, electric cars and rail transport were commonplace, with commercial electric automobiles having the majority of the market. Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles, as platform trucks, forklift trucks, ambulances,[5] tow tractors and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float; for most of the 20th century, the UK was the world’s largest user of electric road vehicles.[6] Electrified trains were used for coal transport, as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the mines. Switzer- Edison and a 1914 Detroit Electric model 47 (courtesy of the land’s lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid National Museum of American History) electrification of their rail network. One of the earliest Hungarian priest Ányos Jedlik built the first crude but vi- rechargeable batteries - the nickel-iron battery - was fa- able electric motor, provided with stator, rotor and com- vored by Edison for use in electric cars. mutator, and the year after he used it to power a tiny EVs were among the earliest automobiles, and before the car.[2] A few years later, in 1835, professor Sibrandus preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion en- Stratingh of University of Groningen, the Netherlands, gines, electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed built a small scale electric car and a Robert Anderson of and distance records in the early 1900s. They were Scotland is reported to have made a crude electric car- produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit riage sometime between the years of 1832 and 1839. Electric, and others, and at one point in history out-sold

1 2 1 HISTORY

gasoline-powered vehicles. In fact, in 1900, 28 percent of the cars on the road in the USA were electric. EVs were so popular that even President Woodrow Wilson and his secret service agents toured Washington DC in their Mil- burn Electrics, which covered 60–70 miles per charge.[7] A number of developments contributed to decline of electric cars.[8] Improved road infrastructure required a greater range than that offered by electric cars, and the discovery of large reserves of petroleum in Texas, Ok- lahoma, and California led to the wide availability of affordable gasoline, making gas-powered cars cheaper to operate over long distances.[9] Also gasoline-powered cars became ever easier to operate thanks to the invention General Motors EV1 electric car of the electric starter by Charles Kettering in 1912,[10] which eliminated the need of a hand crank for starting a gasoline engine, and the noise emitted by ICE cars be- and consumers, and each of their roles in limiting the de- came more bearable thanks to the use of the muffler, ployment and adoption of this technology. which Hiram Percy Maxim had invented in 1897. As Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery roads were improved outside urban areas electric vehi- vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also re- cle range could not compete with the ICE. Finally, the possessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the initiation of mass production of gasoline-powered vehi- GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. cles by Henry Ford in 1913 reduced significantly the cost After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV EVs to [11] of gasoline cars as compared to electric cars. eager buyers; they later sold at over their original forty- In the 1930s, National City Lines, which was a partner- thousand-dollar price. This lesson did not go unlearned; ship of General Motors, Firestone, and Standard Oil of BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EV’s when California purchased many electric tram networks across their Canadian testing ended. the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique buses. The partnership was convicted of conspiring to stopped in September 2005. monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies, but were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services. 1.2 Reintroduction

During the last few decades, environmental impact of the 1.1 Experimentation petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the peak oil, has led to renewed interest in an electric In January 1990, General Motors’ President introduced transportation infrastructure.[12] EVs differ from fossil its EV concept two-seater, the “Impact”, at the Los An- fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume geles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Re- can be generated from a wide range of sources, including sources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources such in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM pro- as tidal power, solar power, and wind power or any com- duced 1117 EV1s, 800 of which were made available bination of those. The carbon footprint and other emis- through three-year leases. sions of electric vehicles varies depending on the fuel and Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan and Toyota also pro- technology used for electricity generation. The electricity duced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers. may then be stored on board the vehicle using a battery, In 2003, upon the expiration of GM’s EV1 leases, GM flywheel, or supercapacitors. Vehicles making use of en- crushed them. The crushing has variously been attributed gines working on the principle of combustion can usually to 1) the auto industry’s successful federal court challenge only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, to California’s zero-emissions vehicle mandate, 2) a fed- usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of eral regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain hybrid or plug-in electric vehicles is regenerative brak- spare parts for the few thousands EV1s and 3) the success ing due to their capability to recover energy normally lost of the oil and auto industries’ media campaign to reduce during braking as electricity is stored in the on-board bat- public acceptance of EVs. tery. A movie made on the subject in 2005-2006 was ti- As of September 2014, series production highway- tled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatri- capable all-electric cars available in some countries for cally by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film ex- retail customers include the Mitsubishi i MiEV, Chery plores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil indus- QQ3 EV, JAC J3 EV, Nissan Leaf, Smart ED, BYD try, the U.S. government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles, e6, Bolloré Bluecar, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford Focus 2.1 Connection to generator plants 3

The world’s two best selling all-electric cars of all-time are the Nissan Leaf (left), with 195,000 global sales by October A passenger train, taking power through a third rail with 2015,[13] and the Tesla Model S (right), with over 90,000 units by October 2015.[14] return through the traction rails

Electric, Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, RAV4 EV second generation, Renault Zoe, Roewe E50, Mahindra e2o, Chevrolet Spark EV, Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG Electric Drive, Fiat 500, Volkswagen e-Up!, BMW i3, Kia Soul EV, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes-Benz B-Class Elec- tric Drive and Venucia e30. The Leaf, with 195,000 units sold worldwide by October 2015, is the world’s top- selling highway-capable all-electric car in history.[13][15] The Tesla Model S is the world’s second best selling all- An electric locomotive at Brig, Switzerland electric car of all time, with global deliveries of over 90,000 by October 2015.[14] As of May 2015, more than 500,000 highway-capable all- electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles have been sold worldwide since 2008, out of total global sales of about 850,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.[16][17] As of May 2015, the United States continued to have the largest ﬂeet of highway-capable plug-in electric vehicles in the world, with about 335,000 highway legal plug-in electric cars sold in the country since 2008, and representing about 40% of the global stock.[18][19] California is the largest plug-in car regional market in the country, Electric bus in Santa Barbara, California with almost 143,000 units sold between December 2010 and March 2015, representing over 46% of all plug-in cars sold in the U.S.[20][21][22][23] 2.1 Connection to generator plants Norway is the country with the highest market penetra- tion per capita in the world, with four plug-in electric ve- • direct connection to generation plants as is com- hicles per 1000 inhabitants in 2013.[24] In March 2014, mon among electric trains, trolley buses, and trolley Norway became the ﬁrst country where over 1 in every trucks (See also : overhead lines, third rail and 100 passenger cars on the roads is a plug-in electric.[25][26] conduit current collection) Norway also has the world’s largest plug-in electric seg- • ment market share of total new car sales, 13.8% in 2014, Online Electric Vehicle collects power from electric up from 5.6% in 2013.[18][27] As of May 2015, there power strips buried under the road surface through were 58,989 plug-in electric vehicles registered in Nor- electromagnetic induction way, consisting of 54,160 all-electric vehicles and 4,829 [28] plug-in hybrids. 2.2 Onboard generators and hybrid EVs

(See articles on diesel-electric and gasoline-electric hybrid locomotion for information on EVs using also 2 Electricity sources combustion engines).

There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying • generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel- costs, eﬃciency and ecological desirability. electric locomotive 4 5 VEHICLE TYPES

• generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle

• generated on-board using nuclear energy: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers

• renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle

It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources. Such as: Bus powered with lithium-ion batteries • on-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous connection to land- 3 Lithium-ion battery based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with unrestricted highway range Most electric vehicles use lithium ion batteries. Lithium • on-board rechargeable electricity storage system and ion batteries have higher energy density, longer life span a fueled propulsion power source (internal combus- and higher power density than most other practical batter- tion engine): plug-in hybrid ies. Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used Another form of chemical to electrical conversion is fuel within safe temperature and voltage ranges in order to op- [29] cells, projected for future use. erate safely and efficiently. For especially large EVs, such as submarines, the chem- Increasing the battery’s lifespan decreases effective costs. ical energy of the diesel-electric can be replaced by a One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells [30] nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides at a time and switching these subsets. heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. See Nuclear Power 4 Electric motor A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity. Main articles: Traction motor and Energy conversion efficiency 2.3 Onboard storage The power of a vehicle electric motor, as in other vehi- These systems are powered from an external generator cles, is measured in kilowatts (kW). 100 kW is roughly plant (nearly always when stationary), and then discon- equivalent to 134 horsepower, although most electric mo- nected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored tors deliver their full torque over a wide RPM range, so in the vehicle until needed. the performance is not equivalent, and far exceeds a 134 horsepower (100 kW) fuel-powered motor, which has a limited torque curve. • on-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS), called Full Electric Vehicles (FEV). Power Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a storage methods include: DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected • chemical energy stored on the vehicle in on- to a 3-phase AC motor. board batteries: Battery electric vehicle (BEV) For electric trains, forklift trucks, and some electric cars, • kinetic energy storage: flywheels DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. • static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board electric double-layer capacitors

Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and ﬂywheel 5 Vehicle types energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electrical storage. By avoiding an intermediate mechan- It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with ical step, the energy conversion eﬃciency can be im- an electric powertrain. proved over the hybrids already discussed, by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electrochemical batteries conversions are easy to reverse, allow- 5.1 Ground vehicles ing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form. 5.1 Ground vehicles 5

tor Corporation with over 424 thousand hybrids sold in the United States through June 2015;[40][41][42][43][44] Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia Motors hybrid models;[45] and PSA Peu- geot Citroën with over 50,000 diesel-powered hybrids sold in Europe through December 2013.[46] The Toyota Prius liftback is the world’s top selling hybrid with more than 3 million units sold by June 2013.[47]

5.1.3 On- and oﬀ-road EVs

The Chevrolet Volt is the world’s top selling plug-in hybrid of all time. Global Volt/Ampera family sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015.[31]

5.1.1 Plug-in electric vehicle

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle An electric powertrain used by Power Vehicle Innovation for See also: Plug-in hybrid and electric car trucks or buses[48]

EVs are on the road in many functions, including A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that electric cars, electric trolleybuses, electric buses, electric can be recharged from any external source of electric- trucks, electric bicycles, electric motorcycles and scoot- ity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the ers, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts, milk floats, rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive and forklifts. Off-road vehicles include electrified all- the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that terrain vehicles and tractors. includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional 5.1.4 Railborne EVs internal combustion engine vehicles.[32][33][34] By mid- September 2015, over one million highway-capable plug- Main article: Railway electrification system in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles have The fixed nature of a rail line makes it relatively been sold worldwide.[35] The top selling plug-in electric cars are the Nissan Leaf, with global sales of 195,000 units by October 2015,[13] followed by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, which together with its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera has combined global sales of over 100,000 units by the end of October 2015.[31] Ranking third is the all-electric Tesla Model S with over 90,000 units sold worldwide by October 2015.[14]

5.1.2 Hybrid EVs

Main article: Hybrid electric vehicle

A hybrid electric vehicle combines a conventional (usu- A streetcar (or Tram) drawing current from a single overhead ally fossil fuel-powered) powertrain with some form of wire through a pantograph. electric propulsion. As of July 2015, over 10 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide since easy to power EVs through permanent overhead lines their inception in 1997, led by Toyota Motor Com- or electriﬁed third rails, eliminating the need for pany (TMC) with over 8 million Lexus and Toyota hy- heavy onboard batteries. Electric locomotives, electric brids sold as of July 2015;[36] followed by Honda Mo- trams/streetcars/trolleys, electric light rail systems, and tor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than electric rapid transit are all in common use today, espe- 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014;[37][38][39] Ford Mo- cially in Europe and Asia. 6 6 ENERGY AND MOTORS

Since electric trains do not need to carry a heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-weight ratios. This allows high speed trains such as France’s double-deck TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel locomotives. In addition, they have higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into the electrical grid rather than wasting it. Maglev trains are also nearly always EVs.

5.1.5 Space rover vehicles

Main article: Rover (space exploration)

Manned and unmanned vehicles have been used to ex- plore the Moon and other planets in the solar system. On the last three missions of the Apollo program in 1971 and 1972, astronauts drove silver-oxide battery-powered Lunar Roving Vehicles distances up to 35.7 kilometers (22.2 mi) on the lunar surface. Unmanned, solar-powered rovers have explored the Moon and Mars.

5.2 Airborne EVs Oceanvolt SD8.6 electric saildrive motor

Since the beginning of the era of aviation, electric power electrostatic ion thruster, the Hall eﬀect thruster, and for aircraft has received a great deal of experimentation. Field Emission Electric Propulsion. A number of other Currently ﬂying electric aircraft include manned and un- methods have been proposed, with varying levels of fea- manned aerial vehicles. sibility.

5.3 Seaborne EVs 6 Energy and motors See also: Submarine § Propulsion, Ship § Propulsion systems and electric boat Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially renewable ma- rine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as solar cells have given motorboats the inﬁnite range of sailboats. Electric motors can and have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel engines.[49] Electric ferries operate routinely.[50] Submarines use batteries (charged by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, fuel cells[51] or Stirling engines to run electric motor-driven propellers.

5.4 Electrically powered spacecraft A trolleybus uses two overhead wires to provide electric current Main article: Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion supply and return to the power source

Electric power has a long history of use in spacecraft. The Most large electric transport systems are powered by sta- power sources used for spacecraft are batteries, solar pan- tionary sources of electricity that are directly connected els and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a to the vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the spacecraft with electricity include the arcjet rocket, the use of regenerative braking, in which the motors are used 7.3 Issues with batteries 7

ity/grid operator, EVs can be made more or less efficient, polluting and expensive to run, by modifying the electrical generating stations. This would be done by an electrical utility under a government energy policy, in a timescale negotiated between utilities and government. Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation’s fleet of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a re- tirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all vehicles already on the road.

An electric bus at Lucerne EVs will take advantage of whatever environmental gains happen when a renewable energy generation station comes online, a fossil-fuel power station is decommis- as brakes and become generators that transform the mo- sioned or upgraded. Conversely, if government policy or tion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then economic conditions shifts generators back to use more fed back into the lines. This system is particularly advan- polluting fossil fuels and internal combustion engine ve- tageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehi- hicles (ICEVs), or more inefficient sources, the reverse cles can produce a large portion of the power required for can happen. Even in such a situation, electrical vehicles those ascending. This regenerative system is only viable are still more efficient than a comparable amount of fossil if the system is large enough to utilise the power gener- fuel vehicles. In areas with a deregulated electrical energy ated by descending vehicles. market, an electrical vehicle owner can choose whether to In the systems above motion is provided by a rotary run his electrical vehicle off conventional electrical en- electric motor. However, it is possible to “unroll” the ergy sources, or strictly from renewable electrical energy motor to drive directly against a special matched track. sources (presumably at an additional cost), pushing other These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float consumers onto conventional sources, and switch at any above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This al- time between the two. lows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, 7.3 Issues with batteries switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their opera- Main article: Electric vehicle battery tions to high-speed point to point services.

7 Properties of EVs

7.1 Components

The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to the size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping cart or wheelchair, through pedelecs, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial fork-lift trucks and including many hybrid vehicles.

7.2 Energy sources

Although EVs have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created through electricity generation, and will usually emit pollution and generate waste, unless it is gener- Old: Banks of conventional lead-acid car batteries are still com- ated by renewable source power plants. Since EVs use monly used for EV propulsion whatever electricity is delivered by their electrical util- 8 7 PROPERTIES OF EVS

Steve Holliday (CEO National Grid PLC) said, “penetra- tion up and above that becomes a real issue. Local dis- tribution networks in cities like London may struggle to balance their grids if drivers choose to all plug in their cars at the same time.”

7.6.2 Charging stations

Main article: Charging station

EVs typically charge from conventional power outlets or dedicated charging stations, a process that typically takes hours, but can be done overnight and often gives a charge that is sufficient for normal everyday usage. However, with the widespread implementation of electric 75 watt-hour/kilogram lithium ion polymer battery prototypes. vehicle networks within large cities, such as those pro- Newer Li-poly cells provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles. vided by POD Point in the UK and Europe, EV users can plug in their cars whilst at work and leave them to charge throughout the day, extending the possible range 7.4 Efficiency of commutes and eliminating range anxiety. A recharging system that avoids the need for a cable is Because of the different methods of charging possible, Curb Connect, patented in 2012[56] by Dr Gordon Dower. the emissions produced have been quantified in different In this system, electrical contacts are fitting into curbs, [52] ways. Plug-in all-electric and hybrid vehicles also have such as angle parking spaces on city streets. When a suit- [53] different consumption characteristics. ably authorized vehicle is parked so that its front end over- hangs the curb, the curb contacts become energized and charging occurs. 7.5 Electromagnetic radiation Another proposed solution for daily recharging is a stan- Electromagnetic radiation from high performance electri- dardized inductive charging system such as Evatran’s cal motors has been claimed to be associated with some Plugless Power. Benefits are the convenience of parking human ailments, but such claims are largely unsubstanti- over the charge station and minimized cabling and con- [57][58][59] ated except for extremely high exposures.[54] Electric mo- nection infrastructure. Qualcomm is trialling [60][61] tors can be shielded within a metallic Faraday cage, but such a system in London in early 2012. this reduces efficiency by adding weight to the vehicle, Yet another proposed solution for the typically less fre- while it is not conclusive that all electromagnetic radia- quent, long distance travel is “rapid charging”, such as tion can be contained. the Aerovironment PosiCharge line (up to 250 kW) and the Norvik MinitCharge line (up to 300 kW). Ecotality is a manufacturer of Charging Stations and has part- 7.6 Charging nered with Nissan on several installations. Battery replacement is also proposed as an alternative, although 7.6.1 Grid capacity no OEMs including Nissan/Renault have any production vehicle plans. Swapping requires standardization across If a large proportion of private vehicles were to convert platforms, models and manufacturers. Swapping also re- to grid electricity it would increase the demand for gener- quires many times more battery packs to be in the system. ation and transmission, and consequent emissions. How- One type of battery “replacement” proposed, vanadium ever, overall energy consumption and emissions would di- redox battery, is much simpler: while the latest genera- minish because of the higher efficiency of EVs over the tion of vanadium redox battery only has an energy den- entire cycle. In the USA it has been estimated there is al- sity similar to lead-acid, the charge is stored solely in a ready nearly sufficient existing power plant and transmis- vanadium-based electrolyte, which can be pumped out sion infrastructure, assuming that most charging would and replaced with charged fluid . The vanadium bat- occur overnight, using the most efficient off-peak base [55] tery system is also a potential candidate for intermedi- load sources. ate energy storage in quick charging stations because of In the UK however, things are different. While National its high power density and extremely good endurance in Grid’s high-voltage electricity transmission system can daily use . System cost however, is still prohibitive. As currently manage the demand of 1 million electric cars, vanadium battery systems are estimated to range between 7.7 Other in-development technologies 9

$350–$600 per kWh, a battery that can service one hun- 7.7 Other in-development technologies dred customers in a 24-hour period at 50 kWh per charge would cost $1.8-$3 million . Main article: Electric double-layer capacitor According to Department of Energy research conducted at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 84% of exist- Conventional electric double-layer capacitors are being ing vehicles could be switched over to plug-in hybrids worked to achieve the energy density of lithium ion bat- without requiring any new grid infrastructure.[62] In terms teries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no envi- of transportation, the net result would be a 27% total ronmental issues. High-K electric double-layer capaci- reduction in emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon tors, such as EEStor's EESU, could improve lithium ion dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, a 31% total reduc- energy density several times over if they can be pro- tion in nitrogen oxides, a slight reduction in nitrous oxide duced. Lithium-sulphur batteries offer 250 Wh/kg.[68] emissions, an increase in particulate matter emissions, the Sodium-ion batteries promise 400 Wh/kg with only min- same sulfur dioxide emissions, and the near elimination imal expansion/contraction during charge/discharge and of carbon monoxide and volatile organic compound emis- a very high surface area.[69] Researchers from one of the sions (a 98% decrease in carbon monoxide and a 93% Ukrainian state universities claim that they have man- decrease in volatile organic compounds).[63] The emis- ufactured samples of pseudocapacitor based on Li-ion sions would be displaced away from street level, where intercalation process with 318 Wh/kg specific energy, they have “high human-health implications.”[64] which seem to be at least two times improvement in comparison to typical Li-ion batteries.[70]

7.6.3 Battery swapping 7.8 Safety

The United Nations in Geneva (UNECE) has adopted the Instead of recharging EVs from electric socket, batteries first international regulation (Regulation 100) on safety could be mechanically replaced on special stations in a of both fully electric and hybrid electric cars, with the couple of minutes (battery swapping). intent of ensuring that cars with a high voltage electric Batteries with greatest energy density such as metal-air power train, such as hybrid and fully EVs, are as safe as fuel cells usually cannot be recharged in purely elec- combustion-powered cars. The EU and Japan have al- tric way. Instead, some kind of metallurgical process is ready indicated that they intend to incorporate the new needed, such as aluminum smelting and similar. UNECE Regulation in their respective rules on technical standards for vehicles[71] Silicon-air, aluminum-air and other metal-air fuel cells look promising candidates for swap batteries.[65][66] Any There is a growing concern about the safety of EVs, given source of energy, renewable or non-renewable, could the demonstrated tendency of the Lithium-ion battery, be used to remake used metal-air fuel cells with rela- most promising for EV use because of its high energy tively high efficiency. Investment in infrastructure will density, to overheat, possibly leading to fire or explosion, be needed. The cost of such batteries could be an issue, especially when damaged in a crash. The U.S. National although they could be made with replaceable anodes and Highway Traffic Safety Administration opened a defect electrolyte. investigation of the Chevy Volt on November 25, 2011 amid concerns over the risk of battery fires in a crash. At that time, automotive consulting firm CNW Marketing Research reported a decline in consumer interest in the Volt, citing the fires as having made an impact on con- 7.6.4 Chassis swapping sumer perception.[72] Consumer response impelled GM to make safety enhancements to the battery system in De- Instead of replacing batteries, it is possible to replace the cember, and the NTHSA closed its investigation on Jan- entire chassis (including the batteries, electric motor and uary 20, 2012, finding the matter satisfactorily resolved wheels) of an electric Modular vehicle. with “no discernible defect trend” remaining. The agency also announced it has developed interim guidance to in- [67] Such a system was patented in 2000 by Dr Gordon crease awareness and identify appropriate safety mea- Dower and three road-licensed prototypes have been built sures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency re- by the Ridek Corporation in Point Roberts, Washington. sponse community, law enforcement officers, tow truck [73][74] Dr Dower has proposed that an individual might own only operators, storage facilities and consumers. the body (or perhaps a few different style bodies) for their vehicle, and would lease the chassis from a pool, thereby reducing the depreciation costs associated with vehicle 7.9 Advantages and disadvantages of EVs ownership. 10 7 PROPERTIES OF EVS

7.9.1 Environmental has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, EVs release no tail pipe air pollutants at the place where elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situ- they are operated. They also typically generate less noise ation, automakers and individual companies are develop- pollution than an internal combustion engine vehicle, ing systems that produce warning sounds when EVs are whether at rest or in motion.[75] The energy that electric moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and and hybrid cars consume is usually generated by means rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises that have environmental impacts. Nevertheless, adaption become audible.[80] of EVs would have a significant net environmental bene- fit, except in a few countries that continue to rely on older coal fired power plants for the bulk of their electricity 7.9.3 Energy resilience generation throughout the life of the car.[76][77] Electricity is a form of energy that remains within the There are special kind of electric vehicles named SAFA country or region where it was produced and can be multi- TEMPO in Nepal that help lower the pollution created by sourced. As a result, it gives the greatest degree of energy vehicles.[78] These vehicles are powered by electricity - resilience.[81] usually charged batteries - rather than oil or gas and currently heavily promoted by the government to facilitate environmental and vehicle management issues.. Electric 7.9.4 Energy efficiency motors don't require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers. EV 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of 3 higher than internal combustion engine vehicles.[75] En- ergy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, 7.9.2 Mechanical unlike internal combustion engines which consume fuel while idling. However, looking at the well-to-wheel efficiency of EVs, their total emissions, while still lower, are closer to an efficient gasoline or diesel in most countries where electricity generation relies on fossil fuels.[82] Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuel to a wind or tidal primary source of energy. Thus, when “well-to-wheels” is cited, one should keep in mind that the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure - in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distri- bution. An Alkè electric city van. 7.9.5 Cost of recharge Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often [79] achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency over the full According to General Motors, as reported by CNN range of speeds and power output and can be precisely Money, the GM Volt will cost “less than purchasing a cup controlled. They can also be combined with regenerative of your favorite coffee” to recharge. The Volt should cost braking systems that have the ability to convert movement less than 2 cents per mile to drive on electricity, compared energy back into stored electricity. This can be used to with 12 cents a mile on gasoline at a price of $3.60 a gal- reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake lon. This means a trip from Los Angeles to New York pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a would cost $56 on electricity, and $336 with gasoline. trip. Regenerative braking is especially effective for start- This would be the equivalent to paying 60 cents a gallon and-stop city use. of gas.[83] They can be finely controlled and provide high torque The reality is that the cost of operating an EV varies from rest, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not wildly depending on the part of the world in which the need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes owner lives. In some locations an EV costs less to drive the need for gearboxes and torque converters. than a comparable gas-powered vehicle, as long as the EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and conse- higher initial purchase-price is not factored in (i.e. a pure quently have less noise and vibration than internal com- comparison of gasoline cost to electricity cost). In the bustion engines.[75] While this is a desirable attribute, it USA, however, in states which have a tiered electricity 11 rate schedule, “fuel” for EVs today costs owners signifi- 7.9.8 Heating of EVs cantly more than fuel for a comparable gas-powered vehicle. A study done by Purdue University found that in California most users already reach the third pricing tier In cold climates, considerable energy is needed to heat the for electricity each month, and adding an EV could push interior of a vehicle and to defrost the windows. With them into the fourth or fifth (highest, most expensive) tier, internal combustion engines, this heat already exists as meaning that they will be paying in excess of $.45 cents waste combustion heat diverted from the engine cooling per KWH for electricity to recharge their vehicle. At this circuit. This process offsets the greenhouse gases' exter- price, which is higher than the average electricity price nal costs. If this is done with battery EVs, the interior in the US, it is dramatically more expensive to drive a heating requires extra energy from the vehicles’ batteries. pure-EV than it is to drive a traditional pure-gas powered Although some heat could be harvested from the motor(s) vehicle. “The objective of a tiered pricing system is to and battery, their greater efficiency means there is not as discourage consumption. It’s meant to get you to think much waste heat available as from a combustion engine. about turning off your lights and conserving electricity. However, for vehicles which are connected to the grid, In California, the unintended consequence is that plug-in battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no hybrid cars won't be economical under this system,” said need for battery energy, especially for short trips. Tyner (the author), whose findings were published in the Newer designs are focused on using super-insulated cab- online version of the journal Energy Policy.[84] ins which can heat the vehicle using the body heat of the passengers. This is not enough, however, in colder 7.9.6 Stabilization of the grid climates as a driver delivers only about 100 W of heating power. A heat pump system, capable of cooling the Since EVs can be plugged into the electric grid when not cabin during summer and heating it during winter, seems to be the most practical and promising way of solving in use, there is a potential for battery powered vehicles to [88] even cut the demand for electricity by feeding electricity the thermal management of the EV. Ricardo Arboix into the grid from their batteries during peak use periods introduced (2008) a new concept based on the princi- (such as midafternoon air conditioning use) while doing ple of combining the thermal-management of the EV- most of their charging at night, when there is unused gen- battery with the thermal-management of the cabin using erating capacity.[85] This vehicle-to-grid (V2G) connec- a heat pump system. This is done by adding a third heat- tion has the potential to reduce the need for new power exchanger, thermally connected with the battery-core, to plants, as long as vehicle owners do not mind their batter- the traditional heat pump/air conditioning system used in ies being drained during the day by the power company previous EV-models like the GM EV1 and Toyota RAV4 prior to needing to use their vehicle for a return-commute EV. The concept has proven to bring several benefits, home in the evening. such as prolonging the life-span of the battery as well as improving the performance and overall energy-efficiency Furthermore, our current electricity infrastructure may of the EV.[89][90][91][92] need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as windmills and PV solar panels. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even dis- charged. Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charg- 8 Electric public transit efficiency ing stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. Clearly these will require enormous storage and charging poten- tials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of Shifts from private to public transport (train, trolleybus, charging, and to output power during shortage periods, personal rapid transit or tram) have the potential for large much as diesel generators are used for short periods to gains in efficiency in terms of individual miles per kWh. stabilize some national grids.[86][87] Research shows people do prefer trams,[93] because they are quieter and more comfortable and perceived as hav- [94] 7.9.7 Range ing higher status. Therefore, it may be possible to cut liquid fossil fuel consumption in cities through the use of Many electric designs have limited range, due to the low electric trams. Trams may be the most energy-efficient energy density of batteries compared to the fuel of in- form of public transportation, with rubber wheeled vehi- ternal combustion engined vehicles. EVs also often have cles using 2/3 more energy than the equivalent tram, and long recharge times compared to the relatively fast pro- run on electricity rather than fossil fuels. cess of refueling a tank. This is further complicated by In terms of net present value, they are also the cheapest— the current scarcity of public charging stations. "Range Blackpool trams are still running after 100-years, but anxiety" is a label for consumer concern about EV range. combustion buses only last about 15-years. 12 11 EV ORGANIZATIONS

9 Incentives and promotion Toyota Motors Corporation is trying to replace the current lithium ion battery with solid-state battery technol- Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric ogy by 2020. The solid-state battery replaces the liquid [96][97] vehicles electrolyte with a solid electrolyte. See also: Electric car use by country Rechargeable lithium-air batteries potentially offer increased range over other types and are a current topic of [98] Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of research. electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase 10.2 Battery management and intermedi- purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax ate storage rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure. Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, employing supercapacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy. The development of 10 Future new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell Main articles: Plug-in electric vehicle, Battery electric management involves not only monitoring the health of vehicle and Plug-in hybrid the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more Ferdinand Dudenhoeffer, head of the Centre of Automo- cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.

11 EV organizations

11.1 Worldwide

• The World Electric Vehicle Association (WEVA), chairman Hisashi Ishitani, formed by: • Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA) • Electric Vehicle Association of Asia Paciﬁc (EVAAP) • Eliica Battery Electric Car with 370 km/h top speed and 200 km European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel range Cell Electric Vehicles (AVERE) • Multilateral Cooperation to Advance Electric Vehi- tive Research at the Gelsenkirchen University of Applied cles Sciences in Germany, said that “by 2025, all passenger cars sold in Europe will be electric or hybrid electric”.[95] • The Implementing Agreement for co-operation on Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technologies and Pro- grammes (A-HEV) - IA-HEV was formed in 1993 10.1 Improved batteries to produce and disseminate balanced, objective information about advanced electric, hybrid, and fuel There have been several developments which could bring cell vehicles. IA-HEV is an international member- EVs outside their current ﬁelds of application, as scoot- ship group collaborating under the International En- ers, golf cars, neighborhood vehicles, in industrial op- ergy Agency (IEA) framework. erational yards and indoor operation. First, advances in lithium ion batteries, in large part driven by the consumer electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable 11.2 Europe EVs to be propelled as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium bat- • ECars-Now! teries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes • instead of hours, and now last longer than the typical vehi- EV Cup cle. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity • Avere-France lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase. • Electric Vehicles Industrial Cluster - Bulgaria 13

11.3 North America • Project Get Ready

• East Coast Electric Drag Racing Association • Superbus (transport) • Electric Auto Association (EAA) (North America) • Traction motor and its chapter Plug In America. • Tribrid vehicle • National Electric Drag Racing Association • Trolley bus • Project EVIE • Trolleytruck • Alternative Technologies Institute • Vehicle glider • Inno-VÉ 13 References 12 See also [1] “Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles”. google.co.uk. • Battery electric vehicle [2] Guarnieri, M. (2012). “Looking back to electric • Battery swapping cars”. Proc. HISTELCON 2012 - 3rd Region- 8 IEEE HISTory of Electro - Technology CONfer- • Dual-mode vehicle ence: The Origins of Electrotechnologies: #6487583. doi:10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583. • Electrathon [3] “History of Railway Electric Traction”. • Electric bicycle Mikes.railhistory.railfan.net. Retrieved 2010-12-26. • Electric car use by country [4] mary bellis (2010-06-16). “Inventors - Electric Cars (1890 - 1930)". Inventors.about.com. Retrieved 2010- • Electric go-kart 12-26. • Electric rickshaw [5] pp.8-9 Batten, Chris Ambulances Osprey Publishing, • Electric-steam locomotive 04/03/2008 • Electric Vehicle Company [6] “Escaping Lock-in: the Case of the Electric Vehicle”. Cgl.uwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2010-12-26. • Electric vehicle conversion [7] AAA World Magazine. Jan-Feb 2011, p. 53 • Electric vehicle production [8] See Loeb, A.P., “Steam versus Electric versus Internal • Electric Vehicle Technical Center Combustion: Choosing the Vehicle Technology at the Start of the Automotive Age,” Transportation Research • Electric vehicle industry in India Record, Journal of the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, No. 1885, at 1. • Electrocar [9] Automobile, retrieved 18 July 2009 • European Electric Motor Show [10] Matthe, Roland; Eberle, Ulrich (2014-01-01). “The • FIA Formula E Championship Voltec System - Energy Storage and Electric Propulsion”. Retrieved 2014-05-04. • Human-electric hybrid vehicle [11] Bellis, M. (2006), “The Early Years”, The History of Elec- • Hybrid electric vehicle tric Vehicles, About.com, retrieved 6 July 2006

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16 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

16.1 Text • Electric vehicle Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle?oldid=689283666 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Blck- Knght, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Maury Markowitz, Hephaestos, Vkem~enwiki, Edward, Patrick, Infrogmation, Fred Bauder, Mahjongg, Kku, Liftarn, Jacob613, Paul A, Minesweeper, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Marco Krohn, Nikai, Kaihsu, JidGom, Mulad, Reddi, Dysprosia, Zoicon5, Terrorist420x, Maximus Rex, Greglocock, Taxman, Phoebe, Morven, Jerzy, Denelson83, Twang, Phil Boswell, Korath, Kneiphof, Bkell, Hadal, Patcat88, Seano1, Phanly, Cyrius, Cedars, Giftlite, DavidCary, Wolfkeeper, Timpo, Monedula, Pashute, Rick Block, Leonard G., Scottveirs, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Beland, Thorn969, Krupo, Sfoskett, LHOON, Neutrality, Shadowlink1014, Sonett72, Kevin Rector, AAAAA, Reinthal, NathanHurst, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rama, Vsmith, Martpol, Bender235, Germen, Mwanner, Si- etse Snel, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Nigelj, NetBot, Ygfperson, Michaf~enwiki, Guidod, Nk, Tritium6, Bobbis, Hooperbloob, Rye1967, Siim, Mrzaius, Rd232, Katefan0, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, DV8 2XL, Flyaway1111, Ceyockey, Dennis Bratland, BerserkerBen, ChrisJMoor, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Tyz, LrdChaos, Scjessey, Tabletop, CharlesC, Waldir, Jon Harald Søby, Toussaint, Vossanova, Behun, Mag- ister Mathematicae, Yuriybrisk, BD2412, Zzedar, Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Ian Pitchford, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Ysangkok, RexNL, Gurch, Johnnyb82, Ahunt, Havarde, Chobot, Hatch68, Bgwhite, Hallitubes, Gwernol, Wavelength, Jimp, Gerfriedc, Arado, Anonymous editor, Sideswipe091976, Ytrottier, D0li0, Gaius Cornelius, Wimt, Welsh, RazorICE, Dureo, JulesH, Voidxor, MakeChooChooGoNow, DeadEyeArrow, MaxDZ8, Wknight94, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Alias Flood, Back ache, Kevin, Geoffrey.landis, Jgw, Ásgeir IV.~enwiki, Kingboyk, Amberrock, SmackBot, Bobet, Ksargent, InverseHypercube, Skeezix1000, CyclePat, Lawrencekhoo, DaveHawthorne, KVDP, CGameProgrammer, Castellanet, Scott Paeth, Edgar181, Gilliam, Mirokado, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Steinninn, Fire- trap9254, Shalom Yechiel, OrphanBot, Jennica, Mhym, Rsm99833, Mr.Z-man, Khoikhoi, Mytwocents, Ne0Freedom, Nrcprm2026, Xa- gent86, Daniel.Cardenas, Mion, FelisLeo, JzG, Arthuralee, Coredesat, Mr. Lefty, Plvekamp, Dolby12, CyrilB, Beetstra, Dicklyon, Free- info, Cimac, Peter Horn, Vincecate, Myrtone86, Vocaro, JayHenry, Chetvorno, Umurali2000, Artemgy, Mikiemike, CmdrObot, Nadyes, Velle~enwiki, NaBUru38, ShelfSkewed, Egmonster, RockyMtnGuy, Old Guard, Fordmadoxfraud, Oo7565, Cydebot, Daniel J. 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