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Superior to All Men: Violent Masculinity, Fascism, and American Identity In ''SUPERIOR TO ALL MEN'': VIOLENT MASCULINITY, FASCISM, AND AMERICAN IDENTITY IN DEPRESSION-ERA AMEzuCAN LITERATURE AN ABTRACT SUBMITTED ON THE EIGHTH DAY OF MARCH2OI3 TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS OF TULANE TJNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in J. Severson APPROVED: i t n, Ph.D. f,, Director/6,* Smith, Ph.D. Abstract This dissertation, "'Superior to all men': Violent Masculinity, Fascism, and American Identity in Depression-era American Literature," examines how American authors used modernist techniques and formal experimentation to recast the violent hero during the Great Depression. Using Richard Slotkin's work, I show how this revision of the hero contributed to a critique of frontier narratives, and the traditional, nineteenth- century socio-political ideals they maintained. The hard-boiled male was both a continuation of the hero's dedication to violent action and a subversion of the frontier as a narrative model for modern life. Despite his pulp origins, American modernists used the hard-boiled male prominently in literary critiques of American life throughout the thirties. With this figure, they expanded the experimentation of the twenties to a literary analysis of the national, economic, and political crises of the Depression, and in doing so their works questioned the roles of race and gender at the heart of American life and politics. The critique of heroic narratives gained particular focus with the rise of fascist politics abroad, and these authors increasingly suggested that such narratives produced and maintained proto-fascist discourses in American life. However, I argue that as the fascist threat grew prior to World War II, authors rehabilitated the frontier hero as a counter to fascism and in concert with democratic liberalism, the New Deal, and the Popular Front. I discuss texts by Ernest Hemingway, Dashiell Hammett, William Faulkner, Sinclair Lewis, John Steinbeck, and Richard Wright, as well as films directed by John Ford. ''SUPERIOR TO ALL MEN'': VIOLENT MASCULINITY, FASCISM, AND AMERICAN IDENTITY IN DEPRESSION-ERA AMERICAN LITERATURE A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED ON THE EIGHTH DAY OF MARCH2OI3 TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS OF TULANE LiNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in J. Severson APPROVED: i-- Ph.D. Director Smith, Ph.D. Copyright by Marvin J. Severson, 2013 All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank everyone who has helped me to complete this dissertation. First, I want to thank my dissertation director, Joel Dinerstein, whose guidance helped me narrow an impossibly large topic into a manageable scholarly work. This project would not have the same focus, rigor, or depth without his input. He challenged me to better support and ground my work within the scholarly debates surrounding my project. I also wish to thank my other committee members, Barry Ahearn and Felipe Smith. I appreciate their feedback and support throughout my graduate studies. Besides those mentioned above, several other professors, across disciplines, have provided models for my scholarly work and aspirations. They have guided me through and into academia, and they have improved my abilities as a writer. Thank you to T. R. Johnson, Molly Travis, and Molly Rothenberg at Tulane, and to Greg O'Dea, Victoria Steinberg, John Phillips and Richard Jackson at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. Each taught me to refine both the form and content of my writing, to delve deeper into my analysis and to express my arguments with clarity and style. Thank you to my mother and father, Hope and Jerry, and to the rest of my family. Their love and support has made me who I am today. Finally, thank you to my wife, Courtney. This project would not be possible without the foundation of your love, patience, and encouragement. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................... ii Chapters 1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 1 2. CHAPTER I: Hard-Boiled Fiction, Hammett, and Political Ambiguity..... 24 3. CHAPTER II: The Hard-Boiled Assault on Southern Domesticity in Faulkner's Sanctuary and Light in August .......................................... 79 4. CHAPTER III: Sinclair Lewis, the Popular Front, and the Anti-Fascist Reappraissal of Heroic Action............................................................ 167 5. CHAPTER IV: The Capitalist State vs. the New Deal in The Grapes of Wrath.. ......................................................................... 215 6. CHAPTER V: Native Son , Richard Wright's Response to the White Hero.......................................................................................... 260 7. CONCLUSION: World War II and the Rebirth of the Western Hero........ 319 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................... 333 BIOGRAPHY OF THE AUTHOR............................................................................. 342 iii 1 INTRODUCTION I. The Great War, the Lost Generation, and the Anti-hero Nick sat against the wall of the church where they had dragged him to be clear of machine-gun fire in the street. Both legs stuck out awkwardly. He had been hit in the spine… "Senta Rinaldi. Senta. You and me we've made a separate peace… Not patriots." (Hemingway 63) This passage from "Chapter VI," one of the brief inter-story vignettes in Hemingway's In Our Time , nearly perfectly demonstrates the effect of World War I on the heroic narrative in modernism. The main character (who is presumably Nick Adams, though his last name is not mentioned) has been shot in the spine, emasculated in a manner that prefigures Hemingway's later protagonists, Jake Barnes and Frederic Henry. His ignominious removal from combat--a mixture of impersonal violence against him and a willed withdrawal from patriotic, military heroism--marks war as neither masculine nor glorious. Instead, we see Hemingway demonstrating the contempt for war, and in particular the Great War, common to writers in the twenties. Hemingway demonstrates Paul Fussell's claim that, "The Great War was more ironic than any before or since. It was a hideous embarrassment to the prevailing Meliorist myth which had dominated the public consciousness for a century. It reversed the Idea of Progress" (Fussell 8). Where a Nick Adams, or indeed a Hemingway, might volunteer for the war under the impression that he was entering the great struggle to save civilization, the ironies of the war, its crushing brutality, and its near senselessness would reveal the hollowness of the myth of 2 civilization as the culmination of a progressive historical development, "a seamless, purposeful 'history' involving a coherent stream of time running from past through present to future" (Fussell 21). Fussell notes that Hemingway's skepticism--as seen in A Farewell to Arms-- of the romance and values of such a historical view, a skepticism so commonplace after the war, would have been incomprehensible prior to it (Fussell 21). Fussell is perhaps overstating his point; after all, prior to the war modernism had already begun to erode the structures of historical thought and nineteenth-century value systems, but the Great War put a fine point on the disillusionment of the modern era. Where it did not encapsulate and amplify the discontents of pre-war thinkers and writers, it produced further discontent through the random brutality and alienation of mechanized warfare. This project looks at how American writers in the Depression era use fiction as a means of interrogating the mythic structure of the violent American male hero and his political implications. They question the meaning and efficacy of such a figure after WWI and in light of the global economic strife of the thirties, and they increasingly question the nature and desirability of such a hero in the face of the development of fascism as a political response to the same socio-political and historical circumstances against which they react. For these writers, fascism acts as an uncanny mirror of the violent myths of American identity. These myths provide heroic figures that resemble fascist identities ascendant in Europe and America. Yet, in mustering a response to the threat of fascism, these authors increasingly rely upon those myths in their fiction. Margery Hourihan theorizes that the role the hero story plays in Western culture is to recapitulate and naturalize the existing ideological and social order. "In Western culture the hero story has come to seem simply a reflection of the way things are. The 3 perception of those who are different as actual or potential enemies who must be opposed has assumed the status of self-evident truth" (Hourihan 14). Hero stories paper over the instabilities of the ideologies governing a given culture by casting those instabilities as a series of binaries in which the hero violently eliminates external evils. The hero story asserts fundamental differences (gendered, economic, and rational) between the hero and his enemies. "By drawing a distinction between us and them in this way, and defining our civilization in contradistinction to our opponents, real and imaginary, the hero story asserts the 'natural' superiority of the West" (Hourihan 3). The gendered aspect of the traditional hero story is particularly relevant
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