Railways in the Urban Context an architectural discourse

Roberto Cavallo

Railways in the Urban Context

Railways in the Urban Context an architectural discourse

Proefschrift

Ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. ir. J. T. Fokkema, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 30 mei 2008 om 12.30 uur

door

Robertino CAVALLO laurea di dottore in Architettura Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II (Italië) geboren te Salerno (Italië) Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotoren: Prof. ir. L. van Duin Prof. ir. S.U. Barbieri

Samenstelling promotiecommissie:

Rector Magnificus, voorzitter Prof. ir. L. van Duin, Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Prof. ir. S.U. Barbieri, Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Prof. ir. H.C. Bekkering, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. ir. M. Riedijk, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. arch. A. Ferlenga, Facoltà di Architettura IUAV Venetië (Italië) Prof. arq. G. Ruiz Cabrero, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura Madrid (Spanje) ir. N. de Vries, MVRDV Architecten en Spoorbouwmeester, adviseur

ISBN: 978 90 5269 361 3

Copyright © 2008 Roberto Cavallo All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any manner what so ever without permission in writing from the Publisher and the copyright holder.

COVER: Railway Station - Masterpieces of Architecture, Charles Sheppard, Bracken Books Singapore 1996, p.24-25

VI Contents

Preface VII

Part 1 – Research background 2 Introduction 3 Object of study and research structure 6 Research method and consulted sources 9 Existing field of research 10 Other PhD theses at the TU Delft 14 Specification of terms and theoretical framework 16 Research hypotheses 19 Motivations 20

Part 2 – The railroads in the Dutch City 22 Introduction 23 The low lands: territory and transport until the first decades of the nineteenth century 26 The first railways and the shaping of the Randstad 30 Dutch railway companies and stations 39 The twentieth century and the Dutch railroads 48 Contemporary developments: High Speed Rail and the Randstad 55

Part 3 – Entangled with the city: the metropolitan railways 62 Introduction 63 Railways and expanding modern cities: the work of Otto Wagner 67 Personal fascination: the Stadtbahn of Vienna 69 Awaiting metropolitan railways: the Dutch project 79 Under construction: North-South, a new metropolitan line in 88 stations in Amsterdam: dug in Architecture 92

Part 4 – Multi functional terminal or monument: the case of Amsterdam Central Station 104 Introduction 105 The railway and the urban setting of Amsterdam Central Station 106 The Cuypers project 108 The present intervention: ‘Stationeiland’ 128

VII contents

Part 5 – Railway areas in the Dutch City: architectural interventions in the margins 128 Introduction 129 The eastern harbour area of Amsterdam and the railway zone 130 Theoretical framework and master plan 137 Design projects 143

Part 6 – The ‘5 x 5 projects for the Dutch City’: the case of 152 Introduction 153 Haarlem and the construction of the first Dutch railroad 155 Railways and the nineteenth century development of Haarlem 163 The railway zone and the expansion of Haarlem in the twentieth century 166 The current situation: framework for interventions 176

Part 7 – Conclusions 182 Final considerations 183 Railway and city: projects for the Randstad 185 Proposals for further research 193

Bibliography 197 Image credits 203 Nederlandse samenvatting 211 About the author 215

VIII Preface

This research is the result of the work carried out at the Faculty of Architecture of the Delft University of Technology in the past four years. Theme and development of this thesis were conceived in the framework of the research programme ‘Urban Architecture’. As a member of the research team ‘Urban Architecture’, I’ve been involved during the last four years in several activities connected with the main theme of this work. Therefore, at the moment I’m writing this preface, part of the content of this research has already been published in the form of papers for international congresses, articles for professional magazines and journals and in the book series OverHolland. Moreover part of the material contained in this research is also used in lectures given to students and professionals. Many people are involved in different ways with the making of this thesis. First of all I would like to thank my tutors, Leen van Duin and Umberto Barbieri. The realization of this project would have been impossible without their support, encouragement and trust. In addition, I’m grateful to Leen for his great confidence in my work. I would like to use this opportunity to express my gratitude to Umberto for the way he tutored me throughout this research and for his open minded way of guiding me professionally and intellectually in the last fifteen years. I owe special thanks to my colleague Dirk Zuiderveld for his great help in editing my texts. My thank goes also to Filip Geerts for his interest on this research. Filip wrote, together with Umberto Barbieri and me, an article about the Noord/Zuidlijn, the new underground railway line in Amsterdam. For their help and suggestions also I’m grateful to my colleagues Henk Engel and François Claessens. They

IX preface

both contributed to sharpen the structure of this research. Next to them I would like to thank all the members of the research group ‘Urban Architecture’ and particularly Willemijn Wilms Floet, Esther Gramsbergen, Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané and Olivier van der Bogt. My gratitude goes also to all students who worked with me in the past four years and who shared the interest in this research topic. In this respect I’m particular thankful to Jeroen Homan, Martin Elslo, David Philipsen and Leander Moons who, with their work, contributed to the way I’ve approached the topic of my research. In addition I owe special thanks to Ilmar Hurkxkens for his help in lay-outing the final version of this thesis. Finally I have no words to thank my wife Karin for her unconditioned and constant involvement in my research project. She knows as no other how difficult it has been for me managing work and family in the last years. Her patient support and understanding helped me through all the difficulties I encountered along the way.

X 1 mario Sironi, Paesaggio Urbano con fabbrica e cavalcavia, 1922-1923, 75x75cm PART 1

2 Research background

Introduction

In the preface of his book ‘The impact of railways on Victorian cities’ John Kellet singles out the railways as one of the most important factors influencing the British city on different levels:

‘ …it was the influence of the railways, more than any other single agency, which gave the Victorian city its compact shape, which influenced the topography and character of its central and inner districts, the disposition of its dilapidated and waste areas, and of its suburbs, the direction and the character of its growth; and which probably acted as the most potent new factor upon the urban land market in the nineteenth century’1.

Wolfgang Schivelbusch considers the assertion formulated by Kellet, result of his investigation on the British city, valid and extendable to other West and Central European countries2. Nobody could predict that, next to its role of means of transportation, the railroad would be able to influence the development and the growth of the city. Therefore it is not a coincidence that the industrial revolution, the growth of the European city and the realization of railways all belong to the process of urbanization typical of the XIXth century. This period is fundamental in the development of the modern European city, at least for the ones in western and central Europe.

Nowadays, in the XXIth century, the dynamic of urbanisation requires 1 J.R. Kellet, The impact of railways on the implementation of efficient public transportation systems and the Victorian cities, preface p. xv. transformation of existing ones. Like 150 years ago, the discussion 2 about the traffic flows creates an interesting perspective when dealing W. Schivelbusch, The railway with the future of the city. Designing an infrastructure is often an journey, p. 178.

3 Railways in the urban context

occasion to propose a project for the transformation of the city. When it comes to railroads, this debate is very much alive all around Europe, particularly if we look at the number of competitions and projects for the accommodation of high-speed railway lines. In this framework the leitmotiv of my research is looking at the railway in relation to the city, approaching the topic from an architectural point of view. I personally think that the realization of railways, especially in the city, must be considered as an important theme of architecture. The railways as well as the streets are the ordering elements of the city, the elements ensuring the relationship between its parts and their mutual connections3. Therefore the construction of railways and their physical presence in the city have further influence 3 on the developments of the surroundings. In addition, the realization A. Monestiroli in L’arte di costruire of railways in the city involves the construction of several buildings la città, lecture hold at the DO.CO. all together forming the railway yard. Stations as well as viaducts, MO.MO conference in Barcelona bridges, crossovers and even underground terminals, are all interesting (1994), published in Progetto del buildings interrelated with the city. territorio urbano (by C. Macchi Cassia, Milan 1998), explains History tells us that the construction of infrastructures and how important is the making of particularly of railroads does not belong to the primary task of road and railway infrastructures architects. The engineer, who is also entitled to design railway buildings, in the modern city. Quoting controls technique and standardization, fundamental for railroads. Monestiroli: ‘La strada e la ferrovia Nevertheless the involvement of architects into railway projects diventano l’elemento ordinatore came relatively soon, approximately from the second half of the XIXth della città nel territorio restituito alla natura. L’elemento che stabilisce century. Particularly stations needed to change their identity from le relazioni fra le parti e assicura mere shelters for trains to modern gates to the city. Therefore from le loro connessioni’. See also A. a utilitarian piece of engineering the station had to turn into a theme Monestiroli in L’arte di costruire la of architecture. The quickly became a representative città in La metopa e il triglifo, 2002, building for the city, a point of concentration for economical activities p 73. and a central node for public transportation. In the meanwhile, with 4 the construction of the first metropolitan railway lines4, railways For convenience and in order to make a clear distinction started to play a role themselves as means of urban transportation. between the different types of The construction of metropolitan railway lines required a different railroads, from now on I will architectural approach in order to accommodate trains in the existing use the terms ‘metropolitan cityscape. Besides, from this moment on, metropolitan railway lines railways’ or ‘metropolitan lines’ often form the backbone of projects for the expanding modern city. referring to what we would usually In the XXth century the railway takes an essential position in the call ‘underground’ in English, ‘metro’ in French and Dutch or planning of the city. Despite the gradual but constant increase of car ‘metropolitana’ in Italian and traffic, the railway keeps an important role as reliable means of public Spanish. transportation. In the meanwhile railroads and metropolitan lines are

4 PART 1

enclosed by the ever expanding city and, whether well integrated or not, are part of the cityscape. Railway and marshalling yards occupy large and precious surfaces in the city, sometimes being an obstacle for further developments. After the Second World War the reconstruction period offers the chance of reconsidering the planning of infrastructures in the city. Nevertheless infrastructures, and especially railways, are in this period mainly planned from the functional viewpoint of accessibility of the city. Main roads as well as railways are needed primarily to ensure an easy access from the outskirts of the city to its centre. In terms of architecture nothing really changed in comparison with the XIXth century. Although stations are transforming into multimodal transport nodes, remaining an interesting theme of architecture, the building of new railroads or the refurbishment of existing ones did not turn automatically into an important architectural assignment even if located inside the city. Another interesting issue, very common in Europe during the past two decades, is the displacement of industries 5 or harbour areas from the centre to the outskirt of cities, offering the The term ‘Randstad’ is relatively chance to think about the re-use of marshalling yards. First built in recent and is used to put together order to ease freight transport links to industries and ports, these the provinces of , North railways yards lay often in obsolete areas strategically located in the and South Holland. The etymology cities. of the word comes from the combination of rand (border) and stad (city) and summarizes All the above-mentioned issues are also of present interest for The the geographical characteristics . In addition, in the Dutch case and more specifically the of this urban conglomeration Randstad5, the realization of a new high-speed railway line (HSL) in (a sequence of border cities the middle of its territory is actually only the beginning of a chain of surrounding a green heart). The projects that will influence the complete transportation network on the story goes that Albert Plesman, international, regional and local level. While the construction of the (founder of the Dutch air company KLM) flying over the provinces of HSL is coming almost to an end, several questions arise regarding the Holland, introduced in 1930 the future situation of the railway network in the Randstad and the impact term Randstad as a name for the on its cities. It must be remembered that one of the backbones of the spatial characteristics that the Randstad is the almost circular railway network linking its major cities. urban landscape had in this region. The HSL project will bring transformations to all this. The existing ring- For detailed information about the like railway network will be only suitable for regional or local services Randstad and its anatomy see H. Engel, Randstad Holland in kaart, while the important traffic will be taken over by the HSL. Cities on the article in OverHolland 2, 2005, and HSL will take advantage of their position and develop important trade S. Musterd, B. de Pater, Randstad areas in the vicinity of the HSL stations while other ones will have to Holland. Internationaal, regionaal, implement quick transportation links with the closest HSL hub in order lokaal, 1994.

5 Railways in the urban context

to be part of this future network. Basically all cities in the Randstad will be involved in this process, generating interesting opportunities for new architectural interventions.

Considering all these facts, I think it is the right moment to look into the development of railroads and their interaction with the Dutch city6 accepting the fact that the project of architecture7 is an important key issue to understand this process. Beyond its primary role of proposing a solution for the need of construction, the project of architecture 6 has to be here considered as an important device to comprehend the Gerald L. Burke gives an transformations of the city. Although typological, morphological or extensive description of the main characteristics of the Dutch towns stylistic studies are treated in this work, the main objective of this in his book The Making of Dutch research is a critical reading of the project of architecture and its role Towns. In the Chapter X of the for the development of railroads in the Dutch cities. book Burke describes the Dutch Towns of mediaeval origin as being orderly, functional and compact. Object of study and research structure According to Burke a term that could resume the uniqueness of Dutch cities is ‘Grachtenstad’, Railway and city have been coexisting for approximately one and half town, defined by Burke as century. Analysing their mutual relationship today, it’s important a peculiarly Dutch conception. to understand how railways, as physical elements in the city, are Another distinction that could be experienced in terms of space. made is the one of using the term When in the nineteenth century the railway lines appeared they Dutch City referring to the towns situated in the old province of were clearly indispensable contributions to the development of the Holland, with the only exception of city. Miles of railways were quickly built without taking the future scene including also the ones of the old of the city into consideration. province of Utrecht too. Nowadays The result is that today the railway is entangled with the city like the term Dutch city is indicative a spider net while its role has drastically changed. What in the early of the cities included in the days contributed to the development of the city, is nowadays, although geographical area that we would indispensable, often considered as an obstacle, a limitation for city call the Randstad, see also note 5. 7 planning. Here I would like to refer to the At this point some crucial questions arise: what then is the meaning of the term ‘project’ as relationship between the construction of the city and the realization widely used by architects but, of the railway? Which role occupies the railway and its buildings in the considering the framework of process of development of the city? Which transformations does the this research, I think it is more city have to deal with and what does the railway and its buildings have appropriate and precise to talk about ‘project of architecture’ to do with it? instead of ‘project’ in order to make clear that my approach to the The answers to the mentioned questions imply the knowledge of a series

6 PART 1

of facts that occurred in a relatively long time span. The relationship between the railway and the urban context is a complex matter. Too many factors are involved with it. The combination of political, economical, geographical and technical factors makes every situation specific. Therefore it is not always easy to reduce the complexity of this matter to plain issues. This is the reason why, for convenience and clarity, I decided to reserve the first chapter of this research to a compact overview of the development of railroads in The Netherlands and particularly in the Randstad. Specific about the Randstad is the topic is through an architectural fact that in the last 150 years not only its cities developed but also perspective. In addition, to specify what I mean by ‘project its countryside changed. This circular agglomeration of cities with a of architecture’, I would like to green heart is not planned as such but it is the result of a series of quote Jasper Cepl in his essay developments. I believe that geo-morphology and railroads have been Hans Kollhoff e il mestiere dell’ the most important factors in the development of the Randstad as we architetto, contained in the book know it today. Therefore, while setting out this part of the research, Hans Kollhoff, edited by Cepl self, I will try to support this assumption explaining in which period the when he explains the influence of O.M. Ungers on the work of Hans shaping of the Randstad took place. Kollhoff. ‘... Nella sua riflessione sulla trasformazione morfologica, Like already stressed in the introduction to this chapter, the relationship Ungers considera il progetto come between railway and city becomes relevant for this research when anello di una catena che lo collega al considered in an urban context. Among other possible standpoints, passato e al futuro. Poiché la forma I think there are three themes worth studying in which the project of si sviluppa dalla trasformazione di ciò che l’ha preceduta, a questo architecture plays an important role in the interaction between the rimane legata, pur creando qualcosa railroads and the urban fabric. di nuovo che indica verso il futuro e The first issue concerns metropolitan railways. The construction avanza così nella storia’. Translated of metropolitan lines into the city leads to architectural problems in English: ‘...In his reflection on without precedent. How to integrate this new means of transportation the morphological transformation, with the existing cityscape? What would be the right way of designing Ungers considers the project as the railway buildings? For this part of my research I will move on a ring in a chain connecting the past with the future. Since the two different tracks. First of all I will look at how the building of form develops itself out of the metropolitan railways started in the modern city. An important example transformation of what precedes in this framework is the project of Otto Wagner for the Stadtbahn of it, stays linked with it, even if Vienna. While explaining this project I’ll try to focus on its relevance creating something new indicating from the viewpoint of architecture. In the second place I will discuss the future and so going forward a long time missed chapter of the Dutch urban project: the building in history’. In one of the following paragraphs, dedicated to the of metropolitan railways. The debate about the metropolitan lines specification of terms and the started very late in Holland, actually only at the end of 1950s. The theoretical background, I will get project of metropolitan railways in the Dutch city is in fact still part back on the concept of ‘project of of the post-war reconstruction and renovation works, when linking the architecture’.

7 Railways in the urban context

new outskirts of the city with its centre was considered an important social issue.

The architectural theme of the station is the second issue that I point out in this research. In her article ‘Netherlands: six station for the future’8, Nathalie de Vries9 gives a brief overview of how the Dutch government is concentrating its efforts on mainly six railway stations. Investments of over a billion euros are put into the stations of Rotterdam, Utrecht, The Hague, Arnhem and Amsterdam- (Amsterdam-South axis), the last one expected to be finished only in 2020. Her conclusion is that there is currently in Holland a general lack of architectural policy behind these huge projects. The difference in planning between ministries, councils and railroads companies, all trying to reach their own targets, makes the role of the architect very ambiguous. According to de Vries, the most important assignment for the architect is unifying the interests of all parties. Although named in this article, surprisingly the project for the complete refurbishment and extension of Amsterdam Central Station is not really considered as being part of the new key railway projects. My personal opinion is that the project in course of realization in Amsterdam is extremely interesting because it deals with another important topic in terms of architecture: the future of the existing station as a representative building for the city. While discussing this project I will attempt to give an answer to the following main question: is there still a place in the city for the monumental station or must we accept the tendency of the multi functional terminal as the indisputable solution for the future?

The third theme I would like to discuss is the one concerning architectural 8 interventions in centrally located railway areas. While explaining the The article of N. de Vries work I did together with students in one of our ‘Master Thesis Studio’ Netherlands: six stations for the future is recently published in Rassegna at the faculty of Architecture of Delft, I will try to show how taking 84, September 2006. a theoretical position towards the relationship between railway and 9 city can influence the outcome of the designs. The assignment was to Natalie de Vries, together with make a joint master plan and then an individual design proposal for a Winy Maas and Jacob van Rijs, is specific railway area in a Dutch city. The part of the work I will discuss one of the founders of the office in this research is based on the proposals we made for a location MVRDV, based in Rotterdam. She is currently also chief architect for on the of Amsterdam. This project has been an the Dutch railroad company, the attempt to link the content of this research with the design exercises so-called NS. elaborated in the ‘Master Thesis Studio’.

8 PART 1

The last section of this research, the sixth part, is dedicated to the investigations I’ve made about the relationship between the railway and the city of Haarlem as part of the research project ‘5 x 5 projects for the Dutch City’10, currently running at the faculty of Architecture of Delft. This section of the research is mainly a chronological analysis on the development of railways in the specific context of Haarlem. The final scope of the text is to sketch a framework that can be useful for the purpose of architectonic interventions in Haarlem’s railway zone.

Research method and consulted sources

As already mentioned in the preface, the content of this thesis is strictly related with the research programme ‘Urban Architecture’. The study on transformation and renewal of the contemporary Dutch City through architectural interventions is the main scope of the programme. Areas in and around the cities where docks, industries or marshalling yards were located, are rapidly becoming available for new developments. In addition, the dramatic and continuous changes caused by the globalization of the market economy generate as counterforce a strong emotional desire to keep links with the past, with the essential characteristics of the historical urban fabrics. In this respect my research does not deal only with contemporary architectural interventions but is concerned also with the historical condition of the Dutch city as an important point of departure to investigate the topic. The main architectural issues proposed in this research are investigated through an analytical and descriptive method. This objective part of the research, in which I try to bring up the most relevant facts connected with the topic, is carried out through the consultation of the sources. Next to it there is also a subjective part based on my personal critical viewpoint. This second approach is used in order to discuss every theme within a specific framework given by my critical observations or questions. The objective and subjective approaches are both illustrated in the introduction to every chapter. The comparative method of research and the research through case studies are also regularly applied in the course of this work. Especially 10 the research through case studies has been particularly fruitful when For extensive information about the searching for answers to specific research questions. Fencing off the 5 x 5 projects for the Dutch City see topic through a clear choice of the case study has been a fundamental OverHolland 5,2007.

9 Railways in the urban context

step particularly when treating the themes of the metropolitan railways and the station as multi functional railway terminal.

In terms of sources this research is mainly based on literature studies. For clarity and convenience the bibliography is divided in two sections. The first section named ‘General’ is comprehensive of books or articles mostly dealing with the role of infrastructure in the construction of the city. In the second section, called ‘Railway and City’, I’ve ordered all the other publications directly concerned with the railroads. As I will explain in the next paragraph, there is hardly any book describing extensively the relationship between the railways and the Dutch City considered from an architectural viewpoint.

Next to the consultation of publications are worth mentioning my visits to the ‘ Archief’, an archive with a huge collection of documents, books and images about the Dutch railways, and to the ‘Spoorwegmuseum’, the Dutch Railway Museum, also located in Utrecht, with an interesting exposition and the collection of the historical material regarding the railways in The Netherlands. Beside a deep immersion in the history of Dutch railways and a great inspiration, I have not used any direct information coming from the ‘Utrechts Archief’ or the ‘Spoorwegmuseum’. A primary source I have to name is the archive of the city of Amsterdam, currently called ‘Stadsarchief Amsterdam’11, where I’ve found interesting material about the railroads in the city. From this archive I’ve directly used several illustrations regarding the railway stations of Amsterdam and the construction of railways in the city. Finally I would like to mention my visit to the office of Benthem Crouwel architects in Amsterdam. Very inspiring for this research has been my conversation with Joost Vos, chief architect of the project involving Amsterdam Central Station

11 and the transformation of Stationeiland. Several images used in this The ‘Stadsarchief Amsterdam’, thesis are directly coming from the data file of this firm. after a closure of several months, was recently opened to the public in the restored building ‘De Bazel’, Existing field of research the famous former bank located at the Vijzelstraat in Amsterdam and named after his designer, the Because of its current relevance, the relationship between the city Amsterdam School architect De and the railway generates quite a bit of interest in Europe. Several Bazel. publications are dedicated to the projects for the High Speed Trains.

10 PART 1

Almost all well known magazines dealing with architecture and design have issued a number on the infrastructure and the city, mainly focusing on stations and competitions for new High Speed Train facilities. This is, generally speaking, interesting documentation, particularly important for the sections of my research regarding the current developments around the topic.

Although the history of railways is a wide field of research, it is interesting to note that in the recent years only few books have been published on this topic. Several authors have provided overviews on the history of railway networks, about construction of stations and tracks, mainly concentrating on national subjects. In some books the expansion of the railway system and its facilities is treated. Other publications concentrate on technical details, especially concerning trains, special locomotives, wagons etc. It is surprising that most authors did not address their attention to the consequences of the presence of railways in the city and vice versa. As far as architecture is concerned, in addition to a number of publications about stations and their styles, the book ‘The impact of railways on Victorian cities’ by John R. Kellett, published in 1969, is still the most complete overview. The introduction and the impact of railways on British major cities are well illustrated here. For Germany, France and other European countries there are no authors going deeply and specifically into this matter as did John R. Kellet in his book.

For an interesting overview of railway buildings in relation to the engineering and, in the second place, to the architecture of railroads, it is worth to study the work of the Italian researcher Francesco Viola in his book ‘Ferrovie in città’. Next to a detailed description regarding the development of railway infrastructures, in his book Viola analyses the phenomenon of the railway in relation to the urban project of several European capital cities.

Looking into the available Dutch literature about the topic, it is clear that the interest of most writers is concentrating on national matters. Among the publications we find a couple of good overviews about the history of the Dutch railway network (the last one is the book ‘Spoorwegen in Nederland’ by Guus Veenendaal, 2004), some other about the stations and about technical aspects or monuments

11

Railways in the urban context

along the train tracks. On the relationship between the Dutch cities and the railway there are no extensive books, but only some articles in newspapers, magazines or books. One of the most interesting contributions in this sense is the article of Henk Schmal ‘Cities and railways in The Netherlands between 1830 and 1860’, published in the ‘The city and the railway in Europe’. Another relevant text questioning the current architectural tendencies in matter of stations is the one of Harm Tilman titled ‘Architectuur van stations’, article published in magazine ‘de Architect’ nr.9-2004. Worth a mention is also the recently published book of Auke van der Woud ‘Een nieuwe wereld. Het ontstaan van het moderne Nederland’. This book treates the great transformations of Dutch society in the nineteenth century due to the realization of new communications networks. The construction of railways plays of course an important role in all this. The impact of railways on the mobility of people could be shortly resumed in a phrase written by van der Woud: ‘…Riding on railways felt like flying’12. For a good overview about the realization of railway stations in The Netherlands I can advise to look at following three books: J.W. van Dal ‘Architectuur langs de rails’, P. Saal & F. Spangenberg ‘Kijk op stations’ and H. Romers ‘Spoorwegarchitectuur in Nederland’. Very interesting articles are compiled in the book ‘The city and the railway in Europe’13, made on occasion of the Fifth International 12 Conference on Urban History (2000, Berlin), during the session ‘The The original Dutch text goes as follow: ‘…Rijden over ijzeren railway and the city’. Especially the introductive article by Ralf Roth and wegen voelde als vliegen’, A. van Marie Noëlle Polino helped me to focus on relevant issues, convincing der Woud, Een nieuwe wereld. Het me to undertake further research about the topic. ontstaan van het moderne Nederland, About the driving forces behind the redevelopment of railway p. 283. station areas, it’s interesting to acknowledge the approach of L. 13 Bertolini and T. Spit in the book ‘Cities on rail, the redevelopment of As already mentioned, this book railway station areas’ (1998), which is partly a product of research contains also the article of Henk Schmal titled Cities and railways in made at the Utrecht Centre for Urban Research (URU). The Netherlands between 1830 and 1860. 14 Other PhD theses at the TU Delft The Netherlands Research School TRAIL is the co-operative school Other research projects done at the TU Delft have somehow relations with for PhD research and education of Delft University of Technology, my research. First of all it is very logic to name the work of the research Erasmus University Rotterdam and school TRAIL (The Netherlands Research School for Transportation, the University of Groningen. Infrastructure and Logistics)14. The mission statement of TRAIL is to

14 PART 1

educate high-level researchers with different backgrounds in order to build up and spread new ground breaking interdisciplinary knowledge in the field of transport, logistics and infrastructures. Although the interests of this research school tend to be oriented towards very technical matters, I found some research work partly connected to the field of my investigation in the series of PhD theses published by TRAIL. The thesis of S. C van der Spek, for instance, titled ‘Connectors, the way beyond transferring’ (TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, 2002) and addressing the problem of transferring passengers from one transportation system to another through the so called connectors buildings/facilities, contains interesting considerations on the way the railway buildings, and particularly stations, influence their direct surroundings. Other aspects connected with the complex relationship between railway buildings and city are treated in the thesis of P. M. J. Pol, ‘A renaissance of stations, railways and cities’ Delft (TU Delft, Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2002) and in the one of J. Willems, ‘Bundeling van infrastructuur’ (TU Delft, Faculty of Civil Engineering, 2001).

Next to TRAIL, there are few PhD theses developed at the TU Delft worth naming because of their direct involvement with the study of railways. Just rounded up is the PhD of C. Mulders-Kusumo titled ‘The space node interaction’ (TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, 2007), about the primary role of railway stations and their influence in determining the development of the surrounding areas. More interesting from my point of view is the work of R. Dijksterhuis in his PhD thesis ‘Spoorwegtracering en Stedenbouw in Nederland’ Delft (TU Delft, Faculty of Civil Engineering 1984). Dijksterhuis draws up a very detailed inventory of all the different railway lines built in The Netherlands trying to make a link with the urban planning of the Dutch cities. Another two PhD theses carried out at our Faculty touch the subject of railways in urban areas. The first developed by F.D. van der Hoeven is titled ‘RingRing, ondergronds bouwen voor meervoudig ruimtegebruik boven en langs de Ring in Rotterdam en in Amsterdam’ (TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, 2001) and the second is ‘Reweaving UMA, urbanism mobility architecture’ (TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture, 2004) made by L. M. Calabrese. Although with different approaches, both these are dealing with the relation between infrastructures and city.

15 Railways in the urban context

Specification of terms and theoretical framework

As I’ve already mentioned before, the architectural perspective on the railway and the city characterizes my approach to the matter. In order to specify the terms urban context (that, to simplify, I call city) and railway, essential for this research, I will make use of some Kevin Lynch and Aldo Rossi writings about both issues. The choice of Lynch and Rossi is mainly based on the fact that their theories about the urban facts, although already forty years old, are still relevant and widely used as bases for urban studies. Next to this, the complementary character of their positions makes the combination of their work rather interesting. In the book ‘The image of city’ Kevin Lynch investigates the perception of the city while in Aldo Rossi’s ‘The Architecture of the city’ the main focus is the construction of the city. Perception and construction of the city are both very important components to understand the relationship between railway and city. For the mentioned reasons I decided to further investigate the basic terms used in my research using the writings of this two authors.

The first question that arises is: what is the city? ‘Like a piece of architecture, the city is a construction in space, but one of vast scale, a thing perceived only in the course of long spans of time’15. ‘The city, which is the subject of this book, is to be understood here as architecture. By architecture I mean not only the visible image of the city and the sum of its different architectures, but architecture as construction, the construction of the city over time’16. ‘I will now take up the hypothesis of the city as a man-made object, as a work of architecture or engineering that grows over time; this is one of the most substantial hypotheses from which to work’17.

15 Following the definitions of both authors we can summarize that the Kevin Lynch, The image of city, city could be understood as built environment evolving in the course of p. 1, Chapter I. time. During the development of my thesis I would like to refer to this 16 definition of the term ‘city’. Aldo Rossi, The Architecture of the city, p. 21. 17 The second question is: what we should precisely understand with Aldo Rossi, The Architecture of the the term ‘railway’? city, p. 34.

16 PART 1

The answer to the second question doesn’t come, like the first one, straightforwardly out of Kevin Lynch’s or Aldo Rossi’s writings. Despite this fact it is possible, in my opinion, to understand how both authors deal with it and what kind of importance they give to the presence of the railway in the city. In the book ‘The image of city’ Kevin Lynch talks about the elements on which is based the perception of the city.

‘The contents of the city images so far studied, which are referable to physical forms, can conveniently be classified into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. …These elements may be defined as follows: 1. Paths. Paths are the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially moves. They may be streets, walkways, transit lines, , railroads’18.

Lynch’s text at this point continues with the definitions of the other four elements. Often those elements are interrelated with each other as they overlap and cross one another. Resuming we could say that the railway (as one of the paths) is a physically perceptible object along which the city can be observed.

Next to it, in the book ‘The Architecture of the city’ Aldo Rossi says:

‘To define primary elements is by no means easy. When we study a city, we find that the urban whole tends to be divided according to three principal functions: housing, fixed activities and circulation. “Fixed activities” include stores, public and commercial buildings, universities, hospitals and school. In addition, the urban literature also speaks of urban equipment, urban standards, services and infrastructures. To simplify matters I will consider fixed activities as included within primary elements’19.

The railway is an infrastructure, one of the fixed activities as Rossi mentions. As such it is also a primary element, an element, following Rossi, 18 Kevin Lynch, The image of city, ‘...capable of accelerating the process of urbanization in a city, and they also p. 46-47, Chapter III. characterize the processes of spatial transformation in an area larger than the 19 20 city. Often they act as catalysts’ . Aldo Rossi, The Architecture of the city, p. 86.

17 Railways in the urban context

Using the writings of both authors so far, I could come to the following formulation: the architecture of the railway could be understood as the making of the entire range of buildings forming the physical body of the railway yard in the city, all of them being part of a primary element. Going a bit further I would like at this point to refer to other writings on this matter. In one of his previous articles ‘I problemi metodologici della ricerca urbana’, published afterwards in the book ’Scritti scelti sull’architettura e la città’21, Aldo Rossi names three propositions as the fundamental bases for his method in urban research. The first proposition regards the fact that every development of the city is linked with the factor time. The spatial continuity of the city is the second one. The third and last proposition concerns elements of particular nature that have the power to delay or accelerate the urban process.

‘…Suppongo che alcuni studiosi si riferiscano a questi elementi quando parlano di strutture o infrastrutture ma poiché di questo termine, in questa sede, non ci è mai stata offerta nessuna giustificazione logica io preferirei non usarlo’22.

20 At this point of his article (dated 1965), Aldo Rossi, without Aldo Rossi, The Architecture of the discussing it much further, refers to Kevin Lynch’s fixed activities. city, p. 87. Subsequently, in ‘L’architettura della città’23 (1966), although he 21 Aldo Rossi, I problemi metodologici admits the importance of (among others) infrastructure as primary 24 della ricerca urbana, in Scritti scelti element for the city , Aldo Rossi describes the role of primary sull’architettura e la città, 1975, p. elements in the transformation processes of the city mainly using 280-281. monuments (one of the primary elements). In both writings Aldo Rossi 22 does not touch the theme of infrastructure extensively. Translated in English: ‘…I suppose some researchers are referring Considering the fact that railways are, as primary elements, the to these elements when they talk about structures or infrastructures catalysts of developments in the city, the scope of my approach is to but because on this term, in the analyze their dynamics in the urban context in terms of architecture. framework of this study, nobody Like already mentioned before, I look at the ‘project of architecture’ as can provide a logical justification, I an important device to understand the transformations of the city due would prefer not to use it’. to its interrelations with the railroad. 23 To be more explicit about this concept I will now explain what I Afterwords translated in The Architecture of the city. mean by ‘project of architecture’. Previously in this text, in the seventh 24 note to be precise, I’ve quoted a specific part of an essay of Jasper See also note 19. Cepl about the influence of Oswald Mathias Ungers on the work of

18 PART 1

Hans Kollhoff. It is widely known that in his long career as architect and theorist Ungers has been particularly keen on the correct understanding of his main architectural ideas through his different projects. In his book ‘Architecture comme thème’, Ungers explains his opinions about the idea of architecture embraced by the Bauhaus. As Ungers sets out, in the doctrine of the Bauhaus architecture is entirely determined by the functions, by the technology and by the goals to which architecture has to comply to25. Quoting the words of Gropius “….If aiming at a chair, a building, a city or a regional plan, the way to approach the project has to be identical”26, Ungers expresses his disagreement with this reduction of architecture to an element of a general process of production. Ungers believes that architecture is a richer form of art and that the functional need, although very important, is only one of the aspects to be solved by the project. According to Ungers it is extremely important to invent and define a theme in every project of architecture. The most important task of the architect must be not the one of accomplishing the goals from the mere functional point of view; instead, he should work on the possibility to translate the functional necessities into an important theme for the elaboration of the project. In this way researching a theme is the condition as well as the content of the project of architecture. Therefore the theme allows the transformation of the pragmatic reality of the project (the functional necessity) and makes possible its connection with the metaphysic world of ideas, with life and society. The project of architecture is in this respect not only a solution for the given programme but also the occasion to work on the dialectic interconnections between an intervention and its physics or metaphysics surroundings.

Research hypotheses

The architectural perspective from which the relationship between railway and city will be treated needs, particularly in part five of this thesis, the use of basic assumptions. Therefore the acceptance of the 25 following two hypotheses is fundamental: O.M. Ungers, introduction to the book Architecture comme thème, p.9. st 1 research hypothesis: 26 The railway yard can be read as a sequence of buildings, that are O.M. Ungers quotes Gropius in the influencing the development and the form of the surrounding urban same text, see note 25.

19 Railways in the urban context

spaces. Following this assumption, stations but also viaducts, bridges etc. could be considered as particular kinds of buildings. Using this first hypothesis I would like to stress that the realization of the railway in whatever setting, but especially in the setting of the city, is a theme of architecture. All the buildings constituting the railway are part of the built environment of the city and, as such, are interacting with it. This fact is important in terms of perception of the city (‘The image of city’ of Kevin Lynch) as well as in terms of construction of it (‘The Architecture of the city’ of Aldo Rossi).

2nd research hypothesis: In order to study the relationship between the railway and the city, the concept of continuity of the urban spaces will be used as basic assumption (as Aldo Rossi mentions in ‘I problemi metodologici della ricerca urbana’27). Accepting this second proposition means that we could consider all the facts that occurred in a city, or in a certain part of it, have a homogenous nature. As Aldo Rossi says, we could suppose that there are no fundamental breaks in the series of elements located in the same city (or part of it). Following this assumption the railway yard could then be seen as an element of transition and not necessarily as a barrier.

27 Motivations In this article, Rossi explains that all events that have taken place External motivations in a.. ..city, or a specific part of The current relevance of the theme is certainly the most important the city, have a common nature motivation. In many European countries new railway (high-speed) and that there are no fundamental networks are under construction. Many questions arise: what kind of interruptions in this series of elements that are situated in the impact will they have on the existing cities? What can we learn from the same city (or a part thereof). ‘I previous experiences and apply in the future? problemi metodologici della ricerca In addition, the relationship between the railway and the city urbana’ (Methodological issues in is a very interesting matter if considered through the projects of urban research), was included in architecture. It can be analysed and discussed on different scale levels: the compilation: La formazione del from the scale of the city until the scale of the building. concetto di tipologia edilizia. The article was also published in: Aldo Another motivation is found during the work in the MSc3 & 4 Urban Rossi, Scritti scelti sull’architettura e Architecture/Hybrid Buildings at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft. la città, p. 278. I came across the problem of the railway and its presence in the city

20 PART 1 as a physical barrier. The project area we were studying was strongly influenced by the railway yard. How to deal with this problem, from different points of view, was one of our concerns. For this reason there was a need to create a research framework and use it as background for the design studies.

Personal motivations My personal fascination for the railroad and its buildings goes back in time. It reminds me of my childhood, when I daily used to play just beside a railway. That railway was part of my daily life just as much as the narrow street serving the front door of the apartment building where I used to live. Next to my childhood memories, personally speaking I think this research should be seen also as an attempt to link the teaching work (the work that we usually do in design studios together with students) with the aims of the running research programme at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Delft. I believe this should be one of the most essential goals of making research. Therefore I would be very grateful if the results of this work could be (partly) used as a base for further research in design projects.

21 PART 2

22 The railroads in the Dutch city

Introduction

The relationship between the mutations of the countryside, the development of the cities and the implementation of the transportation network represent a unique issue for the low lands in the west of The Netherlands. In the past 150 years this part of the country has changed drastically, undergoing a process of transformation without precedent. A comparison between the geographical maps of 1850 and 2000 will show not only the mutations of the cities but also the evident changes of the territory. Since a few decades the term Randstad28 is widely used referring to the agglomeration of cities in the west of The Netherlands. Peculiar of the Randstad is its form, composed by a sequence of cities developing more or less into a circle. Being the most prosperous part of the country, the Randstad became also a socio-economical model. This is the reason why the planning of its territory is one of the most relevant matters from a political point of view.

Development and morphology of this region are determined by several factors. To my opinion a key issue is the relationship between geography, morphology of its territory and the transportation systems. Especially the switch from waterways to railways as means of transportation and, as a consequence of it, the update of infrastructures, represents a fundamental step in the morphological determination of the Randstad as we know it today. Particularly the first Dutch railway, the one connecting Amsterdam to Haarlem, plays a key role in all this. It traces the contours of the Randstad and influences the development of the Dutch city. 28 See note 5.

23 Railways in the urban context

In his article ‘Randstad Holland in kaart’29 Henk Engel schematizes the process of urbanization of the Randstad in four phases, resuming the most relevant data into four maps: 1850, 1940, 1970 and 2000. The choice for these four periods allows a straightforward comprehension of a range of different issues at first glance. Henk Engel underlines in his article that the choice for four ‘morphological periods’ is based on the kinds of urban fabric characterizing the Dutch city. The ‘canal town’ is typical up to 1850, the ‘town of streets and building blocks’ for the period between 1850 and 1940, the ‘open town with green belts and built-up areas’ for the time span between 1940 and 1970 and finally the ‘cluster city’ for the period after 1970. It is not a coincidence that the same time span of the maps embraces also the full development of railroads in the Dutch cities, with the only exception of not showing the situation before the construction of the first railway lines (1839-1850). In addition, considering the issue of infrastructures in a more detailed way, a closer look at the maps will show that the time span between 1850 and 1940 is actually too long and therefore it would be more sensible to put another map in between in order to point out some important developments. In this respect Henk Engel too advises to introduce another date in between, the year 1910. Adding the map of 1910 would mean taking into account the 29 great development of infrastructures in the second part of the XIXth H. Engel, Randstad Holland in kaart, century and the consequential development of the cities regulated by article in OverHolland 2, 2005. 30 the ‘Woningwet’ (Housing law) of 1901. W. van den Broeke makes a suggestion for the classification The construction and the implementation of infrastructures, and of the first 100 years of Dutch particularly of railway lines, need special attention in the Dutch case. railways into four periods. See also The transportation on water, up to the end of the eighteenth century his article, Het spoor terug gevolgd. essential means of communication, was weakened in his leading role De eerste honderd jaar (1839-1939), especially after the advent of railroads. This fact has a considerable in J.A. Faber, Het spoor, 150 jaar spoorwegen in Nederland. impact on the way the Dutch cities would develop after the first half of Amsterdam, 1989, p. 11-12. the nineteenth century. 31 W. van den Broeke made an attempt to schematize in periods On August 18th 1860 the so called the evolution of railways in The Netherlands following the way S.45 railway law was issued, railway companies operated30. As he suggests, we can classify the favouring the construction of development of Dutch railways into four time spans. The first is railways by the state. See also J. H. Jonckers Nieboer, Geschiedenis characterized by the private construction and exploitation of railways 31 der Nederlandse Spoorwegen and runs up to 1860, when the railway law S45 was issued . Between 1832-1938, p.97. 1860 and 1890 the railroads are mainly realized by the state while

24 2 3 Map of the Randstad year 2000. Map of the Randstad year 1850.

4 Geomorphological map of The Netherlands. The Randstad, in the western side of the country, is located under the sea level. Railways in the urban context

they are runned by private companies. After 1890 several contracts will be signed between state and railway companies, resulting in a phase of concentration of activities and competition. This period will be actually ended by the 1917 agreement between HIJSM (a private railway company) and SS (the state railway company). In the fourth phase, between 1917 and 1939, the two railway giants work together. After 1939, and this would probably be the last and current phase, the Dutch railways are functioning as N.V. Nederlandse Spoorwegen, the only remaining railway company set up after the reorganization law issued in the same year.

This part of the research aims to offer a general insight into the phenomenon of railroads in the Netherlands with special attention to urban planning and architecture aspects. Starting with the means of transportation before the construction of railways and ending with some considerations about the contemporary developments, in the following texts I will deal with the most relevant issues in a chronological order.

The low lands: territory and transport until the first decades of the nineteenth century

The relationship between the organization of territory and the development of cities and landscapes is quite exceptional in The Netherlands if compared to the rest of Europe. The most particular aspect is certainly the continuous effort of claiming land and protecting it from the water. In order to comprehend this territory it’s necessary to consider the geomorphologic and historical context of the Rhine delta32. Until 1500 the central part of the country, the one that we could 32 identify today as the Randstad, it nothing more than an extended For extensive information about swampy area in which flat-bottomed boats are the only way to move. the relationship between the The few cities were erected mainly on sand tops and surrounded by geomorphology of The Netherlands dikes, protecting them from the water as well as enemies. Maps of and the transportation systems that time show big lakes, rivers and other watercourses. Since the up to the nineteenth century see J. de Vries, Barges & Capitalism. Middle age a system of reasonably developed canals characterizes the Passenger transportation in the Dutch territory in question, ordering its landscape and cities. On the contrary Economy (1632-1839), 1981. there are only few traces of roads.

26 5 Birth-eye view of Amsterdam in the second half of the sixteenth century. Author drawing: Cornelis Anthonisz. 6 The ‘trekschuit’, the typical Dutch towed barge for the transportation of passengers. PART 2

The canals, fundamental in the organization of the Dutch cities and far more important than roads, were widely used for transport inside the city. First built as important drainage facilities, by the year 1600 the canals fulfilled also an important role in passenger transportation outside the cities. We cannot say that it was a perfect network of transportation (certainly it was not for goods), but a multiple system of barges ensured the links between the economic centres of the west Netherlands. One of the historical maps of Amsterdam33 also clearly shows the strong relationship with the water. The layout of the city is organized by a efficient net of canals enclosed in the system of fortifications. The presence of many boats confirms the fact that transportation in the city took place mainly on water.

Road transport played no role until 180034. The condition of roads was very poor up to the Napoleonic time. In fact only during the first decades of the 1800s a number of well-paved highways were built in order to accommodate the increasing traffic of coaches and wagons. In this period water transportation also transformed a lot. Existing navigable canals were improved and new ones were built offering for the first time, in combination with the new highways on the ground, an integrated transport network. The most important work of this period is certainly the realization of the Channel (1824), which allowed a direct connection from the harbour of Amsterdam to the 33 35 North Sea avoiding the circumnavigation of the inner sea . In the See also the image of the birth-eye mean time also the port of Rotterdam was improved and enlarged view of Amsterdam in the second quite a bit, offering a serious competition to the one of Amsterdam half of the sixteenth century made and in Belgium. In terms of transport one of the biggest by Cornelis Anthonisz. issues of that time was creating a better and quicker connection with 34 As Henk Schmal explains in his the Rhineland region of Germany. This industrialized area was growing article Cities ans railways in The rapidly and needed transportation of goods to and from the North Netherlands between 1830 and Sea. 1860, published in the book R. Roth & M. N. Polino, The City and The industrial revolution further encouraged studies about steam power. the Railway in Europe, 2003, p. The steam engine was developed at the end of the eighteenth century 29-44. 35 for several purposes and used in road and water transportation. The The so called Zuiderzee. first application of steam power for locomotives took place in 1804. 36 In this year the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick constructed the Source: J. Simmons, The making of first locomotive able to run on tracks36. This experiment, although British Railways, p.3.

29 Railways in the urban context

successful, showed the importance of finding the right balance between the weight of the locomotive and the thickness of the tracks. Based on the extensive studies of George Stephenson, the first locomotive could be improved into a pivotal machine. In 1822 George Stephenson organized a successful demonstration for Edward Pease, at that time involved with the planning of the first official railroad from Stockton to Darlington. The main line of this railroad was over 40 kilometres long and was planned to transport both passengers and goods. The opening of the Stockton & Darlington railroad was held on September 27th 1825 and a locomotive built by George Stephenson pulled the train that was carrying only passengers. Next to the locomotive also horses and stationary engines pulled the train in some part of the railroads. George Stephenson’s machine was a great success and marked the beginning of a new era for the world.

The first railway and the shaping of the Randstad

Despite the great success of the locomotive and the publicity in the media all over the world, in terms of realization the railway remained an English phenomenon up to 1830, when in France a section of the St. Étienne and Lyon line was opened. In this period almost every European country, having been convinced by the advantages of the train, was busy developing plans for railroads. The actual construction of a railroad was in fact a difficult matter. Once its section was established, the building of a railway line required many bureaucratic permissions, a clear plan for the expropriation of land and, last but not least, a huge amount of money. For these reasons the development of railway lines took generally more time than foreseen.

37 Projects for railroads in Holland were discussed since 1830 but The H.IJ.S.M. (Hollandsche Ijzeren a general lack of interest by the national politicians caused extra Spoorweg Maatschappij), Dutch delay in the realization of the first railway line. Local politicians and Railway Company, gets the permit Chambers of Commerce were more interested in the possibilities the for the construction of the oldest railways offered for transporting goods. Introducing the railroad in railway line in the Netherlands, the Netherlands was not an easy task. From an economical point of see also J. H. Jonckers Nieboer, 37 Geschiedenis der Nederlandse view there were several uncertainties. The investors of the H.IJ.S.M , Spoorwegen 1832-1938, 1938, who were about to finance the first railway line of the country, had to p.337-342. compete with the existing mass transportation system on the water.

30 PART 2

7 (6 maps) Schemes showing the development of the Dutch railway network. From 1840 to 1900: in green the railroads of the HIJSM (Hollands Ijzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij); in red the one of the NRS (Nederlandse Rhijnspoorweg Maatschappij); in white the railroads of the SS (Staatsspoorwegen); in other colors other minor railway companies. From 1940 to 1980 the NS (Nederlandse Spoorwegen) is the only company: in red the electrified railroads, in black the other ones. Railways in the urban context

For more than two hundred years the economy of the country relied on an extensive network of canals where, beside the transport of goods, cheap passengers services were widely offered. Although the transportation on water lost customers to the emerging coach services on the road, it remained the most important means of transportation 38 The typical Dutch barge towed in the first half of the nineteen century. along canals. 39 The way the first railroads approached the Dutch cities is characterized Source: J. de Vries, Barges & by different starting and end points of the railway tracks. The relatively Capitalism. Passenger transportation small cities were all walled and the railway lines ended near the city in the Dutch Economy (1632-1839), gates. 1981, p. 204-205. 40 Keeping the railroads always outside the city had the advantage In 1839 the railway track that there was no direct confrontation between the historical city and actually started in the council the new means of transportation. of Sloten and was functioning The first railway of The Netherlands was opened between by a temporary station named Amsterdam and Haarlem on September 20th 1839, fourteen years ‘d’Een Honderd Roe’, see also H. after the Stockton & Darlington line. Just few months before its Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur in Nederland, 2000, p. 14. The line official opening, a pamphlet was printed and handed out in both 38 was extended only in 1841 until cities showing an ideal conversation between the trekschuit and the de Haarlemmerpoort, see also A. train39. The trekschuit was manifesting his pride in being reliable for Doedens, L. Mulder, Een spoor van centuries and did not have the intention to bow to the train. In fact verandering, 1989, p.21. the Dutch railway entrepreneurs really feared the competition with the 41 trekschuit and did not take any success for granted. On the other hand The difference between the third class railway fare (45 cents in the existence of a network of canals gave a considerable advantage to 1850) and the trekschuit (30 cents the railway investors, providing information about the route and the in 1850) was still a reason for volume of traffic on it. Therefore it is not a coincidence that the first passengers to keep travelling on the Dutch railroads are placed parallel to the canals. In these areas the water, especially in bad economical expropriation of the land was often easier and the layout of the railway times. In 1851, a year of recession, line could be kept as straight as possible in order to save funds. the HIJSM lost 3% of passengers According to these principles the first Dutch railroad was also on this route; the two trekschuiten transported 32.877 passengers, positioned parallel to the existing canal connecting Amsterdam 3000 more than in 1850 holding to Haarlem. A station was situated at the two ends of the track, 11% of the market. For the periods Willemspoort in Amsterdam40 and Amsterdamsche Poort in Haarlem, 1840-1842 and 1848-1853 in both simultaneously working as terminus station and gate to the city. the book of J. de Vries, Barges & After two hundred years of service the quicker train marks the decline Capitalism. Passenger transportation of the link by hourly barges between the two cities41. in the Dutch Economy (1632-1839), p. 208-209, there are interesting tables about the railroad social While the popularity of the train slowly grew, especially for the transport saving. of passengers, investors and government in Holland observed the

32 8 The opening of the first Dutch railway line in Haarlem. September 1839. Author drawing: unknown. 9 Scheme showing three kinds of stations. The one on the left is an average passing through station. On the right it is a terminus station while the one in the middle it is a combination of both. The arrows are suggesting the flow of passengers.

10 11 Amsterdam, Willemspoort station, 1842. Amsterdam, situation of Willemspoort station near the Haarlemmerpoort.

12, 13 Rotterdam, Delftschepoort station, 1847. 14 15 Amsterdam, Willemspoort station, 1842. Amsterdam, Willemspoort station, 1842.

35 16 a b c d The approach of the first railway lines to the Dutch cities. Hand sketches made by the author. 17 Map published in 1745 by Melchior Bolstra. It is one of the first plans for the reclamation of land of the Haarlemmermeer polder. The canal (trekvaart) between Haarlem and Amsterdam is entirely visible. Railways in the urban context

developments in Belgium with attention, particularly in and around Antwerp. The construction of a rail connection between the port of Antwerp and the Rhineland region represented a major threat for the economy of Rotterdam and Amsterdam. A good rail link between Amsterdam and Rotterdam and further to Utrecht, Arnhem and the Rhineland became a necessity. The decision to extend the first railroad through Haarlem to , with the intention to connect Amsterdam to Rotterdam, came quickly. In 1842 the railway reached the city of Leiden traversing the inner city of Haarlem. From this moment on the city of Haarlem and its development are strongly influenced by the presence of a railroad constructed on street level. The railroad passed through the seventeenth century extension of the fortified city, the so-called Nieuwstad42. The persistent economical recession effected the investments in the city and, consequentially, slowed down the development of parcels in the Nieuwstad. Therefore everybody in the city had great expectations of the extension of the railroad, particularly in offering new business opportunities.

42 The increase of business took place but the city very soon suffered Haarlem expanded enormously and of pollution and traffic congestion due to the train. Next to a new from 1640 the city works on an station, a drawbridge crossing the river Spaarne (a fundamental extension plan. Salomon de Braey waterway in the city) and a series of viaducts were needed. The designs in 1643 a plan for the municipality of Haarlem had no funds to finance this and the railroad extension of the entire city. Only a remained untouched at ground level until about 1900. part of his design will be used in 1671 for the actual extension of Haarlem, called also Nieuwstad. Finally in 1847 the railway to Rotterdam was ready, ending on the north But this part of the city, due to of the city at the Delftsche Poort station43 and following also in this a persistent economical crisis, case the main lines of the canals. In fact we could say that with this remained unexpectedly empty for railroad the first half of the ideal circle that forms the current Randstad many years. Until 1800 only few is concluded. We must note that the course of history would have parcels of the Nieuwstad were been different if the reclamation of the land of the Haarlemmermeer developed, the rest was still unsold. 44 43 polder (1849-1852) was completed some years earlier . A straight The railway line between railway line between Amsterdam and Rotterdam, traced through this Amsterdam and Rotterdam is polder, would have shortened the distance quite a bit. This easier and known as the ‘Oude lijn’, the old cheaper variant would have probably also influenced the Randstad as line. The company owning the line a whole, favouring the development and growth of cities in its central was de H.IJ.S.M. part instead of its borders. 44 See also W. van der Ham, Tot Rotterdam, like Amsterdam, gets a terminus stations outside the gerief van de reiziger. Vier eeuwen city walls. These two cities kept these terminus stations for a long time Amsterdam-Haarlem, 1989. generating problems for the creation of a effective railway network.

38 PART 2

Furthermore there were no obstacles for the line between Amsterdam and Rotterdam. At the cities of Leiden and The Hague the railway remained outside the fortifications while in Delft it was placed right on the obsolete city walls. In the meanwhile the ‘Rhine railway’ was also under construction45. Starting at the terminus station of Weesperpoort in Amsterdam this railway line followed more or less the line of the Vecht46 until the city of Utrecht where the station was realized just outside the city walls.

In 1855 the railway circle is finally done, laying out the form of what we would nowadays call the Randstad. Although the lines of the waterways were already there, the recognizable railway lines marked its contours in a stronger way. The 255 kilometres of railroads linked both Amsterdam and Rotterdam with Utrecht and Arnhem47, close to the German border. To give an idea of how slow the construction of railroads was in the Netherlands, it may be enough notice that by that time Belgium had already a network five times longer that connected with the German Rhineland. The reasons may be found in the economic stagnation and the low return of profit generated by the first investments in the railroad business. Probably also the strong competition of the trekschuit traffic played an important role in all this. Between 1850 and 1870, although locally some services were ended, the transportation of passengers on water kept the biggest share of the market. Nevertheless the disappearance of the trekschuit was only delayed.

Railway companies and stations

L.J.J. Serrurier and R. Chevalier, two businessmen from Amsterdam, 45 together with the civil engineer W.C. Brade, officially founded the The construction of this railway line first Dutch railway company, the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg was completed in 1843. Maatschappij (HIJSM) on August 8th 1837. While it is certain that the 46 actual project for the railway line between Amsterdam and Haarlem Vecht is the name of an important comes from the hand of Brade, it is still not hundred percent sure watercourse. 47 who was the designer of the two stations in Haarlem and Amsterdam- The N.R.S. (Nederlandsche Willemspoort. Although C. Outshoorn (1810-1875) is often named, for Rhijnspoorweg Maatschappij), these two stations as well as for the one in Leiden (1842) and The Dutch Rhine Railway Company, is Hague (1843), the most sources are naming F.W. Conrad jr. (1800-1870) responsible for the two lines.

39 Railways in the urban context

as the designer. Conrad jr. studied at the Royal Engineers School 48 (Genieschool) of Delft and worked as engineer for the Department of The station of Rotterdam at Buildings and Roads (Waterstaat) in The Hague. By 1847 the HIJSM the Delfschepoort (Delft gate) ran the complete ‘old line’ from Amsterdam, via Leiden and The Hague, was designed by C. Outshoorn to Rotterdam48. (1810-1875). 49 The second Dutch railway line, the one connecting Amsterdam with The N.R.S. is set up with the Utrecht (1843) and Arnhem, was commissioned and constructed by financial resources of English the State. The Nederlandse Rhijnspoorweg Maatschappij (N.R.S.)49, investors, as mentioned by R. established in 1845, took over the control of this line from the State. Dijksterhuis, Spoorwegtracering In the same year the N.R.S. began the realization of a railway link en Stedenbouw in Nederland. PhD between Amsterdam-Weesperpoort and the harbour of the city. In research TU Delft 1984, p. 6. 50 1855 the N.R.S also got the permission to build a railway link between This temporary station was Utrecht and Rotterdam ending at the temporary station of Rotterdam- constructed in wood and designed Maas I50, the second terminus station in the city. Although in general by J. Enschedé. the stations of the N.R.S. are not interesting in terms of architecture, 51 the direction of the company, heavily influenced by the English railway The project of this building date practice, developed a plan for a huge station in combination with a 1862 and the designer is G. 51 Somers Clarke; see also H. Romers, hotel in Rotterdam . This building, never constructed, would have Spoorwegarchitectuur in Nederland, been the first mixed used railway building in the country. The N.R.S. 2000, p. 25. also had its own station designer, A.W. van Erkel (1839-1877) who 52 worked on the stations of Arnhem (1867), Den Haag (1868), Gouda Idem, p. 25-40. (1868), Rotterdam-Maas II (1875) and other minor stations of the 53 company52. It took several years before the N.R.S. joined the German On August 18th 1860 the ‘railway ministry’, supported by the railway network; this delay was mainly due to the difference in width of government van Hall-van Heemstra, the tracks. The line between Arnhem and Emmerich opened in 1856. issues the so called S.45 railway Another railway company, the German Aken-Maastrichtse Spoorweg law, see also J. H. Jonckers Nieboer Maatschappij (AMS), established in 1845, operated the line between Geschiedenis der Nederlandse Maastricht and Aachen by 1856. Spoorwegen 1832-1938, 1938, p.97. Despite the activity of these private railway companies, the Dutch 54 In 1860 the S.S. run the following railway network was not growing rapidly. For this reason the State lines: Arnhem-Zutphen-Deventer- took the initiative of building several new railway lines and offered the Zwolle-Leeuwarden, Harlingen- activity to private investors. In 1860, promoted by the minister van Leeuwarden-Groningen-German Hall, the well known railway law S.45 was issued53. A few days later a border, Maastricht-Venlo-Helmond- commission was set up and charged with the design and construction Eindhoven-Boxtel-Tilburg-Breda, of the railway projects already approved by the minister. Eight different Roosendaal-Vlissingen and Rotterdam-Breda. See also A. building sites started simultaneously. The operation of the new railway 54 Doedens, L. Mulder, Een spoor van lines went to the Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatsspoorwegen verandering, 1989, p.12. (S.S.), established in 1863 by a number of Dutch investors mainly

40 18 a b c From top to bottom, the standard designs for the stations of the first, second and third class. 19 Project of a combination of station and hotel in Rotterdam made by G. Somers Clarke in 1862.

20 From top to bottom, the standard designs for the stations of fourth and fifth class. 21 Map showing the existing railways (black and white broken line) and the project for the new connections from Arnhem (1859). 23 Photograph of a section of the ‘Binnenrotte’ viaduct in Rotterdam (1880).

22 Proposal of the SS (Staatsspoorwegen) for the railway junction in Rotterdam (1867). PART 2

from Amsterdam and Rotterdam. All railway lines built by the State after 1860 were run by the S.S.55 with the only exception of the new line Amsterdam-Zaandam-Nieuwdiep (Den Helder)56 that, starting from 1863, was operated by the H.IJ.S.M. With the law of 1860 the building of stations also came under the responsibility of the State. Considering the number of new railways that had to be realized, the ministry of transport decided to standardize the building of stations into five classes. A station of the first class would be the biggest while one of the fifth class would have the size of a villa. The class would be chosen according to the number of inhabitants of the city in question. Among the stations built by the

State are of the first class only the one in Zwolle (1868), designed by 55 N.J.Kamperdijk, and the one in Dordrecht (1870), while the ones in The S.S. also runs two lines ending Zutphen, Hengelo, Meppel, Enschede and Deventer are of the second beyond the Dutch border, the class. The architecture of the stations is mainly characterized by a Eindhoven-Luik and the Arnhem- neo-classical approach, very common in the practice of those years. Zutphen-Hengelo-Bentheim- Salzbergen. The actual design of the standardized stations came straight from the 56 57 Department of Buildings and Roads (Waterstaat) in The Hague . Quite For detailed information about particular about the standardized stations was that local architects the concession of this railway could work out specific details. line see J. H. Jonckers Nieboer, Geschiedenis der Nederlandse In the years between 1865 and 1890 the S.S., although initially Spoorwegen 1832-1938, 1938, p.99-101. The majority of the struggling with low financial returns, grew to be the biggest and most stations of this railway line were powerful railway company of the country. The constantly increasing designed by A.L. van Gendt freight transportation consolidates the financial position of the S.S. (1835-1901), a quite well known and only the H.IJ.S.M. seems to be able to compete with it. In these architect in that time, especially for years the Dutch railway network is further expanding; the law of his design for utilitarian buildings. 1874 about the decontrol of the fortifications and the subsequent See also J. W. van Dal, Architectuur demolition of the city walls offers new chances for the planning of new langs de rails. Overzicht van de stationsarchitectuur in Nederland, railways. In addition, the dismantling of the fortifications opens the 1981, p. 44-47. way to the development of stronger links between the station and the 57 railway area, usually placed outside the walls, with the historical city It is not completely sure but centre. There is now the possibility of exploiting the area where the the standard design of stations fortifications were standing to work out the idea of a city boulevard could come from the hand of with visual connection towards the station. The districts developed N.J.Kamperdijk. For accurate information about the five classes between the railway area and the historical city are also getting more of stations see also J. W. van integrated into the urban texture. Dal, Architectuur langs de rails. Overzicht van de stationsarchitectuur Next to the H.IJ.S.M. and S.S., the two big companies, around 1890 in Nederland, 1981, p. 21-29.

45 24 Map of Amsterdam in 1866. Left, on the top, the Willemspoort station, the starting point of the railway to Haarlem. Right, on the bottom, the beginning of the line to Utrecht and the position of the Weesperpoort station.

25 Photograph of Amsterdam Central Station. PART 2

there are three smaller ones active in the country: the N.R.S., the Nederlandsche Centraal Spoorwegmaatschappij58 and the Noord- Brabantsch-Duitsche Spoorweg Maatschappij59. Some other railway and tram companies were also operating local services. In 1890 the State took over the weakened N.R.S. giving the operation of its lines to the S.S. The competition on the railway market was reduced to only S.S. and H.IJ.S.M. At the end of the nineteenth century both were very active in taking over the activity of smaller local railways. The H.IJ.S.M. is the important company controlling most of the railways in the west of the country while the S.S. expanded his activities to the rest of the Dutch network.

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century the construction of stations, especially for the most important cities, becomes an important architectural issue. Stations are more and more getting a vital function in the cities. They became the gateway to and from the city in which the integration of two very different kind of traffic had to take place: the traffic space of the city, and that of the railroad. This 58 dual character was also translated in the architecture of the station: the This company was exploiting the facade towards the city was often a separate assignment if comparing local railways between Den Dolder- with the other side bordering the steel and glass construction covering Baarn, Nijkerk-Ede and Bilthoven- the tracks60. Zeist. 59 One of the lines controlled by this Nevertheless, although the main Dutch railway companies all company was the Boxtel-Goch- had specialized designers for stations, we hardly see any great or Wezel. innovative design for stations until the building of the Central Station 60 of Amsterdam. The critical Dutch saying of ‘Het is waterstaat wat-er- See also W. Schivelbusch, The staat’61 is very illustrative of a time in which the State was taking care Railway Journey, the industrialization not only of railways and stations but also of churches and other public of time and space in the 19th century, 1986, p. 171-177. buildings. 61 The situation of Amsterdam was different. The planned World Fair A sensible English translation of 1883 and the projects for the Rijksmuseum and the new Central would be ‘Whatever is there is Station formed the occasion to put Amsterdam clearly on the European from the State’, although in Dutch map. In this respect is the commission given to P.J.H. Cuypers as chief ‘Waterstaat’ is the ‘Department architect for the Central Station of Amsterdam an exception to the of Buildings and Roads’ and ‘wat- er-staat’ means ‘what is there’, rules of practice and simultaneously a strong admission of the station see also J. W. van Dal, Architectuur being an important public building for the city. langs de rails. Overzicht van de stationsarchitectuur in Nederland, 1981, p. 22.

47 Railways in the urban context

The twentieth century and the Dutch railroads

The period between 1890 and the First World War is characterized by a substantial development of the network with the realizations of local railways, particularly in the northern and the southern provinces of the country. Between 1912 and 1918 local railways are also built in the central part of the Randstad. The so-called Haarlemmermeerlijnen were made to connect Haarlem, Nieuwersluis and Alphen a/d Rijn with the existing railway network and had their own terminals in Amsterdam and Leiden. These lines had no great fortune and their operation ended very soon62. Other local railways were built around Utrecht63, Maastricht, 62 64 On January 1st 1936 most part Rotterdam and The Hague . This enlargement of the railway network of the Haarlemmermeerlijnen was with a number of local railways was not an unpredicted phenomenon already closed. but a planned policy promoting another development: the commuter 63 train. From 1900 on the non-resident train traffic became an important The NCS, a railway company that issue for the Dutch railways. Other interesting activities in this period still exists although incorporated were the renovation and improvement of the existing railway yards and first by the SS and after by NS, gets the operation of these stations. railways: Den Dolder-Baarn, De For the first time these works were strongly influenced by the way Bilt-Zeist. Another company, called the cities had grown around railroads. In the last twenty years of the De Veluwe, opens the line between nineteenth century the urban area of many Dutch cities expanded Ede and Nijkerk. Source: P. Saal, considerably. The areas around the stations and part of the railroads, F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations, originally planned outside the historical centres, were now completely 1983, p. 60. 64 surrounded by the outgrown cities. The railway infrastructure, in most The ZHESM (Zuid-Hollandsche cases still running on the street level, became quickly a serious barrier Electrische Spoorweg- for the other flows of traffic. In addition, the development of the areas Maatschappij) opens in 1908 the around stations and railroads, until that time characterized by mostly railway connecting Rotterdam utilitarian buildings and warehouses, started to be a very interesting Hofplein with Scheveningen, issue because of their strategic position between the historical cities passing by Wassenaar. This line, and the new expansion districts. ending at the famous Kurhaus in Scheveningen, is the first railway With the Woningwet of 1902 several Dutch cities were obliged line electric powered in Holland. to set up clear plans for their expansion (uitbreidingsplan) and the Idem p. 61. organization of railways and public transportation in the city became 65 an extremely important matter65. Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Groningen In the mean time the construction of new stations and the reconstruction are the first Dutch cities where in the Uitbreidingsplan the problem of existing ones are mainly in the hands of a limited group of architects. of reorganizing the railways is The HIJSM (since the last quarter of the nineteenth century also called extensively considered. HSM) has from 1879 to 1909 D.A.N. Margadant as chief architect of

48 26 Poster of the exposition ‘De trein’, held in Amsterdam in 1939 to celebrate the first hundred years of the Dutch railroads. 27 Map of the electrified railway lines up to 1940.

29 (opposite page) 28 Ironical poster comparing the profit of Poster showing the publicity around car and oil companies with the financial the electrification of the main Dutch loss of railways in 1935. railroads.

30 Construction of a temporary railway bridge on the river Rhine, close to Oosterbeek. Potograph taken just after the Second World War.

31 Short after the Second World War the Dutch railways had to make use of buses in order to ensure certain connections. This picture is taken just after the War. On the background is visible the destroyed station of Arnhem. PART 2

the company. G.W. van Heukelom works from 1891 on as permanent collaborator of the SS making most of the projects.

The First World War brought quite some changes to the organization of railways. First of all the electrification of the most lines became an essential matter. This also meant the realization of elevated railway structures in most cities and the subsequent reorganization of traffic, sometimes not only around stations. In the second place the State got more control in matter of railroads particularly during the war and decided to force an agreement between the S.S. and the H.IJ.S.M. in order to improve the quality of railway transportation. From 1917 on both companies were obliged to work together under the responsibility of the State. The process of growth of the S.S. went on and the collaboration with the H.IJ.S.M. became better. From 1917 on, as a prove of the good collaboration, both companies are signing together the most new contracts. The actual merger of both companies into the N.V. Nederlandsche Spoorwegen66 was signed in 1937. From that moment on further developments of the Dutch railways are regulated by a new law issued on May 26th 193767. Beside the creation of a national railway company, the years between the two wars are also characterized by the great competition with the increasing road traffic. The financial loss of many railway lines forced the NS to revise the service concentrating on long- distance travel reducing the frequency of services on regional lines. This caused the closing of around 150 stations between 1920 and 1940. The enlargement of the network is very marginal in this period and concerns mainly some freight services68. As a matter of fact the NS had to concentrate on renewing its image and becoming a modern company in order to compete with the upcoming road traffic. The 66 The N.S. is the current Dutch difference in travel classes is not an issue anymore and step-by-step Railway Company. the station transforms into a dynamic building where the passengers 67 play a central role. The facilities in stations are available for everyone See also J. H. Jonckers Nieboer, and the platforms are elevated in order to improve the accessibility of Geschiedenis der Nederlandse the wagons. Around the stations the demand of space to accommodate Spoorwegen 1832-1938, 1938, other means of transportation increases and, on the other hand, p.316-328. 68 the need of marshalling yards decreases as the electric locomotive Some local railway lines are started does not need to be serviced after every journey. When it comes to in the province of Groningen and realization of stations in this period the work of the architects S. van the line between Gouda and Alphen Ravesteyn, since 1912 employed at the SS , and H.G.J. Schelling, at a/d Rijn is opened (1934).

53 Railways in the urban context

the HSM from 1916 on, is remarkable. Their involvement with the two railway companies will last until the end of the 1950s69.

The condition of the Dutch railway network after the Second World War was disastrous. The German destroyed a great part of the infrastructure and the material was also heavily damaged. Everyone at the NS worked very hard and due to an efficient reconstruction campaign the railway network was fully operational by 1948. Despite the constant growth of road traffic, the railway kept an important share of the passenger and freight market until the end of the 1960s. In the period between 1945 and 1960 a considerable number of stations were fully or partially renovated following a common strategy: keeping the costs as low as possible. New stations had to be integrated in the traffic network and had to become a central node in the changing structure of the city. The new stations of Enschede, Den Helder, Leiden, Eindhoven, Venlo and, in some ways, Rotterdam Central Station are in fact integral parts of the reconstruction plans after World War Two70.

In the 1960s the economic position of the NS gets worse. The road traffic took definitively over the travel business from the railways and other public means of transportation. From 1964 onwards the financial position of the NS is every year unprofitable. A renewing plan was strongly needed. In 1969 NS comes with a strategy plan called ‘Spoor na ’75’ (Rail after 1975). The most interesting part of this document is the changing of strategy by the NS. The new challenge is to bring the railway where the potential passengers are. The strategy sounds very logic and obvious but it is in fact a reaction to the planning failures of the reconstruction and expansion period until 1975. The majority of the planned and realized public works or the development of new dwelling areas was more oriented towards motorways and roads than

69 stations. For this reasons the NS proposes to concentrate the efforts For more information about the on a decade of railway connections. The new Schiphol line, with the work of S van Ravesteyn and construction of The Hague Central Station, the Zoetermeer line and H.G.J. Schelling see also P. Saal, the Flevo line are the most important projects of this period. The NS F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations, regains a bit of credit and undergoes a process of restyling that will 1983, p. 76-106. change the dusty image into a modern public service. 70 More details about the topic in From 1960 onwards also the design of the Dutch stations changes P. Saal, F. Spangenberg, Kijk op considerably. Until the end of the 1950s we note a common tendency stations, 1983, p. 85-106. of looking to a unitary architectural theme when designing stations.

54 PART 2

The work of S van Ravesteyn and H.G.J. Schelling, although different in architectural conception, confirms this tendency. Nevertheless the restyling process of the NS, mainly focussed on the train intended as modern but at the same time utilitarian public service, brings along also a clear shifting in the typological organization of stations. Particularly in middle-sized stations, the number of secondary functions is reduced to the minimum and even the size of the entrance hall shrinks back. The culture of standardization comes back in the design of stations of the 1960s and 1970s. The lack of articulation in the design of the space and the disappearance of other functions reduce the station to a functional box to be mounted everywhere. With this in mind, the NS architects and the architects of the new metropolitan railways of Rotterdam and Amsterdam are in these years busy in developing their own ‘house style’; following this principle, a NS station is not a station for the metropolitan railways and a metropolitan railway station in Rotterdam must be different of one in Amsterdam. The design of bigger railway stations could than be approached as a unique architectural assignment but had to be recognizable as one in a series71.

Contemporary developments: High Speed Rail and the Randstad

Despite the rapid increase of car and air traffic, in one and half century the train has grown into one of the most used means of transportation 71 on a European level. In addition the railway network continues its The discussion about the design development and expansion. Several European countries are nowadays of Dutch railway stations after investing large amount of money in High Speed network projects inside the.. 1960s is treated in a very interesting way by L. Van Duin and outside the cities. This also goes for The Netherlands. Especially in his article De metrostations the traffic congestion due to the use of cars makes an advanced train van Spijkenisse, published in network a good travel alternative, particularly in the Randstad. As in Architectonische Studies 4, Verpakte this text previously explained, the Randstad in its layout, morphology Zakelijkheid, 1987. and functioning is determined and supported by the presence of an 72 efficient train network. The HSL was supposed to be operative already by the beginning of 2007. Due to technical problems The construction of the High Speed Railway Line (HSL) is meant to involving the safety system, the integrate the Netherlands with the European High Speed Railway correct date of the first HSL network. The main railway line, connecting Amsterdam with Brussels, services is yet unknown (in march should be ready in 200772 and should be an environmental friendly 2008 is the HSL still not open to alternative to the car and air traffic. The expectations run high: seven the public).

55 32 The Randstad compared in scale with the regions of Paris and London.

33 The Dutch railway company (NS) announces the new connection with the International Airport of Schiphol. Poster of 1981. 34 a b c d e The construction of the High Speed Railway line in the Randstad. Aerial pictures. . 35 36 Scheme with the future frequency of the High Scheme with the time planning of the Speed Train connections in The Netherlands. construction of the six main High Speed Train locations in The Netherlands.

37 38 Functional distribution of six HSL Governmental contributions in million locations in The Netherlands. euros for six HSL stations in The Netherlands. PART 2

Million passengers per year should travel comfortably from city centre to city centre. The Dutch HSL will make use of existing and new railway tracks. From Amsterdam to Schiphol Airport the train will stick to the present track; right after Schiphol, at Hoofddorp to be precise, the new high- speed track begins and runs until Rotterdam. Between Rotterdam and Barendrecht the high-speed train returns to the existing track and from Barendrecht on continues using a new one joining the Belgian HSL network. In spite of the delay as result of the use of existing tracks, the travel time between Amsterdam and Rotterdam will be reduced from 55 to 35 minutes. Also Paris (only 3 hours) and London will get closer to Amsterdam when the High Speed train will start to operate. Although some troubles in the final part of the realization are delaying the completation of the project73, the ministry of transport is quite confident about the success of the High Speed Train. A curious aspect is that the media pays currently attention particularly to the construction of the most important nodes of the new line. Nowadays the design of the stations as a multifunctional traffic junction where high-speed trains, regular trains, metropolitan trains, buses, cars, bicycles and pedestrians all come together seems to be the most important assignment to work on. My personal opinion is that other important matters seem to be forgotten. For instance, in case of the Dutch HSL train, the question of how the new railway tracks touch the territory of the Randstad stays under-exposed. Another interesting discussion, almost unheard during the last months, is about the role of the existing railway connections after the advent of the high-speed train in the Randstad. The current railway links, functioning today on a regional level, will probably be relegated to transportation on a local level while the high-speed train will also gradually take over the regional railway traffic. Considering these changes a partial mutation of the existing railways will be needed, bringing the realization of a metro-like railway connection on the Randstad level very close. What happened in other European metropolis at the end of the nineteenth century may finally become, although caused by other reasons, an actual theme for transportation in the Randstad. For these reasons it is quite interesting to follow the ongoing railway projects in the Netherlands and try to foresee the future impact of railways in the process of transformation of several Dutch cities. 73 The cities directly served by the HSL are obviously profiting from See the previous note.

59 Railways in the urban context

their position and developing or re-developing business areas. Some examples are the Zuidas (South axis) in Amsterdam, a new trade area, or the huge urban renewal project planned right outside the central station of Rotterdam. Next to these projects, which are already getting enough attention in the media, I think we should turn our interest to the other cities, the ones without a straight connection with the HSL. In order to keep up with the future developments of the Randstad, these cities will probably have to build efficient transportation links with the closest HSL hub. Building or renewing the means of transportation in these cities will give rise to new architectural interventions. These facts all together, although currently not yet attracting the attention of the planning authorities, constitute an interesting field of research that we are trying to tackle with a number of design projects at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Delft.

60 61 PART 3

62 Entangled with the city: the metropolitan railways

Introduction

The construction and the expansion of the railway as means of transportation in the city cannot be seen outside the context of the industrial revolution. In the eighteenth century the European city in general, still based on its medieval structure, is transformed drastically by the effects of the industrial revolution. The city expands, not only due to morphological extensions but also because new means of transportation change the perception of its visible boundaries74. The European city tends to be divided in specific functional districts, varying from residential to industrial and from leisure to business areas. From 1800 to approximately 1865 the population of London and Paris had almost quadrupled; by 1880 also Berlin and Vienna had 74 considerably grown, reaching both almost one million inhabitants. For the one particularly interested In this framework the need of better transportation inside the city in these aspects it’s worth becomes an important issue. Particularly to improve the mobility of mentioning the book of W. Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey, citizens, a quick upgrading of the existing network of transportation the industrialization of time and space was indispensable. Main roads had to be enlarged and newly paved in the 19th century, 1986. to meet the demands of the increased vehicle traffic. Despite various 75 efforts of municipalities and other public authorities, the chaos and For extensive information about the the congestion in major cities did not seem to stop. construction and the development of the London metropolitan railways look at T. C. Barker, A consistent solution to the growing demand for reliable and faster M. Robbins, A history of London transport came with the railway, already tested as transportation Transport, vol. 1, The nineteenth system between cities. Its characteristics also made the train a century, 1975 and T. C. Barker, valuable transport alternative inside the city itself. In 1863 the first M. Robbins, A history of London steam powered metropolitan railway line is opened in London between Transport, vol. 2, The twentieth Paddington and Farringdon75. Even with the enormous pollution caused century to 1970, 1976.

63 Railways in the urban context

by the steam train in the underground section of the railway line76, the metropolitan train became a great alternative for quick displacements within the city. Another advantage of underground railways was the possibility to combine its construction with the realization of sewer systems and water ducts. In other European cities started soon after the example of London the discussion about the construction of metropolitan railway systems. Especially from the point of view of urban planning the emergence of the railway as transportation system plays an important role in the way the expansions of the modern cities are designed. Representative 76 examples are the projects for the Circle Line77 in London, the Petite The electrification of metropolitan 78 79 railways in London started only Ceinture in Paris or the Ringbahn in Berlin. around the end of the nineteenth No major city could be imagined without a modern railway system. century. This new element in the constructing of the city also leads to new 77 questions. What kind of impact would the metropolitan railway lines Although the route was authorised have on the existing city? What would be the most sensible architectural by the munipality of London as approach to design and construct its buildings? It becomes clear that early as 1853, due to financial problems and to the hard the design of stations, viaducts, and bridges cannot be left competition between the railway only to the mere engineering approach but requires the expertise of companies the Circle Line was architects. completed only in 1884. The route between Paddington and Following the framework sketched above, this section of the research Farringdon is part of this railway will focus on the metropolitan railway seen as an architectural project line. in the urban context. Looking at the topic from this perspective I came 78 The Petite Ceinture of Paris is across the great example of Otto Wagner’s project for the Stadtbahn of a circular railway line realized Vienna. While analysing this project I became enormously fascinated between 1852 and 1869 by this particular part of the great oeuvre of Otto Wagner. The study of connecting all the railway lines this architecture has been for me a source of extra motivation for the going into the centre of the city. further development of my research. I consider the Stadtbahn of Otto Although initially meant for freight Wagner as the exemplary project in which the issue of constructing a transportation, this railway line was fully operational also for railway yard in the city is treated as an architectural problem. This is passengers and for this reason also the reason why I decided to dedicate a considerable section of is somehow considered as the this part of the thesis to this project. precursor of metropolitan railways. After looking at Otto Wagner’s work I’ll turn my attention to The Petite Ceinture is nowadays not the Dutch metropolitan railways. Even though the discussion about anymore in use. metropolitan railways is followed with particular attention, till after the 79 The Ringbahn (circle line) of Berlin Second World War it has practically been a forgotten issue in the Dutch was build between 1867 and 1877. urban project. This is an interesting chapter of the study because the

64 39 Drawing / section showing the underground works at the junction Hampstead road – Euston road in London. 40 Drawing showing the existing railways and the project for the first metropolitan railways of Paris. Situation of 1886.

41 Map showing the electrified metropolitan railways in London up to 1902. PART 3

metropolitan railways are an important driving force in the present developments in the Netherlands, particularly in Amsterdam.

Railways and expanding modern cities: the oeuvre of Otto Wagner

As already mentioned in the introduction to this research section, the regulation and the organization of the growing industrial city is one of the main concerns of nineteenth century architects, urban planners, sociologists and philosophers. First in England and then in the rest of Europe, the European city is confronted with an enormous growth of its number of inhabitants, moving massively from the countryside to the cities with the hope of a better life. The rapidity of its expansion makes it almost impossible to control the development mechanisms of the city. Consequences are unbearable working and living conditions especially for the low classes. Françoise Choay observes in the preface of ‘L’urbanisme. Utopies et réalités’80 that this problem finds its own critical dimension in the nineteenth century urban reality and assumes a clinic-therapeutic character with its scientific intentions.

Robert Owen, Tony Garnier, Ebenezer Howard, Camillo Sitte and others, make different kind of studies about the growing modern city. Using philosophical and sociological studies as starting point, they mainly work on utopian models of the city proposing interesting possibilities for its future development. Although the outcome of their work has great influence on the theoretical and the professional world, they have realized a limited number of plans not always corresponding to their theoretical proposals.

As a matter of fact only few professionals have the possibility to work on large-scale projects for the modern city. One of them is Otto Wagner, the well-known Viennese architect, who has always been interested in finding design elements for the expression of modern society and technology. Like many architects of his time, he participates actively in the discussion about the relationship between art, architecture and city. Embracing the motto ‘Artis sola domina necessitas’ (necessity is the only master of art) Wagner considers the neoclassic practice 80 of covering the pure materials with plaster work or other added Françoise Choay, L’Urbanisme. ornamental devices as anachronistic. For him this way of working is Utopies et réalités, 1965.

67 Railways in the urban context

not sincere, it is a form of degeneration, almost like the Potiemkin’s cardboard villages set up in Ekaterinenburg. Nevertheless the integral application of this principle was a bit too ambitious. In fact Wagner’s work still belongs to the eclectic tradition of the end of the nineteenth century. This consideration is correct if we look at his buildings but when we analyze his work as urban planner for the city of Vienna, we can’t deny his will to be a modernist to the backbone.

Following an invitation of professor A. D. Hamlin of Columbia University for an international congress in New York in 1910, Otto Wagner prepares a paper that can be considered the preliminary stage of his text ‘Die Großstadt, eine Studie über diese’81, issued in 1911. The problem of the great city was already a subject in Wagner’s writing, first in his text accompanying the entry to the competition for greater Vienna in 1893 and then in the publication series ‘Moderne Architektur’ (1896,1898,1902, revised in 1914)82. ‘Die Großstadt’ is certainly his main text dealing with the theme of city planning in which he clearly expresses his thinking about this matter.

Elaborating on studies with the master plan for greater Vienna in 1893, Wagner formulates in ‘Die Großstadt’ a concept of urban growth providing an orderly system of expansion made by a series of districts from 100.000 to 150.000 inhabitants. Those districts are located in a greater system of radial boulevards, each one of them starting from the city centre. According to this strategy there would be no limits to the size of the city, besides its topographical boundaries. He describes very precisely how the process of expansion could be implemented: first the acquisition of the land by the municipality that step by step, in a leasing-like form, will create the basic infrastructures needed for the development. After that, as the interest for investment will have increased, the municipality will sell the ground for the development of 81 other (private) buildings following strictly controlled rules. Otto Wagner, Die Großstadt, eine Further in his text Otto Wagner’s aversion for some of Camillo Studie über diese, 1911. Sitte’s planning devices surfaces as he stresses 82 Otto Wagner, Moderne Architektur, Seinen Schülern ein Führer auf “Quite as unjustifiable and objectionable from an artistic viewpoint are diesem kunstgebiete, Vienna 1896, intentional but unwarranted curves and irregularities in the lay-out of streets 1898, 1902, revisited in 1914. and squares, intended solely to produce artificially picturesque vistas”.

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In the Vienna of his time, the fame of Camillo Sitte’s work was already well established, especially in the theoretical and scientific sphere. Wagner is sharp in his critic to Sitte’s convictions and doubts about the right use of the word ‘art’ by Camillo Sitte and his followers while describing the essential characteristics of a city plan:

“It must be remembered as a fundamental fact that the great majority of the community, including, of course, visitors to the city, is quite ignorant of artistic matters….The more completely a city fulfils its practical ends, the better does it minister to the pleasure of its inhabitants; and the greater the part played by Art in this ministry, the more beautiful the city. Neatness and scrupulous cleanliness go hand in hand with Art; city governments please take notice!”83.

In his project for the greater Vienna, Wagner points out the concept of realism as main issue supporting the premises of modern architecture. About the modern city he stresses in the book ‘Moderne Architektur’:

“their unprecedented size has given rise to a number of new problems that await an architectural solution”.

Wagner underlines that the modern city has to be developed following logical and functional principles and, among other facilities, the city needs a technological advanced transportation system. He is convinced that a public transportation on rail is a necessity, a fundamental spine of his ideal city. New problems awaiting an architectural solution, as Wagner mentioned in ‘Moderne Architektur’, become visible when the new rail system with its facilities has to be integrated in the existing cityscape. The railway with its iron bridges and viaducts, symbols of the modern technology but traditionally belonging to the world of the engineer, is a real threat for the architectural language of the existing city and its monuments. In this framework the mission of the architect is to harmonize the realistic and practical approach of the engineer with the more idealistic attitude of the artist.

Personal fascination: the Stadtbahn of Vienna

83 The participation at the competition for the Stadtbahn in Vienna, Source: The Architectural record 31, announced by the municipality in 1890, is for Otto Wagner a unique pag. 485-500, May 1912.

69 Railways in the urban context

occasion to deal with the Großstadt in practice. The urban transportation problem had become critical as the city was expanding rapidly and the competition for the Stadtbahn coincides with the presentation of the plans for the second city’s extension. In the various projects for the railway transportation system presented since 1871, the main concerns of the municipality as well as of the public opinion were the viaducts and the railway tracks above the ground. Wagner wins the competition. His proposal, providing six lines in total, is part of the project for the greater Vienna (1893). The choice of the commission for Wagner could be due to the fact that in his plans for the greater Vienna he reduces the elevated part of the railway to the minimum. While the first proposals were sketching a Vienna completely invaded by iron and thick walls, Wagner is limiting the impact of the elevated railway to a part of the Gürtellinie and to certain peripheral sections of the Stadtbahn.

He wishes to control every single detail of the project. Between 1894 and 1900 Wagner produces almost 2.000 drawings about the Stadtbahn. According to a lot of authors who have studied Wagner, like Robert Trevisiol84, it is difficult to imagine that the responsible authorities in Vienna realized the necessity to study and design every detail. Wagner however was very determined and he asked to have an artistic consultant next to him for this complex project. In the final realization we can identify various stylistic tendencies, particularly in the stations of the various lines. Typical of the Viennese classicism is the articulation of the volumes along the ‘Wientallinie’. In the extension of this line, the ‘Donaukanallinie’, we can observe more formal research by the architect. This line develops itself along the embankments of the Donau canal and thereby represents a transition between nature and city. This part of the Stadtbahn is completely integrated in Wagner’s proposal for a general plan including the ‘Stadtpark’ and the re-make of the canal embankments. His drawings for the rearrangement of the ‘Donaukanal’ represent the first studies to assemble two new urban routes lying on different levels. The technique applied by Wagner in the perspective drawings showing the crossing routes will be re-used in the most important illustration of the Stadtbahn. 84 Robert Trevisiol, Otto Wagner, 1990.

70 42 43 O. Wagner, overview map of the Vienna O. Wagner, drawing of the GroSSstadt. Stadtbahn.

44 45 O. Wagner, General plan of Vienna (1893). O. Wagner, General plan of Vienna Project for the district of ‘Stadtteil am (1893). Project for the district of WienfluSS zwischen Getreidemarkt und ‘Stubenviertels’. Stadtpark’. 46 O. Wagner, General plan of Vienna (1893). Perspective drawing for the Hochbahn-

Viaduct, Meidling, Schönbrunnerstrasse. 47 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, project for the viaduct ‘Über die Zeile’ on the Gürtellinie. 48 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawings for the mid-pilon of the viaduct ‘Über die Zeile’ on the Gürtellinie.

49 50 O. Wagner, drawing for the Ferdinand O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawings for the section of the railway bridge. next to the Donau-canal. 52 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, photograph of a load-bearing pilon on the Gürtellinie.

51 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawing and photograph of a bridge on the Gürtellinie.

53 54 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, photograph O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawing of a viaduct of a load-bearing pilon on the Gürtellinie. on the Gürtellinie. 55 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, photograph of a section of the railway next to the Donau-canal.

56 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawings for the viaduct ‘Über die Zeile’ on the Gürtellinie. 57 58 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, photograph. O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, photograph.

60 O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawings 59 for one of the load-bearing pilons of the O. Wagner, Vienna Stadtbahn, drawings viaduct ‘Über die Zeile’ on the Gürtellinie. for the viaduct ‘Waehringer’ on the Gürtellinie. PART 3

In the most peripheral line, the ‘Vorortelinie’, Wagner designs several types of stations stylistically different, in which he experiments the transition from the historical heritage towards an architectural language purified of ornamental addictions and technologically more advanced, especially concerning the use of iron. A good example is the Unter-Döbling station.

Wagner’s various studies about the relationship between city and infrastructure become completely explicit, in my opinion, in the project of the ‘Gürtellinie’. This part of the Stadtbahn, characterised by the alternation of bridges, viaducts and walkovers, crosses almost all the city radials connecting the heart of Vienna with the outskirts. In the main traffic points, Wagner treats the side elevation of the railway viaducts like the side facade of a building. In his proposals for the urban reorganization in the general plan of Vienna, we can already note Wagner’s intention to study carefully the contact points between the railway and the city. In several drawing plans the architects shows the urban texture crossed by the railway line, clearly represented with broken lines projected on the urban plan. He wants of course to control as much as possible the impact of the infrastructure on the existent city.

In this respect it is really interesting to have a look at Wagner’s drawings enclosed in the general plan of Vienna where he shows the junction between streets, railway and public space. As already said regarding the plans, in these drawings there is a concrete will to investigate every single part of the project. The famous perspective drawings for the ‘Hochbahn-Viaduct’ and the pavilion on the ‘Elisabethplatz’ are clear examples of Wagner’s interest for these architectural problems. I don’t know if the architect himself was aware of that but he has studied the integration in the urban scenery of architectonic prototypes of buildings without any precedent reference. Being aware of the fact that a vital characteristic of any building is its function, Wagner designs the viaducts of the Stadtbahn fulfilling a double role. At the one hand statically supporting the railway tracks on the higher level but, at the other hand, functioning as building with a facade on the street or facing the square. Following this interpretation we could consider these architectural realizations as hybrid buildings produced by the development of the

77 Railways in the urban context

modern city. On the same level of the street or square we find not only the access to the station or the accommodation for the railway machinery but also other commercial activities, often housed on two levels under the railway viaduct.

Beside this, Wagner’s choice for the perspective’s viewpoints represent the real experimental character that he entrusts to his drawings. Probably exaggerating a bit on the role of the verkehrsmittel, he controls from man height viewpoint the perception of the entire urban space as well as the proportion of the viaducts. It is for this reason, as Günter Kolb notes in his publication on the Stadtbahn85, that the viewpoint in Wagner’s perspectives is very decentralized in relation to the drawing frame. By making the drawings in this way he can therefore show the right proportions of the different elements setting up the street. Pylons and walls, the main structural elements of the viaduct, are placed parallel to the direction of the street, underlining the urban continuity of the street also in the case of the underpass.

Wagner stylistic and architectonic convictions are playing a fundamental role in all this. The hybrid buildings are almost treated as monuments becoming the symbol of the architecture for the modern city. In fact Wagner applies his believe in the pure use of materials in different ways in his design of the viaducts showing the technical and aesthetic quality of iron, symbol of a new era in architecture. Not influenced by the common uses of his time, he does not hide the ‘Utilitas’ of the iron behind covers or screens. The introduction of ornaments is limited to pseudo-secessionist figures present in the iron beams bearing the viaducts or in the iron balustrades where Wagner apparently offers more space to the art consultancy.

As already mentioned before, the means of transportation becomes a building with facades; it is not a barrier anymore but it integrates itself in the city landscape. This is one of the most innovative aspects of Wagner’s work, illustrated trough the drawings of the Stadtbahn. By means of this project, especially in the case of his drawings, Wagner lets his idea about the Großstadt partly coming true. The Wagner’s

85 Großstadt is an urban planning strategy based on the sequence of Günter Kolb, Otto Wagner und die architectural blocks in which the transportation system is part of the Wiener Stadtbahn, Munich 1989. composition as well as the other buildings.

78 PART 3

Of course everything is more evident because the construction of the Stadtbahn is a unique occasion in which the transportation system is put across the existing city and has to integrate in its urban morphology.

Otto Wagner himself is fascinated by the possibility created for the traveller of understanding the city through another perception and speed thanks to the new means of transportation. In some of his writings he stresses the necessity of the railway in the city in a romantic way, proper of his period, but at the same time with the firm conviction of a modernist. The realization of the Stadtbahn, considered in its whole size, could be compared to other nineteenth century innovations in the field of technique, use or costume that have altered the scene and the life in the modern city. The scene of the modern city that, according to Wagner’s words, must be controlled by the baumeister.

Awaiting metropolitan railways: the Dutch project

The metro as a transportation system appears in the last decades of the nineteenth century as a solution for the growing demand for mass transportation in expanding cities. The underground version of the railway was a good alternative for an overcrowded, congested city-fabric where land prices are too high to consider building an overland rail network. Next to London and Vienna also Paris opened the first metropolitan line86 coinciding with the world expo of 1900. Unforgetable of this project are the famous entrances in Jugendstil designed by Hector Guimard. For another European capital, Berlin, the opening of the first section of the S-bahn came only two years later, in 1902.

While these cities are concerned with the realization of metropolitan railways, the discussion in The Netherlands and particularly in Amsterdam was about whether the mainline tracks would reach the city centre at all. Amsterdam was still served by two terminus stations situated at the edge of the historical city. Because of that the 86 railway traffic was heavily disturbed by the interruption in the network. The first line in Paris is the one Next to it the city needed better rail connection with its harbour. going from Porte Maillot to Porte Representative of the debate about the location of railway and station de Vincennes.

79 Railways in the urban context

in Amsterdam are the proposals of Huët (1867) and Berlage (1915). The first one envisions a central station on Dam Square, in the heart of the city. Berlage, instead, proposes an additional railway station on the southern edge of his plan for the extension of the city, the so-called Plan South (in Dutch called Plan Zuid). Together with the central station of Cuypers87, by that time already built, the southern railway terminal planned by Berlage put forward the possibility of a bipolar transportation system in the city. This proposal would have required a connection between the two stations, probably some kind of metropolitan railway like in other European capitals. In reality things developed in a different way and the metropolitan railway did not become an issue. From 1889 onwards Amsterdam is characterized by a centrifugal system of transportation all converging in its central station, constructed on the edge of the IJ-water (the inner sea right on the north of the city centre).

Because of its size and relatively small population the compact Dutch city did not immediately need metropolitan railway lines. This reliable and rapid transportation system that already proved itself connecting the multiple railway train stations in London, Vienna, Paris, or Berlin and ensuring the link between the centre and the new peripheries, wasn’t an issue in The Netherlands up to almost 1930. Only at that time the AUP (Amsterdam General Plan of Expansion) of Van Eesteren pointed out the necessity of connecting the planned outskirts of the city with the centre of Amsterdam88. The discussion lasted several years but only in 1960s things start moving in Amsterdam and in Rotterdam. Amsterdam had considerably expanded in size and the link between the new peripheries and the centre had become a sensitive social issue. In Rotterdam things were different. The Second World War bombments destroyed almost the entire city. Reconstruction works started right 87 The design of Cuypers central after the war and several districts of the city laid open for all kind of station will be described and interventions. In this framework the project and the construction of the analyzed in the next chapter of this first metropolitan railway in Rotterdam runs relatively easy as part of thesis. the re-building developments of the city. In fact it’s Rotterdam the city 88 where the first Dutch metropolitan line is opened in 1968. Probably Life and oeuvre of van Eesteren one of the shortest in its kind, only 5,9 kilometers long, the so-called are extensively treated in the book M. Bock, V. van Rossem, K. Somer, ‘Erasmuslijn’ links the central station with the area of Zuidplein, Bouwkunst, Stijl, Stedenbouw. Van situated in the southern part of the city across the river Meuse. In Eesteren en de avant-garde, 2001. 1982 begins the construction of the second metro line in the city,

80 PART 3

61 A. Huët, plan of Amsterdam showing the proposal for a central railway station on the Dam square. 62 Perspective drawing made by H.P.Berlage of the Plan Zuid (Plan South). On the foreground the proposed Station South.

63 H.P. Berlage, Amsterdam Plan Zuid (plan south), 1915. The central positioned building at the bottom of the drawing is the station south as Berlage proposed. 64 C. van Eesteren, the AUP of Amsterdam (general plan for the extension), 1935. 65 The inner city of Rotterdam after the clearance of rubble. Photograph taken in 1946. The railway line through the city is clearly visible. PART 3

the so-called Calandlijn, connecting the southeastern Capelsebrug (a bridge located at the border of the city next to Capelle aan den IJssel) with the Coolhaven (one of the harbours of Rotterdam).

In the meanwhile in 1965 the Amsterdam city council decided to replace part of the existing network of trams, already stuck in the surface traffic and reaching only two districts89 beyond the pre-war footprint of the city, by a mainly underground metropolitan network arriving into the outer urban areas. The project proposed the realization of four lines: one north-south, one southeast-southwest, one east-west ring line around the city centre, and one ring line around edge of pre- war city. More the result of a social compromise than a straightforward technocratic solution inspired by earlier European metropolitan experiences, the ring-like metropolitan system of Amsterdam had to connect the different peripheral districts with each other and the central station, avoiding as much as possible the historical core of the city. The first two full metropolitan lines opened only in 1977 and three years later both lines reached the central station. Just 3,5 kilometers of Amsterdam metropolitan railway system runs actually underground (between central station and the station Amstel), continuing the journey into the periphery on the surface. It is often laid parallel to mainline railway tracks with transit provided via cross-platforms at various stations.

The first part of the north-south line is the underground variant of the main axis of the city: central station – Dam – Rokin. In the late sixties the construction of the metropolitan project started at the cheaper southeastern end of the line. This link was urgently needed to connect the city centre with the newly planned district called . Only the obsolete former Jewish quarter of Amsterdam required demolition in order to build the underground section of this line. To free space for new developments, along with the metro line and a highway, in 1968 the council of Amsterdam voted in favour of a plan to tear down most of the houses in the area. But this decision became the 89 immediate cause to activate the protest-movement at that time. After In 1965 two tram services were the riots by squatters and local residents in 1974, the city cancelled linking the districts of most of the accompanying urban renewal except for the needed (from 1954) and (from alignment of the subway and the project for the city hall/opera house 1962) with the centre of the city.

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66 67 Map of the metropolitan railway lines of Amsterdam, project for the North-South Amsterdam including the new North-South line. Cross section taken on Amsterdam line. Central Station. The new metropolitan railway line will lay underneath the water of the IJ as well as the existing station. 68 The North-South line. Scheme showing the different position of the stations and the depths of the underground tubes. Railways in the urban context

known as ‘Stopera’.

The 1970s metropolitan line was scheduled for major renovation, again in harmony with an urban project – the ‘update’ of its destination: the Bijlmermeer district itself. But the metropolitan project itself was not well received. Putting public transportation underground would give the surface completely to the car. Besides, due to the financial disaster of 1977, the Dutch government decided to take over the responsibility for urban public transport from the councils. The policy of the central authorities changed and the investments on metropolitan railways reduced, causing the cancellation of any other subway line in the country except the one already in course of realization in Amsterdam.

In 1990 the transportation system in the city was expanded via surface light rail (in Dutch called ‘sneltram’) to the south. An example is the line to Amstelveen, extended further south in 2004. In 1997 opened the ring line (in Dutch called ‘Ringlijn’) connecting the western districts to the ones in the southeast. Both lines have a section running in the middle of the southern highway ring road, passing by the Zuidas (Southern Axis) corridor. The last completed project is the express tram link between central station and IJburg. This housing district is also the most recent project in the extension of the city to the east. The 8,5 kilometers long tramline opened in 2005 and runs for 1,5km in a under the eastern docks.

Under construction: North-South, a new metropolitan line in Amsterdam

Like other European capitals, Amsterdam is updating its transportation and, with it, its insertion in a greater territorial context. After the gradual expansion of the transportation system to the outer borders of the agglomeration, another crucial moment in the development of Amsterdam is arrived: the new North-South metropolitan line (Noord- Zuidlijn)90. The central railway station and the subway are nowadays 90 both part of a comprehensive transportation system having as main See also S.U. Barbieri, R. Cavallo, F. Geerts ‘Amsterdam, Noord/Zuidlijn. switch the airport of Schiphol, a major hub on the high-speed railway A new chapter in the city’s project’ network and international air transport. As far as the regional scale article in Rassegna 84, 2006. is concerned, the presence of Schiphol in this network cannot be

88 PART 3

underestimated. On the southern highway ring road a twenty-first century version of Berlage’s unbuilt station proposed in 1915 will be erected as part of the Zuidas (Southern Axis) project.

In this respect the new North-South metropolitan line is not only the link between mainline stations but also a new chapter in the urban project of Amsterdam. For the first time the relatively underdeveloped northern part of the city beyond the IJ-water will be connected by a metropolitan railway line to the central station and the city centre. This fact will certainly be the catalysts for envisioned re-developments and new interventions in the northern district of the city. The North- South line will also be the link between the central station and this new high-profile development around the Zuidas station (also known as Zuid-WTC station), in progress along and on top of a 1.5 kilometre section of the ring road. Only few yards away from the location pointed out by Berlage for his southern station, railways, metropolitan railway lines and future high-speed rail service will be all organized in a futuristic high-tech transport hub. Well connected to the airport, this area is intended to be the top location in the entire country with the offer of offices, housing, shopping, in a dense, urban, mixed-use environment.

Subways are expensive public works taking into account the construction work itself, the maintenance costs, the exploitation costs and the surveillance. The realization takes a lot of time, often blighting the surroundings, going on top of the social disruption already caused by expropriations. In 1970s the construction of metropolitan railways in Amsterdam has shown this as no other. Almost four decades have passed since the conception of the North-South line has become a concrete engineering challenge. Construction work for the new North- South line started finally in 2002. Amsterdam is going to have its 9.5 km long metropolitan railway line passing right underneath its historical core. The line will feature eight stations on the average distance of 1,1 kilometre one another: Buikslotermeerplein - Van Hasseltweg - Centraal Station – Rokin – Vijzelgracht – Ceintuurbaan (with 26,5m below NAP the deepest station) - RAI/Europaplein – Zuid/WTC. In the current situation almost no buildings have to be demolished since the tunnels are drilled below the existing street pattern. The line is scheduled for operation in 2011. A southward extension to Schiphol airport and Hoofddorp is

89 71 The future set up of station Zuid-WTC (station south) in Amsterdam. Cross section scheme and impression of the interior.

72 Impression of the master plan for the Zuidas in Amsterdam.

73 The future station Zuid-WTC (station south) in Amsterdam. Impression of the exterior. This is an image of the preliminary design. PART 3

projected for the future.

The section of this metropolitan line north of the IJ-water is built on surface by means of viaducts. Once reaching the IJ, it goes underground in a 130 meter long tunnel made using the immersed- tunnel technique: floating tunnel segments are towed in place and sunk one by one into slots, previously prepared on the bottom. At the central station it connects with the other existing metropolitan railway lines and mainline service, continuing underground in twin drilled tunnels below the city centre. When reaching the highway ring road, at the southern edge of the city, the North-South line will reappear on surface.

Amsterdam is built on piles; old buildings sit on wooden piles while concrete piles support recent constructions. The first layer of soil, a mix of clay, peat and sand, is not strong enough to bear heavy weights. A second layer of sand is located at a depth of 20 to 30 meter. In this layer the metro tunnels are located in order to avoid as much as possible interferences with the foundation of existing buildings91. The level of the water in the ground is another important issue to deal with. Since most buildings in the centre of Amsterdam have wooden piles for a foundation, these would rot when exposed only partially to water. The soil around the piles should be completely dry or completely under the water level for the foundations to remain sound. For these reasons during the realization of the North-South line no water will be added or subtracted from the soil. Drilling or working underground is always done without interfering with the water level in the ground. Despite the extensive survey of the condition of Amsterdam’s underground soil, the possibility of subsiding grounds is not completely unreal. Fragile places are therefore treated with extra care, as in the case of the Berlage Stock Exchange building where the foundations are partially being reinforced. Exceptional in scale is the operation at the central station of Amsterdam. This historic landmark designed by Cuypers and erected on approximately 9000 wooden piles is currently one of the biggest 91 building sites in the centre of Amsterdam. Here, in order to construct the This is one of the technical subway station underneath, part of the original foundation is removed principles applied in the using an underground concrete table able to support the central part preliminary design phase of the of the building. Only earth is removed and no water, keeping the rest project.

91 Railways in the urban context

of the existing foundation safe. Next to the accommodation of the new metropolitan line, the huge construction site of the station will give rise in fact to a multilevel traffic node, containing new terminals for ferries and buses in the new extension facing the water. The road behind the station will pass through a new tunnel parallel to the railway tracks under the ground floor, right on top of the metropolitan line. The next part of this research will treat the project for the central station of Amsterdam more extensively.

Metropolitan railway stations in Amsterdam: dug in architecture

The stations of the North-South line are compact and straightforward, with a minimum amount of facilities and featuring one exit at each end. Some stations require specific arrangements, as in the case of Ceintuurbaan, where the two platforms are placed on top of each other because of the small width of the street, the Ferdinand Bolstraat, above. To create entrances to the station two corner buildings are demolished and reconstructed in the same size. In this way the new accesses to the station become part of the existing building fabric. It is expected that 200.000 passengers will daily use the North-South line. The stations are supposed to last hundred years. Everybody understands the importance of the metropolitan line, but its architectural presence will not be evident on the surface. On the contrary, back in 2001, Jan Benthem, responsible for the project as chief architect of Benthem Crouwel Architects, originally even criticized the political consensus that the subway should be invisible on the surface. The historic core of Amsterdam was not supposed to be contaminated by signs of the high-tech machine below. The museum city of Amsterdam will be easily accessible thanks to the North-South line, but the architectural evidence of this great improvement should not be visible. The subway is not a new engine for the urban vehicle, neither a potential catalyst in addressing the public space on the 92 surface. We have to accept the fact that these underground stations For more information about the only offer solutions for the mere pragmatic needs. Therefore there is no interpretation of ‘project of chance that the North-South line will turn into a project of architecture architecture’ see the paragraph 92 ‘Specification of terms and for the city . theoretical framework’ in Part 1 of this thesis. The problematic construction of OMA’s tram-tunnel in The Hague

92 74 Entrance of the North-South line at the Station square. This is an image of the preliminary design.

75 Impression of a platform of the North- South line at the Central Station. This is an image of the preliminary design.

76 Impression of an access of the North-South line at the Central Station. This is an image of the preliminary design. 77 Entrance of the North-South line of the Rokin station. This is an image of the preliminary design.

78 Entrance of the North-South line of the Vijzelgracht station. This is an image of the preliminary design.

79 Impression of the North-South line at the Ferdinand Bolstraat station. Due to the narrow size of the street, the two platforms are located one on top of the other. This is an image of the preliminary design.

80 Entrance of the North-South line of the Europa Boulevard station. This is an image of the preliminary design. 70 M. Stam, entry for the competition of the Rokin in Amsterdam (1924).

69 a b C. van Eesteren, entry for the competition of the Rokin in Amsterdam (1924). Railways in the urban context

proves that no infrastructural project in The Netherlands can be realized without very sound engineering. Considering the number of projects signed by Benthem Crouwel Architects, their work will be fundamental in defining the role architecture will play in rail infrastructure. Their approach of accommodating the multifunctional character of an infrastructural node with its primary engineering needs is resulting in a self-contained element in the system rather than a building that is part of the city.

Benthem Crouwel Architects have become specialists in infrastructural commissions: the same team that developed a language for the invisible metro of Amsterdam is responsible for a vast portfolio of transportation projects. Architects specialized in infrastructure recall the era of the monopoly-position held by old national railway companies. It is difficult however to point out what their specialization would comprise when they are simply asked to minimize the visibility of the stations they are designing. The programmatic minimalism of the stations together with their explicit transparency is in sheer contrast with the impact of the project. The North-South line station of Rokin, 21,5 meter deep and expected to be the second busiest stop after central station, will be accompanied by an underground parking garage and a square on top. Rokin has historically been an unsatisfactory section of the urban north-south axis of Amsterdam. In 1924 a competition was organized featuring entries of Cornelis van Eesteren en Mart Stam. Van Eesteren proposed a high-rise building on the Spui-corner and Mart Stam had even proposed a monorail running above Rokin93, dramatizing the effect of this radical infrastructural solution. Both their designs are changing the character of the architectural project for the infrastructure, from a monumental approach to emphasizing connectivity.

The contemporary role of architecture in the development of infrastructures in the city becomes clear in the Zuidas (Southern axis) project. All functions will be dug in and contained by a series of boxes able to house different transportation systems, not only in space but also in time. With architecture almost disappearing, the attention goes to the master plan that only gives an impression of how the city will take shape during the coming two decades. Without disturbing the flows of traffic, the architecture will gradually fill 93 up the master plan and distract, in a way, from the infrastructural surgery See also L. Lansink, Geschiedenis underneath. The buildings on the surface of this dug in infrastructure will van het Amsterdamse Stationsplein, not indicate this underground presence. 1982.

96 81 The central station of Rotterdam designed by van Ravensteyn in 1957. The demolition works started at the end of 2007.

83 82 Impression of the exterior of the new central station of Impression of the interior of the new Rotterdam designed by Team CS. central station of Rotterdam designed by Team CS. 84 Impression of the exterior of the new central station of The Hague designed by Benthem Crouwel Architecten.

85 The urban context of The Hague central station. Aerial photograph. 86 Impression of the exterior of Utrecht central station designed by Benthem Crouwel Architecten.

87 Aerial view of Utrecht central station before and after the renovation. Design Benthem Crouwel Architecten.

88 Impression of the interior of Utrecht central station designed by Benthem Crouwel Architecten. 89 Impression of the exterior of the new station of Arnhem. Design UN Studio (Ben van Berkel).

90 The new railway station of Arnhem. Design UN Studio (Ben van Berkel). 91 92 Impression of the exterior of the new Impression of the exterior of the new central station of Breda central station of Breda designed by Koen designed by Koen van Velzen. van Velzen.

93 Plans of the new central station of Breda designed by Koen van Velzen. 94, 95 Situation of Amsterdam central station before and after the extension. Design Benthem Crouwel Architecten. 103 PART 4

104 Multi functional terminal or monument: the case of Amsterdam Central Station

Introduction

The typology of the railway station is progressively changing. Technical and functional updates, constantly changing heterogeneous commercial activities, restyling and the accommodation of high-speed railways are some of the transformations that existing railway stations are undergoing. In addition, there is a constant need for updating the connections between railway stations and public transportation under and above the ground. As a direct consequence, building programmes are becoming so complex that it almost seems impossible to provide an appropriate solution to these problems in terms of architecture. From a functional point of view, the most recurrent choice today is the multiuse terminal, a building often characterized by an unclear relationship with the urban texture and in which the travelling function becomes secondary. Besides other issues, in this framework it makes sense to raise questions about the future of the existing railway station, a building strongly related to its urban context and often part of the collective memory of the city.

The above-mentioned situation applies to several railway stations in The Netherlands. The attempt of finding an answer to the complicated programmes is often translated into interventions that vary from a partial substitution to the complete demolition of existing stations in favour of new multiuse terminals. Examples of this kind are the ongoing work for the station of Arnhem by UN Studio (the office of Ben van Berkel) or the project for the renewed central station of Rotterdam designed by the Team CS (Benthem Crouwel architects in collaboration with Meyer & van Schoten, Venhoeven, and West 8), this last one dealing with probably

105 Railways in the urban context

the most interesting post-war station of The Netherlands designed by van Ravensteyn and opened in 1957. Only a few stations have survived this operational logic, usually because of their historical and architectonic value. This is the case of Amsterdam Central Station. As one of the most important monuments of the capital city, Central Station is a building with an outstanding character and is a well-known symbol of Amsterdam. In the meanwhile the area surrounding the station including the historical building is also known as one of the biggest construction sites of The Netherlands. Starting with the description of the original situation of the railway yard in Amsterdam and the original building of Central Station realized by Cuypers, this part of the research will focus on the current transformations of the site in question, with particular attention paid to the way in which the historical building and new interventions come together.

The railway and the urban setting of Amsterdam Central Station

In 1839 the first railway in The Netherlands was opened between Amsterdam and Haarlem. The two terminus stations Willemspoort in Amsterdam and Amsterdamsche Poort in Haarlem were situated at the start and end of the tracks. Next to the railway to Haarlem, the construction of another railway to Utrecht started from another terminus station called Weesperpoort (1843), located on the east side of Amsterdam. The presence of two terminus stations in the capital city caused problems in the following years, especially logistic ones. In 1860 the Dutch government94 commissioned a new link between Amsterdam and the city of Den Helder, located in the north95. Due to this new railway line there was a need for a third terminus station in Amsterdam. For several reasons, it was impossible to end this new line in one of the two existing stations. The nightmare of having three terminus stations came too close to reality and the city rejected the idea. In the meantime, the discussion about creating a national network without interruptions in the capital became an increasingly important 94 issue and offered the opportunity of making plans for a central station See also note 53. 95 in the city. The debate about where and how the new station had to be This railway line was full built took at least 10 years. In 1865 a commission was set up under operational in 1863. the leadership of J. A. Waldorp, who was chief engineer of the state

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railways, in order to investigate the best place for the station. Besides the railroad, Amsterdam had problems developing its harbours. Despite the construction of the North Holland Channel (1824) and the building of the new Eastern and Western Docks (1832 and 1834), the harbours of Amsterdam, where the average size of ships gradually increased, has troubles with flowing-in tides and being choked up with sand. Nevertheless, the Waldorp commission advised the construction of a central station at the IJ, the inner sea facing the city centre. The main reason for this decision had to do with the increase in navigation in the port of Amsterdam and the important support of the railway network being close to it.

The building of railroads has been right from its beginning the domain of the engineer. Together with railway techniques, engineers also decided which buildings and infrastructures were needed for railroads. The need for standardization in building railways offered Dutch engineers the opportunity of designing stations as well. Although the results were good in terms of building speed, the lack of architectonic experience could be seen in engineers’ practice. In his book ‘Centraal Station Amsterdam. Het paleis voor de reiziger’, Aart Oxenaar stresses that the discussion about the location of Amsterdam Central Station on the IJ did not take into consideration aspects such as the beauty of the city. Many historians, including Brugmans, still consider this project an enormous affront to the centre of Amsterdam. In fact, all the arguments and reflections were mainly formulated from the viewpoint of the city’s economic development. Finally in 1876, where the contract between the government and the municipality was signed, the city of Amsterdam had already given the permission to centralize the existing tram network at the location of the future central station. Long dikes, viaducts, high and partly moveable bridges were built very quickly, and the railway section between Zaandam and Amsterdam had been put into use as early as 1878.

The image of Amsterdam from the water changed rapidly as the physical barrier of the railway yard replaced the historical walls of the fortification. The new railway yard influenced not only the image but also the morphology of the city. A sharp and currently perceptible division between the historical city and the developments on the north

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side of the railway was originally caused by the presence of this railway yard.

Like in other European countries, architects had a marginal role in the construction of railway buildings in the Netherlands. As mentioned above, stations as well as railway yards were considered infrastructures and therefore built following a mainly functional approach. However the case of Amsterdam was different. Generally speaking there was not a clear understanding of what this project would really mean for the city. The most discussions were about the status of Amsterdam as capital city of the Netherlands and its grandeur on a European level. After almost ten years of debate the council of Amsterdam believed the party stressing that the station had to be a representative building for the city and appointed in 1876 P.J.H.Cuypers as chief architect for the project of Central Station.

The Cuypers project

As stressed above, building a railway station in the nineteenth century was the task of a railway engineer. In the Dutch railway legislation of programmes, which Dutch engineers applied directly to the design of stations. In fact, Dutch railway stations were divided into five different classes, all with standard floor plans96. It is probably for this reason that there are no documents about the actual building programme of Amsterdam Central Station. The commissioner probably considered 96 the conditions contained in the law of 1860 together with the The classification of Dutch stations standard floor plan of the biggest type of station sufficient for this after 1860 in five standardized assignment. classes is well illustrated in P. According to the agreement with the city of Amsterdam, Cuypers Saal, F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations, 1983, p.28-33. For more had to work on this commission together with A.L. van Gendt who information see also Part 2 of this had experience in building railroads. Nothing is known of their research. collaboration. However, it is known that van Gendt did not play any 97 role in the actual design work of the station97. The composition of This assumption is taken from this building is clearly that of Cuypers, inspired by Renaissance and the results of the investigation Baroque palaces. The long-drawn symmetrical plan also has much made by Aart Oxenaar for his book A. Oxenaar, Centraal Station in common with the organization of some Palladian villas and does Amsterdam, Het paleis voor de not exactly correspond with the plans of a standard station. Cuypers reiziger, 1989. attributed the choice for this quite long building to the size and shape

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of the location. In the text accompanying his first preliminary design, he points out the fact that a sufficiently big square in front of the station was required in order to accommodate other types of traffic like omnibuses, coaches, etc. As far as style is concerned, the commissioners of Cuypers already decided beforehand that the station had to be built in ‘Oud- Hollandsche stijl’ (Old Dutch style). Taking this into account, Cuypers tries to find in the explanation of the project elements common to the station as well as to a typical Old Dutch style house. Despite Cuypers’ efforts, it was clear that there was not much in common between the two. As well, the Minister of Transport expressed his disappointment in a note about the style choices of the architect. The Central Station of Cuypers is in fact a combination of styles, New Gothic with New Renaissance. Nevertheless, after months of discussion inside and outside the official circuits, the proposal was accepted and Cuypers could continue with his work.

The first design for the station had to be modified several times before being built. Cuypers had some trouble integrating the standard elements of the Dutch stations, such as the platform roofs, into the main building. Another problem was the crossing of incompatible streams of traffic due to the contemporary use of the station on the same level by trains and passengers. Comparing to the first version of the project, the floor plan and distribution of the building in the final design were changed and improved by inserting passenger tunnels. The train platforms were connected to the tunnels through stairs, directly linking them to the main hall. In the final design one can see the middle part with towers, the right and left wings, and the end buildings connected to the facilities wings. Cuypers brings together all these parts into a clear composition. The façade is also very clear with its symmetrical set. In the composition of the elevations, the entrance, departure hall and royal waiting room are accentuated with higher roofs corresponding to the most representative part of the building. The towers in the middle zone of the building clearly refer to the architectural theme of the station as being the gateway to the city98. 98 See also A. Oxenaar, Centraal The utilitarian vocation of the railway generally offered plenty of Station Amsterdam, Het paleis voor opportunities to experiment with new materials and techniques de reiziger, 1989.

109 96 Plan of I. Gosschalk for the position of the Amsterdam central station at the IJ waterfront with the proposal for a bridge to Amsterdam north. Year 1872, not realized.

97 Plan of A.L. van Gendt for the position of the Amsterdam central station at the IJ waterfront with the proposal for a square in front of the station. Year 1872, not realized. 98 Plan of J.L. Springer for the stock exchange building at the Damrak. At the left the proposal for a square in front of the station. Year 1888, not realized.

99 Plan for the construction of a new part of the railway in Amsterdam. Year 1882, realized. 100 Plan of Amsterdam from 1900. The position of central station as well as the railway link to the port area are clearly visible on this map.

101 Central Station Amsterdam View front elevation, plan train-platforms level, plan basement. Architect: P.J.H. Cuypers. 102 Central Station Amsterdam View front elevation, plan first, second and third platforms and main building.

103 Central Station Amsterdam Plan middle zone, date: october.1889. 104 Central Station Amsterdam View elevation railway side, sections building of station and roof, views side- elevations. Architect: P.J.H. Cuypers, A.L. van Gendt.

105 Roof Central Station Amsterdam. 106 107 Station square Station building Amsterdam Station square seen from the Victoria De main hall of the station. Detail van of Hotel. the pilars and the sealing. . Date photograph: november 1981

108 Station building Amsterdam Detail of Central Station: relief on the Western Tower, proposing Agriculture and Stock-breeding, Electricity, Industry and Steam. Date photograph: 13.11.1986

109 Station building Amsterdam Central Station - Interior. Guardhouse and en waiting rooms: interior Koninklijke Wachtkamer.

110 Station square Central Station, seen facing north. 111 Station square Station square with tram waiting room.. Date photograph: 1951 (circa)

112 113 Station square Station square The tourist office V.V.Vand and the Works around the N.Z.-Hollands Koffiehuis. entrance to the pedestrian tunnel leading Construction of new stops for tram and to the main hall of central station. bus and realization of the subway. Right: Date photograph: august1956 (circa) Central Station. Middle: entrance subway. Date photograph: 23.06.1981 114 Station building Amsterdam. The main hall of Central Station. Overview from the first floor on the main hall - on the right way to the train platforms. Date photograph: november 1981

115 116 Station square Building site subway at Central Station Central Station: The roof between the main Date photograph: 07.04.1979 entrance and the Koninklijke Wachtkamer with the entrance to the subway station. Date photograph: 05.11.1981 Railways in the urban context

improved during the nineteenth century. Although not considered as material par exellence, iron is especially widely used for the construction of railways. Not only for tracks but also for building shelters, other covered structures and even the main station buildings, iron proved to be a very reliable material with much potential. Cuypers was aware of this, but in the basics of his building he preferred sticking to the mediaeval tradition of vaults. As Oxenaar observed, it is exactly in the optimisations of traditional constructions the field where Cuypers achieved high rational results. In one of his articles about the building, Cuypers specifies that the materials should mostly come from national resources, which is why brick plays a main role in the building of Amsterdam Central Station. The architect designed self-supporting brick walls for the elevations and relegated the use of iron merely to the skeleton of the roof and construction of the awning. Furthermore, semi-circular steel and glass sheds were built to cover the railway tracks, a necessary structure that the architect could not avoid.

An interesting aspect of the Cuypers’ building is the variety of decorations. Each of the different functional parts of the complex can be seen in the façade thanks to recognizable and appropriate decoration patterns. Like for the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, Cuypers applies a widely developed iconographic work to the station, with as a main theme the Dutch railways and its relevant actors. For the reconstruction of the facts and the proposal of the tables, Cuypers was advised by his brother-in-law, the famous writer and publisher J. A. Alberdingk Thijm99.

The realization of Central Station meant a lot for the city. The station quickly became the main gateway to the city and one of the most representative buildings of The Netherlands. As the most important traffic node in the city, the position of the station would have a major influence on remarkable projects like the rebuilding of the Damrak, the Stock Exchange building of Berlage, Dam square and the Rokin.

99 The present intervention: ‘Stationeiland’ (Station Island) A chapter of the book A. Oxenaar, Centraal Station Amsterdam. Het paleis voor de reiziger, is dedicated With some 250,000 to 300,000 travellers a day, Amsterdam Central to the decorations of the building. Station is currently the busiest station in The Netherlands and is one

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of the most important traffic nodes of the country. Trains, ferries, buses, trams, subway, taxis, pedestrians and cyclists all converge here, causing daily traffic congestion. Besides the high volume of traffic, the lack of well-developed mutual connections between these means of transportation contributes to the daily chaos in and around the station. Although the city has been constantly working on the site, the station currently requires improvements to be ready in order to accommodate the upcoming high-speed train. In reality, it is not the high-speed train but the construction of a new subway line underneath the historical station that is the main reason for a complete reorganization of this traffic node. The new proposal aims to link all means of transportation in a multilevel building. The overall project is the result of the collaboration between Benthem Crouwel architects and the technicians of the city of Amsterdam100.

The historic building erected on approximately 9,000 wooden piles is currently one of the biggest building sites in the centre of Amsterdam. Here, in order to build the subway station underneath, part of the original foundation is being removed using an underground concrete plate able to support the central part of the building. Only earth is removed and not water, keeping the rest of the existing foundation safe. In addition, besides accommodating the new subway line, the huge construction site of the station has new terminals for ferries and buses in the new extension facing the water. The building of the new tramline to IJburg (a new housing island artificially created in 100 the IJ) and the refurbishment of the front square complete this huge The intervention of Benthem intervention. Crouwel architects does not comprehend the enlargement of the Ibis Hotel right next to The building of this project is divided into phases. Currently, the historical building of the construction is ongoing for the tunnel of the new subway line and its station. This part of the Ibis new station placed perpendicularly to the orientation of the historical Hotel, already owned by the NS building at a depth of 15 meters below ground level. vastgoed (Dutch Railway Company For the architects this is the chance of integrating all means of - Real Estate Department), is in public transportation into one traffic node, creating the opportunity to course of realization above the train platforms one to four and improve the quality of the surrounding public spaces. Another phase is designed by the office Ruland in this intervention will be the displacement of the bus terminal from + Partner Architekten, based in the front to the back of the station, freeing up precious space and Amsterdam. Construction works allowing a better interaction between the existing building and the started already in 2005.

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city centre. The new bus terminal will be built right next to and on the same level of the railway tracks along the water, placing it higher than street level. All motorized traffic will make use of a new tunnel parallel to the railway tracks running underground and positioned between the subway line and the ground floor level. Besides improving traffic congestion, by applying this solution, architects created a larger pedestrian hall on the ground floor simultaneously connecting ferry and bus terminal with the new subway line and the existing ones.

As for volumes, the existing complex of the railway station will be modified only on the north side along the water. Here, contractors are currently working on building new foundations under the new bus terminal. The project of Benthem Crouwel foresees the construction of one additional mega-structure almost containing the entire extension. In terms of form, this steel and pre-curved glass structure echoes the existing semi-circular railway sheds. The proposed solution offers many possibilities as regards the future openness of the railway station towards the IJ and the new ferry terminal. At the urban level, the project intends to create a long pedestrian axis which starting from the water goes through the existing station and, connecting with the Damrak, arrives at Dam square. Except the trams that will remain, a long pedestrian boulevard will then characterize the most representative part of Amsterdam’s city centre.

As for dealing with the historical building of Cuypers, the approach of Benthem Crouwel architects is quite straightforward: trying to restore the building as much as possible and bring it back to its original state101. In the past, this building was often modified through interventions that never took into account the relationship between the existing interior and new additions. Except for some parts of the main entrance hall, the result of these changes made Cuypers’ rich interiors almost invisible. As well, the constantly increasing number of commercial activities, all with their own different look, contributes to the further fragmentation of the inner space. In the project of Benthem 101 Crouwel architects there is a strong will to clean up the existing halls For this part of the work Benthem of the building and reordering the commercial activities following a Crouwel Architects made a design proposal. Up to now is still common interior layout. The aim is to reduce the formal disorientation uncertain whether this proposal will of the interiors as much as possible and organizing the inner spaces come to realization. of the building according to a clear structure.

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Together with this commission, the Benthem Crouwel firm is working on the railway stations of The Hague CS, Utrecht CS and Rotterdam CS, the last together with Meyer & van Schooten, Venhoeven and West 8 for landscape architecture. For this reason, their work will have a major influence on the way railway terminal buildings in The Netherlands will look like in the near future. Rapidly analyzing all the above-mentioned interventions, it is clear that there is no univocal architectural approach. The question of how the existing railway station as part of the collective memory of the city can be architecturally assimilated by the logic of the new multifunctional railway terminal cannot yet be answered. Every single project depends too much on specific conditions and so there is no main architectural theme. In this framework, Amsterdam Central Station can be considered an exception. In this project, the Benthem Crouwel firm tries to integrate the multifunctional character of contemporary stations into the romantic idea of the railway building as a gateway to the city. But looking nowadays at the building site of Amsterdam central station we can come also to another conclusion: the existing station as monument survives only when the surrounding urban setting can completely transform.

121 117 Aerial photograph Central Station Amsterdam Composition with new situation at the west side, project Stationeiland 118 Central Station Amsterdam. Aerial picture of the northern building site, July 2007. The foundations of the future enlargement of the building are clearly visible. In addition, a piece of the North/ South line tunnel has been transported on the place where will be sunk under the IJ water Image 27, 28 119, 120 Central Station Amsterdam - situation Drawings project Stationeiland 121 Central Station Amsterdam Ground floor plan new situation, project Stationeiland

122 Central Station Amsterdam Plan level +1, train and bus station, project Stationeiland 123 Central Station Amsterdam Interior new station, project Stationeiland

124 Central Station Amsterdam Interior new station, project Stationeiland

126 Central Station Amsterdam 125 Interior new station, project Stationeiland Central Station Amsterdam Kiss and ride new station, project Stationeiland 127 128 Central Station Amsterdam Central Station Amsterdam New bus station, project Stationeiland Image ground floor northern side, new situation, project Stationeiland

130 Central Station Amsterdam Image southern elevation and station square, new situation, project Stationeiland

129 Central Station Amsterdam Image north-west side, new situation, project Stationeiland PART 5

128 Railway areas in the Dutch city: architectural interventions in the margins

Introduction

The constant transformations of the city and the accompanying architectural issues are generally spoken interesting topics to study. With special attention to the Dutch City, the themes above are extensively addressed in the research programme ‘Urban Architecture’ of the Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology. The research programme focuses specifically on studying the relationship between urban transformations and architectonic interventions. Due to an approach in which education and research activities are interwoven, students and lecturers work together in the ‘Masters Thesis Studios’ of Hybrid Buildings - Urban Architecture on current changes at a number of crucial locations in the Randstad. As the title of this section of the research already suggests, the attention of one Master Thesis Studio’s, where I ‘ve been involved as tutor, is turned on interventions in railway areas. This is of course not a new issue and the topic is very recurrent in other European countries as well as, I would say, in the rest of the world. Although there are numerous recent publications mostly on European developments, the situation of railway areas in several Dutch cities is so specific that it undoubtedly deserves special attention. In the past few years there has been in the Netherlands a particular interest on railway areas because of the potential to generate attractive developments in relatively centrally located parts of the city. The historical development of water networks and the subsequent superimposing of highways and railways makes the transformation of particularly harbour areas in the Dutch city very important because it is often dictating the way the main infrastructures are positioned in relation to the centre of the city. The choice to concentrate our study again on the city of

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Amsterdam comes from the consideration that the above-mentioned transformations are the most evident in this city. As matter of fact the reason for putting the railway so central in the city of Amsterdam has a lot to do with the development of its harbour at that time. Bringing the railway right into the port brought great economical advantages but also practically meant the end to the visual relationship between the historical city and the sea.

Another interesting fact about urban railways is that they always activate ‘fringe belt’102 developments, whether they are centrally located or not. The ‘fringe belt’ developments are typical of railway areas originally placed outside the cities. The typical ‘fringe belt’ buildings have no fixed characteristics and, according to their functions, would have frontsides or, more often, backsides facing the tracks. This development is the base of the origin of what we would call ‘buffer zones’ around the railway areas. After this first phase the city develops and reaches the railway track but the characteristics of the buffer zone do not change. When the railway is located in the city centre this tendency does not show major mutations. Long blind walls mark the boundaries between city and railways and most buildings have a clear backside when facing the tracks. Nowadays there may be more attention to the interventions next to railway tracks but, generally spoken, it is always architecture developed in left over spaces of the city, it is architecture in the margins.

The following part of the research will focus on the work of the Masters Thesis Studio ‘Railway Zone Amsterdam’, treating this topic, the architectural interventions in the margins, extensively. First, the general themes concerning the project location will be addressed,

102 than I will provide an explanation of the ‘Master Plan’ proposed by the For a more detailed explanation students, and I will end this essay by presenting a selection of projects of the fringe belt, see B. Von der that have been worked out by individual students. Dollen, A historical-geographical perspective on urban fringe-belt phenomena, in T.R. Slater, The built The eastern harbour area of Amsterdam and the railway zone form of Western cities. Essays for M.R.G. Conzen on the occasion of his eightieth birthday. Leicester, 1990, In the past three years, the Amsterdam Masters Thesis Studio has p. 319. concentrated on the area around the railway zone in the Oostelijk

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Havengebied (eastern harbour area). Viewed historically, the inner city and the eastern side of the waterfront of the IJ have not been linked with each other since the seventeenth-century expansion of Amsterdam. In fact, this part of the city has always had the character of an outlying area. Due to the harbour and industry being located there, people have always sought to separate this location from the rest of the city for many reasons. The separation was first realized with the construction of the . After the construction of the railway dike around 1880, this part of the city became even more isolated from the historical city centre. With the further growth of the harbour and industrial activities, the railway was expanded with various branches in order to provide direct railway access to piers and warehouses. Over the years, the rail traffic increased, and the further development of the harbour islands was partly determined in functional and morphological terms by the presence of the railway. The area in question has been split into two sections by the railway dike. In the section on the IJ to the north of the railway, where the islands KNSM and Java were built, the destination primarily concerns the harbour. The islands Kattenburg, Wittenburg and Oostenburg south of the railway, constructed soon after the seventeenth-century city expansion, offered space to the harbour and industry, and were later used for residential construction103. After the harbour activities moved elsewhere, along with most of the industry, the location – with its unique geographical situation – offered a great deal of space for new development. The city council had the intention of strengthening the image of Amsterdam as a ‘city on the water’ by developing the waterfront of the IJ. New buildings on the former harbour islands to the north of the railway, the area along the IJ and the expansion of the Central Station were intended to give shape to this idea. Large-scale projects such as the KNSM and Java islands and the Borneo Sporenburg have been completed in the meantime. In their design and realization, the urban designers attempted to find linkage with the urban planning and the architectonic characteristics of the inner city of Amsterdam. This is especially the 103 case with the Java island. This approach has largely been successful; See also J. van Eck, De these projects have become highly desirable residential locations and Amsterdamsche Schans en de Buitensingel. are widely known inside and outside architectural circles.104 104 In addition, the new waterfront of Amsterdam on the IJ is See also J. E. Abrahamse, A. characterized by a strip of land between the water and the railway Jolles e.a., Oostelijk Havengebied which contains the new Muziektheater (music theatre), the Passenger Amsterdam.

131 131 Drawing of Amsterdam with in evidence the project area of the former eastern harbour.

132 The eastern harbour of Amsterdam seen from the sea (the IJ). Second half of the seventeenth century. 133 a B C D Maps of the development of the eastern harbour area in Amsterdam (1826, 1877, 1903 and 1915). 134 Photograph of the eastern harbour area of Amsterdam around 1910. 135 Aerial photograph of the eastern harbour area of Amsterdam in 1980.

136 Aerial photograph of the eastern harbour area of Amsterdam around 1980. 138 Aerial photograph of the marshalling yard at the eastern harbour area of Amsterdam, year 2000.

137 Aerial photograph of the eastern harbour area of Amsterdam, year 2000. PART 5

Terminal and a number of new buildings designed by renowned architects.105 Despite the close proximity to the city centre, it must be noted that these latter buildings do not link up seamlessly with the inner city. Although this is often presented in another light in the sales brochures, the size of the building plots and the ultimate design and scale of these realizations have more in common with the former harbour warehouses than with the canal-side houses. In any event, we can ascertain that the waterfront of the Oostelijk Havengebied of Amsterdam has been completed with the realization of these buildings. 105 This refers to the recently completed buildings in the Oostelijk Havengebied of Amsterdam. Theoretical framework and master plan Examples of these buildings include the ‘Detroit’ building In the design studio, the first data were collected and an inventory was designed by AWG Architects, the made in an easily usable digital database. Besides collecting insightful ‘Chicago’ building of Rapp & Rapp and the apartment building ‘De information, at the same time we began with brainstorming about the Loodsen’ designed by Köther and location and its relationship to the city. From this discussion it emerged Salman. that in view of the recent developments, a number of unsolved problems 106 have continued to exist, especially on the south side of the railway. The former terrain of the Here as well, projects have been completed recently. The demolition of Stork factory is located on the several empty buildings on the terrain of the former Stork factory106 Rosenberger Island on the south side of the railway. created the space for the construction of the INIT complex.107 In 107 108 addition, the housing project Het Funen was completed in a The Czaar Petergebouw (Czar Peter triangular space enclosed by the railway, the Cruquiuskade and the building), also knows as INIT, is blocks of buildings on the Czaar Peterstraat. Finally, the public spaces the first new building that was in the area of the Czaar Peterstraat underwent a major renovation in completed on the Oostenburger an attempt to provide linkage with the developments on the other side Island. In this building, designed by of the railway. Groosman and Partners Architects, the ´Werf ´ is combined One of the results of the analysis of the area conducted in with commercial functions. the studio, was that despite the intrinsic qualities of the recently 108 completed building projects, this location as a whole is lacking in The Funen project comprises an coherence in terms of urban planning and architecture. The conclusion elongated apartment complex on of the analysis was that no satisfactory solution could be found for the Cruquiuskade, an apartment the problem of the railway barrier. The presence of the large railway building ‘de Sporenboog’ along the railway, and an inner area with shunting yard, previously part of the Stork complex and no longer urban villas, ‘het Funenpark’. In used today, makes the separation between the two sides of the railway total this project contains 565 even more noticeable. In order to provide a better integration between dwellings. The Master Plan is a the strip of new construction to the north of the railway dike and the design of the Cie Architects.

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realizations to the south, the redevelopment of this railway shunting yard could play an important role. In reality, however, the ownership situation109 of this shunting yard makes possible interventions in this area very problematic. Therefore, we chose to make a further investigation of this area. By going beyond what project developers and the municipality believed to be realistic and feasible, we could, by means of experimental interventions, map out possible future scenarios. It soon became clear that answering the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of these experimental interventions required a suitable theoretical foundation to prevent every project from remaining an exercise in itself. The first thoughts about the theoretical framework concerned possible visions of the railway in relation to the city. My own proposition is that the railway can be seen as a series of buildings that strongly influence the form and spatial development of their surroundings. The direct consequence of this interpretation is that all interventions in the city that focus on building and/or modify the railway must be seen as architectonic tasks.

To support this proposition, I used the writings of Kevin Lynch and Aldo Rossi on this topic as I’ve mentioned in the chapter about the background of this research. One of the important points of departure of both the authors is that they view the city as an architectonic construction that has developed in the course of time. While Kevin Lynch in his book ‘The Image of City’ writes about the perception of the city, Aldo Rossi, in his book ‘Architecture of the City’ focuses primarily on its construction. Perception and construction of the city are complementary concepts, both being instruments to study the relationship between the city and the railway. 109 Kevin Lynch places the contents of the ‘city images’ in five categories The Nederlandse Spoorwegen 110 (Dutch Railways) owns the ground of elements: ‘paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks’. They 111 on which railway line, railway dike may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads’. In other and shunting yard are laying. The words, according to Kevin Lynch, the railway, as one of the paths, is an municipality owns three meters element that enables us to perceive the city. In the section of his book wide ground along the water. where Rossi refers to the generating elements of the city, he emphasises 110 the fact that, ‘When we study a city, we find that the urban whole tends K. Lynch, The Image of the City, p. 46. to be divided according to three principal functions: housing, fixed 111 activities and circulation. Fixed activities include stores, public and Idem, p. 47. commercial buildings, universities, hospitals and school. In addition,

138 139 The railway zone and the eastern harbour area of Amsterdam. Linking the two side of the city.

140 In white the railway zone, in between the eastern harbour area and the Storkterrein area. 141 Master plan for the railway zone. Eastern harbour area of Amsterdam. 142 A B Master plan for the railway zone. Eastern harbour area of Amsterdam. Railways in the urban context

the urban literature also speaks of urban equipment, urban standards, services and infrastructures. To simplify matters I will consider fixed activities as included within primary elements.’112 The railway is an infrastructure, one of the fixed activities referred to by Rossi, and as such it is also one of the primary elements. These are elements which are ‘…capable of accelerating the process of urbanization in a city, and they also characterize the processes of spatial transformation in an area larger than the city. Often they act as catalysts’.113 If we place the assertions of both authors next to each other, we can ascertain that the railway is one of the generating elements of the city that often functions as a catalyst and provides the possibility of perceiving the city. As a result, an architectonic perspective is linked to the construction of viaducts, bridges and other elements that form the railway.

Another one of Rossi’s interesting points of departure is the concept of continuity of the urban space, as I’ve already mentioned in the first part of this research. In his article ‘I problemi metodologici della ricerca urbana’114, Rossi explains that all events that have taken place in a city, or a specific part of the city, have a common nature and that there are no fundamental interruptions in this series of elements that are situated in the same city (or a part thereof). If we apply this theoretical framework to our intervention area, we would be able to view the railway as an element of transition and not necessarily as a barrier.

The above propositions and thoughts about the relationship between 112 city and railway were addressed extensively in the framework of the A. Rossi, The architecture of the city, Masters Thesis Studio. The way in which the students formulated p. 91. their plan of approach with respect to the location was influenced to a 113 Idem, p. 93. certain extent by this theoretical background. In fact, the joint Master 114 Plan for the location is based on the view of the city and railway as The article I problemi metodologici architectonic constructions and on the conception of the continuity della ricerca urbana (Methodological of the urban space. These points of departure have made it possible issues in urban research), was to include the north and south sides of the railway in a proposal included in the compilation La for an intervention in which the railway itself no longer has to be an formazione del concetto di tipologia edilizia. The article was also unbridgeable barrier. published in A. Rossi, Scritti scelti One of the aims of the Master Plan is to create an urban fabric in sull’architettura e la città. which both sides of the railway can be integrated. In the illustration

142 PART 5

included in this text the students indicate in which areas around the railway construction can take place. As stated previously, an important characteristic of the location is that it is sliced in two by the railway. As a result, all large plots of land have been cut into at least two parts. For every plot of land, it is essential that a link is established between the part to the north of the railway and the part to the south. Different subdivisions or combinations of the railway create interesting interim areas that contribute to the apparent narrowing of the railway infrastructure and its physical impact. Other themes of the Master Plan concern the establishment of general rules, such as maximum building heights and building alignment. The theoretical approach sketched above has, from the viewpoint of the perception of the city, a direct influence on the way in which the façades of the new buildings and the railway react to each other. Via the façades on both sides of the railway, the architecture of these buildings plays a special role in the interaction between new and existing blocks. At the same time, the railway section of the project becomes not only an engineering task, but is also an architectonic theme that must be solved within the blocks. The presence of the railway in or next to the parcels of land contributes to the hybrid character of the blocks.

Design projects

Due to its combination of ideas and construction possibilities, this Master Plan provides a starting point for the further development of architectonic proposals. The empirical approach that has been used for drawing up the Master Plan only determines the basis for the various tasks. Additional architectonic solutions are not explicitly included in the plan in order to provide space for their individual completion by the students. The plans that are presented here give an idea of the broad variation of approaches that the students have chosen with respect to the Master Plan and the location. Although the design studies do not always link up with the expectation of the research, the results of these projects have been very positive. An important question that all students have asked themselves is: how can the theoretical framework be used as a point of departure for the architectonic interventions?

143 Railways in the urban context

‘In het recht(e) spoor’, (On the right track) by Martin Elslo Martin Elslo worked out his proposal by following the Master Plan’s main principles in their entirety. First he studied how to deal with the partial substitution of the existing railway yard by building a new viaduct at the same height. He treated the new viaduct as an ‘urban basement’ under, above and next to which new functions could be housed. His initial approach to the project was very technical. While investigating how to combine the realization of the railway and construction in general, he came across many interesting technical aspects that are clearly visible in the preliminary design. He thoroughly analyzed the problems of the foundations, the acoustics and the vibrations for both the railway and construction. The scale of this project recalls the one of the new interventions recently completed on the IJ waterfront; the ‘Detroit’ and ‘Chicago’ buildings are good examples.115 The project’s position is strategically chosen: exactly on the intersection between the Czaar Peterstraat (an important urban axis) and the railroad underpass already planned by the municipality of Amsterdam. In terms of architecture, the main theme was how to make a building which fronts on both sides of the railroad, thereby also functioning as a gate to the historical centre of the city. Martin looked for a very clear solution in terms of size and position of the building. The outlines and shape of the building follow the urban texture of the existing blocks of building at the south side of the railway. On the north side and parallel to the railway tracks, he designed a long elevation, characterized by the semi-open courtyard ending in the gate and continuing on the other side in the Czaar Peterstraat. Due to its strategic position and its great size, Martin decided to look for a very representative function for the building; he chose the new main Court of Justice for the city of Amsterdam. The programme and requirements for such a public building were difficult to solve on this complicated location. The parking garage, storage and some temporary residential facilities are situated on the ground floor, partly under the railway viaduct. Offices and facilities are situated directly above the basement, which contains shops, along the boulevard parallel 115 See also J. E. Abrahamse, A. to the railroad. Through the main entrance, located in the semi-open Jolles e.a., Oostelijk Havengebied courtyard, the visitors can access the main common hall positioned Amsterdam. directly on the railway. This main hall, interpreted and designed as

144 PART 5

a raised covered square, is the core of the project. Here we can find all the different rooms of the Court inserted as hanging blocks and defining the rhythm of the huge glass roof. The materials and layout of the elevations contribute to the idea of giving a solid image to the building. While entering the semi-open courtyard and looking towards the gate, the visitors can see all the layers of the project: the urban blocks marking the underpass, with the visible railroad level covered by the main glass hall located above. In this project, the infrastructure and the building are combined in a very substantial fashion.

‘Urban Living’ by David Philipsen The approach of this project is based on the problem of how to emphasize the connection between the two sides of the railway. The building alignment, the shape of the blocks and the re-use of the marshalling yard, which were so important for Martin Elslo’s proposal, are only the starting points for this second project. The attempt to design a complex with a unitary architectural language is far more important to this project than fitting it into the outlines of the Master Plan. The main theme, how to link the two parts of the city separated by the railway, is the inspiration for the symbolic architectural interpretation: crossing the railway becomes an opportunity to create a building that stands as a gate to the city centre. This ‘Hybrid Building’ is the programmatic sum of the heterogeneous functions organized around an inner courtyard. A cultural centre, gymnasium, supermarket and other smaller facilities are integrated with offices and with dwellings above. David Philipsen worked out his intervention as a sculptural building flowing together with the complex surroundings. Although the railway (divided into two zones) and the park literally slice the project into strips, there is a strong will to interlace all the different parts of the site through the building. The design of the inner courtyard as an important public space was crucial during the development of the project. Besides serving as an access to the various functions, this space works as a filter between the busy road at the north side and the quieter south side of the railway zone. The problem of circulation around and inside the intervention is solved by constantly looking at the relationship between the possible users and the surrounding space. Materials and details of the complex are handled with special care. The

145 Railways in the urban context

result is a very interesting proposal that claims the autonomy of the building in a context where the infrastructure plays a primary role.

‘Beauty in the Margin’ by Leander Moons The current state of the location along the railway as a marginal context, as ‘leftover’ space in the city, provides the opportunity to take a completely different position towards the problems sketched out in the Master Plan. Operating at the edge of the site, in a zone between railway and water, Leander Moons designed his Beauty & Health centre using the core of the building as the starting point of his project. The crossroads where a slow traffic route parallel to the railroad meets an existing road marks the position of the complex, which houses a beauty centre, a gym and a swimming pool. Its form, structure and dimensions are the result of a design process based on the multiple transformation of a block of canal houses typical of Amsterdam’s historical centre. The visual interaction between the passers-by along the waterfront and the customer of the beauty complex is a very important issue to understand the project. From the slow traffic route passing along the entrance of the building, the visitor can catch a glimpse of the deepened gardens as well as a wing of the covered swimming pool. The building requirements are carefully combined with aspects like the natural and artificial illumination and the acoustics of every space. Cold, solid and warm materials are combined in order to strengthen the experience of the customers when they enter the specific spaces of the complex. The functions that are benefited by a higher degree of intimacy are strategically placed under the water level. Although shape and position of the building were not generated by the Master Plan, there is a strong will to link the project with this context. The way the slow traffic route passes through it, the visual relations between inside and outside, the way the building meets the water and last but not least, the completion of its form inspired by the historical city blocks create the indirect but significant connections between the building and this particular site.

146 Project Martin Elslo

143 Perspective view of the interior

144 145 Fragment of the elevation in glass Fragment of the elevation in ceramic

146 147 148 A B C D Plan of the third level with Ground Floor plan Study of the complex, step 1 - 4 the entrances to the court halls.

149 Cross section of the complex, step 3 Project David Philipsen

150 Concept, step 1

152 Photograph of the model

151 Concept, step 2

153 Section on the railway and elevation 154 - 157 Photograph of the model

158 Photograph of the model 159 160 Cross section on the main hall Cross section on the swimming pool Project Leander Moons

161 Photograph of the model; elevation towards the water

162 163 Ground Floor First Floor plan plan

164 Photograph of the model; overview of the site 165 Site plan

166 Impression of the interior; the reception desk

167 Impression of the building from the footpath

168 Impression of the interior; the main hall

169 Impression of the interior; the swimming pool PART 6

152 The ‘5 x 5 projects for the Dutch city’: the case of Haarlem

Introduction

At the end of 2007 the HSL (High Speed Railway) will be operative in the Randstad116. Thanks to the improved train technologies the characteristics of the railway network in the Randstad will change. A metropolitan-like railway system will gradually replace the current train and, in brief terms, the trains will not anymore run following a fixed schedule but in a sequence. The idea of creating a metropolitan railway network fits well into the concept of Randstad, where the agglomeration of cities forms the so-called Delta Metropolis, comparable in scale with other European metropolitan areas. The proposal of a new railway network with more frequent stops could be an effective solution for the currently expanding cities of the Randstad. Certain cities are tending to grow towards one another and will probably take advantage of a metropolitan-like railway system to develop their new suburbs. Next to it also the railway yards inside those cities will eventually transform due to the new railway system. Part of the existing railroads will have to be removed or adapted to the new trains and some existing railway yards will disappear under the ground freeing space on surface level. In this respect a proper example is the case of Delft where a long railway tunnel will replace the existing railway viaduct creating an unique occasion for the upgrading of a complete urban district. Starting from these hypothesis the ‘5 x 5 projects’ addresses the attention to five middle-sized Dutch cities where transformations connected with the modification of railways could take place in the 116 near future. This project is currently being developed and involves the In march 2008, while making the work of several researchers at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU last adjustments to this thesis, is Delft. The main goal will be the one of organizing a manifestation the HSL not yet operational.

153 170 The expansion of the built-up area next to the development of the railroads in five middle sized Dutch towns (Haarlem, Leiden, Delft, Gouda, Dordrecht). PART 6

where five well known architects, one for each city, will be invited to deal with the suggested design issues. As member of the research group ‘Urban Architecture’ I prepared the investigation for architectural interventions in the city of Haarlem.

In the near future, Haarlem plans to make better use of its strategic location in the region to attract companies by promoting itself as a good alternative to top locations such as Amsterdam, Hoofddorp and Schiphol. At the moment, however, Haarlem has the trademarks of a purely residential city. In the coming five years, about 5,000 more residences will be built117 within the city limits. The wonderful city centre with its wide range of facilities, located just a short distance from beautiful dunes, a recreational area on the sea and the beach, make the city a very attractive place to live.118 As a result, many of Haarlem’s residents work elsewhere. To keep commuter traffic under control, keep the companies and government agencies located there and still create room for new activities, the city has to ensure good accessibility and quick connections with Amsterdam, Schiphol and the rest of the Randstad area.

Differently than in other Dutch cities, the construction of the railway within the city walls had already taken place at an early stage in 117 The ongoing exhibition ‘Haarlem Haarlem, which had consequences for the further development of the in uitvoering’ (‘Haarlem in city around the railway line. This part of the research will mainly focus construction’) on the ground floor on the most relevant developments the city of Haarlem has undergone of the Brinkmannpassage on the starting from the construction of the first railway. As well, the following Grote Markt in Haarlem gives a text is an attempt to sketch a general framework that can be used as a good idea of the city’s future plans. pretext for architectonic interventions in Haarlem’s railway zone. 118 The figures of Statistics Netherlands of 2001 show that more than 70% of housing in Haarlem and the construction of the first Dutch railroad Haarlem consists of single family homes. As of the Early Middle Ages, Haarlem developed itself relatively 119 quickly thanks to its favourable site between the dune landscape along Haarlem grew quickly in the the North Sea and the river Spaarne.119 These two geomorphological Middle Ages, in part due to the fortification of the count’s court. elements have also helped determine the current elongated shape of Already in 1245 the city received the city. Not only the shape, but other specific characteristics also make city privileges from William II. See th Haarlem a unique city. Already in the 15 century, the fortifications in also B. Speet, Historische Atlas van Haarlem extended to the other side of the river, much earlier than in Haarlem, pp. 6-11.

155 Railways in the urban context

120 other Dutch cities.120 Haarlem continued to grow until the end of the Due to the increase in the number 17th century, although not entirely without setbacks. Since the brewery of residents, a city expansion as well as the shipbuilding and textile industry provided work, the city was necessary as early as the attracted many people, especially from Spanish occupied Flanders.121 14th century. In 1426, Philip III, At the same time, significantly better connections were made in order Duke of Burgundy gave the right to extend the city limits about to support the economic growth of the region. In 1631, the working 700 metres eastwards. However, of the ‘trekvaart’ (‘canal for tow boat’) to Amsterdam got underway.122 building activities in this new area Despite the fact that a transfer in was necessary,123 the had to wait due to an economic connection between the two cities by tow boat was a major success as recession. well as a profitable business.124 The map of Jacob van Deventer (around 1560) precisely indicates the city limits. On this map, every Haarlem’s growth in the Golden Age was huge, and from about 1640, important building of the city is Haarlem worked on a plan for urban expansion in a northerly direction. drawn with precision as well as the In 1643, Salomon de Braey designed a plan to enlarge the entire city. contours of the fortification and Only a part of it was finally used to execute the urban expansion, which the city gates. It is also clear that started in 1671 and was known under the name ‘Nieuwstad’ (New City). the walled area East of the Spaarne Contrary to expectations, the development of this new city district was not yet entirely divided up. See also B. Speet, Historische Atlas van failed. Many parcels of land were not sold and all work activities in Haarlem, pp. 14-15. the Nieuwstad had ceased as of 1691. Then, between about 1730 and 121 1800 Haarlem was hit by a major recession, which had not only halted In 1585, the Spanish occupied construction in the half empty Nieuwstad, but in the historical centre Antwerp, which was good news as well. It was only in the beginning of the 19th century that building for all Dutch cities. Dozens of started up again. In 1799, Haarlem considered dismantling a part of experienced workers, particularly active in the textile sector, the city walls. In 1820, the definite decision to take down the city walls emigrated from Belgium to the was made, especially in order to put an end to the annual maintenance Netherlands, especially to Leiden, costs of the fortification. The northern part was destroyed in 1821, Haarlem and Amsterdam. Haarlem with the exception of the Kennemerpoort, which stood until 1866. For could definitely use this new the redevelopment of the bastions, the landscape architect J.D. Zocher impulse for its textile industry. Jr. was called upon. His mission was to turn the freed up area into a 122 lovely park.125 On 26 May 1631, both cities signed 126 the agreement for the construction The economic malaise influenced the population figures as well of ‘trekvaert, padt en wagenwegh’ as the tow boat connection between Amsterdam and Haarlem. The (‘Tow boats, paths and roads’). See number of passengers dropped and the competition from road traffic also W. van der Ham, Tot gerief van increased, especially at the beginning of the 19th century. Around de reiziger. Vier eeuwen Amsterdam- 1830, the signs of the long-standing crisis were clearly visible in the Haarlem, p. 13. city. It is therefore understandable that people in Haarlem responded 123 In Halfweg, a 400-metre wide strip more enthusiastically than in Amsterdam when the news of the first 127 of ground was not dug up due to Dutch railway came. On 20 September 1839, the HIJSM opened the possible risk that the water the first railway of the Netherlands between Amsterdam and Haarlem,

156 PART 6

meant as the first part of the railway connection between Amsterdam of the Haarlemmermeer would and Rotterdam. The plan to build the first part of this ‘Oude Lijn’ come into contact with that of the (Old Line)128 almost entirely parallel to the existing canal tow boat IJ. This was very convenient for between the two cities was carried out despite protests from the tow Haarlem since because of the new towboat, one could not navigate boat companies. through from Amsterdam to the 129 Even though the name of C. Outshoorn is often mentioned, the Haarlemmermeer. Cargo vessels designer of the first station in Haarlem on the east bank of the Spaarne had to continue to use the old route was most likely F.W. Conrad Jr.130 Architecturally, the station was not through Spaarndam and still pay much to see. In contrast to the Willemspoort station in Amsterdam, the the toll, which went into the city one in Haarlem was a temporary building, which served as a station coffers of Haarlem. Travellers had to transfer in Halfweg. See also Van and a workplace. On 22 June 1840, the HIJSM got permission to der Ham, Tot gerief van de reiziger. extend the Oude Lijn further in the direction of The Hague. W.C. Brade Vier eeuwen Amsterdam-Haarlem, had thought up a perpendicular railway connection for Haarlem, but it pp. 18-19. could not accommodate through train traffic. After negotiations with 124 Haarlem’s city council and the promise to finally charge a toll and In 1632, about 36,000 passengers excise by way of train tickets, the HIJSM started building the railway were transported. In 1633, there were 250,000, in 1648, about line in the Nieuwstad that same year. In 1841, that part of the city 290,000 and in the record year of was still half empty when the Oude Lijn, with a noticeable curve in the 1661, about 320,000. Even though direction of Leiden, was built. the towboat service between Haarlem saw the construction of the rail in the city as an Haarlem and Amsterdam remained opportunity for economic development. After many lean years, the the most profitable, various other city was desperately searching for economic improvement and the connections were very quickly established, so that around the construction of the railway offered additional possibilities in any case. third quarter of the 17th century, a The desired developments, however, were long in coming. Around 1834, substantial waterway network had 131 the Phoenix textile company established itself on the Spaarne. The developed. commercial activities in the Nieuwstad and around the station only 125 really took off in 1858 when the Beijnes royal carriage factory132 The basic assumptions of the moved to the station square. design were already mapped in the The construction of the rail in the Nieuwstad was accompanied by first cadastral map of Haarlem by the surveyor F.J. Nautz in 1822, the first real station of the city on the Jansveld,133 completed in 1842. with help from his colleagues H. The station had a total length of 140 metres, which was needed to van Dooren and A. van Diggelen. be able to build a long wall as a separation between city and rail next See also B. Speet, Historische Atlas to the station building. The central main building itself already had a van Haarlem, p. 38. floor of 32 metres in length and 6,5 metres in width, characterised by 126 a median. Here, following Durand’s example, four columns supported Also, the number of Haarlem residents dropped drastically, an arched façade, which marked the entrance to the main hall.134 This from about 26,000 in 1750 to 135 station on the Jansveld was in use until 1867. 21,000 in 1795. The low point was in 1815 with a population of just over 17,000. See also B. Speet,

157 171 Plan of Haarlem about 1500

172 Map of Haarlem; drawing by Jacob van Deventer made in 1560 ca. The plan is quite precise and the scale is 1:1875 173 Haarlem, bird-eye view from 1573 by Willem Outgersz.

174 175 Plan for the Nieuwstad in Haarlem from 1644. Plan of the Nieuwstad in Haarlem from 1750. 176 Haarlem, the area of the Nieuwstad in 1854.

177 Haarlem, the area of the Nieuwstad in 1874. 178 The land-survey register map of Haarlem (minuutkaart, 1822). 179 Manipulation of the ‘minuut’ land-survey register map of Haarlem (1822). The future railway zone is in evidence. PART 6

Railways and the nineteenth century development of Haarlem Historische Atlas van Haarlem, p. 38, and H. Engel, Randstad Holland in The situation before and after the building of the Oude Lijn in the kaart in OverHolland 2, (2005). Nieuwstad is visible on the first cadastral map of 1822 and on the 127 L.J.J. Serrurier and R. Chevalier, map of 1858. Comparing these two maps, it appears that little was businessmen from Amsterdam built in the Nieuwstad during this period besides the railway. Moreover, together with civil engineer W.C. one can see that in 1858, almost all city walls had been torn down. Brade officially founded the HIJSM Unfortunately, the area East of the Spaarne, where the first station of (Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg Haarlem was built, is not entirely indicated on the map of 1858. After Maatschappij) on 8 August 1837. the closing of the Amsterdam workplace complex in 1844 and the 128 The first railway of the Netherlands transfer of personnel and material to Haarlem, the original workplace is also known as the ‘Oude Lijn’ of the station had become the most important ‘repair haven’ of the (Old Line). HIJSM. The first station from 1839 was torn down in 1853 and in its 129 place came a number of wooden workplace buildings.136 In 1861, a The consulted sources do not huge fire almost destroyed all of them. After this, only stone buildings provide clear information about were left on the grounds, of which a large part remained intact until the the designer of the first station in Haarlem. Both C. Outshoorn renovation of 1984.137 Today, there is still a large workplace complex (1810-1875) and F.W. Conrad of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways) at the same location, Jr. (1800-1870) are mentioned which the city would very much like to see somewhere else, given its alternatively as designers of the location. first station in Haarlem, the station The year 1867 brought along many changes with it. First, on 1 Willemspoort in Amsterdam (1842) May, the new railway between Haarlem and Uitgeest was opened. and the stations in Leiden (1842) and The Hague (1843). This last was an important link between the northern and southern 130 part of the HIJSM network and remained the only direct railway F.W. Conrad Jr. (1800-1870) 138 connection between Amsterdam and the North until 1878. The succeeded in 1839 W.C. Brade as station was heavily renovated and expanded following the design of head engineer of the HIJSM. C. P.J. Mouthaan (1824-1899). Even though some style attributes of the Outshoorn was already working for 1842 building were kept, the prominent middle ressault disappeared the HIJSM under Brade. and an additional storey was added to the entire complex. The tearing 131 In 1834, the Belgian firm Poelman down of the Kennemerpoort also dates from 1867 as well as the established itself in Haarlem, a commencing of the work activities for the Kenaupark West of the year later than the English textile station and the Ripperdapark beside the Phoenix site. In 1867, the magnate Thomas Wilson with Achter Nieuwe Gracht was also filled in as a result of which the current his complex on the Muizenveld, Parklaan developed, the green connection between the Kenaupark and between the Western canal and the Ripperdapark. the . On the city map of 1822, before the arrival of the On the map of the city of Haarlem from 1878 all the above- Poelman firm, a large building site mentioned developments can be seen. The Nieuwstad developed itself can be seen that was later annexed further with construction around the Ripperdapark and the Parklaan, by this Belgian business to the and with the building up of the Staten Bolwerk and the Prinsen Phoenix factory complex.

163 180 Map of Haarlem in 1910. The railway zone is in evidence. 181 Map showing the development of the boundaries of the council of Haarlem.

182 183 The Noorder Buiten Spaarne, the industrial One of the first working class housing project in heart of Haarlem, circa 1905. Haarlem, the Assendelverstraat. Railways in the urban context

132 Bolwerk. The area around the railway was also built up further, as Johannes Beijnes started a carriage small companies and workplaces established themselves, giving the and wagon workshop. In 1855, he area the allure of a fringe belt. On the map one can also see that there received the first order from the is little built up in the area between the North of the bastions and the HIJSM. After the move from the city limits right above it. Only an old hospital and the planned rifle- Riviermarkt to the station square, 139 the orders kept coming in, not only field are indicated on this map. from the HIJSM, but later also from the Haarlemsche Tramway In the following years, Haarlem got even more public transport Maatschappij (Haarlem Tramway connections. In 1881, the steam tram between Haarlem and Leiden Company), the Amsterdamsche was established.140 To make the seaside resort of Zandvoort more Omnibus Maatschappij accessible, a railway line was built from the Haarlem station that same (Amsterdam Omnibus Company) 141 and other businesses. See also year. The construction of this railway line to Zandvoort, followed by B. Speet, Historische Atlas van the building of the short railway line between the Oude Lijn and the Haarlem, p. 53. In this book is rail to Uitgeest in 1904 strengthened the separation of the so-called 1857 mentioned as the year of the ‘spoorwegdriehoek’ (railway triangle)142 west of the station. In 1899, an move, while other sources mention electric tram connection between Haarlem and Zandvoort was opened, the year 1858. On the map of which was extended to Amsterdam in 1904.143 Between Haarlem and Haarlem from 1858, drawn up by C.K. de Geus, the factory on the Bloemendaal as well an electric tram service was started in 1899. The th station square cannot yet be seen. beginning of the 20 century would bring along additional changes 133 with it, as a result of using electricity as an energy source. Approximately where the current station lies today, between the Jansweg and the Kruisweg. The railway zone and the expansion of Haarlem in the twentieth 134 More information about this station century can be found in the following books: P. Saal and F. Spangenberg, In the last decade of the 19th century, Haarlem had become attractive Kijk op stations, p. 16; J.W. van Dal, again as a place to live and work thanks to the development of industry. Architectuur langs de rails, p. 14; The number of residents rose and the demand for residences grew. H. Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur The provisions of the ‘Woningwet’ (Housing law) of 1901 also obliged in Nederland, pp. 16-18. Romers Haarlem to draw up an expansion plan. L.C. Dumont144 designed the (p. 16) also believes that F.W. Conrad Jr designed the station of expansion plan of 1905 and road plan of 1906. Dumont’s work was Haarlem from 1842. The station extensive and also regarded the planning of areas outside the city is on the map of Haarlem from limits.145 His expansion plan contained a clear zoning. Due to the 1858 also very clearly visible with proposed connections over water and land, the area on the Spaarne the accompanying building on the North of the railway was destined for work and industry,146 while north side of the railway line. the Schoterkwartier, Leidsebuurt and Amsterdamse Buurt147 were 135 Also about this date the sources reserved for residential building. In Dumont’s road map of 1906, the consulted are unclear. Although railway is clearly visible, including the railway triangle and the planned the years 1867 and 1869 are railway harbour in the Leidsebuurt.148 A large part of his road plan has

166 PART 6

actually been carried out. both mentioned there is a slight In 1896, the Beijnes factory across from the station was further preference for 1867. expanded. The traffic hindrance and pollution of the trains that ran on 136 ground level remained unchanged. Around 1900, the proposal of the See also the drawing of J. Houben of the situation of the HIJSM HIJSM to build a new station could not have come at a better time. The workplace in Haarlem from 1853, new station was part of a radical operation in which the rail path was in A. van Ingen, Het Oude Station. built largely on elevated roads, so that by way of tunnels there was Revisiebedrijf Haarlem 150 jaar space for circulating city traffic at street level. An elevated drawbridge zelfstandig. HIJSM 1844 -NS 1994, over the Spaarne also had to be built. Moreover, the plan contained p. 22. the electrification of the railway line. D.A.N. Margadant, the architect 137 For detailed information see also of the HIJSM, designed the station that was built between 1905 and Van Ingen, ibid, pp. 23-27. 149 1908. The general ideas about the station design were modified 138 in the mean time. Since 1870-1880, railway companies had noticed With ‘North’ and ‘South’ of the that stations needed to be more appealing in order to attract more HIJSM network is meant here the passengers. The sole purpose of a station was no longer to just offer North and South of the North shelter to the train, the station had to become the monumental palace Holland Canal. On 15 October 1878, the link between Zaandam of the traveller. The first person to adapt this vision of the design of and Amsterdam was opened, so stations was the architect P.J.H. Cuypers when he built Amsterdam that the route from Den Helder to Central Station. Amsterdam no longer needed to Margadant’s building is a great example of the series of stations go through Haarlem. See also J.H. that helped to determine the face of the Dutch railway architecture. In Jonckers Nieboer, Geschiedenis the main lines of his design, the works of Berlage for the Amsterdam der Nederlandse Spoorwegen 1832-1938, pp. 148-149. stock exchange influenced Margadant. The expression of form and 139 experimental use of materials that the Art Nouveau stations of H. In 1877, the city of Haarlem gave 150 Guimard in Paris and O. Wagner in Vienna had, also played a role. permission for building a rifle- That the Haarlem station would be built on a street rather than a field North of the bastions, right square can be clearly seen from the planning of Margadant’s designs. near the station. On 11 October He made separate building parts for departure and arrival of the 1882, the building of the so-called travellers. While the Beijnes factory hindered the view of the departure Ripperdakazerne was started. The designer of the complex was Major part, the arrival part was located in the Western part of the complex I.J.H. Gijsberti Hodenpijl. In 1884, to come more into contact with city. In the mean time, a hotel was the first part of the barracks was also established there that together with the restaurants, cafés and finished. Source: www.deripperda.nl terraces gave the impression of a bustling city. Despite a number of 140 changes such as extended platforms, the beautiful station complex is The so-called ‘Blauwe Tram’ (Blue still today largely in its original state. Tram) is the collective name for the trams that circulated The HIJSM was not only concerned with the station and railway, between 1881 and 1961 in the but also played a role in residential building. In 1908, the workplace area between Scheveningen, The East of the Spaarne had 1,300 workers, making it the biggest Hague, Leiden, Katwijk, Noordwijk, employer in Haarlem. As early as 1906, the railway company had eight Haarlem, Zandvoort, Amsterdam,

167 184 Plan of the roads of Haarlem and its neighbourhood made by L.C. Dumont in 1906. The drawing is projected on the 1905 plan of extension of the city.

185 The station square with at the right side the Beijnes factory, circa 1905. 186 Site plan of the first temporary railway station of Haarlem in 1839.

188 The station of Haarlem in 1867, picture. 187 Floor plan of the first temporary railway station of Haarlem in 1839.

189 The station of Haarlem in 1841, elevation drawing of the realized design. 190 191 Station Haarlem; photograph of the exit Station Haarlem. Signal cabin on the building. middle platform.

192 Station Haarlem; drawing of the entrance building. 194 193 Station Haarlem; photograph of the Station Haarlem; photograph ofthe roof taken from the middle platform. entrance building taken from the bus station.

195 STATION HAARLEM; DRAWING OF THE EXIT BUILDING 196 Bird-eye view impression of the railway zone in the centre of Haarlem around 1906. 197 The station of Haarlem from 1905, aerial photograph.

198 Haarlem railway station. Photograph of the interior. 199 Manipulation of the topographical map of Haarlem (2000). The railway zone is in evidence. PART 6

residences built for its personnel on the Westergracht, close to the Purmerend, Edam and Volendam. railway harbour in the Leidsebuurt. Then, the HIJSM lent money to the As of 1924, the trams had a residential housing corporations, which were involved in the realisation dark blue colour. The Noord-Zuid- of the Amsterdamse Buurt. A good workers’ neighbourhood beside Hollandse Vervoer Maatschappij (NZH)(‘North-South-Holland the central HIJSM workplace provided a guarantee for the continuity Transport Company’) operated of work. these tram services. Meanwhile, residential building in Haarlem had taken off. The 141 building of the Schoterbuurt, the Rozenprieel, the Leidsebuurt This railway was built by and the Amsterdamse Buurt continued, and there came also new Amsterdam businessman neighbourhoods on the map, such as Bosch en Vaart, and later the Gustav Eltzbacher who founded the NV Haarlem-Zandvoort Ramplaankwartier. After WWI, the city’s growth continued, and with Spoorwegmaatschappij (Haarlem- the annexation of the towns of Schoten and Spaarndam in 1927 the Zandvoort Railway Company) city got more than 30,000 additional residents in one go. Moreover, and the Bouwgrondonderneming as a result of the annexation law of 1927, the neighbouring cities Zandvoort (Building site company) of Velsen, Bloemendaal, Heemstede and Haarlemmerliede were in 1881. See also B. Speet, obliged to give up a part of their ground to Haarlem. The building of Historische Atlas van Haarlem, pp. 58-59. satellite stations, especially on the North-South railway, would further 142 encourage the development of these suburban areas. The ‘spoorwegdriehoek’ (railway In this period, public transport was going through changes. In triangle) is formed by the crossing 1919, the Noord-Zuid-Hollandse Vervoer Maatschappij (NZH)151 took of the Haarlem-Leiden, over all of Haarlem’s tram connections.152 As well, automobile traffic Haarlem-Uitgeest and Uitgeest- began to play a significant role. The first bus companies started to Leiden lines. 143 compete with the tram. Then in 1928, the first concession for three The first tram of the Eerste 153 bus services was granted, and the management of the NZH decided Nederlandsche Electrische then and there that the battle was lost. All tram rails disappeared from Tramweg Maatschappij (First the streets of Haarlem to make way for the bus. The last tram ride in Dutch Electric Tramway Company) the city dates from 1948 and in 1957, the ‘Blauwe Tram’ to Leiden ran as of 1899 between the also stopped. Tempelierstraat in Haarlem and The Post-war years brought much discussion about traffic in the the Raadhuisplein in Zandvoort. In 1904, the line was extended to city in Haarlem, except the reconstruction. Accessibility was sacred, the Spuistraat, in the centre of as in the 1950s, everything was done to encourage the access of Amsterdam. This tram remained in automobiles to the centre. The plan of 1954 by Kuiper and Van der service until 31 August 1957. Steld is an example of this. As well, in the structure plan of 1962, the 144 focus was on accessibility to the centre. This plan determined that In 1902 L.C. Dumont (1865-1935) the road North of the railway, right behind the station, had to become was named manager of the Public Works by the city of Haarlem. an important artery. During that period the area around the station 145 had changed drastically. The traffic flow of buses and automobiles The surrounding cities were very increased, while the area around the station degenerated. In 1950, the displeased with Dumont’s plan, Beijnes firm had moved its activities to Beverwijk; the factory building especially Heemstede.

175 Railways in the urban context

146 was torn down in 1958. In the years after that, demolition continued In this area on the Spaarne, the in the Nieuwstad. The entire area between the station and the Lange Droste chocolate factory had Herenstraat was levelled in the 1960s. Various project developers already established itself in 1896. made plans for this area. In 1972, the city council approved the 147 building of the Beresteijn complex, a large-scale new construction The Schoterkwartier, North of 154 the bastions, lay partially outside complex that was to become the Hoog Catharijne of Haarlem. A Haarlem’s city limits. Only the determinant factor for the complex was first the traffic requirements north-western part (the current and then the buildings. The definite programme for the area included Kleverparkbuurt and Frans 100 residences, 12,000 m2 of offices, 1,800 m2 of shops, 1,000 m2 Halsbuurt) is indicated as an of hospitality services, an event hall and a parking garage for at least area within the city limits. The 400 cars. As the designers indicated many times, the idea of making Amsterdamsebuurt was developed East of the Heerensingel, right a link between the complex and the environment never played a role, under the towboat to Amsterdam. which is visible in the current situation. The Beresteijn complex is and The Leidsebuurt was established remains an odd body in the city. between the Leidsevaart and the In the mid 1970s, the new neighbourhood of Schalkwijk was railway to Leiden. See also the map almost finished. Within the city limits, Haarlem was again fully built of Haarlem from 1904 in B. Speet, up and geographically speaking, the Central Station was no longer in Historische Atlas van Haarlem, p. 48. 148 the middle of the city. The discussion about the location Then the 1970s were finally over and there was again room and of a railway harbour in Haarlem is attention for the historical centre and the 19th and 20th century a long one. As early as 1884, the neighbourhoods on the political agenda. The policy note entitled De Haarlem Chamber of Commerce inrichting van de Openbare Ruimte (Planning of public space) of 1991 brought up the issue of having a as well as the Uitvoeringsplan Binnenstad (Realisation plan of the city railway harbour. The area of the Spaarne and the Waarderpolder centre) of 1994 addressed improvements in the historical city centre. indicated as a location, East of the Today, the area around the station remains a major problem. centre. For loading and unloading goods from wagons onto ships and vice versa, the HIJSM presented The current situation: framework for interventions its own plan in 1902: a harbour location between the railway and Automobile traffic is one of Haarlem’s biggest problems, particularly the Leidsevaart. This was a much more complicated solution than in the area around the train station. Not only is commuter traffic to that of the Chamber of Commerce. and from the city a concern, but recreational traffic to the North Sea According to the plan of the HIJSM, burdens the city centre excessively. The busy provincial road that runs ships had to navigate through the right behind the station parallel to the railway line is an important Spaarne and the city up to the East-West connection155. This overburdened road and the location of Leidsevaart. Yet the city of Haarlem the rail divide the city in two, as it were. approved this plan and the works for digging the railway harbour took Particularly at the south side of the railroad, the station area has place between 1903 and 1907. been awaiting for years a solution where the requirements of a modern As expected, this plan was not public transport hub can be combined with an architectonically

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responsible organisation of public space. Haarlem Central Station, successful, and in 1939 a proposal which is one of the most beautiful stations in the Netherlands, is known was made to reserve an area of 15 today as one of the most chaotic station squares of the country. No hectares at the Lichtfabriek next to other building except the station is built up in such a way as to create the Waarderpolder for a harbour that was built right after. a relation with the public space157. 149 For extensive documentation about In the current policy, the city of Haarlem wants to pay more attention to Margadant’s station in Haarlem see solutions for increasing traffic and at the same time gladly concentrate H. Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur in on central locations along the railway. Ideas, programmes and plans Nederland, pp. 224-231, and P. Saal for the various study areas around the railway were established in the and F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations, pp. 69-71. Masterplan Railway Zone of 2003158. Contrary to what people would 150 expect based on the document’s name, the Masterplan Railway Zone In his design for the station in features various current and future projects, brought together in an Amersfoort (1901) Margadant has attempt to formulate a coherent vision on the development of the city. already used Art Nouveau details. After reading the document, one really gets the impression that this 151 Masterplan offers little consistency, especially on the large-scale level. The NZH was a subsidiary of the Dutch Railways. Haarlem’s ambitions are mentioned in the explanatory notes of the 152 Masterplan, but in general, the partial areas stand on their own too In 1919, the NZH took over all much. Moreover, there is no clear-cut solution recommended for the the lines of the ENET (Eerste traffic in the city. Perhaps is it not a coincidence that the new city Nederlandsche Tramweg council finally decided to stop using this document as a leitmotif for Maatschappij) (First Dutch development. Tramway Company) and ESM (Electrische Spoorweg In Haarlem, the area along the railway line has enormous Maatschappij (First Railway potential. From the construction of the ‘Oude Lijn’ in the middle in Company) founded in Amsterdam) the city, the railroad has always played a special role in this area. and the company controlled public Once the Hogesnelheidslijn (or HSL ‘High-Speed Line’) between transport in and around the city. Hoofddorp and Rotterdam with a junction to Schiphol and Amsterdam 153 is completed, train transport on the ‘Oude Lijn’ along Haarlem will In 1928 the HBBM (Haarlemsche become less important. Not only will the timetable look different159, Brockway Bus Maatschappij) was given permission to start three the characteristics of the train connections will also change. The lines. tunnelling of the railway line, and possibly the road parallel to the 154 railway, is perhaps a radical solution, but offers tons of opportunities The complex was finally designed for above ground restructuring. Large urban interventions, which could by the architects of the ‘Hoog result from a similar project, regard themes such as the entrance to Catharijne’ complex in Utrecht: the city, the restructuring of the Nieuwstad after the tunnelling of the Spruit, De Jong and Heringa. 155 railway or the redevelopment of the Dutch railways’ workplace site just From East to West, this road outside the historical centre. Moreover, new development themes can has the following street names: 160 also be addressed in order to further shape Haarlem’s ambitions . Oudeweg, Prinsen Bolwerk, Kennemerplein, Staten Bolwerk and

177 Railways in the urban context

Verspronckweg. for Haarlem, giving rise to a range 156 of themes for the restructuring As already said, the current of the city. In order to show some Haarlem Central Station was impressions about the project designed by D.A.N. Margadant I will include few images at the and built between 1905 and 1908. end of this chapter. This project Margadant worked as an architect together with my interview to Jo from 1879 to 1909 for the HSM Coenen will be included in the book (the former HIJSM). See also P. OverHolland, 5x5 projecten voor de Saal and F. Spangenberg, Kijk op Hollandse stad (coming up very stations, pp. 69-71. soon). 157 This is true for the south side of the railroad. It must be noted that the design of the ‘Rijkskantoor’ by Rudy Uytenhaak is against this tendency. This office building is recently realized next to the station of Haarlem at the north side of the railroad. 158 Extensive information about the Masterplan Railway Zone (2003) of Haarlem is available online on the website of the city of Haarlem at http://www.haarlem.nl/ smartsite19787.htm 159 As of 1 January 2007, Haarlem Central Station is no longer considered an intercity station in the yearly schedule of the NS, making Haarlem less important in the Dutch railway network. 160 In march 2008, while making the last corrections to this text, Jo Coenen & Co Architekten round up a proposal for an architectural intervention involving the railway area in Haarlem. Following the mentioned framework, the project team of Jo Coenen (in which I took place as researcher/ advisor) proposed a new station

178 200 201 5x5 project for the Dutch City. Jo Coenen, 5x5 project for the Dutch City. Jo Coenen, project project for the railway zone in Haarlem; sketch for the railway zone in Haarlem; projection of the for the definition of the intervention area. new main traffic axis on the existing railway area.

202 5x5 project for the Dutch City. Jo Coenen, project for the railway zone in Haarlem; sketch of the intervention area showing a long axis connecting Amsterdam with Zandvoort via Haarlem.

203 5x5 project for the Dutch City. Jo Coenen, project for the railway zone in Haarlem; cross section of the new station of Haarlem located in the ‘Oosterpoort’ area . 204 5x5 project for the Dutch City. Jo Coenen, project for the railway zone in Haarlem; plan of the design proposal.

205 5x5 project for the Dutch City. Jo Coenen, project for the railway zone in Haarlem; three dimensional view of the main axis of the project (aligned with the Nieuwe Gracht) seen from the ‘Oosterpoort’ area 181 PART 7

182 Conclusions

Final considerations

The relationship between the railway and the urban context is not easy to study because its complexity is rooted, as Aldo Rossi would say, in the developments of the ‘fatti urbani’161. Many factors and data coming from different disciplines are involved with this theme. Therefore my attempt to read this topic through an architectural approach only takes a limited number of aspects into account and the final considerations about this research are strictly related to the architectural perspective 161 on which this work is based. From an editorial note to the book The architecture of the city, 1984, First of all I want to make clear my conviction that the realization p.22, we understand that neither the Italian term fatto urbano (fatti of railways, particularly if dealing with urban context, is undoubtedly urbani is the plural of it), used by also a matter of architecture. In the past as well as in the present time, Rossi, nor the English translation 162 the project of architecture is considered too often as a marginal urban artifact renders adequately step while dealing with railroads. As I’ve already pointed out in the first the full meaning of the original part of this research, I think that the project of railways in the urban French expression faite urbaine. context must be not only the mere solution for the programme given The French term implies not just by the transportation needs but should be considered as a project of a physical thing in the city, but all of its history, geography, structure architecture for the city. For the realization of all kinds of railroads in and connection with the general life the urban context I think is necessary to point out a clear architectural of the city. This is the real meaning theme in order to develop a coherent intervention in relation to the city. intended by Aldo Rossi throughout Unfortunately the realization of railways has been always too complex, his book. involving the expertise of different advisors often working too isolated 162 one another. One of the evident results of working in such a way is a For a clear understanding of what I mean by ‘project of architecture’ certain underestimation of the impact of railways on the city. This fact see my text about ‘Specification of is not only perceptible looking at the way the various railway buildings terms and theoretical framework’ are conceived without any specific relation to the surrounding city, but contained in the first chapter of also confirmed by the attitude assumed by the railway companies in this research.

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the course of time. Even in the current situation, in which the notion of team working should be widely spread, the construction or modification of railways seems to be organized in an almost sectarian way. Only in the design and in the building of stations the relationship between railway and city appears to be an interesting matter of discussion in terms of architecture. In this framework my research could be seen like a plea in favour of the valorisation of the project of architecture intended to be an important occasion to connect the project of the railway infrastructure (including stations) with the city. I believe that the content of this research confirms it.

In the second place I think that understanding how railway and city interact with each other in a specific urban context means also 163 becoming aware of the identity of the place through the analysis Aldo Rossi says about urban of transformation processes. When the first railroads were built artifacts: ‘They are material nobody was really aware of what exactly was going on in the city. constructions, but notwithstanding 163 the material, something different: The construction of an important urban artifact for the city was although they are conditioned, they made following only the utilitarian needs, considered at that time far also condition’. See A. Rossi, The more important then all other discussions about the beauty of the architecture of the city, 1984, p.32. city. Nevertheless the railway as an urban artifact determined the 164 development of the city in a strong way. According to Aldo Rossi, when Quoting A. Rossi, The architecture of we look to the importance of certain urban artifacts we realize also the the city, 1984, p.106. 165 importance of architecture in the ancient world or in the Renaissance: 164 Quoting A. Rossi, The architecture of ‘it shaped a context’ . If we only look at the image of the Amsterdam the city, 1984, p.106. IJ waterfront before and after the realization of the rails to central 166 station, we can certainly understand the enormous impact that the Quoting A. Rossi, The architecture of rail infrastructure had and still has on the city. In addition, the railway the city, 1984, p.107. yard as urban artifact finds in the specific location where it is built 167 (in the locus, referring to Aldo Rossi terminology) ‘the potential for As matter of fact, one can observe 165 that the iteration of the theory transformations’ . The locus itself becomes then ‘a singular artifact of Aldo Rossi about the locus determined by space and time, by its topographical dimensions and becoming self an urban artifact, its form, by its being the seat of a succession of ancient and recent could open, in the specific case of events, by its memory’166. the Dutch city, other perspectives Therefore the understanding of the site (locus) becomes a of discussion. The locus in the fundamental issue when dealing with urban artifacts like the railway Dutch city is often a man made 167 construction and therefore could yards, as I’ve analysed in the case of Amsterdam or Haarlem . This already be considered as an urban last consideration is very important because supports the relevance artifact. of the analytical approach in this research. One of the aims of this

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study is to create a research base particularly useful as background knowledge in the case of design projects interconnected with the problem of how to deal with the presence of railways in project areas of the Dutch city.

Railway and city: projects for the Randstad

The current debate about the future developments of the Randstad must take into consideration the fact that we are on the eve of radical transformations in terms of infrastructures. In this framework the content of my research could be particularly interesting if we accept the assumption that the project of architecture is an important device to focus on important themes of developments, even if considering only the regional scale. Jo Coenen, former chief architect of the State, underlined recently how fundamental it is that the inner chambers of the governmental authorities understand the importance of proposing projects of architecture as starting points for the solution of several problems on the scale of the Randstad. During a research meeting at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft, Coenen admitted that the governmental involvement with great national projects is often defined by mere pragmatism. Coenen doesn’t accept the idea that cities and urban regions do not have to be ‘drawn’ anymore and that the role of the project as a way of focussing on the process is each time less considered. According to Coenen, drawing and process have been substituted by observations on transport techniques and by diagrams on demographic or economical grows. This working attitude is for Coenen the main cause for the scission between a narrow minded territorial and urban planning approach, more and more based on ‘cold’ calculations, and the restrictions of an architectural practice at every turn retired into a 168 conceptual shell . 168 See also the article of Jo Therefore, while still directing the governmental department of Coenen L’arte del progetto urbano architecture, Coenen decided to invite four teams of architects published in P. Caputo, L. Nava Deltametropolis, progettare la to formulate design proposals for the future developments of the metropoli d’Olanda, 2005, p.179. Randstad (in the context of this initiative, and others, also named 169 169 Deltametropolis). With the title ‘Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’ Translated in English: ‘Design and under the leading of Donald van Dansik / One-Architecture, Studio Deltametropolis’.

185 206 Map showing the development of railroads in the Randstad. The drawing is superimposed on the eighteenth century network of waterways. PART 7

the teams of OMA (represented by Floris Alkemade), H+N+S (Dirk Sijmons), TKA (Teun Koolhaas) and Luigi Snozzi worked in 2002 on design researches about the identity and the spatial development of the Randstad. Five main questions were given to the design teams as input for their proposals. Is the Deltametropolis a metropolis? In which way (showing exactly where) can the oneness of the Deltametropolis be seen – and what is its identity? If it has to become a metropolis, what will have to happen in this case? If the Deltametropolis is not a metropolis, what is than? Which dominant design operation provides a contribution to the coherence of the area?170 The projects were all shown in December 2002. Because of his 170 See also Ontwerpatelier clear choice for an architectural theme, I think that the project of Luigi Deltametropool, brochure published Snozzi deserves a particular mention. The most important element of by VROM in 2003, p.7. For the one Snozzi’s proposal is a new 40 kilometres wide superimposed railway interested the brochure can be ring, positioned at an average of 30 meter in the height, functioning download at: www.vrom.nl as the main infrastructure for the Randstad. The autonomy of this new 171 railway structure is such that allows the preservation of all existing The concept of the Randstad ‘Green Heart’ is used by Snozzi railway and road connections in the region. The ‘empty heart’171, and emphasized in ‘a big central wherein only the future enlargement of Schiphol International Airport emptiness’, a unique element is projected, and the high viaducts symbols of mobility are the main of the Deltametropolis. No spatial elements of the Deltametropolis seen by Snozzi. ‘To take into skyscrapers, symbol of economy account the long term development of urban planning, we propose an and trade, but an empty landscape architectural project, In other words a project with short term’172. As where cows and tulips can grow will be the most important Snozzi underlines in the commentary to his proposal, the project is an characteristics of the project. attempt to define formally and spatially a metropolis, in contrast to all 172 173 existing metropolis . This is the English translation of Snozzi Dutch text in Ontwerpatelier When talking about the initiative, Coenen recalls the vehement Deltametropool, brochure published discussions about his request of asking architects to address new by VROM in 2003, p.53. 173 approaches for the future of the Randstad. It is considered old fashion For an analytical and critical 174 and in a way naïf to do that, Coenen observed . reading of this project see the book Unfortunately the gap between the four proposals, some lacking P. Caputo, L. Nava, Deltametropolis, feasibility, and the position of the ministry of housing, spatial planning progettare la metropoli d’Olanda, and environment was too large and therefore, after a broad discussion 2005. in the media, no further steps were taken. Nevertheless I think that 174 the proposals made by the four architects are witnessing the fact that Quoting Coenen in the article, L’arte del progetto urbano published in P. the project of architecture is still a valid tool to trigger and involve Caputo, L. Nava, Deltametropolis, important aspects like dimension, scale, topography and suitability of progettare la metropoli d’Olanda, the build environment into the discussion about infrastructures on the 2005, p.179.

187 Railways in the urban context

regional as well as on the urban level. We have currently an enormous quantity of data and material about the Randstad at our disposal, part of it product of research activities at different Dutch universities. Nevertheless nobody can exactly predict what will happen in the urban areas of the Randstad when the infrastructural network will change. Today the transformations of the railway network are such that it is legitimate to question the future of the Randstad and its cities in relation to the train not only as means of transportation but also as catalysts of developments. In the development of my research I touch these issues several times, particularly when talking about the transformations in course of realization in Amsterdam. In addition, it would be interesting at this stage to understand in which way the cities of the Randstad will be affected by the superposition of the High Speed Train (HSL), especially in the case middle-sized towns. These cities, rarely the subject of coverage by the national media and often playing a minor role on the level of national planning, represent an important object of study in relation to this research topic. Therefore it is not a coincidence that at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Delft we are currently concentrating on projects and research regarding the transformations of infrastructures in the Randstad, focussing as case study on five middle-sized cities. The researches, part of the project ‘5 x 5 projects for the Dutch city’175, are concerning the cities of Dordrecht, Delft, Gouda, Leiden and Haarlem, this last treated in the sixth part of this thesis. In this respect my research has to be considered as complementary material to a number of other activities in course of development. The main goal is to find interesting interactions between the research activities and the design exercises in order to concentrate the efforts of our work on envisioning future developments in the Dutch city. The same goes for the examples illustrated in the fifth part of this research. In that part I’ve tried to show how the topic of this research and its theoretical assumptions are related with the work in the Master Design Studio’s of Urban Architecture/Hybrid Buildings. I finally believe that the design exercises taken as case study could be particularly interesting as anticipations of future transformation’s 175 For more information about this phenomena involving both the railway and the city. project see the book OverHolland 5, 2007.

188 207 The four projects made in the framework of the manifestation ‘Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’ drawn at the same scale. From left up to right down the projects of: Team OMA, Team H+N+S (Dirk Sijmons), Team TKA (Teun Koolhaas), Team Snozzi. 208 ‘Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’. Drawing of the Team TKA (Teun Koolhaas) showing the interpretation of the Dutch territory through layers and time. Layer 1 (Laag 1) landscape: Deltametropool as green/blue structure. Planning horizon 50/100 years. Layer 2 (Laag 2) infrastructure: Deltametropool as grid system network. Planning horizon 20/50 years. Layer 3 (Laag 3) occupation pattern: Deltametropool as patchwork of urban agglomerations. Planning horizon 10/20 years. Layer 4 (Laag 4) administrative organization: Deltametropool as machine room. Planning horizon 4 years. 209 Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’. Drawing of the Team Snozzi: plan of the infrastructural ring on regional scale. 210 Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’. Sketch of Luigi Snozzi of the infrastructural ring projected on the Randstad. 211 Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’. Sketch of Luigi Snozzi showing the urban area next to the infrastructural ring.

212 213 Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’. Sketch of Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool’. Reference Luigi Snozzi showing the plan of an urban picture handed in by the Team Snozzi. area in relation to the infrastructural ring. PART 7

Proposals for further research

Typo-morphological research on railway yard developments. When and how the transformations in the spatial relationship between railway and city occurred and what they mean for the present-day situation are an interesting subject for further research. Starting from the assumption that the railway and its buildings are an integral part of the way the railway system functions, I think it is possible to classify the typo-morphological transformations of this infrastructure in relation to the city. Next to fundamental mutations in the planning of both city and railway, every transformation of the railway system changes the way the railway buildings have to be organized and designed, shifting the spatial relationship between them and their direct surroundings. For this reason I would propose to divide the development of the railway system in relation to the city into four phases: the linear phase, the network phase, the metropolitan railway phase and High Speed network phase. The areas in which these transformations took place will be called ‘zones of interest’ and will be followed throughout the complete process of analysis.

In the linear phase the railway connections are between two points, particularly in the case of major cities with several linear railway lines. Taking into consideration only the (railway) buildings in the zone of interest, where railway and city are interacting, we could come to the following observations and questions: How are the railway buildings organized in the zone of interest? (Stations, viaducts, bridges, underpasses, crossovers, etc). What is the relationship between the railway buildings and the morphology of the existing city? How does the existing city transform and which role does the railway yard play in this process? How does the railway yard transform during the process of growth of the city?

The second phase is the one of the railway network. This phase is the logic continuation of the linear development of railways. The joining of different railways allows an easier transport of goods and passengers. Because of its basic principles we can say that this phase is still of current relevance. The realization of railway networks has

193 Railways in the urban context

great influence on the buildings enclosed in the zone of interest and particularly on stations, which are transforming from terminus to ‘passing through’ stations.

The third phase is the one of the metropolitan railways. The combination of the existing railway network with the metropolitan railways results in another transformation process on railway buildings in general. Stations are becoming multilevel station (different railway above each other) or underground station (generally only after electrification). More buildings are interacting with the city as the metropolitan railway lines are running often also in or under the historical city. Because of this the metropolitan railways often require another architectural approach.

The fourth phase is characterized by the development of the high- speed train network. Looking at the use of space in and outside the cities, the main problem for the realization of high-speed railways is that the existing tracks often do not meet the technical requirements of the new trains. Because of this reason the high-speed train has to run on different and often new tracks. The technical characteristics of the high-speed train influence strongly the existing railway network and its buildings because it implicates the construction of completely new structures to accommodate the high-speed trains. This is the reason why there are everywhere in Europe important building sites for the construction of high-speed railways.

Applying this classification to a case study, the investigation will aim to look at the specific characteristics of each phase in relation to the typo-morphological transformations of both railway buildings and city.

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202 Image Credits 10 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu .

11 J.W. van Dal, Architectuur langs de rails .

12 Idem

13 Idem

14 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu .

Cover Image: C . Sheppard, Railway Station - 15 Idem Masterpieces of Architecture, Singapore (Bracken Books) 1996). 16 R. Dijksterhuis, Spoorwegtracering en Stedenbouw in Nederland . 1 Mario Sironi, ed Fabio Bezi, Edizioni Philippe Daverio, Milano 1989. 17 B. Speet, Historische Atlas van Haarlem .

2 Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané and Olivier van 18 J.W. van Dal, Architectuur langs de rails . der Bogt, Faculty of Architecture TU Delft. 19 H. Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur in 3 Idem Nederland .

4 Bosatlas van Nederland 20 J.W. van Dal, Architectuur langs de rails .

5 Gemeentearchief Amsterdam 21 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu . 6 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu 22 A.A.V.V., Tracé spoortunnel Rotterdam, opdracht en negen concepten . 7 Schemes adapted by the author 23 Idem 8 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu . 24 M. Hameleers, Kaarten van Amsterdam, 1866-2000 . 9 P. Saal & F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations . 25 Gemeentearchief Amsterdam .

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26 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 42 H. Geretsegger & M. Peintner, Otto Wagner . 1834 tot nu . 43 Idem 27 Idem 44 G. Kolb, Otto Wagner und die Wiener 28 Idem Stadtbahn .

29 Idem 45 Idem

30 Idem 46 H. Francis Mallgrave, Otto Wagner; reflections on the raiment of modernity . 31 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu. 47 O. Antonia Graf, Otto Wagner, Das Werk des Architekten 1860-1902 . 32 Drawing elaborated by Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané and Olivier van der Bogt, TU 48 Idem Delft . 49 H. Geretsegger & M. Peintner, Otto Wagner . 33 G. Veenendaal, Spoorwegen in Nederland, van 1834 tot nu . 50 O. Antonia Graf, Otto Wagner, Das Werk des Architekten 1860-1902 . 34 Website HSL-zuid 51 Idem 35 Dossier HSL-stations in De Ingenieur 22-23 . 52 O. Antonia Graf, Otto Wagner, Das Werk des 36 Idem Architekten 1860-1902 .

37 Idem 53 G. Kolb, Otto Wagner und die Wiener Stadtbahn . 38 Idem 54 O. Antonia Graf, Otto Wagner, Das Werk des 39 R. Trench, E. Hillman, London under London. Architekten 1860-1902 .

40 A.A.V.V., Métro-Cité. Le chemin de fer 55 G. Kolb, Otto Wagner und die Wiener métropolitain à la conquête de Paris 1871-1945. Stadtbahn .

41 J.J. Sort, Redes Metropolitanas. 56 O. Antonia Graf, Otto Wagner, Das Werk des Architekten 1860-1902 .

204 image credits

57 G. Kolb, Otto Wagner und die Wiener Stadtbahn . 73 Benthem Crouwel Architecten .

58 Idem 74 Idem

59 O. Antonia Graf, Otto Wagner, Das Werk des 75 Idem Architekten 1860-1902 . 76 Idem 60 Idem 77 Idem 61 M. Hameleers, Kaarten van Amsterdam, 1866-2000 . 78 Idem

62 P. Saal & F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations. 79 Idem

63 S. Polano, H.P. Berlage: opera completa . 80 Idem

64 M. Hameleers, Kaarten van Amsterdam, 81 P. Saal, F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations . 1866-2000 . 82 H. Tilman, Architectuur van stations in De 65 A.A.V.V., Tracé spoortunnel Rotterdam, Architect nr. 9, 2004 . opdracht en negen concepten . 83 Het Dossier HSL-stations in De Ingenieur 66 GVB Amsterdam 22-23 .

67 Benthem Crouwel Architecten . 84 Idem

68 GVB Amsterdam . 85 P. Saal, F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations .

69 M. Bock, V. van Rossem, K. Somer, 86 Het Dossier HSL-stations in De Ingenieur Bouwkunst, Stijl, Stedenbouw. Van Eesteren en de 22-23 . avant-garde . 87 Idem 70 L. Lansink, Geschiedenis van het Amsterdamse Stationsplein . 88 Idem

71 Benthem Crouwel Architecten . 89 Idem

72 Het Dossier HSL-stations in De Ingenieur 90 H. Tilman, Architectuur van stations in De 22-23 . Architect nr. 9, 2004 .

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106 Collection: Foto-afdrukken, 91 Het Dossier HSL-stations in De Ingenieur Gemeentearchief Amsterdam. Author: unknown. 22-23 . 107 Collection: Archiefdienst gemeente 92 Idem Amsterdam; own picture Author: Alberts, Martin (photographer) 93 H. Tilman, Architectuur van stations in De Copyrights: Gemeentearchief Amsterdam Architect nr. 9, 2004 . 108 Collection: Foto-afdrukken, 94 Benthem Crouwel Architecten . Gemeentearchief Amsterdam Author: unknown.

95 Idem 109 Collection: Archiefdienst gemeente Amsterdam; own picture 96 L. Lansink, Geschiedenis van het Author: Roëll, Ino (fotograaf Amsterdamse Stationsplein . Copyrights: Gemeentearchief Amsterdam

97 Idem 110 Collection: Deenik, C. Author: Fotobureau Deenik (photographer 98 Idem Copyrights: Unknown.

99 M. Hameleers, Kaarten van Amsterdam, 111 Collection: Dienst Ruimtelijke Ordening 1866-2000 . Amsterdam; pictures Author: Unknown. 100 M. Hameleers - Kaarten van Amsterdam 1866-2000. 112 Idem

101 Collection: Bouwtekeningen, 113 Collection: Foto-afdrukken, Gemeentearchief Amsterdam. Author: unknown. Gemeentearchief Amsterdam, Author: Unknown. 102 Idem 114 Collection: Archiefdienst gemeente 103 Idem Amsterdam; own pictures, Author: Roëll, Ino (photographer Copyrights: Gemeentearchief 104 Collection: Bouwtekeningen, Amsterdam Gemeentearchief Amsterdam. 115 Idem 105 Collection: Bouwtekeningen, Gemeentearchief Amsterdam. Author: unknown. 116 Collection: Dienst Ruimtelijke Ordening Amsterdam; pictures, Author: Unknown.

206 image credits

117 Source: Benthem Crouwel Architects 136 Idem 118 Stationseiland Amsterdam, year 7 nr. 26, August 2007 . 137 Idem

119 Source: Benthem Crouwel Architects 138 Idem

120 Idem 139 Studio Amsterdam - Railway Zone. Faculty of Architecture TU Delft . 121 Idem 140 Drawing by D. Philipsen . 122 Idem 141 Drawings by J. Homan and M. Elslo, 123 Idem Studio Amsterdam - Railway Zone. Faculty of Architecture TU Delft . 124 Idem 142 Idem 125 Idem 143 Images Martin Elslo 126 Idem 144 - 149 Idem 127 Idem 150 Images David Philipsen 128 Idem 151 - 158 Idem 129 Idem 159 Images Leander Moons 130 Idem 160 - 169 Idem 131 Drawing by J. Homan . 170 Drawing by Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané 132 A.A.V.V., Eastern Harbour District Amsterdam. and Olivier van der Bogt, Faculty of Architecture Urbanism and Architecture . TU Delft, also published in OverHolland 5 .

133 Idem 171 red. G. van Herwijnen, C. van de Kieft, J.C. Visser, J.G. Wegner, tekst B. M.J. Speet, 134 Idem kaarten Th. Rothfusz, Historische stedenatlas van Nederland, aflevering I, Haarlem; Delftse 135 Idem Universitaire Pers, 1982 .

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172 B. Speet, Historische atlas van Haarlem - 187 Idem 100 jaar Spaarnestad, Amsterdam (Uitgeverij SUN) 2006. 188 H.Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur in Nederland 1841/1938 . 173 Kennemer Atlas, Noord-Hollands archief, also published in OverHolland 5 . 189 Idem

174 red. G. van Herwijnen, C. van de Kieft, 190 J. W. van Dal, Architectuur langs de rails. J.C. Visser, J.G. Wegner, tekst B. M.J. Speet, Overzicht van de stationsarchitectuur in Nederland. kaarten Th. Rothfusz, Historische stedenatlas van Nederland, aflevering I, Haarlem; Delftse 191 Idem Universitaire Pers, 1982 . 192 H. Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur in 175 Idem Nederland 1841/1938.

176 Idem 193 P. Saal, F. Spangenberg, Kijk op stations.

194 Idem 177 Idem 195 H. Romers, Spoorwegarchitectuur in 178 B.Speet, Historische Atlas van Haarlem . Nederland 1841/1938.

179 drawing by Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané 196 B.Speet, Historische Atlas van Haarlem and Olivier van der Bogt, Faculty of Architecture TU Delft, also published in OverHolland 5 . 197 Aviodrome, Lelystad, also published in OverHolland 5 . 180 Idem 198 Jo Coenen & Co . 181 B.Speet, Historische Atlas van Haarlem . 199 Drawing by Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané 182 Idem and Olivier van der Bogt, Faculty of Architecture TU Delft, also published in OverHolland 5 . 183 Idem 200 Jo Coenen & Co . 184 Idem 201 Idem 185 Idem 202 Idem 186 A. van Ingen, Het Oude Station . 203 Idem

208 image credits

204 Idem

205 Idem

206 drawing by Otto Diesfeldt, Iskandar Pané and Olivier van der Bogt, Faculty of Architecture TU Delft, also published in OverHolland 5 .

207 AA VV , Ontwerpatelier Deltametropool .

208 Idem

209 Idem

210 Idem

211 Idem

212 Idem

213 Idem

209 210 Nederlandse samenvatting

Spoorwegen in de stedelijke context

Een architectonisch discours

Spoorwegen en stad bestaan ongeveer anderhalve eeuw naast elkaar. Als wij vandaag de dag hun onderlinge relatie analyseren is het belangrijk te begrijpen hoe het spoor, als fysiek element in de stad, ruimtelijk wordt ervaren. De bouw van spoorwegen in de negentiende eeuw is een waardevolle bijdrage geweest aan de ontwikkeling van de stad. Kilometers spoorwegen werden toen snel gerealiseerd zonder rekening te houden met het toekomstige beeld van de stad. Het resultaat is dat het spoor tegenwoordig is verwikkeld met de stad terwijl zijn rol drastisch is veranderd. Wat vroeger een essentiële bijdrage leverde aan de ontwikkeling van de stad wordt vandaag, hoewel onontbeerlijk, vaak beschouwd als een obstakel, als een belemmering in de planning van de stad.

Vanaf dit punt ontstaat een aantal cruciale vragen. Wat is dan de relatie tussen de bouw van de stad en de realisatie van de spoorwegen? Welke rol nemen de spoorwegen en de bijbehorende gebouwen in gedurende het ontwikkelingsproces van de stad? Met welke transformaties heeft de stad te maken en welke plaats nemen de spoorwegen en zijn gebouwen daar in? Het zoeken naar de antwoorden op deze vragen vormt het beginpunt van dit onderzoek dat zich concentreert op Nederland en in het bijzonder op de Randstad waar het spoornetwerk een fundamentele rol speelt.

Tegenwoordig staat de vraag naar efficiënt openbaar vervoer centraal in de dynamische ontwikkeling van de stad. Zoals honderdenvijftig jaar geleden krijgt de discussie over stedelijke verkeersstromen, en in het

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bijzonder over de spoorwegen, veel aandacht in Nederland en in de rest van Europa. De vele prijsvragen voor de accommodatie van de HSL spoorinfrastructuren bevestigen dat. Daarnaast is het ontwerp van een dergelijke infrastructuur vaak de aanleiding om een project voor de transformatie van de stad te formuleren. Het architectonische ontwerp van de spoorinfrastructuur speelt mijn inziens een belangrijke rol in deze discussie en daarom is in dit onderzoek gekozen als het centraal onderwerp van studie.

Om de uiteengezette vragen te kunnen beantwoorden is het noodzakelijk kennis te nemen van de ontwikkeling van de spoorwegen in de laatste honderdenvijftig jaar. De relatie tussen de spoorwegen en de stedelijke context is een complex onderwerp. Diverse factoren uit verschillende disciplines hebben daarmee te maken. De combinatie van politieke, economische, geografische en technische factoren maakt elke situatie dermate specifiek, waardoor het niet makkelijk is om dit complexe thema te bestuderen. Hierom en voor de duidelijkheid heb ik besloten dit onderzoek te beginnen met een compact overzicht van de ontwikkeling van de spoorwegen in Nederland. Mede door de keuze van de belangrijkste momenten vanuit het architectonische en het stedenbouwkundige oogpunt, bestudeer ik in het tweede hoofdstuk hoe de realisatie van spoorwegen is gerelateerd aan de ontwikkeling van de Hollandse Stad.

In mijn optiek zijn er drie belangrijke thema’s waar het architectonische ontwerp een essentiële rol speelt. Het eerste onderwerp betreft de metrolijnen. De realisatie van metrolijnen in de stedelijke context leidt tot architectonische problemen zonder precedenten. Hoe moet het nieuwe vervoermiddel worden geïntegreerd met de bestaande stad? Aan welke architectonische richtlijnen moet het ontwerp van de bijbehorende gebouwen voldoen? In hoofdstuk drie focus ik op de architectonische aspecten van de realisatie van metrolijnen als onderdeel van het stedelijke project. Het tweede onderwerp, dat aan de orde komt in het vierde hoofdstuk, betreft het spoorwegstation als belangrijk symbool van de moderne stad. De analyse van de transformaties van het Amsterdamse Centraal Station is voor mij in dit kader de aanleiding om de volgende vraag te stellen: is er nog plaats voor het monumentale station of moeten wij de huidige ontwerptendensen accepteren waarin het station wordt

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gezien als een multifunctioneel gebouw dat alleen moet voldoen aan de complexiteit van de hedendaagse eisen? In het vijfde hoofdstuk behandel ik het derde belangrijke onderwerp: de architectonische interventies rondom centraal gelegen spoorwegen in stedelijke gebieden. Dit thema wordt behandeld via de discussie van projecten gemaakt door studenten van het MSc3 en MSc4 atelier Urban Architecture/Hybrid Buildings aan de Faculteit Bouwkunde van de TU Delft. Deze projecten zijn tevens een poging om de inhoud van dit onderzoek direct te verbinden met het onderwijs in de master studio’s. Hoofdstuk zes heeft ook te maken met een onderzoeksproject, het project ‘5 x 5 projects for the Dutch City’, waaraan op dit moment invulling wordt gegeven aan de Faculteit Bouwkunde van de TU Delft. De analyse van de ontwikkeling van de spoorwegen in Haarlem wordt aangeboden als basis voor toekomstige architectonische interventies in het gebied rondom het spoor.

Tenslotte probeer ik in de conclusies de samenhang aan te tonen tussen de inhoud van dit onderzoek en een aantal hedendaagse thema’s. Het architectonische ontwerp (niet alleen in het geval van de infrastructuur) zou een belangrijkere rol moeten spelen als startpunt van zowel beeld- als beleidvorming in de toekomstige transformaties van de Randstad.

213 214 About the author

Roberto Cavallo (1967, Salerno) graduated in 1991 as an architect at the Faculty of Architecture of Naples (Italy) with a thesis developed during his stay as international exchange student at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Delft. He practiced at the offices of Cees Dam & Partners (Amsterdam) and Studio di Architettura (Amsterdam). In 1996 he became partner of Studio di Architettura (Amsterdam) and 1999 he founded a new office with the name of Studio AI in Amsterdam. With Studio AI he worked on several projects; among others the pop venue Paradiso in Amsterdam and the office building on the Teilingerstraat in Rotterdam (both projects published in the Dutch architectural magazine ‘De Architect’). From 1991 he participated in various international seminars of the UIA (International Union of Architects) and several national and international competitions. Since 1996 he works as an assistant professor at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Delft. He has been the coordinator of the module A1 and currently he is responsible for the MSc3 and MSc4 Urban Architecture - Hybrid Buildings for the Dutch City. He combines teaching for various design exercises and theoretical tutorials with the supervision on several graduation projects. He is now one of the main tutors for the final project at Master Urban Architecture, Hybrid Buildings for the Dutch City. As researcher he participated in a number of international congresses and is a member of the research group Urban Architecture, currently active at the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Delft. In addition he participated successfully to the International Doctorate in Architecture Villard d’Honnecourt. He is the (co-) author of several scientific publications, varying from books to journals and magazines.

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