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HYDERABAD | | BHOPAL | | | | | BENGALURU | | | VIZAG | TIRUPATHI | | | AHMEDABAD Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts and Literature of

Introduction to Telangana History

Telangana, as a geographical and political entity was born on , 2014 as the 29th and the youngest state in Union of . However, as an economic, social, cultural and historical entity it has a glorious history of at least two thousand five hundred years or more. Megalithic stone structures like cairns, cists, dolmens and menhirs found in several of Telangana show that there were human habitations in this part of the country thousands of years ago. Remnants of iron ore smelting found at many places demonstrate the hoary roots of artisanship and tool making in Telangana for at least two thousand years. The reference to , part of present Telangana, as one of the 16 in ancient India proves that there existed an advanced stage of society.

One of the first five disciples of the Buddha, Kondanna is a typical name from Telangana and though there is no exact information about his native place, the earliest known Buddhist township of in is believed to be after him. The Buddha himself famously acknowledged that it was Kondanna who understood him properly. The Buddhist sources say that Bavari, a from Badanakurti in sent his disciples to all the way to north India to learn and spread the message in this region. Megasthenes, who visited India in the 4th century BCE, wrote that there were 30 fortified of Andhras and a majority of them were in Telangana. In the historical age, Telangana had given rise to mighty and kingdoms like the Satavahanas, Vakatakas, , Vishnukundins, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Qutb Shahis and Asif Jahis.

The emergence and flourishing of these powerful political formations is in itself a proof of existence of a sturdy economic, social and cultural structure. Thus Telangana has been a vibrant social entity by the time of the Buddha and continued to be so for the next two and a half millennia. Endowed with such rich cultural heritage, despite the attempts by historians and scholars from Andhra region to obfuscate and erase its history, Telangana always retained and fought for its self respect and self rule. Due to the official efforts to ignore, erase, belittle and look down Telangana history and turn it into an appendage or a footnote, particularly during 1956-2014, much of Telangana history is either not properly researched or not recorded even if it was studied. Telangana rose again and secured its political identity now and is in the process of resurrecting its own glorious past. Here is an attempt to reconstruct the , the wonderful musical instrument with a thousand strings.

Pre-history (Up to 1000 BCE) Even though extensive exploration has not been done, particularly subjected to neglect after 1956, the archaeological department under the Nizams’ government had done tremendous work in discovering the traces of pre-historical human habitations in Telangana. These studies found that human habitations in parts of Telangana can be seen from the Paleolithic age consistently. Either the same locations or extended locations showed people continued to live and develop through the later stages of Mesolithic, Neolithic and Metal ages. Excavations discovered stone tools, microliths, cists, dolmens, cairns and menhirs. All the ten districts of Telangana showed these traces even when a proper, scientific and official research and excavations have not been done and thanks to the efforts of either the first generation researchers before 1950s or individual amateur explorations. 2 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Pre-Satavahanas (1000 BCE – 300 BCE) In the historical age beginning from 1000 BCE there are some references of Telangana as a geographical entity as well as Telugu as a linguistic entity, in the contemporary Buddhist and mythological texts. However, it needs a detailed research to discover finer aspects and establish the stage of development of pre-Satavahana society. Thought the official research into this aspect was stalled for about six decades, some enthusiasts like Thakur Rajaram , B N Sastry and Dr D did their own painstaking explorations and showed that there was a flourishing society before the emergence of the Satavahanas. Particularly Dr Raja Reddy proved with numismatic evidence that there were rulers before the Satavahanas with Kotalingala as capital and issued their own . In these excavations the coins of Gobada, Naarana, Kamvaaya and Samagopa were discovered and at least two other rulers’ names came to light. Thus Telangana happens to be the first region in the subcontinent to have issued punch-marked coins with even insignia. The Buddhist texts as well as accounts of foreigners like Magesthenes and Arrian talked about this region as having thirty forts, many of which have to be explored.

Satavahanas (250 BCE – 200 CE) After the fall of the Mauryan , around the third century BC there arose the first significant kingdom under the Satavahanas from this region. The earliest capital of the Satavahanas was Kotalingala and then moved to the other popular capitals like and () only after two centuries of their rule. However, the first capital was either ignored or brushed aside to give prominence to the later place in . The coins issued by the Satavahana kings (BC 231-208), Siri Satavahana, Satakani I, Satasiri, Satakani II, Vasishtiputra Pulumayi, Vasishtiputra Satakani and their governors were discovered in Kotalingala. Numismatic and epigraphic evidence showed that the Satavahanas ruled a larger area of the peninsula, with oceans as borders on three sides. Literature like Gathasaptashati, painting like Ajanta flourished during the Satavahana rule.

Post-Satavahana (200 CE – 950 CE) After the fall of Satavahanas in the third century AD, Telugu-speaking areas were divided under various small rulers and till the emergence of the Kakatiyas, for about six or seven centuries this fragmentation continued. Even as the mainstream Andhra historians maintained that it was a dark period in Telangana history without any political formation, the current research found that Telangana was ruled by various kingdoms like the Ikshvakus, Vakatakas, Vishnukundins, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Vemulavada Chalukyas, Kalyani Chalukyas, Chalukyas, Kanduri Chodas and Polvasa dynasty. A detailed research into this period is yet to take place.

Kakatiyas (950 CE – 1323 CE) The sub-feudatories of the Rashtrakutas emerged themselves as independent kings and founded the around 950 AD and this kingdom became strong and united whole of Telugu-speaking lands and lasted for more than three centuries and a half. The kingdom saw powerful kings like Ganapatideva, Rudradeva and as well as the first ever woman ruler in the subcontinent Rudramadevi. The Kakatiyas ruled from Hanumakonda in the beginning and shifted their capital to later. The Kakatiyas are known for their public works, sculpture and fine arts. Thanks to the well-planned irrigation facilities and a perfect system of chain tanks to suit the undulating nature of the terrain, the Kakatiya kingdom flourished economically leading to cultural progress also. Envy of this affluence, several neighbouring kingdoms as well as tried to wage war on Warangal many times and failed. Finally in 1323, Delhi army could lay seize on and capture Prataparudra, who, according to the legend, killed himself on the banks of the Narmada unwilling to surrender when he was being taken as prisoner of war to Delhi. 3 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Post-Kakatiya Interregnum (1323 – 1496) After Prataparudra was defeated by in 1323, the Kakatiya kingdom was again fragmented with local governors declaring independence and for about 150 years Telangana was again under different rulers like Musunuri Nayakas, Padmanayakas, Gangas, Gajapatis, and Bahmanis.

Qutbshahis (1496 - 1687) Quli Qutb , subedar for Telangana under the Bahamanis, with Golconda as his capital, declared his independence in 1496 and seven of this dynasty ruled not only Telangana but the entire Telugu-speaking land including parts of present day and . The Moghul empire waged war and defeated Golconda in 1687 and for about three decades Telangana was again witnessed chaos and fragmented rulers.

Asaf Jahis (1724-1948) In 1712, appointed Qamar-ud-din Khan as the viceroy of Deccan and gave him the title Nizam- ul-Mulk . He was later recalled to Delhi, with Mubariz Khan appointed as the viceroy. In 1724, Qamar-ud-din Khan defeated Mubariz Khan and reclaimed the Deccan suba. It was established as an autonomous province of the . He took the name Asif Jah, starting what came to be known as the Asif Jahi dynasty. He named the area Deccan. Subsequent rulers retained the title Nizam ul-Mulk and were called Asaf Jahi Nizams or Nizams of Hyderabad. The Medak and Warangal divisions of Telangana were part of their realm. When Asaf Jah I died in 1748, there was political unrest due to contention for the throne among his sons, who were aided by opportunistic neighbouring states and colonial foreign forces. In 1769, Hyderabad became the formal capital of the Nizams. Nasir-ud-dawlah, Asaf Jah IV signed the with the British in 1799 and lost its control over the state's defense and foreign affairs. became a among the presidencies and provinces of British India.

Post-independence When India became independent from the in 1947, Hyderabad remained an independent princely state for a period of 13 months. The peasants of Telangana waged an armed struggle to liberate the region. Scores of people lost their lives in the armed struggle. The private militia named , under the leadership of Qasim Razwi unleashed terror in the state by resorting to looting and murder. On 17 September 1948, the Indian government conducted a military operation called Operation Polo to bring Hyderabad state into the Indian Union. It appointed a civil servant, M. K. Vellodi, as first of Hyderabad State on 26 January 1950. In 1952, Dr. was elected chief minister of the Hyderabad State in its first democratic election. During this time, there was an agitation by locals in the state to ensure proper representation was given to locals ( mulkis ) of Hyderabad. First In early 1950s, people of Telangana region in Hyderabad state, started organizing themselves with a demand for separate state. In 1953 the Indian government appointed the States Reorganization Commission (SRC) to look into various statehood demands in the country. The Commission was headed by Fazal Ali, Kavalam Madhava Panikkar and H.N. Kunzru 4 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

The SRC toured the whole country to seek representations from various sections of the society. People of Telangana region submitted several memorandums to the SRC and expressed their wish to constitute Telangana as a separate state. Telangana intellectuals such as late Prof Jayashankar and political leaders such as Sri HC Heda, Sri Konda Venkat Ranga Reddy gave memorandums containing historic, political, economic, social and cultural justifications for creating the Telangana state. The Commission submitted its report on 30 September 1955, and recommended formation of Telangana state. During the period between 1955 September and 1956 November, the people of Telangana launched a series of protests demanding statehood by implementing the SRC recommendations. But intense lobbying by leaders from in New Delhi resulted in the merger of Telangana region in Andhra state to form the state. Telangana leaders insisted on a Gentlemen’s Agreement before the merger could take place. The agreement was signed by Andhra and Telangana leaders and provided safeguards with the purpose of preventing discrimination against Telangana by the Andhra leaders.However, the agreement was violated from day one by the Andhra leaders.

1969 Telangana Agitation Non-implementation of Gentlemen’s Agreement and continued discrimination to Telangana region in government jobs, and public spending resulted in the 1969 statehood agitation. In January 1969, students intensified the protests for a separate state. On 19 January, all party accord was reached to ensure the proper implementation of Telangana safeguards. Accord's main points were 1) All non-Telangana employees holding posts reserved for Telangana locals will be transferred immediately. 2) Telangana surpluses will be used for Telangana development. 3) Appeal to Telangana students to call off agitation. But the protests further intensified, as more and more students and employees joined the statehood movement. firing on protesters led to the death of about 369 youngsters during this phase of the agitation. Then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi called for a high-level meeting to discuss the statehood issue. After several days of talks with leaders of both regions, on 12 April 1969, the Prime Minister developed an Eight Point Plan. Sri M. Chenna Reddy, founded the Telangana Praja Samithi (TPS) political party in 1969 to spearhead the statehood movement. Mrs. Indira Gandhi had called snap parliamentary elections in March 1971. In these parliamentary elections, Telangana Praja Samithi won 10 out the 14 seats in Telangana. However, Indira Gandhi’s Congress (R) Party scored a landslide victory on a platform of progressive policies such as poverty elimination (Garibi Hatao). She was reluctant to accept the Telangana statehood demand at that juncture. Sri M Chenna Reddy then merged TPS in Congress (R) party, after formulating a Six-Point Formula to safeguard Telangana’s interests. The statehood movement continued until 1973, but subsided later.

Final Telangana Movement Since mid 1990s, the people of Telangana started organizing themselves under various organizations with a demand for separate state of Telangana. In 1997, the state unit of the (BJP) passed a resolution seeking a separate Telangana. Though the party created the states of , , and in 2000, it did not create a separate Telangana state citing resistance of its coalition partner, . Sri Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), who was then the Deputy Speaker of AP State assembly, had started background work on Telangana issue in early 2000. And after detailed discussions and deliberations with a plethora of Telangana intellectuals, KCR announced the launch of Telangana Rashtra Samithi on May 17th 2001. 5 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

KCR had resigned to the post of Deputy Speaker and MLA before launching the Telangana Rashtra Samithi party. Prof Jayashankar, the ideologue of statehood movement extended his support to KCR. In 2004, TRS entered into a poll alliance with Congress party. The party won 26 MLAs and 5 MPs and entered into both the AP state and Indian government. Telangana issue found a place in UPA-1 Common Minimum Program. Statehood issue was also mentioned by President Abdul Kalam and Prime Minister in their speeches. TRS president KCR, was initially allotted the Shipping portfolio. But another UPA ally DMK demanded Shipping portfolio and threatened to walk out of the coalition, if its demand was not met, KCR voluntarily relinquished the Shipping portfolio to save the fledgling UPA-1 government. KCR remained as a Union Minister without portfolio, before being given the Labour and Employment portfolio. As the UPA government continued to dilly-dally on the decades old demand for Telangana state, KCR resigned to his ministry in 2006. When a Congress leader made a belittling statement on the statehood movement in September 2006, KCR resigned to the Karimnagar seat and won it with a thumping majority. The massive majority achieved by KCR in that election proved the strong statehood aspirations in the region. In April 2008, TRS party MLAs resigned also walked out of the state government in protest against the delay in Telangana formation. But, TRS could retain only 7 MLA and 2 Lok Sabha seats in this by-election. In 2009 elections, TRS allied with TDP, CPI and CPM parties. The grand alliance did not yield the desired result, as the Pro-Telangana vote got split between TRS, Congress, PRP and BJP. In the end, TRS could win only 10 MLA seats and 2 MP seats.

Intensifying the movement On Nov 29th, 2009 , KCR had announced an indefinite hunger strike demanding statehood to Telangana. But en route, the state police had arrested him and sent to sub-jail. The movement spread like wildfire with students, employees, peoples’ organizations plunging into it. In the next 10 days, the whole of Telangana region came to a standstill. The state government, headed by Sri K Rosaiah had called for an all-party meeting on 7th December. Leaders of TDP and PRP parties promised that they would support a Telangana statehood resolution if it was tabled in the state Assembly. As KCR’s health was deteriorating very fast, on Dec 9th 2009, the UPA government announced that the process of statehood for Telangana would be initiated. But within 2 weeks, resistance from Seemandhra leadership resulted in UPA backtracking on this issue. KCR then brought all political forces in Telangana region together to form the Telangana JAC – an umbrella body of several organizations and parties, with Prof Kodandaram as its Chairman. TRS cadre and leaders actively participated in several agitations and protests launched by TJAC.

State Formation After 4 years of peaceful and impactful protests, the UPA government started the statehood process in July 2013 and concluded the process by passing the statehood bill in both houses of Parliament in Feb 2014. In the General Elections held in April 2014, Telangana Rashtra Samithi emerged victorious by winning 63 of the 119 seats and formed the government. Sri K Chandrashekar Rao was sworn in as the First Chief Minister of Telangana. The Telangana state was inaugurated formally on June 2nd 2014. 6 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Important Kingdoms

1. Assaka or Ashmaka kingdom - Telugu kingdom of ancient India (700–300 BCE). • It was one of the shODasa (sixteen) in the 6th century BCE, mentioned in the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya. • The region was located on the banks of the , between the rivers Godavari and Manjira. It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the , and was in . It corresponds to districts Nizamabad and parts of in Telangana and , in Maharashtra states in current- day India. • The name of is from "bhoodaan meaning "Land given to poor as alms", identified as present day Bodhan. The capital is variously called Potali, or Podana, which now lies in the Nandura . • The Buddhist text Mahagovinda Suttanta mentions about a ruler of Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali. • The Matsya Purana lists twenty-five rulers ofAśmaka, contemporary to the rulers of . • Later, the people spread southward to the territory of the Rashtrakuta empire, which is now in modern Maharashtra.

2. Satavahanas • In the north-western Deccan on the ruins of the Mauryan empire arose the kingdom of the Satavahanas in the first century B.C., with its centre at Pratishtana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra). • The Satavahana was based from Dharanikota and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra.

Origin: • The speak only of the Andhra rule and not of the Satavahana rule. On the other hand the name Andhra does not occur in the Satvahana inscriptions. There is a lot of controversy regarding the original home of the Satavahanas. • A contrary opinion has also been put forward that the family originated in the west and extended its control to the east coast, finally giving its name, Andhra, to this region. Since the earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas are found in the Western Deccan, the later view may be correct. Probably, Satavahanas declared independence some time after the death of (232 BCE), as the began to weaken • The Satavahanas seems to begin as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. They seem to have been under the control of Emperor Ashoka, who claims in Rock Edict 13 that Andhras were in his domain among them.

Early Satavahanas: • The Early Satavahanas ruled Telangana and Andhra Pradesh regions which were always their heartland. The Puranas list 30 rulers. Many are known from their coins and inscriptions as well. • The founder of the was Simuka. 7 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Simuka (230–207 BCE): • After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the dynasty, conquered the present-day Maharashtra and parts of (including ). • He and his successors established their authority from the mouth of the to the entire .

Satakarni (180–124 BCE): • The earliest of the Satavahana kings to receive wide recognition was I, and this was due to his policy of military expansion in all directions. He is the Lord of the west who defied of Kalinga(mentions him in the ). According to the Yuga Purana he conquered Kalinga following the death of Kharavela. He extended Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh and pushed back the Sunga from Pataliputra (he is thought to be the Yuga Purana’s “Shata”, an abbreviation of the full name “Shri Sata” that occurs on coins from ), where he subsequently ruled for 10 years. His conquests took him north of the Narmada into eastern Malva, which at the time was being threatened by the Shakas and the Greeks. • The description of Satakarni I as ‘Dakshina patha-pati in the Nanaghat inscription of Nayanika proves that the Satavahana dominion was not confined to western Deccan alone, but included other areas of the Deccan and beyond. • Satakarni I performed two Asvamedha sacrifices and one Rajasuya sacrifice. • By this time the dynasty was well established, with its capital at kotilingalaand Pratishthanapura (Paithan).

3.Ishvakus • The founder of the line, performed Asvamedha, Agnihotra, Agnistoma and Vajpeya sacrifices. Santamula performed the Asvamedha sacrifices with a view to proclaim independence and imperial status It had become a common practice among the rulers of the subsequent dynasties to perform the sacrifice in token of their declaration of independent status From this fact, it can be inferred that it was Santamula I who first declared independence and established Andhra dynasty.

Virapurushadutta : • He was son and successor of Santamula through his wife Madhari. He had a sister named Adavi Santisri He took a queen from the family of Ujjain and gave his daughter in marriage to Chutu prince. Almost all royal ladies were Buddhists An aunt of Virapurushadutta built a big at Konda. Her example was followed by other women of the royal family Virapurushadutta son Ehuvula Santamula (Santamula II) ruled after a short abhira inter regnum His reign witnessed the completion of a Dvi Vihara, the Sihala Vihara, a convent founded for the accomodation of Sinhalese monks and the Chitya-Graha ( Hall) dedicated to the fraternities (theriyas) of Tambapanni(Ceylon) Ceylonese Buddhism was in close touch with Andhra.

Rudrapurushadatta : • It was one of the name of an Ikshvaku ruler found in inscriptions from Gurujala in district of Andhra Pradesh He could have been son of Ehuvula Santamula. Rudrapurushadatta ruled for more than 11 years. Probably he was the last important ruler of of the Andhra Ikshvaku family. After him there were unknown rulers according to the puranas Around 278 C.E, the abhiras might have put an end to the Ikshvakus 8 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

4.Vakatakas • The Vakaṭaka Empire was a royal Indian dynasty that originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and in the north to the in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. • They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemparanies with the Guptas in northern India. • The Vakaakas, like many coeval dynasties of the Deccan, claimed Buddhistorigin. Little is known about Vindhyasakti (250–270 CE), the founder of the family. In the Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta he was described as the banner of the Vakataka family and a Dvija. It is stated in this inscription that he added to his power by fighting great battles and he had a large cavalry. • The next ruler was Pravarasena I (270-330) was the first Vakataka ruler, who called himself a Samrat (universal ruler) and conducted wars with the Naga kings. He has become an emperor in his own right, perhaps the only emperor in the dynasty, with his kingdom embracing a good portion of North India and whole of Deccan. • It is generally believed that the Vakataka ruling family was divided into four branches after Pravarsena I. Two branches are known: Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch and the Vatsagulma branch.

Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch: • Rudrasena II (380-385) of Pravarpura-Nandivardhana branch is said to have married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of the Gupta King Chandragupta II (375-415). Rudrasena II died fortuitously after a very short reign in 385 C.E., following which Prabhavatigupta (385 – 405) ruled as a regent on behalf of her two sons Divakarasena and Damodarasena (Pravarsena II) for 20 years. During this period the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the . Many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta age. • Prabhavati Gupta’s inscription mentions about one “ Gupta” who is her father and the historians equated him with Gupta II. However, there is no other source to prove that Deva Gupta is really Chandra Gupta II. • Pravarasena II composed the Setubandha in Maharashtri Prakrit. A few verses of the Gaha Sattasai (originally by Hala) are also attributed to him. He shifted the capital from Nandivardhana to Pravarapura, a new city of founded by him. He built a dedicated to in his new capital. • The highest number of so far discovered copper plate inscriptions of the Vakataka dynasty pertain to Pravarasena II. He is one of the most recorded ruler of ancient India. • Pravarsena II was succeeded by (440-460), under whom the Vakataka influence spread to some central Indian states. Prithvisena II, the last known king of the line, succeeded his father Narendrasena in 460. After his death in 480, his kingdom was probably annexed by of the Vatsagulma branch of Vakataka. • The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami in Deccan.

Vatsagulma branch: • The Vatsagulma branch was founded by Sarvasena, the second son of Pravarasena I. • Sarvasena (330 – 355) took the title of Dharmamaharaja. He is also known as the author of Harivijaya in Prakrit which is based on the story of bringing the parijat tree from heaven by Krishna. This work, praised by later writers is lost. He is also known as the author of many verses of the Prakrit Gaha Sattasaioriginally by Hala. 9 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Vindhysena (355 – 400) was also known as II. He is known from the well-known plates which recorded the grant of a village situated in the northern marga of Nandikata (presently Nanded). The genealogical portion of the grant is written in and the formal portion in Prakrit.This is the first known land grant by any Vakataka ruler. He also took the title of Dharmamaharaja. • Pravarasena II (400 – 415) was the next ruler. The Cave XVI inscription of Ajanta says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. • Harishena (475 – 500) was a great patron of Buddhist architecture, art and culture. Ajanta is surviving example of his works. The rock cut architectural cell-XVI inscription of Ajanta states that he conquered (Malwa) in the north, (Chhattisgarh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and Kuntala (Southern Maharashtra) in the south. • Varahadeva, a minister of Harishena and the son of Hastibhoja, excavated the rock-cut vihara of Cave XVI of Ajanta.Three of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta, two viharas – caves XVI and XVII and a chaitya – cave XIX were excavated and decorated with painting and sculptures during the reign of Harishena.

End of Vakataka: • A/C to Dasakumaracarita of Dain, which was written probably around 125 years after the fall of the Vakataka dynasty, Harishena’s son, though intelligent and accomplished in all arts, neglected the study of the Dandaniti (Political Science) and gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and indulged in all sorts of vices. • Finding this a suitable opportunity, the ruler of Ashmaka instigated the ruler of Vanavasi (in the North Kanara district) to invade the Vakataka territory. • The king called all his feudatories and decided to fight his enemy on the bank of the (). While fighting with the forces of the enemy, he was treacherously attacked in the rear by some of his own feudatories and killed. The Vakataka dynasty ended with his death

Culture: • The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and of was built under the patronage of Vakataka King Harishena of Vatsagulma branch.

5. VishnuKundina Dynasty Vishnukundina Empire played an important role in the history of the Deccan during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. It is believed that they where one of the ancestors of Pusapatis of and hree other clans of in Andhra Pradesh. The rule of Vishnukundin Empire came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the Chalukyan, Pulakesin II. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the Eastern .

Origin of Vishnukundina Dynasty • The Sanskrit name for Vishnukonda is Vishnukundina. The origin of this dynasty is shrouded in ystery. One History states that they belong to Koundinya of who migrated from during the early 5th century. During the rule of Madhava Varma they became independent and conquered coastal Andhra from the Salankayanas. 10 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• It is estimated that the Vishnukudins ruled between the end of the Salankayana and the rise of the Eastern Chalukyan power in 624 AD.

Kings of Vishnukundina Empire • According to some inscriptions Indra Varma is the first ruler of the Vishnukundin dynasty. It is believed that he carved out a small princedom for himself possibly as a subordinate of the Vakatakas in the last quarter of the fourth century C.E. • Madhav Varma I I Under rule of Madhav Varma II the dynasty began its imperial expansion who ruled for nearly half a century. His reign is considered as a golden age in the history of the -Vishnukundins. During his rule Vishnukundin dynasty rose to great heights. A princess of the Vakataka dynasty was given in marriage to Madhav Varma's son, Vikramendra Varma. • This increased the power of the Vishnukundina dynasty. He occupied the areas of Guntur, and . Thereafter he made Amarapura his capital. • Madhav Varma II annexed the kingdom that was ruled by Salankayanas. Godavari tract became part of the Vishnukundin territory. Post conquests he performed sacrifices like Asvamedha, Rajasuya and other Vedic sacrifices. • During the rule of Vikramendra Varma I (508-528 C.E.) Vishnukundina dynasty lost its power. The next two and half decade witnessed constant dynastic struggles during the rule of Indra Varma (528-555 C.E.). The dynasty lost Kalinga. • Vikramendra Varma II After Vikramendra Varma II took over, the Vishnukundin family were able to restore their power. He shifted his capital from Bezwada to Lenduluru in order to remain close to Kalinga. He restored the fortunes of the Vishnukundins in the Kalinga region. • Govinda Varma II (569-573 C.E.) Vishnukundina Empire expanded under its able ruler Janssraya Madhav Varma IV (573-621 A.D.). He consolidated his position in Vengi. He suppressed the upheaval of his subordinate chief the Durjaya Prithvi in Guddadivishya. • Madhav Varma IV had to face the Chalukyan assault in his last years of rule. It is believed that Madhava's son Manchana Bhattaraka might have been expelled by the Chalukyas. • Vishnukundina dynasty declined by the end of 624 A.D.

6. Vemulavada Chalukyas Founder : Vinayaditya Yudhamalla I Capitals : Bodhan (Nizamabad / Podananadu region) Gangadhara, Vemulawada (Karimnagar / Sabbinadu region). • This dynasty was a branch of the Chalukyas of Badami ruled Telangana region as Rashtrakuta Vassals. One peculiarity with this family is that it traced its descent from the Sun, while many other Chaiukya families considered themselves as of lunar descent. • Tradition associates Vemulawada with poet Bhima Kavi but the famous poet Pampa lived here as the court poet of Arikesari II and dedicated his famous work or Vikramarjuna Vijaya to him. • Vemulawada Chalukyas history is defined by 3 inscriptions, Kollpara copper plates of Arikesari I, Vemulavada rock inscription of Arikesari II and the Parbhan copper plates of Arikesari III. • According to the kollipara inscription of Arikesari-I Satyasraya Ranavikrama was the founder of vemulawada chalukya dynasty. 11 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS c.641 - c.660 AD : Satyasraya Ranavikrama : • Ruled from Bodhan (Nizamabad) as Capital was in service of Pulikesi II. • c.660 - c.695 AD : Prithvipati • c.700 - c.725 AD : Maharaja • c.725 - c.750 AD : Rajaditya • All the above 3 rulers helped Vinayaditya and in their wars against the palavers and the Arabs. • Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla was the real founder and first celebrated king of Vemulawada Chalukya dynasty. • c.750 - c.775 : Vinayaditya Yudhamalla I (Rajasraya)Ruled from Bodhan (Nizamabad) as Capital. • Sub-ordinate ruler of Rashtrakutas. • Yudhamalla and Rashtrakuta Dantudurga planned and carried out the overthrow of Kirtivarman II, the last Chalukya ruler of Badami in 753 AD. • Of Yudhamala I we get vert exaggerated eulogy from Kollipara plates issues by his son; he is compared to Rama in valour and described as visvarat (universal emperor); he is said to have subjugated the whole world with the aid of the boar-crest obtained by the royal family as a boon from Lord Narayan, and among the kings who bowed at his feet are counted those of Turushka, Yavana, Barbara, Kasmira, Kambhoja, Magada, Malava, Kalinga, Ganaga, Pallava, Panda, and others. • In refreshing contrast to it from later inscriptions and pampa that he ruled Sapadalaska country and his suzerainty was acknowleged by many feudatories. He made artificial tanks of brick and mortar in Podana, filled with oil for the daily bathing of 500 elephants. He captured the natutal fortress of Chitrakuta. • c.775 - c.800 AD : Arikesari Ruled from Vemulawada.Captured and ruled Vengi together with Trikalinga by the strength of his arm. Pampa says that this happened in the reign of Nirupama / Dhruva. • During a civil war of Rashtrakutas, Dhruva(AD 780-93) attacked Vishnuvardhana IV (772 - 808) of Vengi to punish him for his part in aiding Govinda II (774 - 780). Arikesari aided Dhruva greatly and was duly rewarded. We may assume that parts of Telangana definitely changed hands as a result of Arikesari's campaign. It is quite probable that after this Vemulawada became seat of their power. • c.800 - c.825 AD: Narasimha I • c.825 - c.850 AD: Yudhamalla II • c.850 - c.895 AD: Baddega I • Pampa says that Baddega was victorious in 42 battles and earned title solada-ganda (the soldier who knew no defeat). • He constructed a temple of Baddagesvara which is identified with the Bhimeswara temple atV emulawada. • Baddega suffered defeat at least once at the hands of GunugaVijayadiya (849 - 892). • Both Pamapa and the plates say that he captured Chalukya Bhima I (892 -921)in the war that took place near the water fort of Kunala(Kolleru) in the Vengi area, who ascended the throne of Vengi after the death of his uncle Gunaga Vijayaditya III in 892. Bhima effected his escape from captivity with the aid of Kusumayudha of Mudigonda Chalukyas. • Baddega's political influences was felt as Bastar where the ancient Chatrakuta mandala was situated. • 895 - 915 AD : Yudhamalla III • 915 - 930 AD : Narasimha II • Wife : Lokambika/Jakavve (sister of Rashtrakuta Indra III) 12 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• The Vemulawada inscription attributes to him the single handed conquest of the Seven Malavas, a victory over the army of Gurjjara raja and says that he put the final seal on his frame by a victory over a group of kings on the hill of Kalapriya. Pamper furnishes the name of Gurjara king was Mahipala on whom Narasimha descended like a thunderbolt, compelling him to escape from his capital. Pampa also mentions a victory over the Latas as the first of his achievements, and adds that he had caused his horses to drink the water of the before he established his fame with his sword at Kalapriya for his overlord Rashtrakuta Indra III (914 - 929). • 930 - 955 AD : Arikesari II son of NarasimhaII and Jakavve • Wife : Revakanirmadi (daughter of Rashtrakuta Indra III 914 - 929) • His reign considered as golden period for Nizamabad and Karimnagar. • Arikesari is famous as the patron of Pamapa, and for the apparently decisive he played in the political revolution in which samanthas of Govinda IV (930 - 934) dethroned him and transferred the Rashtrakuta empire to Amogavarsha III (936 - 939).Arikesari has 2 sons namely, Vagaraja and Bhadradeva / Baddega II from Revakanirmadi and Lokambika. • c.955 - c.960 AD : Vagaraja • Ruled from Gangadhara as Capital • Patronized Somadevasuri, the author of Yasastilaka Champu who described the king as Pada-padmopajivi a worshipper of the feet of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. indicating the declining power of Vemulawada Chalukyas. • c.960 - c.965 AD : Bhadradeva / Baddega II • Ruled from Vemulawada as Capital • The bommalagutta region flourished as a center of during his rule. • c.965 - c.973 AD : Arikesari III son of Baddega II ruled from VemulawadaVassal of Krishna III (939 - 967)and makes a grant in 966 to a erected by his father in the capital known as Subhadama Jinalava.

7. Kalyani Chalukyas • After the Chalukyas of Badami were destroyed by , they revived after two centuries in around 972- 73AD. This was known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and is supposed to have the same genealogy as those of the previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed). This was established by Tailapa-II who was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakuta. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the of Vengi. The Hoyasala Empire finally destroyed them in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern as well as Sanskrit literature.

Political History of Chalukyas of Kalyani: • The last ruler of Rastrakuta Dynasty Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailapa II the scion of old Chalukya stock in 973 AD. Thus Taila II founded the dynasty of Chalukyas of Kalyani which lasted for 2 centuries. For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. They were finally destroyed by the Hoyasala Empire in 12th century. The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire. This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature. 13 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Tailapa II • Tailapa-II was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakutas. He restored the family of his ancestors to its former glory. Taila reigned for 24 years and during that time was able to recover the ancient territory of his race except the Gujarat region. We know about his reign from the Gadag records. He patronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one the earliest poets of Kannada language. Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri together are called three gems of Kannada literature. • Most of the time, Tailapa II kept on fighting with Munja, a Paramara king of Dhara. Munja was finally captured and probably killed in captivity. This was in 995 AD. Two years later Tailpa died and his crown was passed on to his son Satyasraya.

Satyasraya • The period of reign of Satyasraya was 997 to 1008 AD. Though, to star with, he adopted the aggressive policy of his father had enmity with the eastern Chalukyas and Cholas. His 11 years reign was disturbed and was finally faced the disastrous consequence of a war with the great Chola Rajaraja-I. Rajaraja-I overran the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number of men, women and children. Satyasraya was followed by V and Jaysimha II. The next important king was Someshwara I.

Someshwara-I • Someshwara I, who was also known as Ahavamalla or Trilokamallareigned from 1042 AD to 1068 AD. The contemporary Chola King was Rajadhiraja Chola I who became Chola king in the same year i.e. 1042. Someshwara I had established Kalyani as its capital. • He faced the attack of Rajadhiraja Chola-I, who overran initially the Chalukyan capital and demolished the forts and erected the pillars as a memorabilia of the victories, but the Chalukyan counter attack forced them out. Under Someshwara-I , the Chalukya army raided Chola capital but it was repelled back. Finally in the battle of Koppam, Rajadhiraja Chola was killed. But his younger brother took the command and drove the Chalukyas back. In this attack, brother of Someshwara-I was killed. The reign of Someshwara I is known for numerous wars. • This able king of the Western Chalukya Empire ended his life by drowning himself in the river Tungabhadra, due to his inability to endure a fever. Someshwara I was succeeded by his elder son Someshwara II, but Someshwara II was soon deposed by his younger brother Vikramaditya VI, whose reign is from 1076 – 1126 AD.

Vikramaditya VI • Vikramaditya VI ascended the throne in 1076 AD which marks the beginning of Chalukya-Vikram era. Vikramaditya VI was one of the ablest kings of the Western Chalukyan Empire. He left the maximum number of inscriptions, all in Kannada. He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir poet and reigned for around half a century in tolerable peace.

8. Mudigonda Chalukyas • Founder : Ranamarda • Capital : Mudigonda 14 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• The Mudigonda Chalukyas were based east of the Kakatiya territories. They hailed from the village of Mudigonda (located near modern Khammam), and ruled most of modern-day Khamsmam district and east area of Warangal between the 8th and 12th centuries. They were originally subordinates of the Chalukyas of Vengi, but later passed under the suzerainty of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. From c.1000 onwards, Bottu Beta and his successors ruled as subordinates of the Kakatiyas. • The history of family is known to us from the Mogilicheruvula grant of Kusumayudha IV, Kukunuru plates (krivvaka grant) of Kusumaditya and Nattaramesvaram records. • Their kingdom bordered the kingdoms of Vengi and Malkhed.

Gonagudu I Kokkiraja, Son • Ruled from Capital Mudigonda.Kokkiraja was a valorous king who ruled the kingdom with the help of his brother Ranamarda. • c.850 AD - 870 AD : Ranamarda, Brother • He must have served the Eastern Chalukyas first and was given Koravi region by them to rule, with Mudigonda as Capital. • According to Mogilicharla inscription he developed Manchikonda, Kondapalli as and reportedly wore a necklace called 'Ranamarda Kantiya' to denote his victories. • 870 AD - 895 AD : Kusumayudha I • Kusumayudha I aided the escape of Vengi Chalukya Bhima I (892 - 921) from Rashtrakuta Vassal Vemulawada Chalukya Baddega I (c.850-895) who showed dauntless courage and remarkable bravery in restoring the Vengi kingdom to Chalukya Bhima I. • Kusumayudha has 2 sons Vijayaditya Gonaga and Niravadya. • 895 AD - 910 AD : Vijayaditya Gonaga / Gonagudu II • Gonagayya who lost his kingdom went to Arikesari II of Vemulawada Chalukyas for help. • 910 AD - 935 AD : Niravadya (Nijjayaraja) • The Koravi grant mentions that Niravadya brother of Vijayaditya Gonaga usurped the throne.Recaptured Mudigonda in 934 AD. Ruled koravi in warangal as vassal to Vengi Chalukya Bhima II. • 935 AD - 960 AD : Kusumayudha II son of Vijayaditya Gonaga • Ruled Koravi region • 960 AD - 980 AD : Vijayaditya • 980 AD - 1000 AD : Kusumayudha III • He had four sons Gonaga, Nijjayaraja, Mallapa and Lobhachalaka. Gonaga and Nijjayaraja came to the throne successively after the death of Kusumayudha III. • 995 AD - Bottu BetaViriyala Erra supported by Western Chalukya King Taila II (973 – 997) killed Kakatiya King Gunda IV (950 - 995) and installed Bottu Beta as the ruler of koravi. • c.1000 AD - 1025 AD : Gonaga • c.1025 AD - 1050 AD : Nijjayaraja • c.1050 AD - 1075 AD : Kusumayudha IV • c.1075 AD - 1100 AD : Betaraja I 15 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• c.1100 AD - 1125 AD : Kusumayudha V • c.1125 AD - 1150 AD : Betaraja II • c.1150 AD - 1175 AD : Kusumayudha VIKaktiya Rudra in his last days deputed his general Recherla Rudra to subdue the Bottu chief of Koravi. Kusumayudha VI along with his ministers Karunadhi pati, Indaparaju and Devaraju was forced to retreat to the forest and lived underground for 12 years and later recaptured the kingdom. • 1175 AD - 1200 AD : NagatirajaNagatiraja was the last prominent ruler in this dynasty.Katakana Mahadeva died in 1198 AD and his son Ganapatidev captured, Nagatiraja attached Kaktia kingdom. Recherla Rudra came to the rescue and chased away Nagatiraja. After the release of Kakatiya Ganapatideva, he annexed the Mudigonda region to the Kaktiya empire. Thus ended the rule of Mudigonda Chalukya dynasty in c.1200 AD. • 1218 AD : According to the inscription, Nagatiraja who lost his kingdom lived in Konalu region. Bottu Sriramabhadra : Issued inscription in Gopalaswamy temple at Srikakulam.

9. Kakatiyas Kakatiya Dynasty • Capitals : , Warangal • Languages : Telugu • Religion : Jainism, (Saivism)Royal Emblem : , • Kakatiyas are descendants of Chola King of Durjaya clan, who initially started as vassals of the Chalukyas in India, and later emerged as a ruling dynasty, with their capital at Kakatipura (probably named after the village diety, Kakatamma) or present day Warangal, in the state of Telangana, India. • Kakatiyas were the devotees of Goddess Kakati. • They were said to originate from Chaturthakula and they allied themselves by matrimony to chiefs of the caste, although in many documents related to gifts given in the , their ancestry has been traced to the of the Ikshvaku kshatriyas. • The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu. They established order throughout the strife torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant role in the defence of the realm. Anumakonda and among the 'giridurgas', Kandur and Narayanavanam among the 'vanadurgas', Divi and Kolanu among the 'jaladurgas', and Warangal and Dharanikota among the 'sthaladurgas' were reckoned as the most famous strongholds in the Kakatiya period. The administration of the kingdom was organized with accent on the military. • Though Saivism continued to be the religion of the masses, intellectuals favoured revival of Vedic rituals. They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the Saivites through the worship of Harihara. Arts and literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their feudatories. Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15 cantos of the which was lying unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place in the Muslim-occupied north, received encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra was himself a writer and he encouraged other literature. • The Kakatiya dynasty expressed itself best through religious art. Kakatiya art preserved the balance between architecture and sculpture, that is, while valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on architecture where due. The 16 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Kakatiya , dedicated mostly to Siva, reveal in their construction a happy blending of the styles of North India and which influenced the political life of the Deccan. • Building temple and lake (an irrigation tank) side by side was the tradition of the Kakatiya. The remains of immense irrigation tanks and channels show that the rulers of the country devoted great attention to the improvement of agriculture.There was enormous accumulations of wealth, consisting of gold, precious stones (including Kohinoor ), and elephants. The people appear to have been brave, happy, and prosperous, and from west to east thy were scattered around numerous holy shrines which brought together thousands of pilgrims.

Important points of Kakatiya Dynasty • Motupalli port was famous for foreign trade during the period of Kakatiyas. Ministers during the period of Kakatiyas were called as Tirthas. • Vidyanatha wrote Prataparudra Yashobhusanam. • Bayyaram Cheruvu inscription was issued by Mailamba. • Magallu inscription was issued by Danarnava. • Achitendra was the author of Hanumakonda inscription. • .Rudradeva issued Hanumakonda inscription about the victories of Prolaraja II in 1163. • The gold during the period of Kakatiyas was called Gadvanam.

750 - 768 : Venna Founder of the Kakatiya line. Mentioned in Bayyaram inscription. • Ganapatideva completed building Orugallu (Warangal) and shifted the capital from Hanumakonda to Warangal. • Started Inner stone wall of Warangal. • March 31, 1213 AD : Contruction of Completed by Recharla Rudra during Ganapatideva reign. • Ramappa Cheruvu, Pakala Cheruvu, Lakkavaram Cheruvu were dug during Ganapatideva reign

10. kingdom • Foundation of Vijaynagar kingdom (1336 – 1646 CE):Vijaynagar kingdom was one of the important kingdoms in the medieval Indian history. Vijaynagar Dynasty rules over India for 3 centuries. It is a history full of wars with Bahamani and other muslim rulers of northern Deccan, collectively said as .Vijayanagara is in of northern Karnataka. It is the name of the now-ruined capital city of the historic Vijayanagar Kingdom which extended over the southern part of India that included the territories of , Trichinopally, Kanara, Pondicherry, Chingalpet and Kanchivaram. • Two brothers Harihara (Hakka) I and Bukka Raya laid the foundation of the Vijaynagar city, which was on the South bank of TungabhadraRiver near Anegudi Fortress. They were also known as Sangama brothers. Vijaynagar Empire consolidated under Harihara I and began to expand and prosper under Bukka Raya which was more defensible and secure for its location between 14th and . It is said that a sage Madhav Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana were the inspirational source for this empire. The rulers were strict worshipers of Gods and Goddess, but also tolerant towards the other religions. The were great patrons of art 17 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

and culture. The region influenced a development in the streams of music, literature and architecture. Many temples built in the territories of the south represent the style of Vijaynagar kingdom. The economy of the region flourished and several coins were introduced during the reign of the rulers of theV ijaynagar Empire. • Kings of Vijaynagara Dynasty: There were four dynasties ruled over Vijaynagar -- Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty. • Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485) – longest reign Harihar and Bukka were sons of Sangama, feudatories of Kakatiyas of Warangal. The Hoysala kingdom was conquered and hence, the was extended under Harihara. Bukka, then succeeded his brother and became the master of after dealing with Bahmani Sultan. He destroyed the Sultans and extended the Empire to the whole of South India. Sāyaṇa and Madhava were learned commentator on the , were ministers under Bukka I and Harihara II. The conflict between Vijayanagara and Bahmani kingdoms was a long lasting one. The bone of contention was the , between river Krishna and Tungabhadra and Krishna-Godavari delta. The greatest ruler of Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. During his reign, Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh visited the Vijaynagara kingdom. • Saluva Dynasty (1486-1505 AD) – smallest reign Saluva Narsimhan was the founder of Saluva dynasty. He silenced the rebellions of feudatories and kept the kingdom intact. Immadi Narsimha succeeded him. He was a weak ruler and hence the control of state fell into the hands of Narsa Nayaka. Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut during his time in 1498. • Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 AD) The son of Narsa Nayaka, Vira Narsimha was the founder of Tuluva dynasty. He was succeeded by his half brother, Krishnadeva Raya in 1509 AD.

Krishnadeva Raya • At the time of ’s accession to the throne, the condition of the empire was unstable, as he had to deal with rebellious subordinates and aggression of the Gajapathis of Orissa and the Muslim kingdoms in the north. Krishna Deva Raya won the Gajapati kingdom in present day Orissa and extended the Vijaya nagara empire to that region as well. Krishna Deva Raya defeated the Deccan Sultans in the battle of Diwani. He then invaded Raichur Doab(between Tungabhadra and , known for its fertile soil) confronting Sultan of , . He also captured . He helped the Portuguese to conquer from the Bijapur rulers in 1510 and maintained friendly relations with them. This relationship also helped him obtain high bred Arabian horses and expansion of overseas trade of the empire. Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Durate Barbosa visted his court and have left accounts. Krishna Deva Raya was a contemporary of Babur. So, when the First Battle of Panipat(1526) was fought, Krishnadeva Raya was was the ruler of Vijayanagar in the southern India. Krishna Deva Raya was a Vaishainaite but respected all religions. He was a devotee of Lord Venkateshwara of . Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the renowned saints of the bhakti movement visited his court. Madhwa saint Vyasathirtha was the Rajaguru of Krishnadevaraya. He is also known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’, for his patronage of art and literature. Also known as Abhinava Bhoja, he himself was also a scholar, he wrote the Telugu work and a Sanskrit play, Jambavati Kalyana. In his court, eight eminent scholars known as ‘Astadiggajas’ were patronized, like – Allasani Peddana (Andhra-kavita-pitamaha) and Nandi Thimmanna. The imperial court had representatives of Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets, who made 18 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

large contributions to their respective literatures. He built Vijaya Mahal, Hazara Ramaswamy temple and Vithal Swami temple at Vijayanagar . He also built ‘Rayagopurams’. A new city was built called ‘Nagalapuram’ in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Also a reservoir across river Tungabhadra called Vallabapuram and a channel called Basavanna were constructed. Krishnadevaraya repaired and restored many south Indian temples, hence, most of the big towers on temples in south India have the name Raya in his honour. Acchutadeva suceeded Krishnadeva . The later rulers were Sadashiva Raya but defacto ruler then was Rama Raya. Battle of Rakshasa- TangadiRama Raya took active part in Muslim politics. In 1565 AD, all the Sultanates joined a coalition against Vijayanagr except Berar. The , also known as Battle of Rakshasa- Tangadi, led to execution of Rama Raya after being taken prisoner. Thereafter, the city of Vijayanagar was destroyed and looted.

Aravidu Dynasty(1570-1650 AD) • Raya ruled in name of Sadashiva Raya. They failed to repopulate Vijayanagar and shifted to new capital at Penugonda and then to . The last ruler of Vijayanagar was Sri Ranga III. Administration under Vijayanagar Empire: The kingdom was divided into provinces known as Mandalam, headed by ‘mandaleshwar’. It was further divided into nadu, sthala and grams. Land revenue was fixed at 1/6th of the produce. Land revenue varied according to nature of cultivated land. There were taxes on various professions. The Ayagar system: It was an important feature of the village organization in vijayanagar. According to this, every village was a separate unit and its affairs were conducted by a team of 12 functionaries who were collectively known as the ‘ayagars’. They were granted tax-free lands (manyams) which they were to enjoy in perpectuity for their services. Once granted, these ayagars had a hereditary right over their offieces. The ayagars could also sell or mortgage their offices. For justice, very harsh punishments like mutilation of body, throwing to elephants were delivered. The army under Vijayanagar Kingdom was well organised and efficient. It consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillary and elephants. The highest grade officers in army were known as ‘Nayaks or Poligars‘. They were awarded land in lieu of their services. The Nayakara system: Under this system, the king was considered to be the owner of the soil and he distributed the lands to his nayakas. Nayakas had to pay a fixed annual financial contribution to the imperial exchequer which, according to the chronicle of Nuniz, was generally half their revenue. They were required to maintain a sufficient number of troops for the king and serve them in his war. The nayaka enjoyed greater freedom in his province. There was no system of transfer from one district to another. Society under Vijayanagar empire: The city of Vijayanagar was a luxurious society with splendid buildings. Slavery was prevalent, as mentioned by Nicolo Conti. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dresses. Vijayanagar markets were noted for dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Religious tolerance was shown towards everyone. were also employed in the administration. A large number of temples were built during this time. Epics and Puranas were popular among masses. • Position of Women: – Women were employed in royal palaces. Some women scholars like Hannamma, Thirumalamma and Gangadevi, who wrote Madhuravijayam. Subordinate condition of women: Devadasi system was flourishing under Vijayanagar Kingdom, dancing girls were attached to the temples. Polygamy was prevalent among royal families. practice was also recounted by traveller accounts. Architecture under Vijayanagar Empire: It is generally understood that the very location site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the 19 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi. This is supported by the fact that, the Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. Vijayanagar rulers began the practice of wall inscriptions containing stories of and Mahabharata on temples. Vithalswamy and Hazara Rama temple has such inscriptions. • The chief characteristic feature of Vijayanagar Architecture was the construction of tall Raya (gateways) and kalyan mandapas(open pavilion) with carved pillars. These mandapas were meant for seating deities on festival occasions. Amman shrines were added to existing temples. The Varadhraja and Ekamparanatha temple at Kanchipuram are also examples of Vijayanagar style of Architecture.

Foreign Visitors of Vijayanagara Kingdom: • Ibn Bututa (1333-1347 A.D.) — Moroccan traveller, who visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq. And came to Vijayanagar during the reign of Harihar I. • Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.) — Venetian traveller, who gave a comprehensive account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. • Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.) — Persian traveller, who stayed at the court of the at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar city, while describing the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles. • Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.) — Portuguese traveller, who has given a valuable narrative of the government and the people of the Vijayanagar empire. • Domingos Paes (1520-1522 A.D) — Portuguese traveller, who visited the court of Krishnadeva • Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D) — Portuguese merchant, who wrote the history of the empire from its earliest days to the closing years of Acchyutdeva Raya’s reign.

11. Bahmani Kingdom • The or Bahmanid Empire was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and was one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms. It was North Deccan region to the river Krishna. According to some Muslim historian a rebel chieftain of Saulatabad (an area around Ellora), was under Muhammad Bin Tughalaq. The sultanate was founded on 3rd of August 1347 by the Turkish Ala-ud-Din Hassan Bahman Shah/ Hasan Gangu/ Allauddin Hassan, possibly of Tajik-Persian descent, who revolted against the Sultan of Delhi, . Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the Delhi sultanate stepped down on that day in favour of Zafar Khan/ Hassan Gangu who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan, including parts of present day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh within the Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire to the south. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad () between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar). The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466–1481) of . About eighteen kings ruled during the nearly 200 years. After 1518 the kingdom got divided into four smaller ones like Barishahi (Bidar), Kutbshahi (of Golkonda), Adamshahi( of Ahmadnagar), and Adilshahi (of Bijapur), known collectively as the Deccan sultanates. 20 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• History of Bahamani Kingdom : Allauddin Hassan, a man of humble origin assumed the name of Gangu Bahamani in memory of his patron, a brahmin. Hasan Gangu declared the founder of the Bahamani Dynasty and ruled it under the title of Bahaman Shah. Bahamani was in constant war with south, kingdom of Vijaynagar. Firuz Shah Bahamani left his remarkable foot prints over the Bahamani history. He was a learned man and having knowledge of many religions and natural science. He always wanted to develop the Deccan region as the cultural hub of India. He waged three battles against Vijaynagar Empire, and also extended his territories of Warangal. He gave up his kingdom and throne to his brother Ahmed shah I.Agriculture was the main economic activity of Bahamani kingdom for earning the main revenue of the state.The nobles in the Bahamani Kingdom were classified into two categories, (old comers) and the Afaquis (new comers). They were always having problem of difference of opinion. Mahmud Gawan was a minister in Bahamani Empire who expanded and extended the Bahamani Kingdom rapidly. He was categorized as Afaqui and hence it was difficult for him to win the trust and confidence of the Deccanis. He was executed at the age of seventy by of Deccan in the year 1482 for his policy which made matters worse in Deccanis and Afaquis. • Culture of Bahamani : The Bahamani kingdom flourished in architectural monuments. In the field of architecture, the Bahamanis paved way for the distinct style by inviting architects from Persia, Turkey, and Arabia and blended it with local styles. The culture that developed during this time was a blend of both north and south styles and also had its own distinct styles. Gumbaz (the largest dome in the world) and located at Hyderabad are the world famous examples of Bahamani architecture. The Bahanamis of Deccan left an important heritage of Indo-, language, and spread of Islamic tradition in South India. Hazrat Banda Nawaz (1321 - 1422 CE) the great Sufi saint was patronized by the Bahamani kings and his Dargah of Gulbarga is a place of pilgrimage for and Muslims alike. Mahmud Gawan arrived in Bidarfrom Persia in 1453. A great scholar of Islamic lore, he founded the Madarassa (institution) from his own funds on the line of universities of Samarkhand and Khorasan. A selefless worker, he became a prime-minister of Bahamani king Mahmud III (1462- 82) whom he tutored in earlier days. But Gawan became a victim of the palace intrigue and was beheaded by the drunken king.

12. Qutub-Shahi Era • The held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. Sultan Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the dynasty, served the Bahmanis faithfully and was appointed governor of Telangana in A.D.1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, Mahmud Shah, in A.D.1518. During his 50-year rule, Sultan Quli extended his kingdom upto . He was murdered by his third son, Jamsheed, who succeeded Sultan Quli. Jamsheed reigned for seven years till A.D.1550 but remained maligned by all for his patricidal crime. His youngest brother, Ibrahim, who was hardly thirteen at the time of his father’s assassination, fled to Vijayanagar and took refuge there. It afforded him a training ground and he learned the art of administration. • After Jamsheed’s death in A.D.1550, Ibrahim returned to Golconda and ascended the throne. Ibrahim Qutb Shah, who was known as Malkibharam in the Andhra country, was the real architect of the Golconda kingdom. He ruled the kingdom for 30 years from A.D.1550 to A.D.1580. He organised the central and provincial governments and brought them into close contact. He also introduced an efficient intelligence service which kept him informed on 21 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

all affairs. The kingdom was made safe for travel and trade. Ibrahim had also many works of public utility to his credit. He dug lakes and tanks and laid out towns and gardens. He also encouraged local language Telugu and patronised Telugu scholars and poets like, Telaganarya and Gangadhara who dedicated their works to him. • Ibrahim took an active part in the battle of Rakkasi Tangadi in A.D.1565. It immensely benefited him in cash and territories, and the kingdom was extended to the south as far as Madras and Gandikota. • The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim’s son and grandson was an era of peace and prosperity. Muhammad Quli, son of Ibrahim, was a great writer and a builder. The city of Hyderabad was laid in A.D.1591 with magnificent buildings, straight and other civic amenities. For this purpose, he invited many Persians to settle down in Hyderabad and Machilipatnam. He was a scholar and a poet, composed a large number of poems in the . Muhammad Quli was succeeded by his nephew and son-in-law Sultan Muhammad in A.D.1612. He was highly religious and a model of virtue and piety. He followed his uncle in promoting learning and architecture. The great mosque known as Mecca Masjid in Hyderabad was designed and its foundation laid by him, though the main structure of the Mosque was completed during the next four generations. • In 1463, disturbances broke out in the Telangana area of the Bahmani kingdom of the Deccan. Sultan Quli Qutbul-Mulk, a who was a high-ranking military officer under Muhammad Shah Bahmani, was sent to quell the trouble. • He was successful and was rewarded by being made the subedar of Telangana in 1495, with Golconda as his headquarters. • Subsequently, with the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom in the early 16th century, Sultan Quli assumed virtual independence. Thus he founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty that lasted from 1518 right upto 1687, when Aurangzeb’s armies swept the Deccan. • Qutb Shahi dynasty spanned 171 years in the . The eight kings of this royal lineage have left a firm impression of their strong personalities upon the land and its people. • The Qutb Shahi rulers were great builders and patrons of learning. They not only patronized the Persian culture but also the regional culture of the Deccan, symbolized by the and the newly developed Deccan kingdom.

13. Asaf Jahi Dynasty • The origins of the Asif Jahi dynasty can be traced to Chin Qalich Khan who was the grandfather of the first Nizam and the commander of the Mughal army during ’s reign. Chin Qalich Khan led the attack of the Mughal army into the Deccan under his Emperor’s ambitious plans of expanding the Mughal empire. During Aurangzeb’s last siege of Golconda in 1687, Chin Qalich Khan was wounded. He died in Atapur village near Himayath Sagar. • Chin Qalich Khan’s son, Ghaziuddin Khan, married the daughter of Sadullah Khan, Prime Minister of Aurangzeb. A son was born, and the Emperor named him Mir Qumaruddin. At the age of six, Mir Qumaruddin accompanied his father to the Mughal court. Aurangzeb awarded him a mansab, and said to his father, “The star of destiny shines on the forehead of your son”. Mir Qumaruddin displayed considerable skill as a warrior and at the age of nineteen, the Emperor bestowed on him the title “Chin Fateh Khan”. At 26, he was appointed Commander in Chief and Viceroy, first at Bijapur, then Malwa and later of the Deccan. 22 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Subsequently, the Mughal empire declined. There was much confusion after the death of Aurangzeb, and Mir Qumaruddin established his position as Viceroy Farukh Siar who was the Mughal Emperor for a brief tenure conferred on Mir Qumaruddin the title Nizam-ul-mulk Fateh Jung. He thus became the first Nizam. A subsequent Emperor, Muhammad Shah bestowed on him the title Asif Jah. The dynasty of the Nizams of Hyderabad thus came to be known as the Asif Jahi Dynasty. • Unrest and claims to the throne continued after the death of Aurangzeb, and amidst the general confusion, Asif Jah had little difficulty in asserting his independence from the weak occupants of the Delhi throne. At that time, Asif Jah was the Sudedar of Malwa. However, his independence was the cause of much jealousy, and the Delhi court secretly instructed Mubrez Khan, the Subedar of the Deccan, to oppose him. A battle was fought at Shakar- Khelda in the district of Berer in 1724, where Mubrez Khan was defeated and killed. This battle established Asif Jah's supremacy in the Deccan. After gaining independence, Asif Jah came to be known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. He first set up his capital at Auragabad but later moved to Hyderabad, which became the capital of the Asif Jahi dynasty. • Nizam-ul-Mulk's greatest achievement was the foundation of the Hyderabad Dominion. He attained his object by waging a struggle against the Marhattas and by the policy of non-involvement in the rivalry for power between the British and the French. His policy has been justified by later events as Hyderabad state survived right through the period of British rule upto the time of Indian independence. • Asif Jah ruled wisely and established an independent state in the Deccan. He was one of the ablest statesmen. However, his death at Burhanpur on 21st May 1748 at the age of 78, was followed by a struggle for the throne. By this time, foreign powers were spreading their tentacles. Asif Jah's second son was supported by the British whereas Muzafar Jung, grandson of Asif Jah, was supported by the French. Nasir Jung succeeded; but after a brief rule he was slain in 1750 in an encounter with the French troops at Arcot. Thereupon, Muzafar Jung ascended the throne. In the following year he was murdered and his son Salabath Jung was put on the throne. In 1762 Salabeth Jung was dethroned by his brother Nizam Ali Khan, and confined at Bidar where he died in 1793. • Hence, Nasir Jung, Muzafar Jung and Salabath Jung, who were contestants for the sovereignty of the Deccan in the short span of thirteen years between the death of Asif Jah and accession of Nizam Ali Khan, have not been historically recognised as reigning Nizams. If they had been, Nizam Ali Khan would have been known as the fifth Nizam and not the second. • Nizam Ali Khan ascended the throne in 1763 and he ruled Hyderabad for almost forty years. This was one of the eventful periods in the . Foremost among competitors for supremacy in the Deccan were the Marhattas and it was during this period that the famous French adventurer Monsieur Raymond was employed by Nizam Ali Khan. • Nizam Ali Khan died in August 1803 at the age of 72 years after a long and strenuous reign. • The succession of Sikandar Jah as Nizam was undisputed and he appointed Mir Alam as his Prime Minister. With the accession to the throne by Sikander Jah and end of war with the Marhattas, there commenced an entirely new era for Hyderabad. Unfortunately in 1808 the able Minister Mir Alam died and it was he who was responsible for maintaining good relations wit the British. In 1809, Mir Alam’s son Munir-ul-Mulk was appointed as Minister. 23 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Sikander Jah died in May 1829 at the age of 62 after reigning for almost 26 years. was named after him. Sikander Jah was succeeded by his eldest son Nasir-ud-Daula. It was during his reign that Salar Jung was appointed as the Minister in 1853. Salar Jung guided the affairs of the Deccan with great wisdom and introduced several reforms to improve the finances of the Dominion. • On 17 May 1857 Nasir-ud-Daula died and his son Afzal-ud-Daula became the fifth Nizam. This was the first time the first war of Indian Independence was fought in the North and there was general disorder in the Deccan. • After a reign of twelve years, Afzal-ud-Daula expired on 26 February 1869 at the young age of forty three years, leaving behind the infant prince Mir who was hardly three years old. • Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, who was born on 18 August 1866, was the only son of Afzal-ud-Daula. He was installed on the masnad by the British Resident and Sir Salar Jung, who also acted as the co-regent. Salar Jung died in 1883 and a provisional council, consisting of five members, with Mahboob Ali Khan as president and Mir Laiq Ali Khan, son of Salar Jung, as secretary was appointed for administrative purposes. • Special attention was paid to the education of Mahboob Ali Khan. With the concurrence of Salar Jung, Capt. John Clerk was appointed as his tutor. However, the personality of Salar Jung had a great influence on his life. Brought up under the guidance of this great statesman, Mahboob Ali Khan grew in his later years to be one of the greatest rulers of his time. He was a respected and dignified personality and was popularly know as ‘Mahboob Ali Pasha’. He died on Tuesday 31 August 1911. • Mir Osman Ali Khan, the seventh and the last ruled for 37 years (1911 - 1948). His Dominion was lager than England and Scotland put together, with an area of 86,000 Sq. miles. • The seventh Nizam led a very simple life, yet he was one of the richest men in the world. He donated generously to every cause in India as well as abroad irrespective of caste and religion. If it was the Muslim theological school at Deoband which received financial help, it was also the privilege of the Benaras Hindu University. His list of donations included Rabindranth Tagore’s Shantiniketan and several other institutions including , schools, for famine , etc. The golden temple in Amritsar also enjoyed an annual donation. • The Nizam’s rule saw the growth of Hyderabad economically and culturally. Electricity, railways, roads and airways developed. Huge reservoirs and irrigation projects such as the Tungabhadra, and Nizamsagar were completed. The early work on Nagarjunasagar was undertaken. The , Colleges and Schools were founded throughout the state. Nearly all the public buildings currently in such as the Osmania General , High Court, Central State Library, Assembly Hall, Jubilee Hall and other buildings in the Public Garden were built during Osman Ali Khan’s reign. 24 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Culture - Arts and Traditions of Telangana

Introduction The name ‘Telangana’ is derived from the word ‘Trilinga’ meaning the place of three lingas as according to legends Lord ’s are found on three mountains , and which form the boundaries of Telangana. It is mentioned in the Mahabharata as Telingadesha and it is said that the people of this land sided with the in their battle against the Kauravas in the War. It is also mentioned in the Aitreyabrahmana, Ramayana and Puranas. The Art, Culture and Traditions of Telangana is a fusion of the Telugu and Persian culture dating back to the Nizams and Mughals. Hence, there is an influence of Hinduism and . Since Buddhism was the dominant religion upto the 6th century it was also the home of Buddhism. This can be observed in the monuments of and the World University at the Sri Parvata presided over by Nagarjuna. In the 12th century the Kakatiyas and the Chalukyas revived Hinduism and Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire restructured old temples and built new ones.

Art Arts Amidst the hills and forests of Adilabad one of the districts of Telangana is the small of Nirmal. It has been considered the land of art and crafts. The big community of craftsmen in Nirmal are referred to as ‘Nakkash’. It is said that this art form originated somewhere around 14th century. By the end of 17th century, this art took a radical transformation. This town is famous for its paintings known as Nirmal paintings. These paintings were greatly admired and patronised by the Mughal rulers in the medieval period and it is said that Lady Hydri later on brought the craftsmen to Hyderabad to promote their growth and development. In this, traditional art scenes are painted from the Hindu epics¬ Ramayana and Mahabharata. The paintings have been influenced by the Indian Schools of Art like Ajanta, Kangra and from Mughal miniatures. The colours used in these paintings especially the familiar gold colour are produced indigenously from extracts of herbs, gum, vegetable dye and minerals. The paintings, whether depicting the grace of a dancer or the rhythm of a musician, enrapture the viewer. It is said that in the past the Nizam of Hyderabad on visiting Nirmal was given a grand welcome with the artisans decorating the venue and seat of the Nizam in such a way that an intricately designed banana bud suspended over the Nizam’s seat unfurled and a cascade of golden petals were showered on the Nizam.

Deccani Paintings Deccani paintings are a style of miniature paintings which flourished among the Deccani Sultanates in peninsular India in the late 16th century. It was a combination of Vijayanagar wall paintings and Persian influence with elongated figures and landscapes with floral backgrounds. The colours used were rich and luminous predominantly in gold and white.

Kalamkari paintings These paintings originated from the word ‘kalam’ meaning pen and ‘kari’ meaning work. Colourful designs are applied on cloth using vegetable dyes. Scenes from are depicted though Persian designs and motifs are included due to the influence of Muslim rulers. Hand carved blocks are used to do the outlines and main features and the pen is used for finer details. 25 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Cheriyal Scroll Paintings These paintings are stylised versions of Nakashi art which is an art form practised in Cheriyaldistrict of Warangal in the Telangana region. They are used for storytelling and their themesare drawn from folklore and mythology like the Puranas and Epics. The format of thesepaintings is narrative like a film role or a comic strip. They were traditionally used by theballadeer or story telling community known as ‘Kaki Padagollu’. They went from village tovillage singing and narrating their ballads with music and dance displaying these scrolls in aseries of horizontal or vertical panels on a stage erected on four poles with a horizontal bar.The length of the scroll depended on the length of the story and each scroll could have about50 panels. The panel depicting that particular part of the story would be displayed as the bardwould narrate the story. In modern times instead of a continuous scroll single pictures arepainted as wall decorations. The making of the canvas is an elaborate procedure with Khadicotton, starch, white mud, boiled seeds and gum water. The artists then sketchthe outline on the canvas with a brush made of a stick with squirrel’s hair. They are painted invivid hues with the red colour predominantly in the background.

Sculptures Sculptures made of stone, marble or wood are made in the Telangana region into various animal and bird forms. Sculptures of deities in various forms in intricate and aesthetic styles are crafted by the artisans. Examples of fine sculptures can be seen in the Ramappa temple in Warangal, the built by the Kakatiyas in the town of Hanamakonda in Telangana and the Alampur temples in .

Ramappa Temple: It lies in a valley at Palampet village of Mandal, in erstwhile Mulug Taluq of Warangal district, a tiny village long past its days of glory in the 13th and 14th centuries.An inscription in the temple dates it to the year 1213 and said to have been built by a General Recherla Rudra, during the period of the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva.

This medieval temple is a Shivalaya (where Shiva is worshipped) and named after the sculptor Ramappa. It is the only temple in the world named after its sculptor/architect. Its presiding deity, Ramalingeswara, is the form of Shiva and a personal god of the of , Rama. The history says that it took 40 years to build this temple. Planned and sculpted by Ramappa, the temple was built on the classical pattern of being lifted above the world on a high star-shaped platform. Intricate carvings line the walls and cover the pillars and ceilings. Starting at its base to its wall panels, pillars and ceiling are sculpted figures drawn from Hindu mythology. The roof (garbhalayam) of the temple is built with bricks, which are so light that they are able to float on water.

Architecture The Thousand Pillar Temple is one of the very old temples of South India that was built by the kakatiyas. It stands out to be a masterpiece and achieved major heights in terms of architectural skills by the ancient kakathiya vishwakarma sthapathis. It is believed that the Thousand Pillar Temple was built by King Rudra Deva in 1163 AD. The Thousand Pillar Temple is a specimen of the Kakatiyan style of architecture of the 12th century. It was destroyed by the during their invasion of South India. It consists one temple and other building. There are one thousand pillars in the building and the temple, but no pillar obstructs a person in any point of the temple to see the god in the other temple. 26 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Alampur Temples: There are a total of nine temples in Alampur. All of them are dedicated to Shiva. These temples date back to the 7th century A.D and were built by the Badami Chalukyas rulers who were great patrons of art and architecture. Even after a time span of several hundred years, these grand temples still stand firm reflecting the rich architectural heritage of the country.

The temples are emblematic of the Northern and Western Indian styles of architecture. They do not reflect the Dravidian style of architecture as is generally common with the temples in this region. The shikharas of all these temples have a curvilinear form and are adorned with the miniature architectural devices. The plans and decoration similar to that of the rock cut temples. The Alampur Navabhrama Temples are historically important and reflect remarkable architectural skills. Alampur was previously Known as Halampuram, Hamalapuram And Alampuram. Name of this place as Hatampura, mentioned in the inscription dated AD 1101 belongs to Western Chalukya

Cultural Sites Museums Telangana has many museums which have prized collections of different civilisations depicting the culture of the various kingdoms of the state. They are:

Salar Jung MuseumIt is one of the three National museums of India and is located in the city of Hyderabad in Telangana. The art objects were collected by three generations of the Salar Jung family with the major portion of the collection acquired by Salar Jung III (Nawab Mir Yousuf Ali Khan) who devoted his entire life to collecting rare and precious art objects. It was originally stored in his ancestral palace ‘Dewan Deodi’. Thereafter his heirs decided to form a museum to store the various artefacts, books and manuscripts in 1968. The collection comprises antiques and art objects not only from India but also from Western, Middle East and Far East countries. It is a treasure house of art from different cultures like Roman, Greek, Hindu, Jain Buddhist, Islamic and Christian culture and a cultural centre for research projects, exhibits as well as an educational centre. These include paintings, sculptures, metal ware, carvings, ceramics, ivory, lacquer ware, porcelain, metal ware, glass etc and a huge library of books, journals and manuscripts.

Hyderabad MuseumIt is located at Hyderabad’s public garden and is the state’s oldest museum. It has many galleries containing bronze and stone sculptures, paintings, textiles, manuscripts, arts and antiquities representing Vijayanagara and Chalukyan period including Buddhist artefacts.

Nizam Museum or City Museum This museum which is situated in the palace () of the last Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah VII (Osman Ali Khan Bahadur) contains treasures which include artefacts of swords, daggers studded with precious stones, figurines, Neolithic pottery, coins of Satavahana period etc.

National History Museum This museum is located inside the in Hyderabad and contains many artefacts and stuffed dummies of extinct animals and birds. 27 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Crafts Bidri Craft This craft form is said to have originated in centuries ago and brought down by migrants. It has been nourished and maintained by future generations of practitioners and is said to have derived its name from the town Bidar of the erstwhile princely Hyderabad state now currently part of Karnataka. It is the unique art of silver engraved on metal. It involves four stages of manufacturing namely casting, engraving, inlaying and oxidising. Black colours for surface ornamentation are used for Bidri art which does not fade easily and is accompanied by silver and gold coatings. An alloy of zinc and copper called gunmetal is used for this art. Flower vases, jewellery boxes, key chains and other artefacts are made which is very popular all over the world.

Dokra Metal Craft This metal craft could be seen centuries earlier in the artefacts of Mohenjo Daro. It is a bell metal craft which combines skills of metallurgy with wax technique and though it originated in West , Chhatisgarh and Jharkhand it travelled to Orissa and Andhra Pradesh mainly in the district of Adilabad. Dokra is an ancient technique of casting wherein wax threads are wrapped around an inner core of clay model. Molten brass or bronze is poured into an opening which has been covered with another layer of clay. It is a very labour intensive work and each piece crafted is different from the other. Simple art forms and traditional designs are made like tribal Gods, figurines, caskets, bowls etc and its aesthetic beauty is in great demand in India and abroad.

Nirmal toys and handi crafts Initially the Nirmal artisans restricted themselves to art form. But later local talent was exploited and decorative and utility articles began to be manufactured. Nirmal toys are carved out of Puniki wood or ‘Puniki Chekka’ which is flexible and light and can be cut into various shapes and sizes. The various parts of the toys are then coated with ‘Chinta Leppam’ which is a specially prepared glue prepared from boiled tamarind seeds and sawdust and coated with white clay which smoothens any depressions or ridges present in the toys. The artefacts and wall plaques are made of wood which is well finished on lathe before painting the preconceived design. Then Duco paint in the desired background colour is sprayed on the plaque and finally the artisan paints the design. The quality and beauty of the finished products is breath taking. In modern times experimentation with various hues and shades without moving away from tradition has been evolved. A variety of aesthetic household and office furniture and decorative furnishings too are made by the craftsmen.

Banjara Needle Craft This needle craft is practised by the Banjaras or tribals of Telangana. It is made up of needlework with geometric patterns of squares, and triangles. Colourful and different types of stitches with mirror work, beads and shells are made on rich and brightly coloured clothes. These are different from the embroidery and design work of the tribals of Gujarat and Kutch region. These beautiful designs and intricate patterns are used in clothes, bags, bedspreads and bring an exotic look to the decor of a place. Bronze Castings The bronze castings of Telangana are world famous and detailed information can be obtained from the Shilpa which is a text from the Gupta period on the methodology of casting images in metal. The Vishnusamhita an appendix to the refers to wax modelling for making metal objects. The ancient Sanskrit text Manasara Shilpa has a chapter entitled Lost wax Method or Maduchhistha Vidhanam giving details of casting idols in wax. The Abhilasitartha Chintamani or written by King Bhulokamalla Someshvara of the Chalukya dynasty gives detailed description of lost wax and casting methods. Srikumara’s Silparatna contains instructions on the hollow casting procedure. Studying all these detailed procedures the craftsmen make the idols 28 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS with accurate measurements and descriptions of the deity in proper proportion bringing out the salient features and characteristics. Several coatings of clay on a finished wax model are used to create the mould which then imparts intricate curves to the cast image.

Lacquer Ware Lac is said to have been first mentioned in 1590 AD in Aaine Akbari written by Abul Fazl. Lac is a gummy deposit obtained from insects which are tiny and red in colour and which thrive on certain species of trees. This craft involves applying lacquer on wood in different colours which is done on a lathe or ‘turned toys’ and can be machine or hand operated. A light species of wood called Ankudu karra is generally used and the lacstick is pressed against the woodenware to be lacquered. Designs are painted on toys and figures using a brush. The lac is applied in a dry state. The lac is softened with the help of the heat evolved from the friction during the revolving of the woodenware and enables the colour to stick. The most popular form of lacquer ware are the lac studded with mirrors, beads and stones in attractive colours and designs. Besides this many decorative items like bowls, vases, containers etc are made.

Music

Telangana has a music tradition of and folk music. The different forms of folk music are Oggukatha It is a traditional folk singing art carried out by some communities who sing songs in the form of ballads in praise of their tribal Gods and on Lord Shiva moving from one place to another. They narrate and dramatise the stories of the Gods. Sarada Kala In this the story tellers or balladeers narrate stories in song form using the Sarada stringed instruments.

Dances Perini Shivathandavam Perini Shivathandavam is a dance which originated in the Kakatiya dynasty which ruledfor nearly two centuries and established their kingdom in Warangal. It was performedin front of the idol of Lord Shiva before the soldiers set out to fight in the battle. It is called the ‘Dance of Warriors’ and is usually performed only by males. Evidence of this dance form can be seen in the sculptures of the Ramappa temple in Warangal in the sanctum sanctorum or Garbha Gruha of the main temple. This dance is performed vigorously to the beats of drums as the dancers feel the power of Shiva entering their body as they invoke him in a deep abstract way and is considered highly invigorating and intoxicating. This dance form was on the verge of extinction after the decline of the Kakatiya Empire but has been revived in recent times.

Gobbi Dance It is performed during the Sankranthi festival and derives its name from ‘Gobbillu’ or ‘balls of cow dung’ which are placed in the middle of designs made in front of houses. These are then worshipped along with rituals, kumkum, turmeric and flowers. In the evening young girls sing and dance around the Gobbillu in a circular manner similar to the Garbha dance of Gujarat.

Burra Katha This is a form of storytelling using a musical instrument called ‘Burra’. This art evolved from a dance called Tandana Katha which was a popular means of entertainment for the rural masses. A group consists of three artistes the main artist being in the centre dressed with a long flowing dress called angaraksha , a colourful turban with a crest feather, a tight pyjama or , a colourful waistband and musical bells on his ankles. He holds a 29 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Burra (a kind of Tambura) in his hand and sings the ballads while playing the instrument. He is called the storyteller or Kathakudu and his stories are based on mythology or history. He also wears a metal ring called Andelu in his right hand and holds another ring in his left hand and beats music with them. He is accompanied by two other artistes one on either side called Vantalu who are similarly dressed and play the instruments called Barralu or Budigalu or dhaki which are earthern drums of two heads. One of them is called the Rajkiya who enlivens the session with his satirical political and social commentary and the other is the Hasyam clown for comic relief. The ballad compositions contain a variety of songs in content and form in different meters.

Dandaria dance This dance is generally performed by the Gonds of the hilly region of Northern Hyderabad with Dandas or sticks. The male dancers wear colourful costumes and strike their sticks dancing to the accompaniment of trumpets and drums with musicians leading the procession. They go from village to village and even the hosts sometimes accompany them in their dance. According to the Gond legend, Dandaria was an ancient Gond hero who was the creator of this dance and he was originally a descendant of the Pandavas thus the Gonds believe they too are descendants of the Pandavas and joyously celebrate this dance.

Dhamal Dance This dance is in mime form and performed by the Siddhis of Hyderabad region. The Siddhis are said to be originally from Africa and Abyssinia who were brought into Andhra as slaves in the 12th century to perform guard duties in the palaces by the Hindu Kings. The ruling classes used them as sailors, soldiers and guards. It is in the form of martial art using shields and swords and they perform various steps and is a ceremonial dance performed during marriages to the accompaniment of various musical instruments. Their exotic dances with special war like movements and exotic colourful costumes reflect the flavour of their land of origin.

Mathuri Dance This is a special dance performed by the Madhuri tribe of Adilabad during the rainy season of the month of . Unlike in most of the dance forms which are performed predominantly by men including roles of women, this dance is performed by both men and women with men in the outer semi circle and women in the inner circle. The men strike small sticks while women clap to the accompaniment of secular and devotional songs. These tribes were said to have been originally from and hence their dance is said to bear resemblance to the Ras Leela dances of .

Bhamakalpam and Gollakalapam These are famous folk art forms of traditional drama written by Sidhendra Yogi in the 7th century. Kalapam is a one act folk play in a simple traditional dance drama form. A Sutradhar gives the main running commentary of the sequence and each character narrates his story with another character making comments or asking questions. The main emphasis is Satthvikabhinaya with Bhakti or Shringar Rasa. This dance form with emphasis on moral values was initiated by Sidhendra Yogi to differentiate it from the dances performed by the nautch girls of those times. He trained young boys from the Brahmin community with complex expressions and elaborate gestures as in the dance form with philosophical stories forming the main theme wherein a simple milkmaid explains to an erudite Brahmin concepts of and the philosophy behind the various incarnations of God on earth. 30 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Festivals Besides the common festivals celebrated throughout the year there are many festivals significant to the region. They are:

Bathukamma This festival is celebrated by the women of Telangana during Mahalaya Amavasya or Bhadrapada Amavasya in the month of September – October during Navratri for a period of nine days and is now declared the State Festival of Telengana. The first day is on Mahalaya Amavasya and the last day culminates on Ashwayuja Ashtami or Durgashtami two days before Dussehra. This day is called Pedda or Saddula Bathukamma. ‘Bathukamma’ or ‘Divine Mother Gauri– Life Giver’ is said to be the patron Goddess for women. Women dress up in traditional finery, clean their courtyard, use cow dung as base and decorate it with various designs of Rangoli using rice flour. For the first five days five small cone shaped lumps with cow dung are arranged in the courtyard. Men help in gathering various kinds of flowers including rare and wild flowers found in the various plains of the region. These flowers are decorated and scented and stacked in a conical mound with a lotus or pumpkin flower on the top along with a symbolic mound of turmeric depicting Goddess Gauri. In the evening women form a circle around it clapping and singing folk songs slowly revolving around in small steps. The songs invoke the blessings of the various Goddesses for the happiness, good health and prosperity of their families.

Boddemma This festival commences nine days prior to Bathukamma festival and concludes on Mahalaya Amavasya. It is a festival for unmarried girls. The courtyard is cleaned and decorated with turmeric, flowers and Rangoli. An image of Boddemma is prepared in seven layers with earth in the shape of a Gopura. In the evening all unmarried girls sing and dance around it praying to the Goddess for an early and successful marriage.

Bonalu This festival is celebrated to pray to Goddess Mahakali and began during the period of the Nizams. It is said that during the outbreak of plague in the 18th century in Hyderabad, people prayed that they would instal an idol of Mahakali if the disease was destroyed and hence this festival is celebrated. Another version states that the Goddess returns to her parental home in the month of Ashadi and the occasion is welcomed and celebrated as . Women and unmarried girls dress up in traditional finery dancing with Bonam (balancing pots) to the rhythmic beats of drums. Devotees offer a Thottelu or a small colourful paper structure supported by sticks as a mark of respect. The brother of the Goddess represented by Pothuraju is a man anointed with turmeric and vermilion draped in a red dhoti with bells in his ankles who dances to resounding drums and leads the female dancers to the temple. Streets are decorated with neem leaves and the Goddess is offered cooked rice with milk and sugar in brass or earthern pots decorated with neem leaves, turmeric and vermillion.

Sadar The people belonging to the Gola caste or the community celebrate this festival on the second day after and it is also known as the Dunnapothula Panduga or the Buffalo festival. Buffaloes are decorated in festive colours, turmeric with bells around their necks and are taken around the streets. Competitions are held and awards are presented to the owners of the buffaloes. Samakka Saralamma This festival is held once every two years in the month of February and is celebrated for four days attracting a large number of pilgrims to Warangal. Samakka and Saralamma are the mother and daughter duo revered as tribal Goddesses. According to legends they fought against 31 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS the unjust and unfair rulers of the kingdom and are worshipped and revered to this day. All the tribal population gather together and offer prayers and Thulabaram (offering objects equal to body weight) generally of jiggery to the Goddesses. They then take a dip in the Jampanna Vagu where Jampanna was said to be the son of Samakka and he died sacrificing his life for the sake of the tribal people in his battle against the Kakatiya rulers.

Bhimanna or Ayak This festival is celebrated by the tribes of Adilabad and falls in the Kolam month of Satti. It lasts for three days. Bhimanna or Ayak is the principal deity of the Kolam tribe. He is represented by a carved mace of wood crowned with peacock feathers, a pot with a belt of bells or anklets and small dolls made of mud, which are stored in a thatched shed. On a holy Thursday these relics are then brought to the heart of the village. The deity is then bathed at a hill stream and brought to the enclosure and animal or fowl sacrifice is carried out and offered to the deity. The meat is then cooked and offered to everyone.

Yedupayala This annual festival is held in Medak on the holy Mahashivaratri day in a sacred place where the seven tributaries of the join and flow together.

Nagoba Jathara The Nagoba Jathara that occurs in the village of Keslapur in . The Jathara is an annual celebration by the Mesaram clan of the Gond tribes is a five day event. It is a huge event which receives participation from the Gond tribes of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.Members of the Mesaram clan revere the serpent God Nagoba which forms the main essence of this Jathara. The Nagoba, also known as Shesh Nag, is the divine serpent of Lord Shiva.Part of this ritual includes introducing newly married women to the clan by paying tribute to Nagoba, the serpent God. Women who have been married earlier but for some reason have not been able to participate in this ritual are also included. The women along with their mother-in-law touch the feet of the priests and carry a new earthenware pot to fetch water from Hastina madugu of river Godavari in Jannaram mandal near to Nagoba temple. The water is then used to make an anthill which is subsequently worshipped as a sacred object. The women then congregate at the ‘Govad’ an enclosure close to the temple and prepare Naivedyam or offering to the Lord on 22 makeshift ovens corresponding to the 22 of the Mesaram clan. The Naivedyam or the offering to the Lord comprises nine different types of food grains. The women cover their faces with their own and reveal their faces to Nagoba on entering his shrine. This indicates that the Lord is the first person they behold when they enter the clan on the new moon day. This is considered to be extremely auspicious for the new entrants.

Alai Balai Alai Balai is a cultural event held during the Navarathri festivities before Dussherah The festival aims to spread brotherhood among people.The festival was started by MP and Minister Bandaru , at , but is now held at Jal Vihar, Tank Bund.The event is well attended by all sections and politicians of all regions. A typical ambience of the rural area in Telangana is created and is popular for the food festival for its traditional food delicacies.

Conclusion Telangana has a rich culture and tradition and the artefacts and crafts made by the artisans are in great demand throughout the world. Their historical designs on cloth and their folk and traditional arts are well known and have been passed down to generations of artisans and weavers. 32 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Historic Places of Telangana

1. Charminar • The Charminar is a monument and mosque in Hyderabad, India. The structure was built in 1591 CE. It is the most famous building of Hyderabad and also one of the most famous buildings in India. It was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahi to celebrate the end of a deadly plague. The Charminar lies near the bank of the river Musi. Charminar is taken from two words Char and Minar which translate as Four Towers in English, soar to a height of 48.7m each, above the ground. • The structure is of Indo- with some Persian elements. It was built with granite and lime- mortar. It is a blend of 'Cazia' and Islamic style of architecture. The intertwined arches and domes are examples of typical Islamic style of the architecture. The city of Hyderabad was divided into four divisions equally around the Charminar.

2. • Golconda derives its name from the Telugu words konda meaning ‘shepherd’s hill’. Its establishment dates about 800 years back and was founded by Kakatiya kings of Warangal. It rose to power and fame when Quli Qutub Shah of Qutub Shahi dynasty decided to operate from there as his capital fort. It was during this dynasty’s rule that the fort expanded to a much larger area and turned out be a massive one made of granite. • An interesting fact about this historical landmark is the mind-blowing acoustic effect it produces. A clap made at the entrance gate can be heard even at the highest point of the fort called ‘Bala Hissar’ situated a kilometre away. This miracle during those days is indeed remarkable and was implemented so as to protect the fort from enemy attacks. In ancient times, this was the only known source of diamond across the globe and was known for producing Kohinoor, Darya-e-nur and Hope diamonds.

3. SalarJung Museum • The was established in 1951. The major portion of the collection of the museum was acquired by Mir Yousuf Ali Khan, popularly known as Salar Jung III. In the absence of any direct descendants of Salar Jung III, the appointed a Committee to administer the Salar Jung Estate. Later on with the idea of perpetuating his name, the Salar Jung Museum was brought into existence on 16th December, 1951 in Diwan Deodi, the residential palace of Salar Jung III and opened to the public by Pandit Jawarharlal Nehru, the then . In 1958, the Government of India took over the museum through a compromise deed. In 1961, through an Act of Parliament, the Salar Jung Museum along with its library was declared as an “Institution of National Importance”. Mir Yousuf Ali Khan was not only a collector of antiques but he also patronized poets, writers and artists, encouraging literary and cultural activities. He continued with his zeal as an art connoisseur till the very end of his life enriching his art collections and died as a bachelor on 2nd March,1949 at the age of 60.

4. Warangal Fort • Warangal Fort is located in Warangal District of Telangana. This fort was formerly the pride of Andhra Pradesh. This early medieval historical monument was erected by the Kakatiya Kings of 13th century. Although precise 33 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

dating of its construction and subsequent enhancements are uncertain, the historians and archaeologists generally accept that an earlier brick-walled structure was replaced with stone by Ganapatideva, who died in 1262, and that his successors - Rudramadevi and Prataparudra - added to its height and added gateways, square bastions and additional circular earthen walls prior to the death of Rudramadevi in the year 1323. The construction of Warangal Fort, happened towards the end of the Kakatiya period. There were later modifications between the 15th and 17th centuries, comprising principally the addition of barbicans to the four gates in the stone wall and the creation of gates in the outer earthen wall • Warangal was also built by the Kakatiya Kings of Warangal of 13th Century. Now the Torana is the symbol of the . The were present because, Warangal is the erstwhile capital of ancient Andhra Pradesh during 12th to 14th century. It is one of the fine examples of Kakatiya architecture.

5. Fort • It was built in 10th Century on an isolated monolithic rock by the western Chalukya ruler Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya VI and was thus named after him as Tribhuvanagiri. • At the foot of the fortified rocks 609.6 meters above the sea level stands the town of Bhongir, it has a unique egg-shaped construction with two entry points protected by huge rocks, so the fort was considered practically impregnable by invading armies. The splendid historical fort with the awe-inspiring rock and the aesthetically fortified courts which have stood the ravages of time stir the imagination of tourists. A moat that encircles the fort, a vast underground chamber, trap doors, an armoury, stables, ponds, wells etc., can make interesting viewing. The view from the top of the surrounding countryside can be impressive. The Bala or citadel on the top of the hill gives a bird's eye view of the neighbouring area. The fort is associated with the rule of queen Rudramadevi and her grandson Prataparudra.

6. Medak Fort • Medak Fort is in about 100 kilometres from the state capital, Hyderabad. It is a huge structure located on the top of a hill, which was built about 800 years back in Medak. Built about 90 metres height from ground level and spread in about 100 acres on the hilly area, the fort attracts ones attention. On the top of the third gate, at both left and right sides the ‘Ganda Bherunda,' emblem of Vijayanagara Empire built by Srikrishna Devaraya, stands out. It was believed that the fort built by Kakatiya's was renovated by Qutub Shahis's around 400 years ago. The Medak fort, which was ruled by two dynasties -- Kakatiya's and Qutub Shahi's .

7. Medak Church • Medak Church stands at 173 feet tall made of solid white granite. The church, the single largest diocese in and the second largest in the world after the Vatican is built in solid white granite. Medak Church was constructed between 1914 and 1924 and Thomas Edward Harding who is an architect put in all his best efforts building the cathedral. For the floor, tiles from famous potteries were shipped from England. The tile's design is an intricate one in six colours - red, brown, black, yellow, chocolate and grey. The three stained glass windows makes the church apart, created by Sir Frank O' Salisbury of London who painted them in a small studio for nearly 40 years. 34 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

8. Nirmal Fort • The region was ruled by Kakatiyas, Chalukyas, The Qutubshahis and Nizams who have contributed immensely to the growth of cultural heritage. • This legacy of the heritage is seen in the town where the French established a strong presence by building a magnificent fort, which stands majestically till date. The French who were reportedly very much fascinated by scenic beauty of Mother Nature here built the Nirmal fort which is also called as the Shamgarh fort.

9. Kolanpak • Kolanupaka came into prominence when it was made the capital of the Kalyani Chalukyas in the 11th century AD. The State Department of Archaeology and Museums established a sculptural gallery, which exhibits artefacts collected from the various historical monuments of Kolanupaka. Artefacts from both the Chalukyan and Kakatiyan styles are displayed in the museum. The museum has more than 100 images collected around Kolanupaka. • Situated here is the renowned Jain Mandir with a 1.5 metre high idol of Lord , built during the Rastrkuta- Kalyani Chalukyas times. Other attractions here include the Sri Veeranarayana Swamy temple built around 1104 A.D., Someswara Swamy temple which is a splendid example of the Chalukya architecture. Kolanpaka Museum where artefacts from the Chalukyan and Kakatiyan period are on display.

10. Pembarthi • Pembarthi village in Warangal District is the hometown of this art. This art form, as the name suggests was popularised by the Pembarthi village sheet metal workers of modern day Warangal during the reign of Kakatiyas. • During the Kakatiya rule, sheet metal work adorned the chariots of the kings and noblemen and the idols of the Gods. With the increasing number of temples during the Kakatiya rule the Pembarthi sheet metal work reached the peak of its popularity. With the decline of the Kakatiya kingdom, the subsequent Muslim influences resulted in the entry of the sheet metal wares into the house holds in the forms of 'Pandans' (small boxes for carrying beetle nuts), 'Itar' pots (scent containers), vases, hanging metal lamps, plaques etc. The following years saw a mixture of both the cultures in Pembarthi articles. The art wore a secular look.

11. • One of the finest palaces in Hyderabad, India. It is located in the common capital area shared between the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. It belonged to Paigah Hyderabad State, and it was later owned by the Nizams. It is on a 32-acre (13 ha) area in Falaknuma, 5 km from Charminar. It was built by Nawab Vikar-ul-Umra, prime minister of Hyderabad and the uncle and brother-in-law of the Nizam VI, Nawab Mir Mahboob Ali Khan Bahadur.[2] Falak-numa means "Like the Sky" or "Mirror of the Sky" in . An English architect designed this palace. The foundation for the construction was laid by Sir Vicar on March 3, 1884. He was the great grandson of Khuddus, a scientist who was a friend of Sir Charles Darwin.It took nine years to complete the construction and furnish the palace. Sir Vicar moved into the Gol Bangla and Zanana Mahel of the Falaknuma Palace in December 1889 and closely monitored the finishing work at the Mardana portion.It is made completely with Italian marble and covers an area of 93,971 square meters.The palace was built in the shape of a scorpion with two stings spread out as wings in the north. The middle part is occupied by the main building and the kitchen, 35 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Gol Bangla, Zenana Mehal, and harem quarters stretch to the south. The Nawab was an avid traveler, and his influences show in the architecture. The Falaknuma palace is a rare blend of Italian and Tudor architecture. Its stained glass windows throw a spectrum of colour into the rooms. • One of the highlights of the palace is the state reception room, whose ceiling is decorated with frescoes and gilded reliefs. The ballroom contains a two-ton manually operated organ said to be the only one of its kind in the world. Thepalace has 220 lavishly decorated rooms and 22 spacious halls. It has some of the finest treasure collections of the Nizam. Falaknuma houses a large collection of rare treasures including paintings, statues, furniture, manuscripts and books.The collection of the palace is considered to be unique in the world. The famed dining hall could seat 100 guests at its table. The chairs were made of carved rosewood with green leather upholstery. The tableware was made of gold and crystal to which fluted music was added. The length of the table is 108 feet, and breadth is 5.7 feet and height is 2.7 feet. The palace has a library with a walnut carved roof: a replica of the one at Windsor Castle. The library had one of the finest collections of the Quran in India.The ground floor of the palace housed the living quarters. A marbled staircase leads to the upper floor. It has carved balustrades, which supports marble figurines with candelabra at intervals. There is a billiards room. Burroughs and Watts from England designed two identical tables, one of which is in Buckingham Palace and the other in the Falaknuma palace.On the walls of the landing are many oil paintings and photographs of notable personages.The Falaknuma Palace also has the largest collection of Venetian chandeliers, with 40 138-arm Osler chandeliers in the halls.The telephone and electrical system was introduced in 1883 by Osler and the palace has one of the largest electrical switchboards in India.The palace was the private property of the Nizam family, and not normally open to the public, until 2000.

12. Qutub Shahi Tombs • The tombs of the seven Qutub Shahi rulers in the Ibrahim Bagh (garden precinct) are located close to the famous Golkonda Fort in Hyderabad, India. The galleries of the smaller tombs are of a single storey while the larger ones are two storied. In the centre of each tomb is a sarcophagus which overlies the actual burial vault in a crypt below. The domes were originally overlaid with blue and green tiles, of which only a few pieces now remain.They lie about a kilometre north of the outer perimeter wall of Golkonda Fort and its Banjara Darwaza (Gate of the Gipsies, or itinerant merchants), amidst the Ibrahim Bagh.The tombs form a large cluster and stand on a raised platform. The tombs are domed structures built on a square base surrounded by pointed arches, a distinctive style that blends Persian, Pashtun and Hindu forms. The tombs are structures with intricately carved stonework and are surrounded by landscaped gardens. The tombs were once furnished with carpets, chandeliers and velvet canopies on silver poles. Copies of the Quran were kept on pedestals and readers recited verses from the holy book at regular intervals. Golden spires were fitted over the tombs of the sultans to distinguish their tombs from those of other members of the royal family.

13. Thousand Pillars Temple • The Thousand pillars temple which is located in Hanamkonda is one of the most important parts of the Warangal City. The temple was constructed in the 1163 AD by the great Rudra Deva. Every part of the temple depicts the typical Chalukya style of architecture. The Thousand Pillar temple has three shrines inside the temple called the 36 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Trikutalayam with presiding deities, Lord Vishnu, Shiva and Deva. The temple stands as a statement of the finest of arts of the Kakatiyas. It was desecrated by the Tughlaq dynasty during their invasion of the Deccan.

14. Badshahi Ashurkhana • Badshahi Ashurkhana is one of the most important structures of Telangana. This ancient monument shows the architectural grandeur of Mughal era. It is a mourning place for Shias during the festival of Moharram near Charminar in Hyderabad, India. It is a house of mourning constructed in memory of martyrdom of Imam Hussain. It was built by Muhammed Quli Qutb Shah in 1594, three years after building the Charminar. The Ashur Khana stands today with enamel tiles that have retained their lustre and vibrant colours even after four centuries. The intricate design in hexagons is exquisite.

15. Gandhari Khilla (Gandhari Kota) • Gandhari Khilla is a hill fort located near Bokkalagutta, in Mandal in Adilabad district in the south Indian state of Telangana. The fort was built in the 12th century by the Gondu tribals with the help of the Kakatiya people of Warangal. Archaeological work suggests that construction of the fort was begun early as the Rastrakuta era (prior to 1200 A.D.) and continued until 16th century. All the sculptures, gate (thoranam) and pillars were constructed in Kakatiyas style. By observing the decorations, the shanku and chakra, beside every sculpture we find that they are dedicated to Vishnu, while Kakatiyas worshipped Shiva. The script of Shree Oddi raju anantha raju shasanam. Basically it belonged to the Kingdom of Gondus, but later on Oddi raju anantharaju occupied it. Later it was controlled by the Qutub Sahi Sultanate (1518–1687). In 1656, the ruler of Golconda. • The fort was built within a thickly forested area which has a wealth of plant species which includes many medicinal herbs. The fort has not been fully excavated and is still partially covered by forest. Mahankali Jatara (quarry jatara) is conducted every year which attracts more than 10,000 people. Gandhari maisamma jatra is done in the temple on the fort of Gandhari for every 2 years and tribal people from Vindhya region i.e Maharastra, Chattisghad on the other bankside joins it.

16.Alampur • Alampur is a town situated on the banks Tungabhadra River, and is considered as the western gateway of Srisailam. The popular temple stands as a testimony to Chalukya Art and Culture. The Tungabhadra and Krishna are seen in a confluence near Alampur, and hence it is also know known as Dakshina Kailasam. It is also said that had performed a great penance at today’s Alampur for thousands of years, and he pleased Lord Siva who conferred the powers of creation for him. Hence, the deity is also called Brahmeswara and the goddess as Yogini or Jogulamba, a synonym for mother Parvathi.

17.Elgandal Fort • Originally known as Veligundula, Elgandal is a hillfort built during the Kakatiya dynasty (1083–1323) and served as a stronghold for the warrior Musunuri Nayaks and Recharla padmanayaks. The Qutb Shahi dynasty occupied the fort in the 16th century and posted Quinamul Mulk as commander. Subsequently, it fell under the administrative control of the Mughal Empire.Amin Khan was appointed as Khiledar of Elagandal during the 37 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

reign of Nizam of Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk, Asaf Jah I (r. 1724–1748) followed by Muqarrab Khan. Mirza ibrahim dhamsa became Khiledar during the reign of Nawab Salabat Jung. Dhamsa rebuilt and strengthened the fort in 1754 during the reign of Sikindar Jha (r.1803-1823). Bahadur Khan and Karimuddin served as Khiledars. Karimnagar was named after Karimuddin. While reorganizing the districts, Mahbub Ali Khan, the Sixth Nizam, shifted the District Headquarters from Elagandal to Karimnagar in 1905. Elgandal Fort is situated amidst palm groves on the banks of the Manair River (a tributary of the Godavari River), approximately 10 kms from Karimnagar

18. Fort • Jagtial Fort also throws light on the rich history of rulers but stands out because it is the only star-shaped fort in Telangana that is fitted with canons. • The Mughal dynasty used it as a Defence Fort in the 17 century. During the 17th century, the fort was designed by two European engineers – Jack and Tal. It is surrounded by four water bodies – Mote pond, Dharma Samandar, Mupparaap and Kandla Palli. The place, later known as Jagtial, was inspired by the names of these two engineers. True to its name, the fort is a must visit for heritage lovers and tourists keen on culling out the history of rulers and dynasties. It bears a strong resemblance to the castles of Europe. • According to Archaeological Department officials, it was built during the reign of Nawab Ibrahim, a Governor in the Mughal dynasty. The fort has two wooden gates, which were lifted by using pulleys. This is the only star- shaped fort in the State with a moat (water body). • History says that there used to be a row of rooms for the storage of ammunition at this fort. Though a majority of structures of the fort have been destroyed over the years, the well is safe and provides water to locals in the region

19. Nagunur Fort • It was a fort built by the people of the Kakatiya dynasty in the village of Nagunur, around 8 km north of Karimnagar. The fort is testimony to the imperial powers of the Kakatiyas. It was one of the most important forts of the emerging Kakatiya dynasty and contains ruins of a cluster of Kalyana and Kakathiya temples. The origin and style of these temples can be traced back to the era of the Kalyani, Chalukyas and Kakatiyas. However, it is strongly believed to have been built during 1200- 1300AD under the patronage of the Kakatiyas. At one point of time the place was believed to house around 400 temples. Hence it came to be known as Nalugunovalu (400). This was later changed to Nagunur. • The biggest and the most prominent among these is the triple-shrine temple of Lord Shiva.The temple is made of red stone and comprises three shrines of Lord Shiva. The shrines are placed on a raised pedestal or Upapitha.

20. • Khammam Fort is a fort in the city of Khammam, Telangana, India. The fort is believed to have been built by the Kakatiya rulers in 950 AD. It served as an impregnable citadel during various regimes of different dynasties, including the Kakatiyas, Qutb Shahi’s and Asaf Jahis. • Although Khammam fort was majorly under the Kakatiya dynasty, it slowly became an independent territory within the kingdom. 38 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• After the decline of the Kakatiya dynasty, 74 Telugu speaking feudatories of the region under the leadership of Musuluri fought for 10 long years to unify the Telugu land and they did not succeed. • Shitab khan, the army commander of the Humayin shah of the Bahmani sultanate declared Khammam as his (a land fief) along with and Warangal in the year 1503 and ruled this fort city without getting into any troubles with the then rulers between 1503 A.D to 1512 A.D. He maintained good relations with the Qutb shahi. During this time Khammam became major city of the region and Shitab khan rose to high stature in the eyes of other rulers and this fort city was declared the regional administration capital of the kingdom. • In the turbulent regional politics of the time, Quli Qutb Shah ruler of Golconda Fort (in modern Hyderabad) was asserting his dominance and Shitab Khan had to face invasions from Golconda which was just shaking off the suzerainty of the Bahmanis.Warangal succumbed to the Golconda ruler and Shitab Khan had to flee, about 1512. He joined the service of Prataparudra Gajapati, King of Kalinga (Orissa). When the legendary Vijayanagara Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya went on his Kalinga campaign, 1516–1517, his triumphal progress was effectively hindered by the archers of Shitab Khan at the mountain pass near Simhadri(modern district). But Shitab lost the battle and, very likely, his life there. • Khammam fort fell into the hands of the Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya during 1515 A.D. According to Nandi Thimmana (15th and 16th centuries CE), a Telugu poet and one of the Astadiggajas in the court of the king Sri Krishnadevaraya, described this historical incident in his notable work called 'Parijathaapaharanam' as Ghambham mettu (Stambhadri or Khammam mettu) grakkuna gadalche..Raja Puthrude Sri Krishnadevaraya vibhudu’. • Meaning, The Emperor Sri Krishnadevaraya invaded the City or the Fort of Khammam. • Sultan Ibrahim Qutb Shah, the fourth ruler of the kingdom of Golconda in southern India invaded this fort around 1550 AD. Later on four Qutb shahi ruled over this historic land namely (1580–1612), Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah (1612–1626), (1626–1672) and Abul Hasan Qutb Shah (1672–1689) popularly known as Tana Shah. • Mughal emperor Aurangajeb invaded this fort in the year 1687 A.D and subsequently went into the hands of the Asaf jahi rulers.The Asaf jahis appointed a Subedar named Nizam Mulki Asal ji.He later declared independence in the year 1722 A.D. • Zafar-ud-doula was appointed as the Tahasildar in between the years 1761 to 1803, under whose rule this fort has been renovated and all the new constructions including the roads took place. • In the year 1768, Zafar-ud-doula – II was appointed as the Tahasildar. He is also the younger brother of the former. The urban settlement of Dhamsalapuram was named after Zafar-ud-doula-I (also known as Dhamsa). • The Fort and the City went into the complete control of the Government created by the Nizam's during the 1800s and by the time of the Asaf Jah VII, Mir Osman Ali Khan the fort was under complete control of the Government of Nizam in the year 1937.

21. • Nelakondapalli is a historic site encompassed by a mud wall covering nearly one-hundred acre. Excavations there have unearthed several foundations of brick-built viharas, wells, cisterns, a mahastupa, terracotta figurines, a bronze idol of Buddha, a miniature stupa carved in limestone and other materials from the 3rd and 4th centuries. 39 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• Also of historical and, particularly, cultural significance are two archaeological sites located approximately 1.6 km from Nelakondapalli. According to local Hindu folk tradition, the sites referred to as Virataraju Dibba and Keechaka Gundam were contemporaneous to certain events described in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The discovery of archeological relics at the sites seems to corroborate the local Hindu folk account.

22. • When Lord Rama, and went for their Vanvasa, they stayed in this place called Panchavati in the forest. They built a hut on the banks of River Godavari. It is said that sage in Panchavati amidst Dandaka forest chose the site. The Gowtami River, which is another name for River Godavari, flowed nearby. It is said to be the place from where abducted Sita Devi while on their exile. A small hermitage of a structure has been constructed as a replica of the Hut used by Lord Rama. The local people believe that "Sita Vaagu" a place near by is the same location where Sita used to take bath, collect the kumkum and other necessities from the forest. • Marks on the stones of the mountain are believed to be those of Sita and the chariot wheel types of Marks on the other side of the mountain are believed to be those of the chariot of Ravana when he was taking Sita forcibly on his chariot after abducting her form the parnala after tricking her. As this place witnessed the sad mood of Lord Rama this place is called as Soka Rama.

23.Pillalamarri • Pillala Marri is an 800-year-old banyan tree located in Mahabubnagar. The tree had original main trunk and many prop roots which resemble like many trunks, like its children, hence the name. Main trunk either died out or cannot be recognized among many prop roots, It is spread over three acres of land.

24. Nandikonda • Nandikonda is a small village located along the banks of Krishna River in district. It is located close to the magnificent . Nandikonda was part of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and the village shot into prominence after scores of ancient Buddhist structures like pillared halls and monasteries were unearthed. There are also ruins of a fort dating back to Ikshvaku Dynasty. The citadel consists of gates, strong , water trenches, and even as rectangular-shaped stadium were found during archeological excavations. The Nagarjuna Sagar dam was initially called Nandikonda project and the place finds place in the Buddhist circuit of Telangana.

25. Deverakonda Fort • Fort acted as a prominent fortified defensive structure of the rulers of Recherla Velama dynasty that rules parts of Telangana after Kakatiyas. It was built in the 14th century by the Velama Kings. The territory of Devarakonda was developed by the Padma Nayaka Velama rulers. The fortress was controlled by the ruling family from 1287 AD to 1482 AD. Then the fort was ruled by Maada Naidu who was the 8th king among the Padma Nayaka rulers. He was a great warrior and an educationist apart from being a kind ruler. During his reign, Devarakonda flourished with many temples and heritage sites. 40 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

• This fort is famous for its architectural brilliance. The fort is surrounded by seven hills with some great rocks and boulder and few forest. The fort built over a hilltop has large walls with curved bastions along with it. The fort ramparts were built with artillery and cannon points. The fort complexes are built up to 2 storeys. There are many granaries found here. It has a magazine house, large living area and few small houses. There are temples of Lord Rama and Lord Shiva inside the fort. Also there is a small lake that provided water source to the residents of the fort. Now the fort lies in ruins and acts as a tourist attraction.

26. Rachakonda Fort • The Rachakonda Fort was constructed by the Padmanayaka Velama King Anapotanayaka in the 14th century AD. Till that time the Padmanayakas had their capital at Anumagallu. At around 1360 AD the capital was shifted by Anapotanayaka from Anumagallu to Rachakonda where he built a strong fort. • Anapotanayaka split the Kingdom into two for administrative convenience and his brother Madanayaka ruled from Devarakonda. Devarakonda was subservient to Rachakonda. The Padmanayakas lost control of Rachakonda in 1430 AD to the Bahamanis but held onto Devarakonda till 1475 AD when the Padmanayaka kingdom was finally extinguished and they joined the court of Vijayanagara Kingdom. • The Rachakonda kingdom stretched upto Godavari in the North, Srisailam in the South, Bahamani kingdom in the West and Kondaveedu in the East. • The Rachakonda kings initially supported the Bahamani Kingdom but later in the war between the Bahamanis and Vijayanagara kings in 1424 AD, they switched their allegiance to the Vijayanagara Kingdom. This enraged the Bhamani sultan Firoz Shah who later signed a peace treaty with Vijyanagara and attacked the Rachakonda kingdom and conquered it. By the year 1433 AD, only a few forts remained in the control of kings of Rachakonda. • The Rachakonda kings then sought the help of Kapileswara Gajapati of Orissa and also promised him large amounts of money. He sent his son Hamviradeva (known as Ambar Roy to the Muslims) along with a large army to help the Rachakonda kings. By 1461 AD, the Rachakonda kings recovered all their lost forts and became kings of Orugallu with the help of Hamviradeva but in turn lost their independence and became tributaries of the Gajapatis of Orissa. • The Bahamni kingdom under Nizam Shah again attacked Orugallu in 1475 AD and the Kingdom was annexed by the sultan. Thus the Rachakonda kingdom originated in 1350-60 AD and was finally consumed by the Bahamanis in the year 1475 AD.

27.Domakonda Fort • Domakonda Fort was constructed initially during the age of Qutub Shahis and Asaf Jahis in Nizamabad which was remodeled in the 18th century. It is also said that the Domakonda Fort was built by the Reddy rulers of Domakonda Samsthanam in the 18th century on a spot where a fort existed earlier. Domakonda was a princely region under Qutb Shahis and Asaf Jahis. The Reddy rulers of Domakonda built the fort in the 18 century at a sight where a fort existed earlier. Domakonda Fort was primarily used as a fortified defensive structure. This fort is also called Gadi Domakonda or Killa Domakonda. It is one of the beautiful forts present in Telangana. The architecture of the fortress displays both Hindu and Muslim styles. It has an elevated compound of granite rocks that forms the fort wall, followed by the beautiful two-storied fort structure. 41 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

28. • Dhulikatta Buddhist Centre – Dated back to 2nd Century BC • Located on the banks of Hussainimiya Vagu in Taluk of , Dhulikatta Buddhist Centre is an ancient Buddhist site. The presence of this ancient site bearing important relics and artifacts helps to add a different dimension to Karimnagar Tourism. Tracing its origin back to the Satavahana era, Dhulikatta is a rich repository of ancient relics and reminiscences which keeps history alive. • Known to be one of the thirty metropolitan areas which find mention in the ancient account of Megasthenes, Dhulikatta (a corrupted version of Dhulikota) was named after the mud fort (kota) found in its vicinity. As a result the area also came to be known as the Kota area. Rich excavations have helped unearth valuable artifacts which bring to light various mysteries of the bygone eras. The biggest and most interesting excavation has been that of a Buddhist Stupa on a mound and that of a Vihara. Both of these can be traced back to the 2nd century BC. • The excavation of the Stupa has also been accompanied by interesting relics like the embellished drum with sculptured veneer slabs and limestone slabs and the Ayaka platforms. These are platforms that extend out from the drums and are found at entrance gateways. The dome of the Stupa was built with the help of 47 stone slabs. • A study of the excavated remains reveals rich stories of the Satavahana period. The excavations have also revealed coins and seals belonging to the Romans and Satavahanas indicating the prevalence of trade relations between the two countries. • In the month of January, Dhulikatta celebrates the Satavahana festival which is held for three days.

29. Ramagiri Khilla • The Ramagiri Fort, also known as Ramagiri Khilla, located over a mountain top, is in the . The fort was built in the 12th century by the Kakatiyas of Warangal. Later, it was controlled by the Qutub Sahi Sultanate from 1518 to 1687. In 1656, the ruler of Golconda, Abdullah Qutb Shah, gave the fort to his son-in-law, one of Aurangzeb's sons. The fort came under the control of the in 1791. Tradition has it that Kalidasa, one of the greatest Sanskrit poets, was motivated to compose his Meghadūta, a lyrical poem, by the Ramagiri Fort; however, Kalidasa is thought to have lived in the fifth century CE, well before the fort's construction. 42 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Telangana Literature

Telugu literature or Telugu Pandityam is the body of works written in the Telugu language. It consists of poems, novels, short stories, dramas and puranas. can be traced back to the early 11th century period when Mahabharata was first translated to Telugu from Sanskrit by Nannaya. It flourished under the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, where Telugu was one of the empire's official languages. Telugu split from Proto-Dravidian between 1500-1000 BC. Telugu became a distinct language by the time any literary activity began to appear in the Tamil land, along with Parji, Kolami, Nayaki and Gadaba languages. Telugu is a Dravidian Language native to India.

Narrative Literature The genre of narrative literature is classified into four in the Purana – Akhyayika (real/historical story), Katha (imaginary story with little truth), Khanda Katha (short story), Parikatha (fairy tale) and Kathanika (small tale). Nowadays, Kathanika is one which is dialogic and modern in language and expression of feelings. But in practice, all of these are in vogue as Katha only. Fictional narrative has become the most popular of all the literary genres. Over the last decade the genre of story has seen an exuberant bloom and international status.

Among the pioneers of modern Telangana, Vattikota Alwarswamy occupies a unique place, as he inaugurated the era of popular literature. The cultural and literary resurgence in Telangana was spearheaded by Komarraju Laxmana Rao, Ravichettu Ranga Rao and others at the turn of the 20th century. The founding of Sri Krishnadevaraya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam heralded a new epoch in literary renaissance in vernaculars and spread of socio-cultural awakening. The assertion of Telugu identity in terms of ethnicity and language gave rise to the growth of library movement and Andhra Mahasabha.

Poetic literature Lyrics or ballads have become an integral part of the poetic literature. The story of Sarvaya Papanna, a cowherd who took up cudgels against the atrocities of the alien rulers heady with power and money, has been preserved in the ballads. He even ascended the throne and ruled for a day. The ballad of Sarvaya Papanna, though it relates to the region, is the main root of the Telugu folk literature and of the present day poetic community. The Telangana Telugu literary movement, influenced by the trends in the ancient, the Prabandha, the lyrical andthe modern fictional literature, is flowing on with a progressive ethos. The Telangana literary history may be classified under four periods – the early, the later, the modern and the post-modern. There are quite a few significant features in the Telangana literary edifice built during the last decade (2005-2014) on the superstructure of its long history.

To begin with, the Andhra Jana Sangam was established in 1921 with the objective of establishing more libraries in Telangana region of the erstwhile Hyderabad State. It organised several conferences and established Telugu medium schools, reading rooms in order to spread literacy among the Telugus. During the first quarter of the 20th century, library movement in Telangana emerged as one of the most significant socio-cultural movements and contributed to 43 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS public awakening. Several individuals and scholars like Madapati Hanmantha Rao, Suravaram Pratapa Reddy, Kodati Narayana etc., played a significant role in the spread of the library movement and Telugu journalism in Telangana. Suravaram Pratapa Reddy had proved beyond doubt that Telugu literature had rigorously kept up its momentum and survived the critically testing times. His literary magazine ‘Golconda Patrika’ was a trend-setting journal that published some of the finest literary works of that time.

Vattikota Alwarswamy, known as the Father of Telangana Grandhalaya Udyamam, single-handedly championed the cause of people’s library and literary movement. He occupies a unique place in the literary and intellectual world of modern Telangana for his contribution to the spread of libraries in the villages of Telangana. Although the Telangana region has the famous libraries of more than 100 years old, such as Krishna Deva Raya Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, Raja Raja Narendra Andhra Bhasha Nilayam, the credit for starting village and mobile libraries goes to Vattikota Alwarswamy.

In order to make available the printed literature to village people, he personally carried books on his head and toured the villages and enabled the village folk to access modern knowledge. He also established the Deshoddaraka Granthamala and published low-cost books and distributed them among the people. The popularisation of library movement at the gross-level by Swamy had contributed to the new socio-cultural and political awakening in the Telangana rural areas. Thus, it also contributed to the growth of anti-feudal struggles under the leadership of Andhra Mahasabha.

As an active participant in the people’s movement, Alwarswamy also produced popular literature depicting the socio-economic conditions of peasantry in Telangana as well as the social evils like Vetticahkiri, Jogini, Adapapa, and championed the cause of emancipation of oppressed classes and communities. He wrote the famous novel, Prajalamanishi, in which he portrayed the socio-economic conditions in Telangana villages, feudal exploitation, the role of educated middle classes, Andhra Mahasabha and progressive forces in anti-Nizam struggles. The novel realistically represented the prevailing socio-economic-cultural conditions, customs, traditions, and people’s resistance movements against autocratic-feudal domination in the villages. Hence, Alwarswamy was considered the first Novelist of Telangana. In the making of modern Telangana, the role and contribution of intellectuals like Vattikota Alwarswamy is immense and praiseworthy. He was instrumental in facilitating the growth of public awakening through the popularisation of libraries, journalism and popular literature.

Poets of Telangana

1. Bammera Potana Born: 1450, Bammera,Warangal District Died: 1510. was an Indian Telugu poet best known for his translation of the from Sanskrit to Telugu. He was a Telugu and Sanskrit Scholar. His work, Maha Bhagavatamu, is popularly called as Pothana Bhagavatam in Telugu. He was considered to be a natural Poet (Sahaja Kavi), needing no teacher. He was known to be very polite and was an agriculturist by occupation. Though he was a great scholar, he never hesitated to work in the agricultural fields. 44 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Accomplishments - At an early age he wrote Bhogini Dhandakam a poem wrote in praise of king Sri Singa Bhoopala’s concubine Bhogini. This was his first poetic venture which had the seeds of his great poetic talents. Bhogini Dhandakam is the earliest available Dhandaka (rhapsody which uses the same gana or foot all through) in Telugu. - His second work was Virabhadhra Vijayamu which describes the adventures of Lord Virabhadhra, son of Lord Shiva. The main theme was the destruction of a yagna performed in absence of Lord Shiva by Daksha Prajapathi.

2. Born: 9 September 1914 , Warangal Died: 13 November 2002 Warangal. Kaloji Popularly known as Kalanna was an Indian poet, freedom fighter, Anti-fascist and political activist of Telangana. He completed his primary education in Madikonda and higher education in Warangal and Hyderabad. Rao wrote poetry in the , Marathi, Telugu and Urdu languages. He was popularly known as Praja Kavi, meaning "people's poet". He started writing poetry from an early age. He composed his first poem, in 1931 while still in his teens, in reaction to the execution of Bhagat Singh, and very soon became a voracious reader and a prominent writer.

Accomplishments - Kaloji was conferred the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest award given by the Government of India, for his service in the literary and social fields. - He is a recipient of Tamarapatra in 1972. - He received the best translation award of the Andhra Pradesh Government for his work Jeevana Geetha in 1968 and Burgula Ramakrishna Rao memorial first award. - He was felicitated by the Andhra Pradesh Government in 1981. - He was honored with the title 'Praja Kavi' and has been felicitated by various literary associations of Andhra Pradesh. - In 1992, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by .

3. Dr. C. Narayana Reddy Born: July 29, 1931 Hanumajipeta, Karimnagar district. Well Known Indian poet and educational minister and is considered to be an authority on Telugu literature. He is known as Cinare. Naryana Reddy married Susheela and with her had four daughters. He has instituted an award named after his wife and this is presented annually to female writers. He lives in , Hyderabad.

Accomplishments - Narayana Reddy won the Gnanapeet award in 1988 for his poetic work, Viswambara. - He had been awarded an honorary Kala Prapoorna by Andhra University in 1978. - Having been a recipient of the Padma Shri in 1977. 45 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

- He was conferred with the Raja- Award by the Sri Raja-Lakshmi Foundation in 1988 and in 1992. - He was honoured with India's third-highest civilian award, the Padma Bhushan. - Narayana Reddy was nominated to the - the upper house of the Indian Parliament - in August 1997.

4. Dr. Ande sri Born: 1961, Rebarthi villagenear in Warangal district Telangana state, India. Ande Sri (or Andesri) his original name is Ande Ellaiah. He is an Indian poet and lyricist. Telangana state Geyam(song) "Jaya Jaya he Telangana Janani Jaya ketanam" written by Andesri. He grew up as an Orphan and did not have any formal education. He received an honorary doctorate from Kakatiya University.

Accomplishments - A song, Maayamai Pothundamma Manishanavadu which was penned by him for the film Erra Samudram has inspired the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh University syllabus committee to include it in the Telugu second year graduation text books for the next academic year starting in 2009. This is the third song to feature in Telugu syllabi after Maa Telugu Thalliki and Telugu Jathi Manadi in the 77 years of . - Kakatiya University conferred him an honorary doctorate for his contribution as a lyricist. - Nandi Award for a telugu film in the best lyrics category for the song Vellipotunnava.

5. Daasarathi Krishnamacharyulu Born: July 22, 1925 Warangal district, Telangana state, India. Died : 1987 Popularly known as Daasarathi, was a Telugu Poet and Writer. Daasarathi holds the titles Abhyudhaya Kavi and Kalaprapurna. he was an erudite scholar of Indian mythology (puranas) with a fine grip on Telugu, Sanskrit and Tamil languages. He matriculated from the Khammam Government High School but gave up higher education to join the movement against the autocratic Nizam rule in the Hyderabad Kingdom.

Accomplishments - He was also the recipient of Sahitya Academy Award for his poetic work book Thimiramtho Samaram (Fight against Darkness) in 1974. - He was also chosen as Aastana Kavi of the Andhra Pradesh Government. - Daasrathi obtained fame through his revolutionary poetry. His first book Agnidhara (Flowing Fire) was published in 1947. This book is about the Telangana Armed Struggle against Nizams rule, in which young Daasarathi served as a revolutionary. Daasartathi wrote part of his book Agnidhara while he was in jail and completed it after his release.

6. Kancherla Gopanna Born: 1620, Nelakondapalli Village, Died : 1680 Kancherla Gopanna(Goparaju) renowned as Bhaktha Ramadasu was born in an affluent Telugu Brahmin family to Linganna Mantri and Kamamba in Nelakondapalli village of Khammamett Taluk (Warangal Division 46 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

of erstwhile Hyderabad State) of Telangana (Deccan region). His devotional lyrics toRama are famous in South Indian classical music as Ramadaasu Keertanalu. Even the doyen of South Indian classical music Saint Thyagaraja learned and later improved the style now considered standard krithi form of music composition.He also wrote Dasarathi Shatakamu with a 'makuTamu' 'Dasaradhee Karuna payonidhi', a collection of nearly 108 poems dedicated to the son of Dasaratha (Lord Rama).

Accomplishments Ramadasu composed nearly 300. Some of them are as follows: - Tarakamantramu in Dhanyasi - Ye Teeruga Nanu in Nadanamakriya - Adigo Bhadradri in Varali - Anta Ramamayam in Mohanam - O Rama ni namamu in Poorvi Kalyani - Paluke bangara mayena in Ananda Bhairavi

7. Mallinātha Sūri Born: Kolcharam, Medak District Mallinātha Sūri was an eminent critic, known for his commentaries on five mahakavyas (great compositions) of Sanskrit. During his times, he is said to have received the titles of Mahamahopadyaya and Vyakhyana Chakravarti. He lived during the reigns of Racakonda king Singabhupala and Vijayanagara king Deva Raya I. Based on the evidence from the inscriptions, it is estimated that he lived between 1350-1450 CE.

Accomplishments His Commentaries on Classical Epics of Sanskrit - Sanjīvanī - Commentary on Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava and Meghaduta - Ghaṇṭāpatha - Commentary on Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya - Sarvaṅkaṣa - Commentary on Magha's Sisupalavadha - Jivātu - Commentary on Sriharsa's Naisadhiyacarita - Sarvapathīnā - Commentary on Bhaṭṭikāvya His commentaries on Śāstric works- - Tarala - commentary on Vidyadhara's Ekavali - alamkara Sastra - Niskaṇṭakā - commentary on Varadaraja's Tarkikaraksa tika

8. Gummadi Vittal Rao ( ) Born: 1949 Gummadi Vittal Rao popularly known as Gaddar (born 1949) is a poet, pseudonym of a revolutionary Telugu balladeer. The name Gaddar was adopted as a tribute to the pre-independence Gadar party which opposed British colonial rule in during the 1910s. He attended his early schooling in Bodhan of the . After completing Pre University Course (then equivalent of 12th class) from a government junior college in 47 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

Hyderabad, he joined RECW to pursue Bachelor’s degree in civil Engineering. It is also said he has a bachelor’s degree in LAW as well.

Accomplishments - Gaddar is awarded the year’s best male playback singer award for his song “podusthunna poddumeeda..” in film Jai Bolo Telangana.2012. - Numerous songs were written, mostly by Vittal. They printed their first songbook. It was entitled "GADDAR"; after the famous Gadar Party of Punjab. Soon, whenever they went to perform on streets, the people began to say that the "Gaddar people have come". The name stuck, and from then on Vittalrao is known as Gaddar.

9. Suravaram Pratapa Reddy Born: May 28, 1896 in Boravelli village in Died : 1953 He wrote a social history of the , Andhrula Saanghika Charitra, which was first published in 1949 and has since gone through many editions. It was the first Telugu language book that to win the best national book award (Kendra Sahitya Academy Puraskaram). Pratapaareddy was a scholar in Sanskrit, Telugu, Urdu and English languages. He is famous for his research articles, novels, poetry, story writer, and literary critic. He compiled a list of 354 Telangana poets under the title "Golconda Kavulu" to prove that Telangana also had literature and poetry. Pratapareddy wrote approximately 40 books.

Accomplishments - Won prestigious "Kendra Sahitya Academy Award," a federal Indian government award for literature. - Editor and founder of Golconda Patrika, a journal in Hyderabad State. - Launched Telugu language journal "Golconda" for the benefit of Telangana people. Some of the short stories and poetries - Golconda Kavula Charitra, Raamayana Visheeshaalu,Hinduvula Pandagalu, Hindava Dharma Viirulu

10. Pamulaparthi Sadasiva Rao Born: July 17, 1921 in in Warangal district Died : August 26, 1996 A thinker, philosopher, and free-lance journalist. He started the magazine Kakatiya Patrika in Warangal, India, in 1948 with his cousin P. V. Narasimha Rao, later Prime Minister of India. PV Narasimha Rao wrote a story 'Golla Ramavva' in which an ordinary old woman, to express her protest against the Nizam rule, protects an anti-Nizam fighter. So also PV's another story 'Blue silk ' written in English had awakened the educated.

Accomplishments Among his Telugu writings were GatiTarkika Bhotika Vadam (on dialectic materialism), Charitra, Sanskriti, Kala (history, tradition, culture and art), and Tatva Praadhamika Paathalu (fundamentals of philosophy). He translated Theory of Knowledge, an English language book by Maurice Cornforth, into the Telugu Gyana Siddhantam, published by the Visalandhra Publishing House. 48 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

11. Venkanna Born: 1963, Mahbubnagar Goreti Venkanna is a popular Indian poet and folk singer. He became popular after his song "Palle Kanneru Peduthundo" in Khubasum Telugu movie had moved the masses and virtually prevented TDP to retain power in erstwhile Andhra Pradesh State in 2004. He also became popular by acting as a judge for the folk song program Rela Re Rela on Telugu TV channel, Maa. He is one of the main Telangana separation activists. He is one of the icons of Telangana culture.

Accomplishments - Venkanna's songs are published: Eku naadam Motha, Rela Poothalu, Alasandra Vanka - 2006 Kalaratna Hamsa Award for Literature from AP State Government. - Filmography: Sriramulayya, Kubusam, Vegu Chukkalu, Maha Yagnam, Batukamma, Mysamma IPS, Nagaram Nidra Potunna Vela.

12. Suddala Hanmanthu Suddala Hanmanthu was born in Paladugu village, mandal, . His poetry inspired the people of the Telangana to participate in the Communist-led peasant struggle against the oppressive rule of feudal lords and the Nizam. This struggle was famous in Indian history as the . His themes were freedom from the bonded labour known as Vetti Chakiri, democracy, liberation, equality and . His Telugu folk song, Palletoori Pillagada, mobilised the people of his region. The speech given by Comrade Ravi Narayana Reddy, the then president of Andhra Mahasabha in 1944 inspired Hanumathu and he joined Andhra Mahasabha and became a leftist. He took charge of the arts wing of the party and began writing songs for all folk forms like Burra Katha , Golla Suddulu , Pittala Dora that penetrated deep into rural minds.

13. Makhdoom Mohiuddin or Abu Sayeed Mohammad Makhdoom Mohiuddin Khudri (4 February 1908 – 25 August 1969) was an Urdu poet and Marxist political activist of India. He was a distinguished revolutionary Urdu poet. He founded the Progressive Writers Union in Hyderabad and was active with the and the of India, and at the forefront of the 1946–1947 Telangana Rebellion against the Nizam of the erstwhile Hyderabad state. He is best known for his collection of poems entitled Bisat-e-Raqs ("The Dance Floor"), for which he was awarded the 1969 Sahitya Akademi Award in Urdu. His published works include the essay Tagore and His Poetry, a play, Hosh ke Nakhun ("Unravelling"), an adaptation of Shaw's Widowers' Houses, and a collection of prose essays. Bisat-e-Raqs is a complete collection of Makhdoom's verse including his two earlier collections Surkh Savera ("The Red Dawn", 1944) and Gul-e-Tar ("The Dewdrenched Rose", 1961) He is known as Shayar-e-Inquilab' ('Poet of the Revolution'). His ghazals and lyrics have been used in many Hindi films. Among his notable are the romantic ghazals:Ek Chameli Ke Mandve Taley, Aap Ki Yaad Aati Rahi Raat Bhar and Phir Chhidi Raat, Baat Phoolon Ki. 49 Society, Culture, Heritage, Arts & Literature of TS

14. Gona Budda Reddy Gona Budda Reddy, also known as Ranganatha, (13th century CE) was a poet ruled a kingdom in Mahbubnagar district from Vardhamaanapuram (currently known as Nandi Vaddemaan) and (Fort Ghanpur) in modern-day Ghanpur, Mahbubnagar district. He and his family, the Gona dynasty, was mostly loyal to the Kakatiya dynasty. When he died, his brother Gona Lakuma Reddy took over the kingdom and rebelled against the Kakatiya, but his son Gona Ganna Reddy remained loyal to them in Vardamanapuram, (1262-1296 AD) indirectly supporting the rule of Kakatiya Queen against opposition to female rule. His Ranganatha Ramayanam was a pioneering work in the Telugu language on the theme of the Ramayana epic. Most scholars believe he wrote it between 1300 and 1310 A.D., possibly with help from his family. The work has become part of cultural life in Andhra Pradesh and is used in puppet shows.

15. Dasaradhi Rangacharya Dasaradhi Rangacharya, popularly known as Daasarathi (24 August 1928 – 8 June 2015), was an Indian writer and politician. He was an active member of the Telangana movement against the autocratic rule of the Nizams. He went underground and took part in the Telangana Armed Struggle till Hyderabad was liberated. He wrote Chillera Devullu, Modugupulu and Janapadam.[3] Out of those Chillera Devullu won a National Literature Award. He translated 4 Vedas, a precious of Hindu Literature, into Telugu language and Jeevanayanam is his autobiography. Srimadramayanam and Sri Mahabharatam are also his works in Telugu. Considering the feudal background and 'poor literacy rate', the two novels are widely accepted as the 'rarest of the great novels' produced in Telangana. He wrote the novels in the typical Telangana dialect, against the advice of traditional writers because he wanted them to be easily understood by people.