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GLOBAL SPORT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS AND ATHLETES’ ACCESS TO EDUCATION GLOBAL SPORT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS AND ATHLETES’ ACCESS TO EDUCATION TO ACCESS AND ATHLETES’ SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT SPORT GLOBAL

B. David Ridpath Peter Smolianov RR.2.2019 Spencer Harris Gerard Akindes Wadih Ishac RR.2.2019

Global Sport Development Systems and Athletes’ Access to Education

B. David Ridpath Peter Smolianov Spencer Harris Gerard Akindes Wadih Ishac

Contents

iv Acronyms vii

Foreword xii

Executive Summary xvi

Tables and figures xx

Chapter One: Introduction 1

Chapter Two: Review of literature 4 a. United States of America b. Russia c. d. e.

Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods 38

Chapter Four: The case studies 46 a. United States of America b. Russia c. United Kingdom d. Senegal e. Qatar

Chapter Five: Overall conclusions and recommendations 105

References 110

v Acronyms ACRONYMS vi AAD Director of Education (Qatar) BOA British Olympic Association (UK) BPA British Paralympic Association (UK) BUCS British Universities and Colleges Sport (UK) CAS The Court of Arbitration for Sport CCPR Central Council of Physical Recreation (UK) CEO Chief Executive Officer (All) DACE Director of Athlete Career & Education (USA) DCCE Director of Coaching & Coach Education (USA) DCMS Department of Culture, Media & Sport (UK) DCP Director of Collegiate Partnerships (USA) DfE Department for Education (UK) DiSE Diploma in Sporting Excellence (UK) DNH Department of National Heritage (UK) DOE Department of Education (USA) DOS Director of Sport, Bath University (UK) DSD Deputy Sport Director-Aspire (Qatar) ECB & Wales Board (UK) EDNCYS Exec. Director, National Council of Youth Sports (USA) EDQOA Exec. Director Qatar Olympic Academy EFL (UK) EIS The English Institute of Sport (UK) EPL English (UK) EU The European Union FA (UK) FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association FTTM Full-time Training Model (UK) GTO Ready for Labor and Defense Fitness Program (Russia) HMG Her Majesty’s Government (UK) HP / HPS High Performance / High performance Sport (Russia) HTM Hybrid Training Model (UK)

vii IAAF International Amateur Athletics Federation INSEPS National Institute of Sport and Education, Senegal IMF International Monetary Fund IOC International Olympic Committee JOSOOR Josoor Institute Qatar LFE League Football Education (UK) LPSD La Lettre de Politique Sectorielle de Développement des Sports LTAD Long-Term Athlete Development (USA) NAIA National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (USA) NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association (USA) NDPB Non-Departmental Public Body NGB National Governing Body of Sport NSF National Sport Federations ONS Office of National Statistics (UK) PCA Professional Cricketers Association (UK) PTTM Part-time Training Model (USA) QGF Qatar Federation QNTDOO Qatar National Teams Director of Operations RFU Union (UK) RLFL Football Limited (UK) RLPA Rugby League Players Association UK (UK) RPA Rugby Players Association (UK) SE Sport England (UK) SSP Sport Science Program- TASS Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (UK) U.K. United Kingdom UKS UK Sport (UK) UN United Nations USOC United States Olympic Committee WADA World Anti-Doping Agency WCPP World Class Performance Plan (UK)

viii Foreword At least since the ancient Olympics elite athletes face during their the feats and achievements of elite development, and post-career. It athletes have sparked a universal examines the role and involvement fascination across the ages, stirring of commercial interests in elite sport fundamental human emotions around competition. The country studies our will, not only to survive a brutal --of the United Kingdom, the United existence, but to excel. ’s mega- States, Russia, Senegal, and Qatar-- star athletes from the classical era reveal a striking variety of approaches awed the masses just as today their and structures for the recruitment, modern-day descendants do with development, and support for top dazzling skills in a myriad variety of athletes in life-long education and sports. As communities and societies career goals. we are captivated by a crowded calendar of truly global competitions, with their spectacle of national pride These approaches range from the lavished by commercial glamor. outward non-involvement of the U.S. government in athletics and sport, to the close integration of sport Sports and well-being in education and government in Russia --a deeply and learning was established early ingrained carry-over from the Soviet among the key, multi-sectoral interests system. Yet for all the countries of WISE research. We welcome this studied, whatever the channels of fruitful contribution and we look support for elite athletes, success on forward to further explorations in global stages reflects an investment this vital and compelling sector of with hoped-for abundant returns in education.

Our colleagues from the Ohio University have placed the elite athlete at the center of the maelstrom, more pressured than ever to perform, to win, and to bring home medals. Yet with all their devotion to pushing the limits of human endurance, and to scoring victories, most elite athletes face uncertainties once they leave formal competition. Particularly those from countries of the Global South who have pinned their dreams of glory to success in elite sport find themselves struggling in the real world. The research raises concerns about the ‘sportsmanship’ of the systems that produce our elite athletes, but often lack educational pathways for career development and life-long support.

The report introduces the constellation of key sports organizations in each of five countries, and focuses on how these societies and their governments use education to address the challenges

ix national pride, prestige, and status. ‘fight to the death’ contests of Rome’s gladiators. Such realities dramatize The recent federal lawsuit in the the pressures and tensions within United States alleging bribery in sport systems whose mission includes college admission may carry implicit the physical-emotional well-being of warnings for elite athlete education. athletes. As the research finds, the original objective of mass participation in sport and exercise --building sound The progress and attention these minds and bodies— has devolved to countries have made and given a focus on the revenue generating toward improving systems of support talents of victorious athletes and for athlete education outshines the teams who brought home medals. It sharp differences in their approaches. suggests a need for sports educators Most hopefully, the authors advocate and administrators to be alert to flaws for the empowerment of athletes that emerge from systems increasingly who, after all, are most directly and enmeshed with moneyed corporate personally impacted by systems and influences, and vulnerable to fixations processes. They are entitled to the on national prestige and status where unalienable right of having their voices the operative dynamic veers toward heard and heeded. ‘pay to play’.

The perils and pressures for athletes can be severe. It may not be hyperbole to suggest that the demonstrated health risks of American football –concussion, cognitive and emotional problems, even suicide— now take second place only to the

Asmaa Al-Fadala, PhD Director, Research and Content World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE)

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EXECUTIVE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xii This research explores elite sport of these ancillary benefits. These can development systems and aspects materialize due to a greater emphasis of educational attainment and on not only elite development, but opportunities for elite athletes also expansion of mass participation and recreational opportunities since in n a variety of national sport so few people are recognized as development systems. The countries elite. The ostensible benefits of analyzed for this project are the sports participation are wide ranging United States, the United Kingdom, but as noted in this report, sport Russia, Senegal, and Qatar. These development cannot overshadow were selected by the researchers education attainment and career because of the heterogeneous progression outside of the athletic space for any athlete regardless of social-political contexts, the diverse classification. histories in relation to sport and education, and the expectation of a The research involved a detailed variety of approaches toward elite review of literature in each country athlete development and education to present appropriate structural attainment. The objective of this context for the empirical work. The research is to compare and contrast primary research involved several the examined systems to ascertain interviews with key stakeholders best practices and approaches involved in the sport development for elite athletes to gain a viable and/or education systems within education experience and career each country. This empirical work was development for life after formal conducted to provide an increased competitive sport. understanding of education and career options for the elite athlete. Often in elite sport development; The interviews focused on reviewing the primary focus is on training, practices and commonalities in various performance, and the ultimate bottom global economic and socio-cultural line of victory. Top performance conditions. at an amateur, professional or international level in sports can A comparative research analysis be a great revenue source for was conducted to identify and several stakeholders ranging from understand aspects of the research sponsors, media distributors and systems. Research was conducted the athletes themselves. Often at three levels of analysis: macro, the total preparedness of the elite meso, and micro levels. The macro athlete, the sound mind along with level of analysis includes elements of the sound body, become competing socioeconomic, cultural, governmental entities with athletic achievement and other state organizational support winning out as the priority. Pursuing for national sport development education options during peak systems. The meso level includes law, athletic development years while policy, and infrastructure services that providing a source of income and/or enable sports programs. The micro national pride can be deemed at best level consists of operation, processes a secondary endeavor. Thus, many and methods for development of countries, including the five examined individual athletes. The micro level is for this report, have taken on a more primarily where education fulfillment methodical and focused approach for elite athletes is managed although to elite sport development and the macro and meso levels impact education and career options for the how important education is with elite athlete as part of a total country regard to sport development in plan. the areas of governmental policy, organizational (NGB or Olympic Sport and sport development often are used by countries to advance Committee) support and funding goals or non-sporting objectives options and alternatives. such as a healthier citizenry, tourism, The diversity of the systems presented better workforce, national pride and international status. This is clear when some interesting findings but also the researched country systems use opportunities for improving access sport development as a cornerstone and education programming for elite for economic development and athletes worldwide. For example, investing in sports capital because the United Kingdom and Russia were

xiii similar in governance and organization plan that increases infrastructure so of sport development in that that travel from home and training education and sport development are facilities to school, college and largely two separate entities. This is in university is convenient for athletes. contrast to the United States where Another area that is problematic elite sport development is largely in many of the systems is having grounded in the existing primary, broad based input on policy and secondary and higher education organization from key stakeholders (university) model. Qatar and Senegal including athletes, coaches and NGBs. presented two relatively young sports From a micro level perspective, development systems each within the focusing mostly on elite athlete frame of a National Sports Policy and development inside and outside governmental ministry much like those of the sporting spectrum, several of the U.K. and Russia. best practices can be implemented. Among this study’s most significant We find that identifying and recommendations to improve developing talent are strong points education attainment for elite athletes for the systems examined. They across the spectrum of national are evolving processes; countries sport development models include, should continuously research and at the macro level, recognizing evaluate the needs of elite athlete. the national and governmental With regards to the whole person, context of education and sport, countries should implement systems and how this context shapes elite to ensure that all athletes receive sport development and education the support and resources needed support for elite-level athletes. The for success outside of sport in their researchers recommend continuing education and career development. high-level research in this space This can include specialized programs to aid development of stronger of study tailored to the athlete. policies for the education support Well-developed organizational of elite athletes. At the meso structures that focus on education level, best practice suggestions or athlete development and that include reviewing, developing, and provide integrated support such as implementing evidence-informed sport academies, Olympic training policies that formalize and clarify centers and other national systems for the commitment to elite sport and supporting athletes exist now in the education support for elite athletes. U.K., the US and Russia. Countries should also integrate Since athletes often want to have organizational structure at the national careers in sports after competing, level for publicly funded coordination whether in coaching or administration, of athlete education as part of long- organizations can focus on education term athlete development and access in related areas such sport wellness. There are anchors for this in medicine, teaching and coaching, the systems identified in this project, media and sport management. but improved availability of resources Much of this infrastructure exists at across the spectrum is critical to fund universities worldwide, but expansion comprehensive athlete education. online and in other special education Other meso level considerations formats that cater to the training that should be explored to improve schedules of the elite athlete are education access for elite athletes recommended. Many athletes want include support and resources for jobs and careers outside the sports teachers, coaches, parents, and space; sport ministries and NGBs athletes specifying the knowledge, need programming that leads to skills and abilities to be taught at each other education and sport programs level of athlete development over beyond the sports industry. Many the long-term. In addition, in many good examples exist such as the countries, such as the United States IOC partnerships with Hilton hotels unlike in , infrastructure issues and other programs that assist limit access to sport development athletes with education, life skills, and and education attainment. Where this employment should be adopted in all exists there needs to be a country countries. xiv

TABLES AND TABLES FIGURES xvi Tables

Table 1: Progress and completion in education in Senegal (UNESCO UIS, 2016) Table 2: Out-of-school children and adolescents in Senegal (UNESCO UIS, 2016) Table 3: Student enrollment in secondary school in 2017 (UNESCO UIS, 2016) Table 4 Qatar Aspire Academy sports accomplishments since 2012, November 2018

Figures

Figure 1: Proposed model for analysis and comparison of national high performance (HP) athlete education systems Figure 2: Official school ages by level of education in Senegal (UNESCO UIS, 2016) Figure 3: Outcomes of the sport sector (, 2011) Figure 4. Number of student-athletes and graduates per year (Qatar)

xvii

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE 2 The main goal of this research is to Thus, governments have become examine various elite sport policy and more willing to prioritize elite sport development systems in the USA, development through substantial Europe, Russia, Africa and the Middle financial investments and an East, and to assess specific policies increasing institutionalization of elite and support programs for the ongoing sport systems (Bergsgard, Houlihan, education of elite athletes. On the Mangset, Nodland, & Rommetvedt, sport policy and development side, 2007; Green & Houlihan, 2005). Elite throughout modern history and to sport, however, is a meritocracy the present day, each country and/ reached by only a few; many talented or region has had its own systems athletes pursue the vision without and organizations for sports and reaching this rare status. Moreover, sports development whether in the majority of those who do make it mass-participation or elite sports. generally have relatively short sports Elite sporting success is frequently careers. This reality underlies the regarded as a critical and valuable concern of athletes and emboldens resource for its capacity to help calls for attention to athletes’ rights, achieve a wide range of non-sporting particularly regarding access to objectives (Green & Houlihan, 2005). ongoing education support. Elite sports are usually international These issues form the central focus in nature; international comparative of this research. This comparative research between nations and regions research project analyzes elite sport is an effective method in which development systems in five diverse one variable is analyzed to assess countries. It discusses historical issues, international competitive success current concepts, and examines best and other areas surrounding the elite practices for sport development and sport development space (Sparvero, elite athlete access to education in Chalip & Greene, 2008). The each region. The research considers pressurized environment of elite sport applicable practices that can benefit development does not always align all of the analyzed systems. The five well with an individual’s education countries considered are Qatar, the or career goals and aspirations. An United States, Senegal, Russia, and examination of sport development the United Kingdom. Each system systems worldwide can illustrate is reviewed in interviews with major the steps that nations are taking to stakeholders in various subsets of the address such challenges. national system. These subsets vary There have been relatively few by country and include professional comparative studies compiled on elite sports, intercollegiate and sport development and education interscholastic sports, and Olympic access in the current literature. sports. These elite athlete systems Countries such as Qatar and Saudi of the five countries are analyzed Arabia have made sport mega events with the macro, meso and micro and elite sport success cornerstones level through the work of scholars of their national plans. Such growth including Green (2006), Green & may be – at least partly-- due to the Houlihan (2005), and Smolianov recognition of its soft power benefits and Zakus (2008). While some of – both at home and internationally. the definitions of macro, meso, and Previous research on elite sporting micro level segmentation for sports success notes that categorization as development vary slightly among a resource valuable for its flexibility the scholars, the levels are split and its capacity to help achieve a between macro level of analysis; that wide range of non-sporting objectives includes elements of socioeconomic, (Green & Houlihan, 2005). These cultural, governmental and other state include a healthier citizenry, tourism, organizational support for national improved workforce, national pride, sport development systems. The and international status. This is clear meso level includes law, policy, and when countries vie for major sport infrastructure services that enable events and invest deeply in sports sports programs. The micro level capital improvements as consists of operation, processes, has done as part of its Vision 2030 and methods for development of campaign. individual athletes.

Chapter One: Introduction 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE CHAPTER TWO 4 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature A. The United States of America This section provides an overview of the key literature relating to sport development policy, elite athlete development, and elite athlete access to education in the United States. The review is structured according to the project’s overarching theoretical framework of macro, meso and micro- level factors. The macro-level analysis focuses on the lack of a national sports policy and a dearth of government guidance and control compared to other national systems. The meso- level analysis focuses on four distinct sport development models and their relationship with education attainment for the elite athlete. The four models are intercollegiate athletics, interscholastic athletics, youth sports and the Olympic movement. The micro-level analysis focuses on factors that are significant in assessing the quality of education support elite-level athletes, whether via the existing education process or external to the education system.

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 5 Macro level of sport system. It often focuses on elite development development and on winning rather than access to a viable education. Reed (2018) states that the United While school-based athletics were States does not have a comprehensive initially intended to be about physical national sports policy or a exercise and mass participation to government sports ministry as most enhance the vision of a sound mind other countries. Ridpath (2018) and and body, it quickly morphed into Sparvero, Chalip & Greene (2008) elite athlete development, revenue detail and explain that the United generation and winning, specifically States does have several decentralized at the intercollegiate level which is a organizations from youth to primary feeder system for professional professional sports with dozens of sports teams in the U.S. (Ridpath, governing bodies that often vary in 2018). Despite education based rules and structure from state to state sports with education as the priority and organization to organization. and certain academic eligibility In essence, even with National requirements in place for authorized Governing Bodies (NGB), a national competition, it can be argued that Olympic Committee (USOC) and other access to a viable education can be defined sport development systems, limited in the United States because the approach to sport development of an enhanced focus on winning and and access to education in the U.S. for revenue generation. elite athletes is fragmented; access and mass participation for non-elite The education-based sports model athletes is not prioritized. The bulk (EBS) for elite athlete development, of the work and development for as it exists currently, is primarily many sports in the United States found in the United States. While is through the various public and other countries such as Russia, or in private school systems. Nevertheless, its former configuration as part of the even this decentralized approach to Soviet Union, have long possessed sport development has not inhibited elite athlete boarding schools that international competitiveness. The focus on athletic development, the United States is the runaway leader U.S. has its elite sport development in total Olympic medals awarded system grounded primarily in the since 1896 (nearly 2,500 medals, existing public and private school of which almost 1,000 are gold) enterprise (Metsä-Tokila, 2002; (Smolianov, Zakus & Gallo, 2014). The Ridpath, 2018). In Europe it was sport development system appears determined that the public sector and to be working when benchmarked existing sport organizations should against international success. But can bear responsibility for educating the current system sustain the same elite athletes rather than the public level of competitive excellence over education system as it evolved in the the long-term, and is access to sport United States (Metsä-Tokila, 2001a, and recreational opportunities being 2001b). The objective of combining eroded? education with elite athletic development, or at least having The United States, despite over access to education opportunities, a century of athletic success has primarily been to provide athletes domestically and internationally with a viable education to make the including world championships transition from a sporting career to and Olympic medals, still does not another career or vocation easier. have a comprehensive or cohesive (Carlson, 1991; Eriksson, 1989; Metsä- approach to sport development and Tokila, 2001a). Education, especially education in the elite athlete space. higher education, has become The lack of a national sports policy more highly valued not only by elite and national sports ministry, coupled athletes, but also as a primary factor with the reality that the education in social mobility for all. It is difficult to system itself is the core locus of elite establish a viable career path without athlete development, makes sport in a suitable and marketable education the U.S. an interesting study. Sports (Metsä-Tokila, 2001a: Metsä-Tokila, development in U.S. essentially exists 2002). The United States may seem in silos primarily within the education

6 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature to have the best of both worlds, but Sports Ministry via existing federal and elite development and competitive state government structures (Reed, success can easily impede an athlete’s 2018; Ridpath, 2018). A pyramidal education attainment and goals. structure exists in the European model with more public resources and Governance and infrastructure forming the foundation. This enhances access and opportunity organization at the lower levels while costing Meso and micro levels less, yet effectively at the top of the pyramid or the high-performance Two of the most popular and level. Most sports development in the widespread sports development United States, by contrast, indicate an models are the European sports inverted pyramid where less money club, a system that has roots and is spent at the grassroots level and anchors worldwide, and the American more resources are directed at the education-based sport development elite level of sports (Reed, 2018). Even model. In the latter, development with typical participants at the lower at the elite level for many sports is level of sports participation from primarily grounded in the existing either primary or secondary schools, primary, secondary, and higher those programs are not as resourced education systems. Collectively state nor intended to be participatory or budgeted primary and secondary inclusive. Often these programs, even schools, colleges and universities, at the lower levels, focus on high and municipal parks and recreation performance and elite development systems (typically available to youth (Reed, 2018; Ridpath, 2018). Even below age 12, and as an alternative to college and university-based sports primary and secondary school sports) outside the commercialized National are central to producing the talent Collegiate Athletic Association to keep U.S. athletes in a prominent (NCAA) Division I level focus primarily spot in elite sports worldwide. The on winning contests rather than education system also essentially participation opportunities and provides many professional sports academics. organizations in the U.S. a no- cost athletic development system Funding sources of sports that the professional leagues have development in the U.S. correlates no obligation or need to finance somewhat with government funding (Smolianov et. al, 2014). through tax subsides as in Europe, at least to an extent, though more The U.S. federal and state government indirectly. Although not channeled structures delegate elite sport through a specific government development to for-profit, non-profit function such as a sport ministry, sport organizations, and public and most municipalities, individual states private education systems. From the and public and private organizations standpoint of elite sport development, all contribute to U.S. elite athlete the system is somewhat chaotic development through various funding and disjointed (Sparvero, et al., mechanisms. Like any sports endeavor, 2008). It is difficult to compare elite U.S. sports derives income from development and education access earned revenue streams: ticket sales, because the education system is the corporate sponsorships, donations foundation of U.S. high-performance and media agreements. While certain sport; no European local sport club segments of sports development do tradition and infrastructure exists that receive government funding, where is directly comparable in the United funding mechanisms differ is within States (De Bosscher, De Knopp, the level of competition. Funding for van Bottenburg, Shibli & Binghamd, scholastic sports is different from 2009). Sports in European and other intercollegiate athletics and markedly countries are largely organized different from funding for community- through nonprofit, mainly local and based, Olympic programs and grassroots clubs that exist under professional sports. local and regional sports federations that are ultimately governed by a national sports policy and a National

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 7 U.S. intercollegiate established as a mecha¬nism to have athletes participate in sports athletics without compensation. It was used Macro, meso and micro levels to distinguish the working class from the upper class and maintain Any discussion of U.S. sport a social separation in all areas of development must include the life, including recreation (Miracle & scholastic and higher education Rees, 1994; Sawyer, Bodey & Judge, apparatus that is the primary vehicle 2008). This was the beginning of for developing elite athletes in many amateurism moving away from the sports at all levels. Most sports original intent and fully separating currently practiced in the United school-based sports from professional States initially derived from the sports in the United States. Bylaw intercollegiate athletic space and 12.01.1 in the NCAA manual states later expanded into other areas that “only an amateur student-athlete such as professional, Olympic and is eligible for intercollegiate athletics interscholastic sports. In the early participation in a particular sport” days of U.S. higher education, faculties (NCAA 2017-18, p. 57). While this and administrators had not planned rule is current and the requirement for anything as frivolous as organized has not changed for over a hundred athletics. The concentration was to years, the sports development model be solely on academics, but students we now see in the United States has increasingly clamored for recreational changed exponentially in structure activities that would offer a respite and financing. The same tenet of from the daily rigors of academic amateurism largely still applies life (Chu, Segrave, & Becker, 1985). to scholastic sports; indeed, the Many faculty members recognized concept of amateur-ism has remained that this was actually beneficial to stagnant. Because of this environment, the academic progress and success compensation for participation and of the students (Falla, 1981). Whether other benefits and revenue streams, it was a regatta between as well as the status of education- Harvard and Yale in 1852, or the first based sports in U.S. has changed “football game” between Rutgers dramatically to the extent that the and Princeton in 1869, these little- long-term marriage of elite athlete noticed and yet very competitive development and education in U.S. is events were the precursors to today’s frayed, if not broken. Equal education popular, multibillion-dollar industry of access for elite athletes in U.S. is intercollegiate athletics which rivals not what it seems when compared professional sports in popularity and to access for non-elite athletes. The revenue generation (Staurowsky & focus is on athletic achievement rather Abney, 2011). than academic efficicacy (Gerdy, 2006; Clotfelter, 2013 Gurney, Lopiano The differences in sport development & Zimbalist, 2017; Nixon, 2014; and education access in the U.S. is Ridpath, 2018; Sack & Staurowsky, really a question of who desired to 1998, Sperber, 1990; Zimbalist, 1999). control students who were developing and or continuing games from the Interscholastic athletics in the old world on college campuses U.S. in the United States. In the early days of sports in the United States, Interscholastic athletics for students circa mid to late 19th century, the in the sixth grade of primary school differ¬ence between a professional and above (typically age 12 and older, and a non-professional athlete was including students from middle to not as obvious at it may seem, but high school) developed almost on the distinction became important a parallel path with intercollegiate for those participating in school- athletics. Interscholastic athletics based sports and later helped define began with students who wanted the separation of education and physical activity and competition as a professionalism in sports participation respite from the rigors of academics. and athletic development. Sports were also becoming popular The term “amateur” was not

8 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature at colleges and universities. The & Grant, 2016). Public schools are attraction to sports naturally caught funded primarily by public tax dollars; on at the primary and secondary adding an additional regressive tax to levels. School leaders felt they had pay for sports participation, once fully little choice but to impose some funded by existing tax structures, has semblance of control over this hurt participation. burgeoning aspect of education. In addition to public schools there are Faculty began to supervise and assist private schools that are funded by in organizing contests, establishing tuition, fees and outside donations. eligibility rules and coaching faculty Many are faith based. How these at schools (Sawyer, et. al, 2008). schools are regulated varies by state. Eventually the education system Often the private school has superior recognized positive outcomes from athletic resources, higher income competitive sports such as teamwork, families and a decided competitive exercise, problem solving and a better and academic advantage. Many public overall student experience as sports schools are restricted by geographic allowed students to step away from boundaries, although that has been academics and clear their minds. The relaxed in many states in recent games became popular; as in college years. Private schools have no such sports, high schools sports began to restrictions and can often attract promote and even exploit the fact better athletes to their school, even that elite athletics were in the system lower income ones who can find to stay. subsidies and scholarships to fund a Macro, meso and micro levels private education and athletic access. Some states combine governance and Unlike intercollegiate athletics, championships among private and interscholastic sports in the U.S. public schools, others such as New are governed by state associations Jersey, have separate systems. For and not on a national level (Hums & those states that have kept private McLean, 2013). There is a National and public school sports together, Federation of High Schools private schools have dominated the (NFHS), but it is a national service competition in most sports (Cook, organization that serves primarily 2015). as a rules of game writing and publishing organization. This does U.S. youth sports not mean there is no governance at the national level per se; it means Macro, meso and micro levels establishing consistent rules of Youth sports in the United States the games, along with education are governed several different ways. programming, officiating codes, and There is not a national governing coaching standards, among others. body and most states will delegate It is not oriented only to athletics but all governance down to the municipal provides services to debate teams, and/or non-profit and private level cheerleading and spirit squads, and (Hums & McLean, 2013). Public sport school bands. (Hums & McLean, 2013; governance primarily exists in city NFHS, 2018). The real regulatory parks and recreation departments, power and authority of interscholastic sports leagues and state games sports rests with individual states (individual state Olympics for and local school districts to govern athletes18 and under). Not all participation of member schools states have these types of festivals including championships, length of however. U.S. youth sports typically seasons and competitive eligibility fall at the ages under 14 for most such as age limits and academic participation opportunities. Many requirements (Hums & McLean, 2013; youth then typically transition to the Sharp, Moorman & Claussen, 2010; interscholastic system, usually around Wong, 1994). A major issue facing seventh grade. This is not set in every public schools in the U.S. is the state and one can play in a separate ‘pay to play’ system that many are youth system that is governed outside implementing to help cover funding of the education space through shortfalls and preserve existing sports the age of 18. The differences in (Ridpath, Husted, Hite, Snodgrass,

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 9 governance, organization, and goals into expensive youth sports leagues between the 14 and under youth ostensibly to enhance their chances sports programs and older groups, to compete at the next levels. The however, can vary widely state to consequences of charging for school state. Typically in youth sports, mass sports participation and the costs of participation is more prevalent at the access to outside youth programs has younger ages and more specialized, also caused many kids to be inactive elite development includes the older and often unable to participate in ages. More elite, traveling teams sports. American youth are less are options today in the U.S. rather physically active due to these financial than traditional competition at local challenges (State of Play, 2018). levels. Most participatory options in youth sports do come with a cost Olympic sports for participation. Some are publicly subsidized through tax dollars, and Macro, meso, and micro levels private and corporate donations, As mentioned, the United States has while many are fully funded privately had a long and successful run in the through fees and donations. Arguably modern , particularly the youth sports complex in the in the summer Olympics. While the U.S. has blossomed more into an U.S. has fared admirably in Winter elite development and exclusivity Olympiads, many Winter sports like based on income and zip code, and skiing, speed skating and bobsled are from a desire to compete at the not overly popular competitive sports intercollegiate level and procure when compared to , track & athletic scholarships. American higher field and . In the U.S., the education is expensive; an athletic United States Olympic Committee scholarship can defray much if not (USOC) “governs, manages, promotes, all of those expenses. A cottage and liases within and outside the industry has exploded in the U.S. as United States for all activities of many young men and women chase the Olympic, Paralympic and Pan college scholarships and potential American games” (Hums & McLean, professional riches, despite the p. 261). The mandate to govern all slim chances of success. This has three of these major global sports pushed many young people out of events was directed via the Ted the existing interscholastic systems Stevens Act signed

10 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature into law in 1978. The USOC either education attainment and competitive oversees or is in partnership with success. The question today is: Can numerous organizations that provide U.S. sport development continue on a the athletic capital for the U.S. trajectory of competitive success with national teams. These organizations these competing entities? Despite include 39 national sports governing overwhelming success in the more bodies (NGBs), six Pan-U.S. sport commercially popular sports of men’s organizations, five affiliated sports basketball and football at all levels organizations such as USA Roller in the United States, the ongoing Sports and USA Rugby, 20 community drive for more revenue and success based organizations such the is eroding the primacy of education Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) and the for athletes. Many other sports face YMCA, four main education based reduction and/or outright elimination. organizations including the NCAA, Will the model that has arguably NFHS, NAIA and NJCAA and the four served U.S. so well for over 100 years branches of the United States Armed be changed, or does it need to be Forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines) changed? History would show that (Hums & McLean, 2013). sport development systems need to evolve; perhaps it is time for the Even with this success and United States to look to the lifelong organization, the USOC is still the development of the elite athlete, only worldwide National Olympic including reasonable education Committee (NOC) that is privately attainment, rather than the short term funded; other countries are largely gain of fleeting competitive success. tax supported and overseen by government (Leslie Klein, personal communication). As with other sport development silos, Olympic sport must use private funds and sponsorships to fund its operations and National Governing Bodies (NGBs). The total budget for the USOC is over $500 million, generated through sponsorships, endowments, advertising and licensing revenue (Hums & McLean, 2013; Sawyer et. al., 2008). Consequently, it is difficult for the USOC to sponsor education programs in addition to the vast sporting infrastructure it must support. The USOC must rely on partnerships with the existing sports education development structure in the U.S. while still providing some education opportunities for its athletes at the elite level. Considering some of the drawbacks of being a privately funded non-profit organization, the USOC does an admirable job connecting with its partners and providing some of its own education opportunities that can better prepare athletes for life after elite competition. American sport development faces constant challenges for effective

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 11 B. Russia and Eastern Europe This section summarizes literature on effective and progressive practices related to elite athlete development, education and wellbeing in Eastern Europe, particularly its most successful sport nations consisting of the former USSR and current Russia. Our study’s search takes us to the rapid sport development in the second part of the twentieth century during the Cold War separating Europe into former Western and Eastern political blocs based on the ‘capitalist’ NATO and ‘socialist’ Warsaw Pact alliances. These political developments had significant impact on the ways national sport systems have grown, as described by authors such as Gilbert (1980), Riordan (1978; 1980), Shneidman (1978) and Smolianov (2013; 2019). The term ‘Eastern Bloc’ is used here to refer to the former states in Central and Eastern Europe that were under the influence of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) including: Albania, Bulgaria, former Czechoslovakia (current Czech Republic and Slovakia), the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the former USSR. This bloc also initially included the former Yugoslavia (current Bosnia- Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo After the disintegration of the (partially recognized), Macedonia, USSR and Eastern Bloc during the Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia). 1990s, these nations retained many The 15 republics that were part of elements of the Soviet sport system the USSR and now are independent designed to provide seamless countries include, in Eastern Europe: progression of participants to any Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, desired level of competition, with Moldova, and Ukraine; in Central support from mass fitness and : , , , recreation programs at childcare, , , , schools, colleges, universities, places , and ; and or work and service. Partnerships Russia which occupies a substantial between multi-sport clubs and part of continental Europe and the academic education programs entire northern portion of Asia. provided conditions for well-rounded long-term athlete development and for nurturing athletes into competent coaches and other sport specialists progressing through sport schools, colleges and universities.

12 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Macro-level of Russian and sport education practices borrowed Eastern European sport by the world from Eastern Europe. development These schools were integrated with sport colleges and universities in Eastern Bloc countries with different each regional center of the USSR macro-level conditions, such as and further advanced in twenty-first population sizes and GDP levels, century Russia. pioneered sophisticated concepts Ownership types in sport broadly adopted including mass organizations, particularly professional Czech fitness festivals, efficient East sport teams, have become diverse German sport facilities and athlete in Eastern Europe since 1990, development conditions at the meso- from private and publically traded level, as well as advanced Bulgarian, companies to state or government Romanian, and Russian training and owned and organization owned. periodization methods and long-term As many as 25 percent of Russian Hungarian athlete nurturing at the premier league football clubs in 2004 micro-level. The governments have combined ownership of municipal or been leading social and organizational regional governments and oligarchs focus on sport development in (Pochinkin, 2006), and at least half Eastern Europe, particularly during of German clubs must be owned by the Cold War period, as well as members or fans (Bundesliga, 2017). transparent support and resource The balance between investments distribution based on both number of into mass and elite sport is becoming participants and on their achievement harder to maintain in capitalist of LTAD stages. Specific fitness Eastern Europe, even in Russia where and competition requirements has the population of 144.5 million and been a key factor in reaching both economy with GDP of $1.578 trillion mass participation and world-class (in 2017) are more controlled by the performance by athletes from across federal government and the president, regions, not just capital cities. Policies and where the socio-economic model supporting free or heavily subsidized could be labeled as ‘state capitalism’. sport coaching, facilities, equipment Economic control has also been and sport-related education in each difficult as the wealth held offshore town of Eastern Europe produced high by Russians is estimated to be three performance (HP) results and high times larger than official net foreign levels of mass participation in small reserves, and could be comparable in countries and peripheral regions with magnitude to total household financial lower GDP. This includes the most assets held in Russia (Novokmet, expensive sports such as modern Piketty & Zucman, 2017). Nevertheless, pentathlon, which includes shooting, Russia’s state ownership in strategic , , equestrian, and areas of the economy, including over running (Gilbert, 1980; Riordan, 30 percent of the world’s natural 1980; Smolianov & Zakus, 2008). resources estimated at $75 trillion Some of the most advanced sport and making Russia the world’s largest infrastructures of the USSR have been exporter of (Paltsev, 2011), developed not in Moscow and not the country’s federal budget is able to even in Russia, but, for example, in support better systems of education , Uzbekistan, where the first and sport. The country’s leaders are Soviet multi-sport boarding sport trying to revive the USSR successes school was created in 1962 on the in these industries. To support model of similar schools pioneered healthy physical activities for all, the several years earlier in East Germany Russian president asked to redirect (Riordan, 1980). The boarding sport public funds toward mass sport from school in , Kyrgyzstan (then professional teams subsidized through Frunze, Kirghiz Soviet Socialist public companies (lenta.ru, 2016). Republic) was opened in 1968, also before such schools were offered in Moscow and St Petersburg (then Leningrad) in 1970s (Riordan, 1980). These specialized sport schools are one of the most important best

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 13 Eastern European and Russian within the armies of Eastern Europe, Olympic committees search for including commercial and relatively new financial sources in capitalist independent soccer, ice hockey, and conditions. The Russian winners of basketball as well as all other Olympic the 2012 Olympic Games received disciplines. Centralization, rational between $500,000 and $1 million organization, competent personnel, from the federations alone before and effective system of training, any endorsement money. The Russian education, and competitions as well Olympic Committee counted on the as creative application of best global rich to reward winners. The head practices spread from the army to the of the Summer Sports Association, entire Russian sport system (Pochinkin, managing $30 billion,was asked to 2006). give every winner $1 million (Johnson, In the 1920s, the Soviet national 2012). In preparation for the 2008 government established the National Olympics, the government guided Physical Culture Department the country’s ten richest business with regional and local branches, executives in aiding various sport and scientists and coaches were projects and donating $12 million commissioned to construct uniform to the Fund for the Support of mechanisms for all to participate in Olympians (Schwartz, 2008). Russian recreation and sport and cooperate corporations increasingly finance with other national departments, sport, devoting over $1 billion to the most importantly, education and 2014 Sochi Olympics. The Russian gas health. This structure, from the 1920s and oil company Gazprom donated in the USSR and from the 1950s in $130 million to the country’s Olympic the rest of Eastern Europe, created teams to prepare for the 2012 a comprehensive sport system and and 2014 Sochi Games (RT, 2010). education of athletes and sport In the Soviet Union, lotteries were personnel seen neither before nor tailored to both financial and after the existence of the socialist promotional needs of sport, best Eastern Bloc. Because of ‘capitalist’ practice inherited by the Russia and reforms, in 1990s the systems of partly borrowed by many successful education and sport lost much of their sport nations. In Sportloto numbers public funding. As a result, all types represented particular sports, with of instruction and control weakened, 50 percent of revenue going to leading to increased corruption, to prizes and 50 percent to sport. The less caring treatment of athletes and Russian Olympic Committee gave to mass drug abuse scandals. medals to celebrate Sportloto cash Corruption and doping are critical winners (Sportloto, 2005). The USSR issues for societies and sport in and Russian HP sport systems are Eastern Europe today. Many oligarchs deeply integrated with a broad who took control of the professional range of organizations, from army teams previously owned by state and government to unions industries for public good now use and businesses, the key macro-level these clubs for profit. The transition best practice. Russia is striving to from public socialist to private stimulate sport development through capitalist ownership in the Eastern all possible mechanisms, including European soccer and other popular now best capitalist practices such as sports has created less fair league federal tax deductions for individual conditions and introduced more sport related spending, as done in corruption, crime, and violence Canada and considered for adoption (Salzman, 2015; Pochinkin, 2006). by the US government (Spence, These trends had, of course, negative Holt, Dutove & Carson, 2010; Von influence on education and nurturing Tigerstrom, Larre & Sauder, 2011). of athletes. Corruption characterizes As in Eastern Europe, Russia has been different socio-economic sectors, particularly impacted by frequent including education and sport. The wars; preparation for military fitness decades following the dissolution and involvement of the military of the USSR in 1991 brought in sport development has been new freedoms, accompanied by important. Sport developed largely commercialization and criminalization

14 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature of sport. In 1996 a new law increased Meso-level of Russian and punishment for bribery among Eastern European sport participants, coaches, referees, development managers, and organizers of sporting events. Offenses such as influencing The organizational principles inherited a game outcome led to a fine of 500 by present-day Eastern Europe from times the minimum salary and up to the former monarchies of the region six months in prison (Pochinkin, 2006). and the Eastern Bloc continue to In 2010-2011, fines for giving or guide governmental leadership of taking bribes increased to 100 times scientific, education, and medical the amount of the bribe. Education support aimed at maximizing mass of athletes in these conditions has fitness and elite sport performance. become more challenging but vivid, Gilbert (1980), Matveev (2008), including such additional efforts as Platonov (2010), Riordan (1978, 1980), posters on walls of sport universities Shneidman (1978) and Smolianov detailing the harm and punishment (2013, 2019) described the best associated with corrupt activities. As practice infrastructures of Eastern with the fight against corruption, anti- Europe providing lifelong paths in doping policies have yet to produce sport from grassroots to professional results in the new capitalist conditions careers and ensure expertise of all of Eastern Europe. involved with sport, as summarized below. The Russian performance at the Olympic Games during the 2010 Education and harmonious to 2018 period was influenced by development of all citizens had been drug scandals. Subsequently, Russia priorities of sport traditions in Eastern adopted stricter penalties for doping Europe. From 2007, all sport-related violations, cooperated more closely organizations and activities in Russia with event organizers and regional are guided by federal law on physical sport authorities, became actively culture and sport, which is based on involved with such international the following principles: organizations as the 16-country Anti- • Free access to sport for Doping Working Group within the physical, intellectual, and moral European Council, and introduced development of everyone, and new courses aimed at prevention of consecutive connection in doping at schools and universities, physical education across ages as well as anti-doping television programs. New stricter Russian laws • Unified nationwide legislation, remove coaches and officials who combining top-down state violate anti-doping rules and punish or public and bottom-up them with fines and imprisonment for organizational regulations in coercing young athletes into doping compliance with international (CBC, 2016; Giles, 2017). All these agreements measures are to improve education of • State or government guarantees athletes. of sport-related rights to citizens, prohibition of discrimination and violence, assistance to persons with disabilities and other groups requiring special social protection, and provision for safety of participants and spectators • Interaction between federal or national and local governments in the field of sport and between sport authorities and federations, and development of all types and components of sport as a social and educational voluntary activity. Similar laws are being enacted across countries of Eastern Europe. In

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 15 2008, the Russian Sport Ministry was Making sport facilities, programs, and strengthened with a higher status and professional instruction available to broader responsibilities, employing all at no or minimal cost, the USSR 220 administrative staff in the head government had been allocating office and 310,974 coaches and other increasing amounts of money to sport sport specialists across the country. that reached $2.2 billion annually Physical education increased from in the 1970s. In comparison, the two to a minimum of three times a Russian federal sport budget was week with a revitalized GTO (Ready only $680 million in 2009, although for Labor and Defense) fitness activity it increased to $1.8 billion in 2011, program required and rewarded in $1.7 billion in 2012, $1.6 billion in all Russian schools –a strong policy 2013, and $1.3 billion in 2014 in the without peer globally. The Sport run-up to the 2014 Winter Olympics Ministry has committed to reach the and Paralympics in Russia. The following goals by 2020: national sport societies, or networks of community and organizational • Forty percent of the overall clubs, have provided affordable population, 20 percent of disabled conditions for all from first steps to individuals, and 80 percent of HP in most Olympic sports across students participating in sport Eastern Europe. These are financed • Encourage everyone to exercise and managed by the army (e.g., three to four times, or six to 12 Russian SKA and Serbian Red Star hours a week clubs), police, and security forces (e.g., German, Ukrainian, Romanian • Ensure that 45 percent of all and Russian Dynamo clubs), as well organizations have sport clubs as trade unions of key industries, • Employ 360,000 qualified from agriculture and manufacturing public coaches and other sport to transportation and education. This professionals best practice policy of integrating • Place within the top three in all sport within functions of all possible future Olympics and Paralympics organizations involved citizens as by total medal count. participants and in the management of sport through the multisport The growing subsidizing of sport societies. These sport societies lost activities and infrastructure require their strong governmental support additional sport personnel drawn in Eastern Europe, so they have largely from HP athletes educated privatized some of their assets and in sport schools, colleges and operations since the 1990s, devoting universities. Education of athletes fewer resources to harmonious as sport pedagogues competent in development and education of medicine is important for achieving athletes and putting more costs and public health and education goals responsibilities on the shoulders of through an increased number of parents. To share resources fairly regular sport participants in Russia. and to provide nurturing education Its population grew from 25 million progression from junior tournament in 2011 to 43 million in 2015, and participation to success at world-class is intended to reach 70 or 100 events, amateur and professional million (Sport Ministry, 2012, 2017). competitions in each sport have been The increased investment in sport, managed in integration and governed education and healthcare after 2000 by one national federation in most of showed its first positive effects: from Eastern Europe. Attempts to create 2009 through 2011 for the first time independent profitable leagues and since the economic reforms started teams are increasing (Pochinkin, in 1992, the number of Russians 2006), leading to less integrated and diagnosed with alcoholism and drug more chaotic competition schedules addiction decreased (Inchenko, 2014). detrimental to gradual progression To continue this trend, education and systematic education of athletes. of athletes is tailored to social Eastern Europe countries continue needs with expansion into such to show best practices in integration specializations as event organization of recreational and elite sporting and youth development. events. A tournament for fans, held

16 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, across the world to countries such as brought together 200 football , Belgium, Canada, Finland, supporters from 16 countries who Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, played and lived together (Smirnova, , Sweden, and the United 2018) and encouraged healthy mass Kingdom (BBC, 2004a, 2004b; Davies, football participation and sport 2008; Way, Repp, & Brennan, 2010; education especially when it was Wynhausen, 2007). National sport combined with football clinics and organizations and public departments special events for young players of education, health and sport could from sport schools and schools for further understand and utilize best disadvantaged youth. practices and policies of the former USSR and the current Russian sport To ensure a continuation of athletes’ schools. careers, national governments in Eastern Europe support and direct The best-known policies of integrated the education, certification, and sport training and education found rewards of sport personnel. Coaches in the former German Democratic enter special sport universities and Republic and the Soviet Union in the progress after graduation through five 1960 to the 1980s, particularly in elite certification stages. Many successful sport schools, have been adapted sport countries adopted a Soviet-style in many countries, mostly thanks government-funded network of sport to governmental leadership (Bravo universities, particularly in Eastern & Smolianov, 2016). The Russian Europe. In Poland, the University of Sport Ministry rules and subsidizes PE in Warsaw enrolled 6,500 students most sport facilities and programs, and employed 400 academic staff in supporting 164,000 centers in an 2013 to educate PE teachers, coaches, attempt to integrate mass and elite and specialists in physiotherapy, sport. The following public institutions recreation, and tourism, and to serve provide education and sport services as a center of sport science and to potential elite athletes across each training. Similar universities exist in region of the country: the Polish cities of Cracow, Gdańsk, • 3,559 Children Sport Schools Katowice, Poznań, and Wrocław. The greatest variety of degrees (55) are • 1,038 Olympic Reserve and High available at Russian State University Performance Schools of Physical Education, Sport, Youth • 55 Elite Sport Boarding Schools- and Tourism in Moscow. The role of Colleges coaches in the system of Russian athlete development and education is • 14 Sport Universities. detailed in the case study section. Further details about this pyramid Mass youth participation and physical of sport schools, colleges and education is linked with HP through universities are provided in the case a six-stage hierarchy of sport schools study section of this report. The with boarding schools/colleges at smooth progression and freedom the top. Regular school visits by to choose from the variety of sport coaches as a policy to identify young schools with different levels of training people’s aptitudes for particular intensity is a unique practice. Sport sports and to invite them to clubs and universities play a central part in specialized sport schools was part forming sport hubs necessary for of the development of all subject- systematic sport development. The specializations in the USSR, including following comparison demonstrates networks of specialized math, physics, how Soviet practices of 1980s are and languages schools.. The public being repeated and advanced in the sport schools connecting mass and twenty-first century. Two sport hubs elite sport and supporting LTAD developed in different historical, developed in 1950 through the 1970s political, and socioeconomic across the USSR were emulated in conditions serve as models for the Eastern Europe, , and Cuba integration of facilities and programs. in the twentieth century (Riordan, The first hub was built in Moscow 1980; Smolianov & Zakus, 2008). In before 1980 Olympic Games and the twenty-first century it spread the second in London leading to

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 17 2012 Olympics. In Moscow district of The second, a U.K. hub, has in its Izmailovo, a sport hub was established center the partnership of British near the Russian State University of Pentathlon and the University of Bath Physical Education, Sport, Youth and (U.K.), utilizing a full spectrum of Tourism and Sport School-Olympic public and private partners. British College №1. Working with multiple Pentathlon became one of the partners, NGBs commissioned top U.K.’s most successful sports since coaches to develop and operate 2000, after the country employed the facilities as regional or national Jan Bartu, a coach from the former training and education centers for all Czechoslovakia who previously levels of participation. The hub’s water directed the Mexican and the U.S. sports center comprised of a 12-pool pentathlon using his comprehensive facility for swimming, diving, water Eastern European sport education polo, and synchronized swimming and athlete development experience. with two beginner “frog” pools, two Jan Bartu was employed to direct all 12-meter pools for learners, four aspects of British Pentathlon from 25-meter (including one outdoor) and athlete development to competitions, four 50-meter (including one outdoor) facilities and financial partnerships. pools, a performance laboratory with An important feature of both hubs equipment such as a multi-speed was the integration of sport facilities transparent ‘treadmill pool, indoor and programs with their cities’ and outdoor gyms/fields, saunas, socioeconomic, and particularly medical and anthropometry facilities, their education infrastructure. Both restaurants, conference halls, offices, hubs have been part of historical a hotel, and a school with a sport and recreational tourist destinations stream/cohort in each grade, and a conveniently connected by public sport boarding school/college fully transport with the center of London devoted to training and education and Moscow. Both hubs attempted of Olympic hopefuls and sport to attract everyone to sport by specialists. giving children the same standard of recreational facilities and coaching used by elite athletes, inspiring community participation while producing world records (Bath Sport, 2011; Smolianov & Zakus, 2009).

18 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Micro-level of Russian and rank requires specific results against Eastern European sport such criteria as seconds or meters development as well as victories in competitions at certain levels. This ranking system Eastern European sport scientists integrated with GTO fitness program, have been developing methodologies detailed for adoption in any country for guiding lifelong participation of by Smolianov and Smith (2019), is all in fitness and sport. Everyone is world’s most advanced mechanism encouraged to pass the GTO fitness for guiding healthy long-term athlete tests from 1931 in Russia. Before development (LTAD), to monitor individuals compete in a specific performance, and to ensure a proper sport, they are expected to achieve distribution of public resources given GTO results in mandatory and (Keating et al., 2018; Smolianov et optional tests including: running al., 2014; Smolianov & Smith, 2019). for various distances, long and high The emphasis on preparing and jumping, pull ups, push-ups, rope testing for GTO as part of educating climbing, ball throwing, skiing, HP athletes in Russia’s sport colleges swimming, hiking, and shooting, is exemplified in the case study as well as theoretical and practical section. In the twenty-first century, knowledge of health, physical culture, LTAD guidelines focused on age- sport and defense. Compared with appropriate training have been fitness programs globally, the unique implemented by national governing options of GTO include minimal cost bodies of most sports in Canada and to participants, a knowledge test, other English-speaking countries and serve as a starting point for such as Australia, New Zealand, the athlete education. The GTO includes United Kingdom, and ; gender-specific recommendations in 2009 they were introduced in the for 11 age groups from six to 70+ United States (USA Hockey, 2010). years that guide lifelong fitness. It These guidelines, authored by Balyi manages a variety of sports making (2001) from Hungary, stem from the the program fun and personalized; USSR and Eastern European sport it is considered an example of best development approaches outlined practice in sport programs (Keating, by Riordan (1980) and Shneidman Smolianov, Liu, Castro-Piñero, & Smith, (1978). Modern theories of training, 2018; Smolianov & Smith, 2019). The particularly periodization, pioneered GTO webpage (http://www.gto. by Matveev (1964, 2008) from Russia, ru/) offers high-quality videos with were further developed and applied audio and text instructions supported by Bompa (1983, 2009) from Romania, by interactive instant messaging Platonov (1988, 2005) from Ukraine, or texting and voice assistance by and other sport scientists and trained operators. coaches. However, the integration GTO test scores are a criterion for of LTAD with mass fitness testing, high school, college, and university emphasized by Matveev (2008) has graduation. In addition, GTO tests are not yet been fully applied in any part of fun festivals and competitions country. for everyone. In Moscow, for example, To support LTAD in Eastern Europe, between 2011 and 2015 over 1.5 government sport officials provide million residents attempted to pass recommendations on most aspects GTO requirements. The number of of athlete development based on people who regularly exercised scientists’ advice (Riordan, 1980; increased to over 3 million, and Smolianov, 2019; Sport Ministry, 450,000 people were taking part in 2012 & 2017). The guidelines for multisport community competitions coaches include such criteria as the for all ages and abilities every year minimum starting age for each sport (Vinogradov, 2016). and uniform training and education After passing the GTO tests as a curricula, as detailed in the case foundation of athlete development study section. Another distinct sport and education, participants progress management feature of Eastern through three junior, three senior, and Europe is that since the early 1970s, four master ranks in 143 sports. Each groups of scientists in pedagogy,

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 19 medicine, psychology, physiology, Russian coaches are instructed to use biomechanics, biochemistry, and the following seven stages of long- engineering have been consulting the term development, education and national teams for improved athlete selection of athletes in preparation for performance, health and education. HP competitors, detailed by Platonov In 2012, the Russian Sport Ministry (2005): supported the summer Olympic sports 1. Beginner stage—starting at seven with 41 scientific groups, the winter to 16 years of age depending sports with 15 groups, and Paralympic on the sport with 15-20 and other special-needs sport teaching sessions determining activities with 26 groups. In addition, predisposition for the sport, it coordinated 98 sport conferences followed by one and one half in 2011 (Sport Ministry, 2012 & 2017). to four years of training to In 2014, Moscow’s sport university benchmark initial performance attracted over 900 participants from level and acquire first competition 17 countries to a congress entitled experience Nation’s Health: A System of Lifelong PE as a Foundation of Public Health; 2. Initial basic stage with two to it published two, 600-page volumes three years to improve and of 370 presented research papers. achieve planned results Student athletes played active roles 3. Special basic stage to achieve as presenters, participants, and planned norms and places in main organizers of such events, particularly competitions, with 50 percent of through the Annual International participants selected to the next Conference for Students and Young stage Researchers. All these resources are important for high quality athlete 4. Preparation to HP stage to achieve education. high places in key competitions and world rankings, with 50 The current Russian sport university percent of participants selected to programs, which use the same the next stage curriculum and textbooks across the 13 insitutions similar to the Russian 5. Maximum realization of abilities State University of Physical Education, stage to achieve the highest Sport, Youth and Tourism, teach places in key competitions and coaches the HP talent selection as world rankings, with 50 percent of part of long-term development and participants selected to the next education; the first promising results stage may appear after five to seven years 6. Retention of HP stage to retain the of training. HP level is reached after highest places in key competitions eight to 11 years, and stable results and world rankings are attained after 12-18 years and show a decline later on. According 7. Gradual decrease of performance to Nikitushkin, Kvashuk and Bauer stage holding high places in key (2005) and Platonov (2005), pools competitions and world rankings. of participants in each sport should Each stage requires specific be gradually reduced through the education content as part of athlete levels of training and competition development to ensure a healthy by coaches who are taught to use lifelong participation in sport, a anthropometric, medico-biological, harmonious lifestyle and productive pedagogical, psychological, and sport or health-related career sociological tests. In addition, Russian that benefits the community. As sport authorities offer a $2,000 instructed, the coaches have not genetic test based on the scientist- culled underperforming athletes. After led analysis of blood and hair resulting acceptance into a specialized sport in recommendations to athletes, school, college or university, one coaches, and parents on the right would stay until graduation regardless sport, specialization within the chosen of performance. Clubs subsidized sport, as well as optimal training and athletes of all levels, especially in lifestyle programs, family relationship the former USSR. In the twenty-first counseling, and other preparation century, strategies (Zigmund, 2007).

20 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature education and sport in capitalist 6. Equipment and facilities for high Eastern Europe became more altitude and other simulations, commercial and less inclusive. multi-purpose compound exercises, as well as integrated Russian sport schools, colleges and hubs of multi-sport facilities and universities continue to provide HP infrastructures which benefit both athletes with skills and knowledge HP athletes and mass participants. necessary for becoming coaches and other specialists who develop The Eastern European systems of athletes and HP sport as a leading athlete education exemplified in force for mass sport participation and the case studies are designed to socio-economic and technological provide both theoretical and practical advancements, ultimately benefiting knowledge of the advanced athlete everyone (Matveev, 2008; Riordan, development methods listed above 1980; Bravo & Smolianov, 2016). as the best practice beneficial The ability to develop children into for successful and healthy HP and athletes demands working with mass participation sport. Better parents and physicians, requiring athlete education is important in scientific competencies and understanding new technologies and knowledge of best global practices, in forming managerial philosophy on especially in the fast-developing artificial performance enhancement, technologies detailed by Smolianov, especially dangerous molecular Schoen, Norberg, Dion, Smith and and atomic applications. As Eastern Calpino (2018) and Smolianov and Europe continues to borrow the best Smith (2019): international HP solutions, and as coaches from the region head the 1. General fitness as part of national teams of various countries, LTAD, particularly testing and the two athlete support approaches development of aerobic fitness, merge and find the optimal balance muscular strength and endurance, between highly specialized Western- and flexibility style advisors and the multi-faceted 2. Sport specific coaching, especially Soviet-style coach (featured in periodization of training and the case study section) servicing rest including such personalized athletes day and night. Instructional approaches based on advanced methodologies prescribing lifelong medical monitoring technology healing and recreational activities as cybernetic periodization, for those leaving specific sports are autoregulation and parametric being developed and are expected to training advance in Russia and internationally (Smolianov, 2005). The highest level of 3. Restoration and medicine, sport specific training and restoration, including variable, sequential competition methodology, and cross- air modulated compression and disciplinary science competencies are massage equipment, handheld required in order to operate world vibration therapy, neuropriming, class athlete service and coordinate dry needling, cupping, numerous partners surrounding HP balneotherapy, water and heat athletes, from various training and treatments therapy specialists to school, college 4. Nutrition, such as micronutrients, and university pedagogues, family, molecule refinement, immune employers, sponsors and media. strengthening/antibacterial/ The Russian sport system continues anti-inflammatory and bioactive to advance meso-level policies and foods, separation and cross- infrastructures for these micro-level enhancement of different foods conditions that warrant regular and integration of bioactive monitoring in the ongoing search for substances and adaptogenes best practices. 5. Psychology, particularly biological self-regulation skills and improving symbolic learning techniques, virtual and augmented reality, biofeedback and neurofeedback

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 21 C.United Kingdom This section provides an overview of the key literature relating to sport policy in the United Kingdom (U.K.). The structure follows the project’s overarching theoretical framework focusing on macro, meso and micro-level factors. The macro-level analysis will focus on the state-society relationship as well as three key issues that are known to directly correlate with sport performance and elite-level success: population, the economy, and the depth of sporting tradition (Stamm & Lemprecht, 2001). The meso-level analysis emphasizes national sport policy in the U.K., specifically elite sport, and the discrete changes in sport policy over the past 30 years. The micro-level analysis considers both previous research on micro-level variables that are known to affect elite athlete perceptions of performance, as well as present literature that frames consideration of other micro-level factors critical in assessing the quality of education support for talented and elite-level athletes.

Importantly, the U.K. refers to the alongside the devolved powers in union of four nations: England, each home country. The DCMS also Scotland, Wales and Northern direct policy responsibility to school Ireland. It represents a constitutional and community . monarchy with a parliamentary The Scottish Parliament, the Welsh democracy, although each of the Government, and the Northern Ireland four home nations have a devolved Assembly (the delegate powers administration with varying levels of in each home country) delegate decision-making authority (Cabinet primary responsibility for sport to Office, 2018). As a result of these their respective home country Sports arrangements sport policy and Council (Sport Scotland, Sport Wales governance in the U.K. exist across and Sport Northern Ireland). The two tracks. On one track, school DCMS delegates responsibility to and community sport policy are Sport England. On the other track, subject to devolved arrangements elite sport policy encompasses the meaning that England, Scotland, entire United Kingdom. Policy is led Wales and Northern Ireland create and developed by the DCMS who and implement bespoke policies delegate leadership responsibility to and programs that are specific to U.K. Sport. These specific structural their nation. These arrangements arrangements for sport in the U.K. are observed by the Department of and the policy that flows from them Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), are examined in closer detail in the the U.K. government department following sections. responsible for sport, who work

22 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Macro-level considerations Alongside a brief discussion of the state-society relationship, it is There has been considerable important to be explicit about the debate in the U.K. as to whether status of the three variables that the policy process at the macro- help to predict fifty percent of the level is accurately characterized by variation in the success of countries pluralism or corporatism (Coalter, at the Olympic Games: national Long & Duffield, 1988). Whilst this is population, the economy, and the primarily a point of initial theoretical depth of sporting tradition (Stamm interest, it holds genuine practical & Lemprecht, 2001). On the first relevance insofar as it reveals the issue, the U.K. population increased distinct power relations between the to an estimated 65.1 million in 2015 state and society, thus enhancing with projections estimating steady our awareness of who is involved in and continual growth beyond 70 policy, what role they play, how they million people by 2026 (ONS, 2018). come to be in privileged positions, This growth is explained by three and whose interests they serve issues (i) an ageing population (i.e. (Marsh & Stoker, 1995). In the period life expectancy is growing), (ii) the before the creation of the national relatively high population growth Sports Council (1972), the general in the U.K. population during the administration of sport and oversight baby boom era of the 1960s, with of National Governing Bodies of sport this population having children in (NGBs) was seen to be an area of the late 1980s, thus reflecting earlier pluralist interest. In this period, it was growth, and (iii) the direct effect of deemed acceptable to provide arms- net migration having increased the length assistance but inappropriate population by on average 250,000 for the state to direct through people per year between 2004 and explicit policy or strategy (Coalter 2015 (ibid, 2018). It is important to et al., 1988). From the new right note, however, that on this latter conservative administration of 1979 issue, such growth is likely to play a to the present day, the government limited if any role in elite-level success have pursued a more directive, neo- in international sport. In short, the liberal approach with an increased U.K. represents a densely populated, emphasis on managerialism and the mid-size country, ranking the twenty- market-based influences of quality, second most populous worldwide and devolution, delegation, contracts, the third largest population in Europe, performance measurement, and after Germany and (UN, 2018). audit and inspection (Rose, 1996). Clearly, such approaches represent The fifth largest economy in the world, corporatist tendencies. Sport policy the U.K.’s GDP in 2017 was $2.622 in the U.K., however, has become trillion, with significant year-on-year increasingly specialized with the increases in real growth since 1982 advent of sub-sectoral policy network (with the exception of 1991, 2008 or advocacy coalitions for school and 2009) (International Monetary sport, community sport, and elite Fund, 2018). Alongside this growth, sport (Harris, 2013) reflecting a there has been a considerable rise in wider array of highly specialized government debt from 43.1 percent actors than would be expected in a to 82 percent of GDP comparing 1982 corporatist representation of state- to 2017 with the most substantial civil society mediation (Green, 2005). double-digit increases recorded Thus, state-society mediation in between 2009 and 2011 (ONS, 2018). the U.K. more closely reflects neo- On June 24, 2016, the U.K. held a pluralism, acknowledges a wide range referendum regarding the country’s of interests whilst accepting the membership of the European Union. privileged position of corporations The voting population decided and the emphasis placed upon to leave the European Union (51.9 commercial practices (Connolly, 1995; percent voted to leave; to 48.1 Held, 1996). percent voted to remain). The impact of this decision, known as Brexit, on critical economic measures such as GDP, currency, government debt and

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 23 spending, whilst not fully understood, Meso-level considerations is generally viewed to be problematic. Moreover, the implications for public Historically, from the nineteenth policy and public spending in areas of century through the post-war valuable but nonetheless discretionary period of the twentieth century, sectors of public expenditure (such as government intervention in sport sport) are likely to be challenging. in England has been ‘haphazard and ad hoc’ (Coghlan, 1990; Green, The final macro-level issue of concern 2003; Houlihan, 1991; 1997; Roche, relates to the depth of sporting 1993). The persistent themes of tradition. Whilst the U.K. has a long ‘paternalism, defense of privilege, and deep tradition in sport, it is fitness of the nation’s youth, social one that was largely dominated control and international prestige’ by processes of bureaucratization underscore the sport-politics relation and a commitment to traditional during this time (Green, 2003: 120). ideals of amateurism. In terms of More recently, in the aftermath of bureaucratization, through the late London 2012, the government’s 1800s and early 1900s, the U.K. most recent sport strategy, Sporting was the birthplace of a number of Future: A New Strategy for an Active National Governing Bodies of sport, Nation (HM Government, 2015). This the likes of which were transported strategy clearly provides a broader to other nations and eventually into philosophical sport for development International Federations in order to view underlining expectations that allow the governance of sport across sport will deliver on a number of national boundaries and promote outcomes including (i) physical and the coordination of international mental wellbeing, (ii) individual, competition. The U.K. was also the social and community development, center of a movement - through and (iii) economic development (HM the Wenlock Olympian Games, the Government, 2015). The actions Liverpool Olympic Festival, and the and outputs detailed in the strategy ideals of the Corinthian spirit and the articulate further change in the ostensible virtues of Arnold’s ideas policy priorities for sport. Gone is of integrating athletics into public the artificial separation of school and schools - that contributed to de community sport, the school-based Coubertin’s inspiration for a modern target of increasing the number of Olympic movement (MacAloon, 1984). young people accessing five plus The U.K. was a founding member hours of P.E. and sport per week of the IOC and is one of only five and the aspiration to increase mass nations that has competed in all sports participation by one million Games from 1896 to the present people. Youth sport is now combined day (along with Australia, France, with community sport with the Greece, and Switzerland) (Grasso, objective of getting ‘more people Mallon & Heijmans, 2015). However, from every background regularly and despite the important influential role meaningfully taking part in sport and of the U.K. in the development of the physical activity, volunteering and Olympic movement and its central experiencing live sport’. This includes role in the birth of many modern a strong emphasis on increasing sport forms, the U.K. was a relatively participation in sport among under- late adopter of systematic and represented populations and on methodical approaches to elite sport the use of sport as a vehicle to development. This was largely due address wider social objectives to a deeply set cultural commitment (HM Government, 2015: 18). The to ideas bound up with the notion actions and outputs for elite sport of the gentleman amateur and the accentuated both sporting success at Corinthian spirit and reinforced by the the domestic and international level general disdain for any approach that as well as leveraging the impact of did not conform to such ideals (Green major sports events. The third and & Houlihan, 2005). These cultural and final strategic priority relates to the institutional norms were only gradually governance structures of sport and undermined by the sustained failure specifically the creation of a more in international competition (Green & productive, Houlihan, 2005).

24 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature responsible and sustainable sports world class coaching through sector (HM Government, 2015). both overseas recruitment and This strategic area is interesting a nationwide coach education in the current international and program supported with mentoring domestic sporting context as it and leadership opportunities. In explicitly addresses a number of the addition, the program includes deepest and darkest of governance support for medical and sport failures that challenge the integrity science, sport analytics, bespoke of elite sport development: anti- sport-specific talent identification doping regulation (e.g. WADA, IAAF and development programs aligned and the Russian Doping Scandal), with the principles of the LTAD, and athlete safety (i.e. child protection, world class facilities for training and safeguarding athletes, e.g. The competition supported by investment Football Association), athlete welfare from the National Lottery Fund. Elite (i.e. mental health and elite sport), and talented athletes in the U.K. and the governance structures of both have never before received this level national and international sporting of financial support and political federations (e.g. British Cycling, FIFA). prominence. At the same time, there is a lack of up-to-date research relating Micro-level considerations to the elite athlete experience. For the purpose of this study, the What we do know from various micro-level literature will focus on research done some 15 years ago aspects that illuminate the athlete is that elite athletes tend to agree experience. More specifically, this that the personal dedication and section will address issues of direct motivation of the athlete is what they concern to the athlete, including themselves consider the most critical athletes’ view of critical success factor for success (Gibbons et al., factors, athlete rights, the education 2003; Duffy et al., 2001; De Bosscher support for elite athletes in Europe, et al., 2008). Other important factors and a final sub-section demonstrating consistently cited as critical are: the the relationship among macro-, meso-, support network around the athlete and micro-level factors. (parents, family, friends, coaches, etc.) Critical success factors: the and the quality of coaching (Gibbons athlete perspective et al., 2003; Duffy et al., 2001; De Bosscher et al., 2006). In addition, Over the past decade we have seen Gould and colleagues (1999) examined a growing interest in the macro- and the range of factors that varied meso-level analysis of success factors between Olympic sport teams that in elite sport (c.f. Andersen & Ronglan, either met or exceeded expectations 2012; Bergsgard et al., 2007; De compared to those who failed to Bosscher et al., 2008; De Bosscher meet expectations. Reinforcing the et al., 2015; Digel, 2005; Green & research presented above, they found Houlihan, 2005; Houlihan & Green, that having high levels of motivation 2008), and at the same time a general and commitment, the support of hiatus in the work focused on micro- family and friends, and the quality level analyses such as those of athlete of preparation were some of the or coach experience with success. most notable differences between This is surprising, particularly in the the teams that met or exceeded U.K.-context given the significance expectations and those that did not of resources and expertise that meet expectations. Additionally, the have been allocated to elite sport researchers underline other important development and the resultant growth micro-level considerations including of a systematic support program for (i) well-developed competitive plans athletes. Initiatives included in this and routines, (ii) taking proactive support program include generous action on team cohesiveness issues scholarship funding for full-time insofar as the team stays together, elite-level athletes, funding for the environment is carefully managed athletes showing potential for future and any problems or stressors are international-level success, dealt with openly through dialogue,

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 25 (iii) an intentional level of comfort may enable the exploitation of and a growth mindset in regards athletes including limiting young to competing before crowds, (iv) people’s access to education, and a systematic and well-rehearsed other nations may build talent mental routine that had been development models around the developed through a sustained education system (Aquillina & Henry, mental preparation program, and 2010). The first concern is primarily (v) the coach-athlete relationship a moral obligation and one which as it extends beyond quality of the international sport system has a coaching and to the more nuanced duty to manage and regulate whilst world of relationships and focusing also ensuring that the vocational and on cultivating an open, mutually education needs of athletes are fully respectful, and performance focused understood and met. The second relationship among coaching staff concern, whilst also an ethical one, and athletes (Gould et al., 1999). This is primarily a legal issue that requires latter issue is not without its practical nations in contexts such as Europe to challenges given the patterns of conform with EU legislation on issues power that underpin coach-athlete such as unfair competition. relations (e.g. the coach as team Of key import in the discussion on selector as well as tactician, etc.) athletes’ rights is the autonomy of and the micro-level politics that sport whereby sport governs itself characterize any high-intensity free from government interference relationship (Potrac & Jones, 2009). under the traditionally accepted yet Such problems are best negated recently more challenged notion of by the time-consuming yet highly lex sportiva. Alongside autonomy, rewarding practice of cultivating a sport is a meritocracy, an especially positive performance environment. competitive arena where only the This requires an approach that best of the best get to compete goes beyond normative rational at the highest levels, resulting in development with political and senior very small percentages of athletes leadership commitment to the change continuing to the Olympics or to process, where managers can manage the professional level (Donnelly & upwards, where interactions can and Petherick, 2004). For those athletes should question aspects of practice, that do progress to those levels, it is and where genuinely challenging important to underline the relatively but supportive environments can short career of most athletes at flourish (Collins et al., 2013). Such the elite-level. Consequently, the approaches demand mutual respect autonomy of sport and the sheer and a clear demarcation of roles and competitiveness of the environment responsibilities; once implemented, have contributed to an institutional they can deliver both immediate and norm in which we generally accept longer-term goals which enhance the very few protections afforded to both performance outcomes and elite athletes (i.e. limits on training reinforce the agents’ commitment to or competition, health and safety the process (Collins et al., 2013). regulations, enforcing the time Athlete rights committed to compulsory education in line with Article 26 of The Universal Alongside (and integral to) the Declaration of Human Rights, etc.) attention given to cultivating effective (Donnelly & Petherick, 2004). This in high-performance environments turn reinforces the notion that the is the concern about elite athlete elite sport system has tended to rights, especially young athletes. dehumanize athletes in their pursuit These concerns are twofold: (1) the of success ‘effectively excluding protection of (in particular young) any concern for individual moral athletes from commercial pressures reasoning or political autonomy in the which could erode their access to developing athlete as a performance vocational or education development machine’ (Brackenridge, 2004: 324). and lead to significant problems following retirement from sport, and We hope that the future of elite sport (2) the issue of fairness of competition governance extends beyond sporting across countries where some nations outcomes. Sport, especially Olympic

26 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature sport, has a social responsibility and Education support for elite a moral obligation to nurture cultures athletes in Europe and to pursue strategies that are not only highly effective in identifying The elite sport systems of nations and developing talent, but equally across Europe are varied, as is the effective in maintaining appropriate state of education support for elite policies and support systems to athletes. Clearly, education support meet the education needs of young is not solely an issue of responsibility athletes (Aquillina & Henry, 2010). for government, sport, or athletes. Against the backdrop of numerous Indeed, athletes themselves point to elite sport ethics scandals (e.g. the the range of people and organizations Russian doping scandal, FIFA, USA who play a role in helping them gymnastics, British cycling, etc.) manage their dual-careers as athlete there is clearly much work to do in and student (Aquilina, 2013). The improving integrity and developing a policies and programs providing principle-led approach to elite sport education support to elite athletes development. Although beset by across Europe are unique to each problems elsewhere (from putting country, underlining ‘the variability geo-politics above fairness for of response in national systems to athletes to bullying Foundation Board the demands placed on elite young members), WADA has presented sportspersons’ (Aquilina & Henry, a draft Charter of Athletes’ Rights 2010: 29). Nevertheless, while there consisting of 16 articles including is variation, there are also common clean and fair sport, equality of characteristics to allow for a nation- opportunity, protection of health, based typology, which sets out four corruption-free sport, and a right to typical approaches to education education. Whilst such approaches are for talented athletes: state-centric to be welcomed, they must represent regulation, the state as sponsor/ genuine attempts to drive a change facilitator, National Sport Federation in culture. Simply employing counter- (NSF referred to elsewhere as NGB) strategy to create the illusion of as intermediaries, and the laissez faire change will reinforce previous failures type (Aquilina & Henry, 2010). and will likely intensify the view of In conclusion, Aquilina and Henry athletes as mere pawns in political identify three critical features of games. At the domestic level, the education support for elite athletes U.K. are attempting to methodically across Europe: (i) the variability in examine issues regarding athletes’ the role of the state from a strong, rights through the recently published hands-on approach to virtual laissez Duty of Care in Sport Independent faire (2010), (ii) the apparent growing Review led by Baroness Tanni Grey- intervention in the education support Thompson (Grey-Thompson, 2017) offered to elite athletes – perhaps to which includes education alongside lessen the worries of life after athletics six additional key thematic areas as much as a concern for the welfare of concern. While the report itself and rights of the athlete, (iii) that the has symbolic importance in that the variation in state responses across government are making the issue of Europe means that there is variation athlete welfare a priority, the more in the rights of citizens and athletes; notable issue relates to the willingness this has implications for the European and ability of key stakeholders to act Union in terms of both the EU’s upon the numerous recommendations willingness to intervene and the range the report contains. of measures that could address such inequalities (Aquilina & Henry, 2010). It is also appropriate to add to this list of features the recent consensus across Europe on the notion of support for dual careers (Campbell, 2018). The European Union has led in this matter to ‘safeguard the moral, education, and professional interests of young sportsmen and women’

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 27 (Commission of the European regime types, including countries Communities, 2007: 6), and such as Belgium, Germany, and Italy, culminated in the development of are characterized by the central role a network whose primary purpose of the family and the subsidy role of is to support European athletes in the state (Esping-Andersen, 1990). A combining both high performance strong emphasis is placed on a social sport and education. 1This network security system and the provision of plays an important role not only in private-sector driven welfare remains supporting elite athletes but also in limited (Esping-Andersen, 1990, providing a collective voice for elite 1990). The social democratic regime athletes in lobbying governments, type includes the Nordic countries sport, and higher education and emphasizes the central role of institutions to do more to meet the the state in financing and organizing education needs of young talented welfare benefits such as free-to-access athletes. education, healthcare, childcare, and family support. Such systems The relationship between are typically premised on relatively macro-, meso- and micro-level higher taxes and wealth redistribution, factors allowing for a more equal society, at least in regards to income inequality. Micro-level factors, as well as macro and meso-level factors, play a direct It is important to note that much of role in contributing to a nation’s elite Esping-Andersen’s work was based sport success. A variety of empirical upon the nature of state regimes in work focused on elite athletes tells the 1980s; much has changed since us that systematic, close attention to then, and it is prudent to apply the the micro-level environment can help typology cautiously. Additionally, individuals and teams to succeed. typologies represent ideals; variations Developing a reflective orientation in a typology are to be expected, that is squarely focused on the needs such as in the characteristics of a of elite athletes is likely the most regime type, and the dominance of effective approach in supporting certain interests within each country, peak performance. Such factors, and forces that underpin them (e.g. however, are nested within, and the U.K. has since the late 1990s not separate from the meso-level developed an exceptionally strong policy environment, which in turn elite sport lobby with strong social is nested within the broader socio- democratic tendencies, although P.E. economic and political landscape and school sport remains weak with of each nation state. In other words, more traditional liberal tendencies). the sport policy of each country and Alongside these issues, it is apposite the specific policies and programs to consider the influence of external targeting education for elite athletes stakeholders on national sport is influenced by broader state politics policy-related issues, particularly such as the welfare regime of each stakeholders such as International country (Houlihan & Green, 2008). Federations and other international structures (WADA, IOC, CAS, In Esping-Andersen’s notable work professional players associations). identified three types of welfare While the influence of these regimes: liberal, conservative, and stakeholders may be limited, the social democratic (1990). Liberal interconnected nature of international regimes include countries such as sport governance, nations’ growing Australia, Canada, the U.K., and the interest in gaining political capital U.S.A.; they are characterized by the through sport, and the power and dominant role of the market with prestige that comes with mega-sport limited state intervention. Principal events are all factors that have helped norms of liberal states include international agencies gain greater freedom of thought, the rule of law, influence in domestic sport policy. individual rights, and transparent system of government. Conservative

1Further details of the EAS network and their aims and objectives can be found at www.dualcareer.eu

28 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature D. Senegal Within Senegal’s 196,722 square km resides a population of about 15 million (World Bank, n.d.). Senegal has a young population, with a median age of 18.1. Life expectancy is 67.5 years. The nation’s gross income per capita is $2,384; the gross domestic product is $16.37 billion. Besides French, all Senegalese speak one or more local languages. Wolof has emerged as a , and this auxiliary language remains the most widely spoken language in Dakar, the . Senegal is ranked 164 out of 189 nations, according to the UNDP Human Development Indicators. It is considered a developing nation with challenges common to young nations with a colonial past with limited economic resources. Andreff and Szymanski (2006) argue that developing nations often have a lower sport participation than developed nations. Additionally, the financial resources allocated to sports are limited.

Macro level sport politics. Loum (2004), discussing the case of Senegal, argues that the Like most Francophone countries, Ministry of Youth and Sport has the Senegal inherited a specific form authority to veto the organization of of organized sport well-established any competition. This mixed structure, among the elite, the nature of which inherited from the French model, was determined by the colonial continues to evolve but remains administration’s policies and direct strongly driven by the government’s involvement. Bernadette Deville- vision and authority. Danthu (1997) and Bouchet and Kaach (2004) describe how the French Sport development in Senegal does colonial heritage influenced the macro not emerge distinctively as a concept. structure of sport in Francophone In fact, with the exception of football, countries such as Senegal. Bouchet elite athlete development continues and Kaach (2004) define the French to rely on amateur clubs, federations, model (in which private support goes and governance. Nevertheless, the along with government intervention policy document developed by the in sport and physical education) as Ministry of Sports (MoS) elaborates the model adopted by Francophone its sport vision from “mass” sport to countries after independence. As “elite and performance” sport. These discussed in the following sections, policies posit the government as the private actions and government central driver of the national sport interventions define the sport model policy, with an increased delegation in place in Senegal. Bouchet and of operational authority to privately Kaach (2004) indicate that the sport run associations, clubs, communities, systems are extremely centralized and and federations. The following government-controlled. Furthermore, sections present the key areas of those authors maintain that the focus presented in a 2015 policy centralized characteristic of organized document entitled “Sports Sector sport is revealed by the emphasis Development Politics Document” on the government’s role in training, (La Lettre de Politique Sectorielle de facility building and development, Développement des Sports) (LPSD). and top management of the overall

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 29 Meso and micro levels leagues globally. In fact, despite the limited trophy and medal wins since French colonization played a role in its independence, Senegal’s elite the development of the early years athletes have consistently emerged of the elite athletes’ development to reach continental successes, in Senegal. In fact, prior to the particularly playing in top European independence, the colony of Senegal football and American college was one of the colonial territories basketball competitions. The following participating in the Francophone discussion presents the organizational West Africa Cup (AOF cup). Deville- structures and policies in place for Danthu (1997) reports that one of athlete development. the most important sporting events was the organization of the AOF cup, regrouping all the territories from Sport in the “Emerging 1948 until independence in 1960. These games contributed to the Senegal” project emergence of the first elite athletes In the national vision for “2035 who competed for France before the Emerging Senegal,” sport is independence of Senegal in 1960. The positioned as a central development athletes who represented Senegal in component toward creating Senegal’s the early years of independence in future. According to the government, the 1960s and the Olympics in it will be “a sport system accessible 1964 emerged from the colonial sport and successful that contributes to the system established by France. social and economic development In sports such as basketball, Senegal of Senegal” (Ministère des Sports, became a dominant nation in Africa. 2015). Sport is such a priority that In fact, the women’s basketball teams it is included in the nation’s first won eleven African champion titles pillar of national Economy and Social since the first competition in 1966. Politics (PSE). Because it contributes As the most successful collective to the health and well-being of the sport team, the Leones of Senegal population, it must be part of youth (Lionnes du Senegal) participated physical and intellectual education. in two summer Olympics and eight With a ten-year schedule (given FIBA Women World Championship. a mid-term evaluation after the The men’s basketball team won first five years), the LPSD idea is to five African Championships, and build an accessible sport system participated in three summer that contributes to the sustainable Olympics and four FIFA world economic and social development of championships. The most spectacular Senegal by 2025. Senegal sporting performances on the The LPSD defines four strategic goals: world stage are the FIFA World Cup quarterfinal in 2002 and a track and Strategic Objective 1: field silver Olympics medal in 1988 in Construction and rehabilitation , by El Hadj Amadou of sports infrastructures and the Dia Ba on 400-meter hurdles. development of sport activities Basketball and football are the 1. Build a new, modern sport most preeminent international infrastructure, and rehabilitate the sports with continental titles, world existing one championships, and Olympics 2. Promote sport for all, both in participations. Basketball and football schools and leisure players are well represented in various top football and basketball leagues in 3. Improve the internal Europe. The 2018 FIBA international representation and performance basketball migration report indicates of Senegalese athletes that Senegal, with 36 elite players, is the first exporter of basketball players in Africa. In the 2018 Centre World football expatriates global study (CIES, 2018), 189 Senegal players play in various elite football

30 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Strategic Objective 2: Human Structure and organization of resources and human capacity sport and key stakeholders in development Senegal 1. Improve training curriculum, and The structure and organization develop a new profile for sport of sport is determined by the technicians government and Ministry of Sports 2. Train a larger number of sport (MoS). Sports policies are defined by technicians and administrators the President of Senegal. The MoS which establishes national priorities 3. Develop new competencies in is responsible for driving the policies sports administration to pilot and under the guidance of the prime manage sport minister, who coordinates overall 4. Train and recruit high- and mid- governmental activities. The state level administrators then appeals to the private sector, such as sporting associations, to Strategic Objective 3: Reinforce assist in delivering sport policies sports’ contribution to the economy (MoS Advisor 1, 2018). The model is 1. Promote the professionalization government control, with a delegation of sports associations and of power to private entities such as organizations federations, individual associations, clubs, and sports academies. As a 2. Promote leisure sports as an consequence, the sports federations economic avenue for employment have exclusive power over their and wealth-creation opportunities sport and have national control of 3. Improve Senegal’s sport capacity any activity related to their sport. in hosting sporting events capable For instance, the Senegalese Football of supporting the tourism and Federation is in charge of all forms of affiliated sectors football played in the country, such as beach football or . The federation Strategic Objective 4: structures its activities by creating Modern approach to sport governance regional and departmental leagues, professional leagues, and divisions. 1. Promote innovative approaches to Each federation or association has the sport financing autonomy to create its own texts and 2. Develop dynamic communication policies in conformity with the legal systems and reliable data systems framework of the MoS. to support the needs in evaluation The government provides funding and assessment to the all registered federations 3. Plan, monitor, and evaluate with and associations. It covers all the results-driven methods expenses related to national teams’ preparation and participation in an The LPSD is a comprehensive international tournament. Subsidies document with a SWOT analysis of from international sport governing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, bodies, and sponsors support the and threats. It addresses the current government’s effort in national team challenges of sport in Senegal while preparation and participation in setting up ambitious objectives regional, continental, or international for sport development. Their goals competitions. This dual contribution incorporate the ideas of elite sport can produce challenges when development, mass participation, government funding is estimated and professionalization of sport. insufficiently, late, or poorly managed Throughout the LPSD is a clear desire by the various bureaucracies. The to develop a sport industry that can government also has the responsibility contribute to the national economy to build competitive sport facilities. and support employment. The The vast majority of sizable stadia and following section is a description of arenas are built by the government what is currently in place in Senegal and host federation competitions. for sport activities and development. For example, in 2018 two arenas, for indoor sports such as basketball,

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 31 , , and directly affiliated with the MoS. For opened in Dakar. They are both fully each sport, only one federation is funded by the government. The affiliated to the MoS and can receive wrestling-exclusive arena is the first annual subsidies for their activities. facility built to host wrestling events Sport associations with an (a sport considered, with football, as independent special status do exist, the most popular spectator sports in distinct from the federation mode. Senegal). Furthermore, the training These structures are called “National and education of coaches, sports Committee of Management” (Comite administrators, technicians, and National de Gestion, CNG), and human resources personnel depend have the mandate to run a specific on the government’s institutions and sport with limited oversight by the programs. Because a decentralization MoS. Wrestling, water sports, and law was passed in 1996, municipalities equitation are among the sports run received an official mandate to by a CNG, not by a federation. Their contribute to the development and governance depends on a committee, management of local sport and with its independent bylaws from physical activities (Ministère Des the general framework provided by Sports, 2015). Although the MoS the MoS. They are elected like the operates through delegation of federations, and they are nominated authority to the federations, its role for a four-year renewable tenure. is primary in funding, facility building, policies, rules, training, and human- Other federations and capacity development. It is therefore associations directly under the difficult for the Senegalese to envision Ministry of Sport sports development without the government. The National Olympic Committee (Comité National Olympic, CNO) Federations and associations directly depends on the MoS to By 2018, the MoS had 58 registered prepare elite athletes for,African federations validated according to games, for the Olympics, and other its conditions and rules. One such international competitions. The rule addresses the formation of clubs CNO has no governing role in the and associations. To be registered national federation. However, the and affiliated with a federation, all CNO (through the International clubs must be multi-sports (with, at Olympic Committee programs) assist least, teams in football, basketball, and support both elite athletes’ handball, and swimming). Having a training and human-capacity building, club with multiple sports, however, such as coaching education for is not always feasible. According international competitions. The CNO to a MoS official, there are many is also called “the federation of the clubs that might have only a football federation” (MoS Advisor 1 personal section, so the rule is not always communication, 2018) because of its enforced (MoS Director 2, personal role in bringing all the Olympic sport communication 2018). According to federations together to prepare and the official, the federation’s bylaws participate in the Olympics and in must comply with the ministry’s rules. the . Special Olympics But federation rules remain flexible are also represented in Senegal. They enough to allow a federation latitude depend on the MoS as a federation to settle the allocation of votes in and, like other federations receive the formation of its governing board subsidies for their activities, although (2018). Football in Senegal, which has largely to support their participation fully registered professional leagues, in international competitions. The has a decentralized structure. Two Special Olympics, with more than professional leagues are officially 3,000 registered athletes, are a distinct from the federation, which large federation with consistent delegates power to a special participation in international governing body to run both leagues. competitions. Professional league governance does not have a direct link to the MoS. The football federation is the only entity

32 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Schools and universities in The Army and Corporations Senegal Like the schools, the army remained The Union of Associations of a sporting ground connected to Universities and Schools Sports (Union the main sport structure run by des Associations du Sport Scolaire et the MoS, but as an association. The Universitaire) (UASSU) is the governing Association of Armed Forces (ASFA) body of all the school and university has always been an active participant sport competitions. The UASSU, under in various championships and a the Ministry of Education, is a parallel provider of athletes for basketball, sport development ground for talent handball, volleyball, and track and search and training athletes for local field national teams. The army also clubs and national teams. Many of organizes its own inter-battalion the early sporting elite of Senegal, national championship, independent until the late 1980s, were discovered of the MoS and the federations. The in the UASSU national competitions federation of corporate sport is a (“Sport Festival”). These included El multi-sport federation affiliated with Hadj Amadou Dia Ba, who won the the MoS, with their own governance, silver medal for the 400 meter hurdles competitions, and activities. They at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, South also receive some subsidies from the Korea. government. According to a MoS official, a few The sport governance and private schools (such as Collège Sacré development model in Senegal is Coeur and College Saint Michel, with largely focused at the amateur level, boarding school) and public lycée with a critical role taken by clubs, (such as Lycée Delafosse, Lycée associations, and federations. These Cheick Seck, and Lycée Lamine groups are amateur, with benevolent Gueye) were the growing grounds for administration and patrons occupied multiple-sport elite athletes (personal by their own professional activities. communication, director 2, 2018). They operate with an important Lycée JFK, for girls only, developed a autonomy but are limited in first generation of basketball players funding and often rely only on MoS such as Kankou Koulibaly and Aya subsidies for their activities and to Pouye, who both won several African support the training of coaches and basketball championships. administrators. This model represents major challenges across all the levels Of course school sport has always of the proposed model (p. 74) for been important to organized sport analysis and comparison of national in Senegal. From independence in high performance (HP) athlete 1960 until 1999, each school’s physical education systems. education teacher was an employee of the MoS (MoS director 2, personal communication, 2018). The technical management of sport in school was linked to the MoS, although operated by the Ministry of Education. In 1999 the physical education teachers became part of the Ministry of Education. The government established two committees: the Committee for School Sport Management and Governance, whose members are appointed by the MoS; and the National Committee for University Sport (sport in higher education), whose members are appointed by the MoS. Most of the members of these committees are physical education teachers (MoS director 2 personal communication, 2018).

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 33 E. Qatar Qatar occupies a peninsula located in the south western Arabian Gulf. It shares its only land border with the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, with to the west, to the north, and the to the east. Qatar’s , 18 December, commemorates the unification of the Qatari tribes under the leadership of Sheikh Jassim bin (HISTORY OF QATAR, 2018). It gained its independence from the British on 3 September, 1971 (Turner, 2002). The head of state is a member of the Al-Thani family, and holds the title of . Qatar has a total population of about 2.6 million (2017), of which a large majority are non- Qatari expatriates; some 310,000 are Qatari citizens who are mostly Sunni Muslims. Qatar’s economy is largely based on the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The country’s GDP in 2015 reached $166.9 billon (Trading Economics, 2018).

34 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Macro level The Qatar National Hosting the Fifteenth Vision established Qatar as a sport destination (Amara, 2005), while Meso level focusing on providing a high standard Qatar’s National Vision 2030 calls for of luxury for visitors (Qatar Secretariat its population to become effective for Development Planning, 2008). participants in the “economic, social Qatar’s main focus is developing and political life” of the nation (Qatar the tourism sector, evident in the General Secretariat for Development constant and rapid change within the Planning, 2008). The vision was country (Qatar General Secretariat established on the following for Development Planning, 2011). principles: The country’s visiters are 60 percent corporate, and 40 percent leisure The National Vision… reflects the travellers (Turner, 2002). The national aspirations, objectives, and the culture strategy focuses on promoting Qatar of the Qatari people. By shedding light as a tourist destination, in addition to on the future, the Vision illuminates the the benefits of hosting international fundamental choices that are available sport events. Numerous infrastructure to Qatari society. Simultaneously, it development projects are ongoing, inspires Qatari people to develop a set as well as those in education, social of common goals related to their future development, and cultural heritage. (Qatar Secretariat for Development Qatar is home to several globally Planning, 2008). recognized brands and concerns, Thanks to substantial hydrocarbon such as media channel , export revenues, the Qatar National Bein Sports, , and Vision 2030 has focused government others. In recent years, Qatar has investment on multi-sectoral won several bids to host international development. Its efforts include sport events, with the 2022 Football developing human capital and a World Cup (FIFA) being the most skilled labor force, improving health prominent (Akkawi, 2010). Qatar and education systems, improving hosted the Asian Games in 2006, the public services, and generally Handball World championship in 2015, supporting the improvement of among others. Qatar won the bid to international development indicators. host the International Association of Qatar has built and sustained a Athletics Federations (IAAF) World political and organizational climate to Championships in in the Autumn encourage an entrepreneurial business of 2019. sector. Placing a high value on cultural Qatar’s National Vision 2030 calls for heritage and environmental protection substantial investment in supporting and sustainability, the government healthy lifestyle through sport. works to balance economic needs, Beyond organizing and hosting social development, the environment, international sport events, Qatar and cultural authenticity. is investing in the preparation and Micro level improvement of athlete performance for success on the international stage. This section addresses Qatar’s use These efforts are seen in schools, of sport as a tool for development, federations, and in the principal focusing on athlete education, sport academy, Aspire, that aims both in pre- and primary school to develop the best young Qatari levels, and in higher education athletes. Investing in sport is one of and elite athletics. The case study the government’s key pillars toward explains the vision, structure, and achieving its vision (Qatar Secretariat management and events of Aspire, for Development Planning, 2008). the government-funded, world-class, leading sports organization in Qatar. Subsequently, the focus will turn to the Aspire Academy, within Aspire, with a detailed analysis of its athlete development programs, including their academic development. Turning

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 35 to elite athlete development and Other institutions related to higher today, elite athlete development and the research will examine the role of education various academic and non-academic institutions providing education to Qatar Olympic Academy (QOA), a athletes. The case study will focus member of the QOC, provides training on QAED (leader), a joint venture sessions focusing on coaching, between QFA (Qatar Football training, and event organizing. The Association), Josoor Institute, and QOA’s approach is grounded in Stenden University. understanding the country’s need to raise professional working standards Elite athlete sport development and management in all areas of the and education in Qatar sport development and education Elite athlete sport and education sector. One of the directors at QOA development are noted prominently in noted, “when it comes to elite athlete the Qatar National Vision 2030. As in development, it is a duty to integrate other countries, various organizations Olympic values in schools, and to offer work together toward the national PE teachers and sport coaches with agenda. In this report, the term elite the highest level of knowledge to athlete refers to athletes emerging transmit to students”. He added that from federation structures through students do not show a good level associations and clubs activities. of sport practice in schools; without These federations are now usually better practice, Aspire would not be governed and supported by the able to achieve its target for selecting Ministry of Sport and Youth. Formerly, and preparing young students to the Qatar Olympic Committee (QOC) represent Qatar. was the main financial supporter of Football is a prominent , these federations. QOC controls the through schools, and universities, governance of the development of and clubs everyone has access to Olympic sports athletes. The Ministry football pitches. Since the country is of Sport and Youth has assumed the expected to host the 2022 FIFA World governance of the federations, and Cup, some adjustments were made to Ministry of Education and Higher prioritize this sport. Football is treated Education is responsible for public differently and favored. Usually the education. football federations in the majority Aspire received the approval from of other countries are responsible for the Ministry of Education and Higher governing this sport; in the case of Education to offer all its students Qatar, however, the Qatar Football a high level of education. In 2016 Federation (QFA) is considered a Aspire became an official council of different entity, responsible for the international Schools (CIS) accredited national team and the amateur league. educational institution (Aspire, , Beside, of QFA , 2016). Aspire Academy works to management (QSL), is a different offer the best in sport development intitie responsible of delivering the and academics for the benefit of its professional Qatar Football league. talented athletes. A highly ranked In this way, each entity can focus on educator at Aspire Academy stated developing and providing the best in that the two-winged logo of Aspire its area. At the same time, QFA and reflects its philosophy: One wings Aspire work hand-in-hand in offering represents professionalism in sport, national team players with the access the other represents professionalism to all state of the arts facilities, and in education. In order to fly, one needs technologies. both.

36 Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature Josoor Institute In December 2013, the Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy, responsible for producing the 2022 FIFA World Cup events, established the Josoor Institute (Josoor Institute, 2018). Its purpose is to provide training and development to support anyone interested in continuing his/ her career in the sport and events management sector. Josoor works directly with organizations in Qatar to host workshops on current knowledge in the field, and participants can earn professional certificates and diplomas (Josoor Institute, 2018). Within a short time frame Qatar was able to present its case nationally and internationally, boosted by medals earned and other indicators. This success underscores how the efforts of various organizations coordinate their work for the benefit of the younger Qatari generation. In addition, the results demonstrate a decision making process that aligns support for sports with the development of the country, as well as the strong professional dedication and commitment of young Qataris. In this report we will present two case studies on Qatar, both with a focus on the work being done for the benefit students and athletes. In the case of QFA (Qatar Football Association), we will focus on the recent bridge- building between federations and universities to support athletes in continuing their higher education degrees while pursuing their training.

Chapter Two: Review of literature Chapter Two: Review of literature 37 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODS CHAPTER THREE 38 Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods This comparative research study This process of developing examines athlete education related participants from recreation to structures, processes and practices HP involves macro-, meso-, and with a focus on demonstrated micro-levels of policy and support, effectiveness and efficiency in the all considered in this research, as analyzed national sport systems. adapted from Green and Houlihan There is a particular emphasis on (2005), De Bosscher et al. (2006), practices that can be used gloablly De Bosscher, Shibli, Van Bottenburg, in different economic and socio- De Knopp and Truyens (2010), cultural conditions. The literature scholars who focused on sport detailed previously suggested that policy analysis. They referred to the our analyses examine the macro-, macro level as the social and cultural meso- and micro- levels. These context (including consideration for structures are used as independent GDP, population, and state-society variables to investigate literature and relationship); the meso level focused organizational documentation in the on sport policies; and the micro level analyzed countries, following the related to the individual athletes and key parameters used by comparative their close environment.. The model international studies on elite sport of De Bosscher at al. (2006, 2010) was discussed more fully below and in the used for an international comparison literature review. There is no perfect of the sports policy factors leading model for international comparative to international sporting success sport analysis, particularly focusing in 15 nations (De Bosscher, Shibli, solely on high performance sport Westerbeek & Van Bottenburg, 2015). (HPS) (De Bosscher et. al, 2010). The current study’s theoretical The most recent attempts include framework also incorporates models studies by academic researchers such of sport development. One model by as Bauman (2002), De Bosscher et Smolianov and Zakus (2008) defined al. (2010), Digel (2002), Green and the macro-level as socio-economic, Oakley (2001), Houlihan and Green cultural, legislative, and organizational (2008), Platonov (2010), Ridpath support for a national sport system by (2018), and Smolianov & Zakus (2008). the whole society and the state; the Mainly, comparative HPS models meso-level included infrastructures, focus on descriptive explanations personnel, and services enabling of the selected ingredients (usually sport programs; and the micro-level sport policies) that are deemed to consisted of operations, processes, contribute to successful performance and methodologies for development in international sport. These models of individual athletes. This model was are validated through case studies used to evaluate and advance both of countries that have demonstrated mass and elite parts of sport systems international sporting success. HPS in the USA (Smolianov, Zakus & Gallo, systems are dynamic, complex, and 2014) and Netherlands (Zeeuw, varied in design (Sotiriadou & De Smolianov, Dion & Schoen, 2017), Bosscher, 2013). This is due to the Russia (Smolianov, Bravo, Vozniak ever-changing sport environment and & Komova, 2014), Nigeria (Kaka’an, the cultural and political dimensions; Smolianov, Koh Choon Lian, Dion, & these need to be considered in a Schoen, 2018) and Zambia (Smolianov comparative research study (Digel, & Musunsa, 2018). The Zambian study 2002; De Bosscher et. al, 2010). assisted the country’s Ministry of Youth, Sport and Child Development This study’s theoretical framework with a systematic national sport is based on the agreement among development plan. In the US, the such authors as Bravo, Orejan, Vélez, research results published in Managing and López (2012); De Bosscher and Sport and Leisure International Journal associates (2006); Digel (2005); were used by USA Rugby to develop Fetisov (2005); Platonov (2010); and a multi-million dollar plan that helped Smolianov and Zakus (2008, 2009), to bring rugby back to the Olympics who stressed the foundational role and recognize USA Rugby as an official of broad sport participation leading National Governing Body under the to the development of elite athletic United States Olympic Committee. performance.

Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods 39 King (2009), whose concept investigated the impact of macro- was also used in the proposed level social forces, such as economic model, examined policies and trends, employment, housing, governance in local communities homelessness, and effectiveness at the “macro and meso” levels of of public education on micro-level sport development: such macro- consequences such as poverty, level influences on policy as public alternate occupations, and drug attitudes towards sport, health and dealing. Bergström and Dekker education policy communities and (2014) studied human resilience in central government, and meso- the context of inter-connected health level relationships and resources and social systems, and referred to for organizations in the local the macro-level as societal, meso- sport networks. Similarly, Banjade, level as organizational, and micro- Paudel, Ojha, McDougall & Prabhu level as related to processes and (2007) conceptualized governance individual action. This perspective is in the management of commons by also incorporated in the theoretical identifying macro-level as national framework of the current study. policies, meso-level as institutions Our framework borrowed from and processes shaping the social business researchers Kim, Wennberg and environmental outcomes, and and Croidieu (2016) who analyzed micro-level as community user groups. entrepreneurship mechanisms The theoretical frameworks used by embedded within complex social Rad, Ganjouei and Hazaveh (2014) structures through macro-institutional and Wicker (2012) are based on the and micro-individual characteristics as concept of sport participation as well as meso-level social structures. influenced by internal or micro factors At these intermediate levels social (associated with individual such as groups, associations, and other available time, income, ethnicity, collectives operate between the two gender) and external or macro factors ends of the institutional spectrum, a (sport spaces, parks, gyms, and concept based on five other studies programs). We used this concept to which linked country-level (macro) define our model’s macro- (external) characteristics with individual-level and micro-(internal) levels. (micro) outcomes of entrepreneurial Our research also integrated Al actions (Kim et al., 2016). Jeurissen Mofarreh’s definitions of the three (1997) studied business ethics at levels (2016): macro (governmental), macro-level institutions, the market, meso (school), and micro (teachers, government, cultural traditions students and administrators). and the like; meso-level of the Reflecting the variations in the use organization, its structure and culture; and application of the three levels, and the micro-level of the individual in Johnson (2013) investigated only two the organization. levels of policy influence on science As all known comparative models education reform: macro-level (federal have strengths and limitations while and state) policies which result in the serving various research purposes creation of micro-level (district and (Sotiriadou & De Bosscher, 2013), the school) policies. Similarly, Barasa, authors of this study combined the Molyneux, English and Cleary (2015) above described models to develop a attempted to set healthcare priorities new hybrid for better understanding at the macro (national) and meso and comparison in elite athlete (decentralized health systems and education. The new proposed model health facilities) levels. In other socio- attempts to provide a balanced, economic fields, Dunlap, Johnson, even focus among the macro-, meso- Kotarba and Fackler (2010) and micro- levels. The De Boscher, et al. model focuses on the meso level, but most sport organizations aim to develop participants at

40 Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods the micro level. Sotiriadou and De The model’s macro-level refers to Bosscher (2017) stressed that in order social and economic issues, state- for athletes to thrive, managers, society relationship, histories and coaches and sport scientists should other major broad national factors work together, and that more which influence sport development multidisciplinary synergies in HP sport and athlete education. Meso-level and supporting research are needed refers to state policies enabling if we are to reach solutions based sport development infrastructures, on a new understanding of complex while micro-level refers to operations situations. This is particularly important and processes related to athlete for our research of education as part education. Our meso- and micro-level of multidisciplinary athlete support. analyses focus on the specific issues Following these recommendations by of athlete education. For example, a Sotiriadou and De Bosscher (2017), the review of policy on athlete education current study is searching for useful would involve meso-level analysis. experiences of integrating education An examination of the specific with sport training from the athlete programs, particularly pedagogical perspective across different disciplines and administrative methods of athlete and levels of our comparative model. education, would represent micro- We also add to our proposed model level analysis. such macro factors not emphasized The micro-level requires identifying by Smolianov and Zakus (2008) and talent and gradually developing Smolianov et al. (2014), but used by De participants into high performers, Bosscher at al. (2006, 2010) such as integrating training with education population and GDP. for long, healthy athletic careers As mentioned, our proposed model and productive lives after elite stresses interconnections among the competition. The hierarchical pools levels, such as macro-level policies of HP athletes demand access to used to impact healthy social behaviors sophisticated and scientifically based (Swinburn, 2008) through regulations multidisciplinary performance, career of advertising and marketing, school and lifestyle support, particularly provisions, retail offerings, and taxes education that builds upon sport skills and levies (Swinburn, 2008) which and allows athletes to give back to directly and indirectly influence sport community after their formal sport development at meso- and micro- career is over. Effective functioning of levels. When the education of athletes, the micro-level requires policies on their involvement and preparation as such meso-level infrastructure to be competent devoted sport specialists easily accessible with conveniently and role models is integrated, this connected facilities as well as can ultimately help reach goals of coaching integrated with education supporting agencies and contribute specific to each age and level of to macro-level socio-economic participation. A key meso-level policy success. Good national health and area relates to education of athletes fitness increases general effectiveness through a system of incrementally and productivity, with positive intensified competitions to seamlessly results for social capital, community prepare athletes for major events. development, and commercial The proposed model also implies objectives –as well as more success in that policies related to education, international competitions, and national scientific, medical, philosophical, pride. and promotional support of sport programs are developed at each level HP elements overlap at different of participation. Policies are needed levels (De Bosscher et al., 2006). for advancement of education and The interdependency, magnitude accreditation as well as scientific, and hierarchical relationship of sport methodological and other support and society are expressed by the to all sport specialists. Through positions and sizes of the circles of our these policies HP athletes should be theoretical model depicted in Figure 1. provided with all education conditions to prepare for these roles.

Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods 41 Figure 1. Proposed model for analysis and comparison of national HP athlete education systems

MICRO LEVEL

Operations, Processes, and Methodologies for Development and Education of Individual Athletes

MESO LEVEL

Policies Related to Infrastructures, Personnel, and Services Enabling Sport Programs and Athlete Education

MACRO LEVEL

Socio-Cultural and Economic Impact on the National Sport System and Athlete Education

Effective meso-level policies result clubs, and communities on the other. from multiple partnerships in order to Other needs include: obtain sufficient resources, exchange • PE and sport integrated at expertise, and achieve common goals childcare facilities, schools, and to influence the environment of mass universities and elite sport, particularly mass media, sponsorship from businesses • A pyramidal system of sport as well as direct and indirect support clubs for each participation level from the state or government and with a dual goal of maximizing from overall society. These are areas participation and developing in which policy may direct the type excellence and nature of organizations required • Progressive participant and coach for a holistic sport delivery system. rewards for fitness and elite For an efficient, long-term functioning performance of all these elements, funding and structures of mass and elite sport • A high number of dedicated well- systems must be balanced and trained, professional coaches at all integrated. This relies on legislative, levels ideological, and government inputs. • Subsidies and incentives for Successful sport systems receive recreational and elite sport significant macro-level social support ensuring diversity and access, for effective meso-level programs and a full spectrum of sport related facilities for the general public and activities funded for both for HPS. These are developed through recreation and excellence in all integration by a nation’a government appropriate age groups at meso- departments, the Olympic and micro-levels Committees, National Governing The above summary of the model Bodies (NGBs), and clubs. These is based on the desired three level systems further rely on balanced practices presented in our model are power between the government on exemplified by such authors as De one side, and NGBs, training centers, Bosscher et al.

42 Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods (2015); Gilbert (1980), Matveev (2008), 2010). In this study, a semi-structured, Platonov (2005 & 2010), Riordan open-ended qualitative analysis tool (1978, 1980), Shneidman (1978), was used along with quantitative Smolianov (2013, 2019), Smolianov data to produce the descriptive and Zakus (2008) and Smolianov et al. portrait. This included a literature and (2014) and reflected in the literature documentation review followed by review and case studies of this report. structured interviews with research- based questions and responses. All METHODS interviewees were asked the same questions, although the sequence This study consists of descriptive could vary slightly depending on the quantitative secondary data and interview. Again, the first step was for quality assessment. The survey the researchers to examine athlete questions used for interviews were education structures, processes, and approved by the Ohio University practices that led to demonstrated Institutional Review Board (IRB). This effectiveness and efficiency in the project was approved for research analyzed national sport systems, involving human subjects. Identifying with a special emphasis on practices the population for the study was that can be used globally in different deliberate and purposeful, to ensuring economic and socio-cultural that the participants had significant conditions. Using the theoretical experience in their specific sport framework outlined above and the development systems. According interview schedule a minimum of to Sotiriadou & De Bosscher (2013), three experts in each country were in past comparative sport models, interviewed. All participants agreed to authors’ views may be influenced allow their interview(s) to be recorded by their own national context, the (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009). history of their sport systems and what they are trying to achieve. This These experts included, by region/ could explain why some models country: give more emphasis to macro-level aspects such as partnerships or Russia/Eastern Europe financing, while other models focus more on meso-level factors such as coaching expertise or micro-level • Sport ministry executive who was practices such as post-career athlete a Sport University alumnus/a support. Comparative models are • Two Olympic training center challenged by constant innovations executives who were Sport introduced in the attempt to University alumni provide maximum support of HPS. • Two current and two former Therefore, a progressive comparative national coaches who were Sport framework should be flexible enough University alumni to encompass the similarities and differences of sport systems and to • Sport University department deal adequately with unique and head who was a Sport University innovative strategies (Sotiriadou & De alumnus/a Bosscher, 2013). • Three sport school and college Studies reviewed used either executives and alumni predominantly quantitative (e.g., De • Former Chief Physician of Complex Bosscher et al., 2006) or qualitative Scientific Groups servicing USSR (e.g., Houlihan & Green, 2008) national team athletes. approaches, some without a specific comparison frame (e.g., Platonov,

Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods 43 United States of America Qatar

• NCAA Division I Director of • Executive Director, Qatar Olympic Athletics Academy • USOC Director of Athlete Career • Head of Sports Development and Education Services Section, Qatar Olympic Academy • USOC Director of College • Josoor Institute under the Relations Supreme Committee for Delivery & Legacy • USOC Director of Elite Sport Development • Head of Department, Sport Science Program, Qatar University • Executive Director of the National Youth Sports Council. • Director of Operations / Acting Executive Director of Competition & Football Development Qatar National Teams United Kingdom • Deputy Sport Director, Aspire Academy • Director of Education and Student • National Manager, Talented Athlete Affairs, Aspire Academy Scholarship Scheme, DCMS • Senior Officer, Aspire Academy. • Strategic Lead, Talent and Performance, Sport England • Head of Sport Delivery & Performance, BUCS • Director of Sport, Bath University • CEO, Professional Players Association.

Senegal

• Ministry of Sport (MoS) administrators • Directors and founders of the main football academies • The director of the National Institute of Sport and Physical Education (INSEPS) and a strength trainer for traditional wrestlers.

44 Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods Chapter Three: Theoretical framework and methods 45 CHAPTER

FOUR THE CASE STUDIES A. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Case study 1. American intercollegiate athletics Introduction Currently, most of sports development However, is having elite sport in the U.S. is essentially governed by development primarily within an an education system that is highly education framework actually limited for athletes but arguably promoting excellence and access benefi¬cial to others. Both the U.S. in both areas? Is athletic success and European systems produce elite more highly valued than academic athletes who go on to prominent primacy? Many athletes, notably athletic careers. Athletes navigate in football (American) and men’s through the two different systems, basketball, are virtually forced into yet many of the outcomes are this model because of limited external similar, with education access being competitive options to maximize a primary difference. The great their de¬velopment and potential success of the U.S. in international advancement to the big-money world competitions in many sports comes of pro¬fessional sports. While there despite somewhat disjointed and are some alternative paths in other decentralized sport development sports such as baseball, hockey and systems. Some have found that other winter sports, the education access to a viable education and system remains the pri¬mary “feeder” post career planning is inadequate for most competitive sports in the even with sports embedded in the U.S. at the higher levels, notably schools (Ridpath, 2018). Simply put, the commercially popular sports from a global perspective, sport such as showcased at the Summer development in the U.S. is unique, as Olympics. Essentially, the heavy well as how the three level structure lifting for American sports and sport applies in the U.S. context (Smolianov, development happens at the school et. al, 2015). That a prominent part level. of sport development is embedded in the education system seems to indicate education access and career opportunities for athletes post competition.

47 The current athletic development These dynamics have contributed model is often justified be¬cause to a situation in which senior of the perception that it provides administrators and others —highly access to education and an impetus paid coaches, conference offices, to continue one’s higher education. television networks, and corporate Social mobility through the partners— control the outcomes combination of sports and education for many athletes in the United is often mentioned as a benefit for States. With winning and generating minorities and other disadvan¬taged revenue for education based sports groups. For some who have not had predominant, U.S. elite athletes are opportunities, it can be argued, often disempowered with limited participating in athletics can lead academic choices. If higher education to potentially life-altering access to were allowed to respond the market education. While using athletics as a forces of choice and competition, path to education opportunity sounds more sports development options appealing, it does not, however, would be available; and crucially, always provide the envisioned the system would be driven more so¬cial mobility and brighter future. directly by the needs of the athletes. Many athletes find themselves in a Such a revolution in approach would bind: pressured to maintain their allow colleges to disengage from academic eligibility; they often the chaotic ongoing facilities and focus on intensified training, limiting per¬sonnel “arms race” now seen their access to quality education. under the current intercollegiate An athlete’s family may be counting athletic system. on them as an escape from poverty if they make the professional ranks; but fewer than two percent of U.S. intercollegiate athletes make the professional ranks in men’s basketball and football. Those who join these ranks often have short careers at the professional level (Manfred, 2012; NCAA Estimated Probability, 2018).

48 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Interview summary Programs for elite For this case study, an athletic director development/talent at a major midwestern NCAA Division identification I university was interviewed. The The interview subject described the intent of the interview was to assess current conventional path for the the strengths and weaknesses of U.S. elite athletes and their access to intercollegiate athletics system and education, focusing on the younger education access for elite athletes. athletes who tend to experiment The university’s website identifies with multiple sports. He noted: “At it as one of the premier research some point they begin to realize, and universities in the country, managing people begin to advise them, that one of the strongest athletic it looks like they might be good in programs. Nearly a thousand athletes a particular sport. So somewhere in compete at the highest level of their K-12 (Kindergarten- grade 12) intercollegiate athletic competition in life, they begin to narrow their focus. the NCAA Division I. The interviewee They ultimately improve to the point has been a director of athletics at where they may have the chance to the NCAA Division I level for almost play at the collegiate level.” 30 years; he was an elite football player at the University of Notre The subject acknowledged significant Dame. He is well positioned to speak issues with the current model of to the positives and negatives of education based sport development the American intercollegiate athletic in the U.S. He noted that the USOC system, which is the feeder system of is concerned that extra expenses for interscholastic athletics, and issues football and men’s basketball can related to elite athletes’ education accumulate, prompting schools and opportunities during and post colleges to reduce or drop other competition. sports to preserve competitiveness in these sports. He considers this as a danger and supports alternative models of elite development in education.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 49 In the case of the Olympics, he noted The majority of athletes who progress his view that to successful post-college athletic careers at the professional or Olympic “…you are better off going through the level typically come from the NCAA’s collegiate level because of the training Division I, the highest level of elite that you get overall…. I wish there were athletic development. However, it is more options for basketball, football, not uncommon to see outstanding and other sports where they could go elite athletes matriculate from here and participate in sport and maybe go to the lower divisions or other to the pros. At the end of day, I would intercollegiate governing bodies. prefer that there was a model outside of the collegiate model that financially All intercollegiate athletic governing provided those people a chance to bodies in U.S. have a national office develop to the point where they can that runs the day-to-day operations of change their career.” the organization. However, all of the governing bodies are membership The subject believes the education driven and have a “bottom-up” model in the U.S. still works, but feels governance structure in that the the “bubble may burst” because of members (individual schools) run costs, competitive level disparities, the organization through various athlete rights movements, and committees overseeing rules, external pressures such as court championships and enforcement cases and legislative action. Sports operations just to name a few. The development is skewed to the most real power lies with the presidents or popular and commercialized football chancellors of particular institutions and men’s basketball, pressuring who sit on executive committees and schools and colleges to save other approve or deny recommendations sports from being eliminated. of committees below them. Overview of macro, Intercollegiate athletic institutions, irrespective of governing body, meso and micro are organized into conferences for aspects the purposes of organizing athletic competitions. These conferences Organization, governance, are typically regionalized and made structure and key stakeholders up of similar schools with similar athletic budgets although this is not While the first 50 plus years and the always the case. In some cases, it last 50 years of collegiate athletics is advantageous to have schools in in the U.S. share many similarities major media markets to attract more such as the mentioned challenges viewers and revenue streams even if it of integrating high-level athletics does not make sense from a regional with primary, secondary, and higher or institutional match perspective. education, there are several marked An example of this was when Rutgers differences. The National Collegiate University and the University of Athletic Association (NCAA) is the Maryland were accepted as new largest intercollegiate athletics members into the largely Midwestern governance organization in the United U.S. based “Big Ten” conference even States. While the lower divisions II and though they are traditional eastern III exist in the NCAA, and there are seaboard schools. Rutgers and the other intercollegiate sports governing University of Maryland brought the bodies, such as the National media markets of New York and Association of Intercollegiate Athletics Washington DC respectively to the (NAIA), the National Junior College Big Ten and much more access to Athletic Association (NJCAA), and The those markets. National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA), all have similar challenges with athletic competition that is predicated on academic eligibility, even if the commercialism and perceived value is less.

50 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies The key stakeholders in intercollegiate Among the objects of athlete activism athletics are many and the power of includes greater access to education the stakeholder is dependent on the opportunities, revenue sharing, ability competitive level of the institution to profit from various branding, and and conference it is in. Certainly, greater freedom of movement among the NCAA Division I level has many schools without transfer restrictions. key stakeholders. Ultimately, the Recent and pending court cases have institution’s chancellor or president given athletes more rights; whether is responsible, with authority the construct of amateurism survives, progressing from the athletics or as the interviewee says, the tipping director to subordinate administrators point arrives, remains to be seen. and coaches. While intercollegiate But, it is reasonable to assume that athletics has formalized governance since college sports in the U.S. are and leadership structures, the power big business, it is only natural that the dynamics are many. For example, athletes want more of the revenues television networks and other they produce. The demands of content distributors wield immense athletes organizing at the elite level of power as colleges and conferences college sports may hasten the tipping scramble to get as much air time point to change or even signaling for its sports programs as possible, the end of amateurism in U.S. college such as happened with the Big Ten. sports. It is likely that such a sea College and universities are often change will not significantly dampen at the whim of rich and powerful interest in college athletics, nor the boosters who pay for skyboxes, coach challenges of access to education salary augmentations, scholarships, and career development, but it could and even facilities. Since many make the system more fair for the athletic departments are mandated athlete laborer. or encouraged to generate their own revenue or be self-sustaining financially, outside funds from boosters, sponsors, and media distribution is critical. However with that money comes access and power to make decisions even though most are not part of the official governance structure and power is more of a de facto posture, rather than formalized. At the lower levels of the NCAA and in other governing bodies, the external de facto influences are not as prevalent and the formalized governance structures have much more control. As the primary stakeholder in U.S. intercollegiate athletics, the athlete have much more power than in the past. For most of the 100 years of intercollegiate athletics in U.S., the athlete was content to play a sport for scholarship money. However, as the stakes, revenue and popularity of commercialized college sports grew, the athlete sought more rights, freedoms and access to the billions of dollars that are going to coaches, administrators and opulent facilities. The collegiate athletes rights movement that advocates more outspokenly is growing in numbers and power.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 51 Resource allocation This is despite that the annual NFL championship, the Super Bowl, is The vastly increased revenue streams one the biggest annual sporting from television and other media events internationally. The current content distributors at the NCAA television deal with CBS and Division I level have produced broad Turner Broadcasting for the NCAA differences within U.S. intercollegiate men’s March Madness basketball athletics. The same revenue streams tournament, is $11 billion U.S., or fund the national operations of NCAA $700 million annually to colleges Divisions II and III (Grant, Leadley & and universities competing in all Zygmont, 2015). College sports today NCAA divisions. Revenue from become highly commercialized in the tournament essentially funds the context of this revenue explosion. NCAA which oversees three distinct Twelve of the 20 largest sports competitive divisions and manages facilities in the world are stadia 88 championships in several sports dedicated exclusively to U.S. college annually. Simply put, intercollegiate football; none are U.S. professional athletics in the United States is big National Football League (NFL) stadia business at the NCAA Division I level. (Wright, 2017).

52 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies The funding model for the smaller He indicated that the system intercollegiate athletic governing has shortcomings and may not bodies such as the NAIA and individual be working as intended; such as athletic operations of institutions embracing the creation of options can be much different. The NAIA and pathways for athletes who may does not receive much revenue from not want to advance through the multimedia rights, and relies more current education based model. on member dues and corporate He acknowledges that while the sponsorships to fund national intercollegiate athletic system has operations. Most institutions do not issues, he feels it is much better suited show a profit with regard to their own for education attainment now than it individual athletic budgets. Some was a few years ago. Despite some schools, such as the interviewee’s optimism, this athletic director feels have massive operational budgets, in the system must change as it steadily some cases exceeding $150 million attracts more money and as athletes a year; some athletic departments are increasingly challenged by the are fully self-sustaining financially requirements of their education. He requiring no subsidies from the acknowledges that the education university. The interviewee’s based model has allowed for greater department gains a sizable revenue access to sports participation and stream from its affiliation with the elite development for women, but Big Ten Conference and revenue also feels the system must evolve from the College Football Playoff. In a separate track for elite athlete addition, his school is one of the most development and education. well-known sports properties in the United States and gains millions in Case study 2. U.S. sponsorship and advertising sales. The institution routinely sells out Olympic/Paralympic its 108,000 seat football stadium sport development and has massive revenue streams from ticket sales and donations from Introduction alumni and fans. This university is As stated previously, the USOC relies more the exception rather than the largely on the U.S. education based rule, however. Most NCAA institutions, sport development system to feed even at the commercialized Division elite athletes to national teams and I level, rely on institutional subsidies competitions. Some sports, such as and student fees to fund their athletic many Winter sports, do not compete departments. The multimedia revenue, at the high school or collegiate level. sponsorship and ticket sales pale in Typically, private clubs or the NGBs comparison to major intercollegiate fill the void in elite development. athletic powerhouses. The main factor distinguishing the USOC and various sport NGBs from Analysis the approach of other countries is The interviewee covered the key that direct government subsides, issues with education based sport tax dollars or even lottery proceeds development well. The concerns of are not provided to fund national participation access, affordability, sports development or national education access, athlete rights, teams. Funding is always an issue, amateurism v. professionalism, and the but in many ways the capitalist, overriding issue of athlete education entrepreneurial approach of the after formal competition. Interviewing U.S. can be effective for Olympic, a key stakeholder who benefits Paralympic and national teams. Even financially (the subject earns a base with access to the intercollegiate salary of nearly $1 million in addition system that ostensibly takes care to perks such as cars and country club of any education issue, the USOC memberships) from the system as it is still very interested and involved exists currently was informative and in the education of its athletes. illuminating.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 53 This role is important especially It comes 100 percent from corporate to support education access and sponsors and philanthropy.” career opportunities for athletes in Winter Olympic sports that are not Meso level offered and/or are less popular than In competition, training, and competitions such as gymnastics and education the USOC works to balance skiing. challenges such as how athletes Interview summaries support themselves financially. While the USOC and the NGBs can support Three interviews were conducted with training and subsidize lodging and officials of the United States Olympic meals during training, the individual Committee (USOC) who addressed athlete still has to bring most of the macro, meso and micro aspects of the support through individual the Olympic and National Governing sponsorships and/or employment. Body sport development. The subjects The USOC has had corporate were the Director of Athlete Career arrangements with corporations such and Education (DACE), the Director as Home Depot and Dick’s Sporting of Coaching and Coach Education Goods to employ athletes. (DCCE), and the Director of Collegiate Ultimately, the USOC or any NGB Partnerships (DCP). The Director of does not pay elite athletes a salary Athlete Career and Education is a for competition and training, but former Olympic kayaker from Vermont. since amateur level regulations She has been at the USOC for three were eliminated from the Olympic years, but worked for over 15 years for charter in the 1980s, U.S. Olympic two NGBs: USA Canoe/Kayak and USA athletes have profited from their Cycling. The Director of Coaching and name, image and likeness. Many Coach Education is a former men’s Olympic athletes that compete on and women’s lacrosse coach for two national teams are salaried players NCAA institutions at the Division 2 participating on professional teams and 3 levels. He also worked at USA or clubs such as NBA or NHL athletes. Lacrosse for three years and has been The U.S. also pays bonuses to athletes at the USOC for almost seven years. who win Olympic medals as most The Director of Collegiate Partnerships countries have done for years. From is a former track and field athlete at an education standpoint, the USOC the University of Iowa and worked in has been very deliberate in creating intercollegiate athletic administration opportunities for its elite athletes at Iowa and Stanford University. to access a productive education, Macro aspects whether to complete or start working toward a college degree, finish high In the areas of partnerships with school or learn a trade. The DACE supporting organizations and resource gave an overview of the programs allocation, the DACE discussed available. “In… sports like figure the pros and cons of having a fully skating where there is money in the privatized funding model along with shows and [there are] endorsements working with partners such as the and there’s television, but it’s not a NCAA and sponsors to accomplish the collegiate sport,” the DACE said. “So, mission of the USOC. This included again, those athletes often don’t go having more freedom to govern to college or it’s an individual choice. the programming without meeting We’re… trying to at least provide governmental requirements and opportunities for athletes that are in standards that often happen with these non-NCAA sports to chisel away subsidies and taxes. The DACE stated, at an undergraduate degree while “I think it’s a challenge because they are competing and some of them all the money for any program run it’s a graduate degree as well while by the Olympic committee, on the they’re competing.” competition side and on this current education side, our whole staff, our Olympic training centers, sending the team with the games, outfitting the team.

54 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Micro level Key stakeholders In talent development, the USOC The primary key stakeholder in the and NGBs rely mostly on partners, U.S. Olympic sport movement is specifically the education sports the athlete, with the focus on the space. There are sports that are development of that athlete toward primarily run by the NGBs not within elite level success on the world stage. the education model or in which The goal of success, given the U.S. the model is not elite enough to private funding model, dramatically support Olympic sports programs. expands the lists of stakeholders. The DACE explains how an elite People and corporations love the athlete typically moves through the association with celebrity athletes, to existing system, and also ways to the winning teams, and especially the persuade elite athletes in certain resulting boost to their own brands sports to change to non-education and social status. based sports. The DACE stated: “I It takes a massive infrastructure to think the NCAA drives the high school, create, fund and sustain national drives the club. It’s really [started] teams for international competition. from the top down because there are Although the government is not so many opportunities educationly directly involved in the USOC and the and financially for athletes to get a NGBs, it can have a dramatic impact scholarship [and that] is what I think such as when the U.S. boycotted drives a lot of the sport participation the 1980 Olympic in Moscow to and the parental push for athletes to protest the Soviet Union’s invasion get into certain sports.” in 1979. As the primary The DCCE adds that the U.S. system, financial backers of the U.S. Olympic while somewhat fractured and movement, corporations and the decentralized, has largely worked in private sector have a major stake developing elite athletes, and thus in the effort. Certainly, colleges, the education system has supported universities and the private athletic talent identification. It would be development sector are the major challenging to have a standard feeder systems for talent identification approach across all fifty states with and development. Coordinating sports of varying popularity. “…the all of these diverse areas without a US is very good at identifying early national sports policy is challenging. athletes. …early identification by Nevertheless, the U.S. national teams national governing bodies in individual and individual athletes still remain very and team sports have national team or competitive when compared to the development programming… [in] skill rest of the world in many competitive development. They’ve got a pathway and Olympic sports. to get you get [the athlete] better coaching and get you connected… whether [to] the junior Olympic level, the junior national level, and then the national team. …We are not as strong with… getting those programs of development at the youth level done in a systematic approach across fifty states; it’s very hard.”

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 55 Analysis and critique While the youth sports system and the private athletic clubs have filled some No doubt the United States has been of this void, it has become a class one of the most successful countries system of those who can afford the in modern Olympic competition private clubs and in extreme cases as since its beginnings in 1896. Although mentioned previously, those who can disjointed and decentralized, the afford to pay and play in school based privately funded system of NGBs, sports. As the spending on football using various talent identification and basketball continues to increase, and development schemes to sustain and opportunities in other sports competitive excellence, is working as decreases, it is hard to hypothesize intended. In the absence of a national that the U.S. can continue to dominate sports policy, it has been allowed in as many sports, as feeder systems to flourish without bureaucratic are beginning to crack under the restrictions. But one has to wonder pressure of winning and revenue for how long this approach can be generation. The commercial success sustained and effective. of intercollegiate, interscholastic, and The diversity of the current system youth sports programs may eventually could be its eventual undoing. With force changes to the current the bulk of sports development capitalist-corporate model of sports grounded in an education system that development in the United States is reducing competitive opportunities in many international sports, there is a real danger of inadequate talent creation for the USOC. The education sports development system in U.S. has made a choice to support commercially successful sports like football and men’s basketball, while spending millions on lavish facilities and coaching salaries at the expense of many Olympic sports like wrestling, swimming and gymnastics.

56 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Case study 3. U.S. The disconnect in the U.S. approach is dramatized in the gravitation Youth Sports away from mass participation to Introduction an emphasis on travel and elite teams where participation is often The state of youth sports in U.S., predicated on the hope of earning an the primary feeder system for both athletic scholarship to attend college elite athlete development and for for little or no cost or for a chance mass participation and recreation, to compete at a higher level. The is a matter of perspective: it is reality is that there are only so many either booming or struggling. Youth scholarships available and many do sports in U.S., nearly a $17 billion not cover all costs; moreover, there industry, making it larger than the are only a few elite athletes, in a business of professional baseball and diminishing pool, who would qualify approximately the same size as the for those scholarships. As noted, National Football League (Thompson, even the delivery of a productive 2018). Financially, it is hard to argue education at the college level for that the youth sport industry is an elite athlete is problematic. The struggling. Like the interscholastic so-called elite and travel teams are and intercollegiate systems, however, primarily sustained by families that youth sports is becoming more can afford them. Consequently, focused on elite development rather among wealthier families, youth than mass participation. Overall, that sports participation is actually rising is hurting the state of health and and trending dramatically downward wellness in the country particularly for lower income zip codes and for children under 14 (State of Play, households. Just 34 percent of 2018). According to Thompson children from families with annual (2018), children ages six to 12 who incomes of less than $25,000 played play a on a regular basis a team sport at least one day in 2017, declined from 41.5 percent in 2011 versus 69 percent from homes earning to 37 percent in 2017. Since 2008, more than $100,000. In 2011, those participation is lower across many numbers were roughly 42 percent and sports categories, including baseball, 66 percent, respectively (Thompson, basketball, football, soccer, 2018). and even baseball, the emblematic American pastime, is down about 20 percent.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 57 Interview summaries The overall management of youth and recreational sports activities The interview was conducted in the U.S. is at the state, regional with the executive director for the and local levels. Community- National Council on Youth Sports based, non-scholastic youth sports (EDNCYS). The NCYS is a leading programming is by far the largest advocate for youth sports in the very sport development unit in the country. fragmented U.S. sport development The system is not overseen by a space. It represents over 60 million specific NGB, however, and oversight boys and girls in various sports is made up of 25 organizations at a programs across the country with national level and thousands of local a mission of promoting healthy and regional organizations (Sawyer lifestyles and a safe environment for et. al, 2008). Many of the Olympic youth sports, helping strengthen NGBs have a prominent role in elite neighborhoods and communities. youth sport development, while The NCYS provides services ranging mass participation provisions and from coach education, connecting organization are governed and the organizations with resources and local and municipal level through tools, and corporate connections to organizations like the Boys Club, effectively finance and manage youth YMCAs, and local tax supported sports programs. NYCS also lobbys recreational centers. for government legislation on youth sports issues (NYCS.org). Although The NYCS interviewee stated that the EDNYCSis new to the NCYS (in his the mission of the NCYS was to help current position for a year as of this bring many of the diverse elements of writing), he has broad experience in youth sport development together to the youth sports space. He served as accomplish goals at the three levels, national director for the Boys and Girls in the absence of an overall national Clubs of America for 15 years. The sports policy or federal governance. BGCA is one of the largest non-profit He stated that the “NCYS is really youth organizations in the country. looking to be the leading voice in a Youth sports is not its exclusive very fragmented youth sport space… mandate, but is a large part of the [to] be the leading voice in providing operation and mission. support to organizations. We are an association of associations, so we Macro level represent some 60 million registered In the absence of a national governing boys and girls in sports programs body for youth sports in the U.S., across the country. I think we have a the NCYS acts as a pseudo macro two-tier system, one of which is this level governing organization for elite athlete tier and [the second] is youth sports development. While the recreational tier and, interestingly the organization is mostly advisory, enough, there was a time where that it plays a useful role despite a recreational path was the path that fragmented system. According to the most athletes traveled on. [Today,] a NCYS website (nycs.org) the mission disproportional amount of training, of the NCYS is to: resources, coaching, and education is being earmarked for those in the elite • Develop and share among space. I do think that, as we look at members and others education, our model, it’s clearly different from information, and leadership skills other countries where there’s often a • Encourage members to promote cabinet-level position from which all the active participation by all sport activities flow.” youth in fun and healthy physical activities according to their interests and abilities • Promote universal recognition that organized youth sports can develop positive attributes including healthier lifestyles, self-esteem, fair play and good citizenship

58 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Meso and micro levels From the micro perspective of talent identification and development, youth At these levels, competitions are sports is at a crossroads: Should the governed by numerous entities at focus be on mass participation and the state and local levels. Systems access, or on sport specialization of competitions can range from and elite development? The NYCS community leagues to city, regional, interviewee, like many others who and even state championships, or work in youth sport, expressed state games such as the Empire State concerns about the direction of youth Games in New York. Volunteerism sports, given that few can afford it or plays a major role despite that have the ability, and the diminishing millions participate and thousands of focus on the greater good of exercise organizations are involved in youth and participation. Noting the inherent sport governance. Many volunteers problems of affordability and access, fuel the engine that runs youth sports, he stated: “In our system, from a from coaches, administrators, and recreational perspective, there are game officials. They dedicate their two things that I think are happening: time to youth sports development in young people are getting squeezed exchange for little or no remuneration. from a recreational perspective The most prominent negative of this because of things like No Child Left situation is the lack of coach training Behind2 …so those opportunities to according to national benchmarks and participate in school are going away. standards. The executive director of And then there’s… this increase in the NYCS spoke to the issue of coach what I would call elite and ‘elite lite’ training or access to trained and opportunities, where it’s a pay for play effective coaches as a major weakness engagement.” of U.S. youth sport development compared to Europe which has much stronger coaching certification and education programs.

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) or Public Law 107-110 was a U.S. Act of Congress that reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. It supported standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals could improve individual outcomes in education. The Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills. To receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade levels (No Child Left Behind [NCLB], 2002).

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 59 Analysis In the U.S. youth sports model, those who can afford to pay the Youth sports in U.S. is suffering fees and travel for an “elite” team from the same struggles as are considered elite; others from interscholastic and intercollegiate lower socio-economic levels who sports. Whereas education based may possess elite level ability, sports were originally intended to but not financial means to pursue be a supplement to education to development and compete, may not. support health goals, it has morphed into primarily elite development, As noted earlier, the U.S. is an inverted passing operational costs on to the pyramid of mass participation and prospective athlete, in effect, to elite development. That pyramid constrain the participation of many needs to shift for youth sports young men and women according to development at the elite, mass socio-economic status or zip code. participation and recreational sport The entire sport community needs levels. Access for all, similar to the to find a solution to the tension in European Sport for All model would be the mass participation versus elite an excellent goal for American youth development complex. While both sports development. Again, the U.S. can exist, it is important not to value needs a more centralized approach one over the other, especially in the to sport development to counter youth sports space. There should its various silos. Youth, college, be an examination of alternatives interscholastic and a gentrified that identify elite prospects and external club system are focused mechanisms that enable those much more on elite development, athletes to develop at the proper although few athletes can be skill level and at the proper age. classified legitimately as elite. Ways In addition, as the NYCS executive to reverse the pyramid should be director noted, accessible and examined so that sports opportunities affordable participation options must can be more accessible and affordable also be available to youth to help to all. The school system works for combat the growing health crisis of all levels of athletics but it should not obesity and diabetes. Many ailments be the only model. Options for the can be traced to lack of exercise and education of elite athlete outside the poor nutritional choices. conventional education space can a better approach.

60 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies B. RUSSIA/EASTERN EUROPE

The management of sport in Eastern Overview of macro, meso and Europe is grounded in the philosophy micro aspects of a harmonious, science-based development of each individual, and From the USSR and Russian practices, a deep dedication to physical culture the following approaches can and sport. This is supported in a highly be offered at the three levels of integrated system led by central or sport development. For the mutual federal authorities as part of national benefits of the macro and meso education and health policies. In levels, the development of mass and the USSR and Eastern Bloc, sport elite sport should be stimulated, was delivered with passion, original especially by mobilizing resources inquiry, dedication, and rigor. The of education, healthcare, sport and nations of Eastern Europe today have corporate sectors for cooperation inherited the following practices that and national socio-economic and appear to be useful best practices social advancement. Particularly for successful sport management helpful are the old USSR (and current globally: Russian) best practices of the system of clubs and schools. This maximizes • Coaches qualified to prevent both participation and excellence, mass illnesses and achieve high connected with sport colleges performance and sport universities for gradual • An integrated pyramid of sport progression of athletes as high sport schools, colleges and universities performers and sport specialists who in return make their nation • Uniform guidelines for integrated healthier, happier, more productive mass and elite participation, and successful in sport as well as regulation, and LTAD economically and politically. The case • Uniform education and study below details the integrated certification of athletes, coaches, structure of sport schools, sport and referees; and colleges and sport universities. • Integrated plans for competitions.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 61 It is important to capitalize on the Russia/Eastern Europe increasing importance of a high performance (HP) sport system in case study 1 society and its interconnections with Role of an Eastern European various institutions through legislative and commercial initiatives that form coach in the process of athlete a sport development system. This development and education task requires leading partners from Introduction within and outside the sport industry toward common goals and to acquire Coaches essentially run sport systems comprehensive support at the in Eastern Europe, and even more in highest levels of public and private Russia, because they are employed organizations. by the state and rewarded according to coaches’ level of education, Coaching and science should be certification, and achievements embedded in the meso level, as of their entrusted participants. well as education for all HP-related According to the East European policy, personnel, philosophy, and notion of sport as preventative promotional support. Optimal training medicine, the coaches assume the and education for athletes requires roles of holistic physicians as well as a nationally coordinated system of spiritual leaders, being well educated competition across all levels of each in biomedical and pedagogical sport, as well as among sponsors sciences. Coaches receive help from and supporting organizations. A medical doctors and scientists to network of sophisticated training nurture participants through the LTAD centers should also be created with process, directing each participant to complex infrastructures for training the sport appropriate for individual and competition processes, including health conditions. a hierarchical system of best practice for sport schools, colleges and Interview summary universities, as exemplified in the case below. This case is based on Peter Smolianov’s interviews with a Sport At the micro level of sport, top Ministry executive who was a Sport coaching requires increasingly University alumni, two Olympic sophisticated and diverse preparation Training Center executives who were to operate constituents in the process Sport University alumni, two current of the long-term progress of athletes and two former National Coaches who across multi-stages. To maximize and were Sport University alumni, three prolong the success of HP athletes, Sport School and College executives the highest level of sport specific, and alumni, and one former chief pedagogical, medico-biological, and physician of the Complex Scientific other cross-disciplinary scientific Group servicing the USSR National competencies is required, as well as Team athletes. the ability to coordinate numerous professional and personal partners supporting athletes and to prevent participants from all possible harm. The case study below details the multi-faceted role of a best practice coach in Eastern Europe.

62 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Organization, governance, Boris Gitman’s coaching skills were structure, and processes passed to him by his coach in Odessa, Ukraine. Boris and his teammates Victor Rybakov, one of the most loved and respected their coach, successful Soviet boxers in the late a great teacher. He had uniquely 1970s and early 1980s, represented individualized approach, which he the USSR twice at the Summer passed to Boris. Boris later studied Olympics during his career as an psychology as part of his boxing amateur. He won the bronze medal at coach university education, and both the 1976 and 1980 Olympics. He came to understand the techniques won silver medals at the 1979 and 1981 his own coach had used to make World Cup competitions and gold such a deep impression. Boris’s medals at the 1975 and 1979 European coach created a family-like group of Amateur Championships. Rybakov’s participants who were together in joy amateur boxing career ended with a and hardship in all parts of life. The record of 203 wins out of 219 bouts. coach, like a good doctor, detected In 1990 he turned professional, but individual peculiarities and addressed fought only one fight in the USA everyone’s personal needs and which he won in a knockout. Rybakov interests. It was a loving family where returned to Russia and became a there is agreement on how to bring successful businessman, and also up children and to achieve success. served as the vice-president of the The coach also painted and he taught Russian Boxing Federation. Coach Boris to paint, integrating the visual Boris Gitman nurtured Victor as a arts into boxing and conditioning boxer and through school, university sessions. Painting provided many and Olympic contests, and finally to physical and mental benefits and was his corporate job. particularly stimulating when done outdoors after training in natural environment.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 63 After competing in boxing and Boris assisted Victor, after his graduating from a sport university in graduation from high school, to L’viv, Ukraine as a boxing coach, Boris enter a local university and arrange took a coaching position in the city an individualized plan of study of Magadan, Russia, at a multi-sport allowing Victor to receive his club, Trud (Labor) Voluntary Sports bachelor degree in education while Society which was part of a national traveling for training camps and network of sport clubs integrated competitions. Boris trained Victor with sport schools. The system was at the Trud Voluntary Sports Society supported with financial and other until he graduated from university necessary resources by factories and and served in the army. Looking for other workplace organizations across the best training conditions, Boris the country as well as departments traveled with Victor to the Central of education and sport at federal and Sport Army Club in Moscow where local governments. Victor joined one of the world’s most comprehensive multi-sport training As a typical Eastern European centers. As one of the USSR national coach, Boris was assisted by sport team coaches, Boris served as Victor’s and education authorities to search personal coach and prepared him for talented athletes by observing to win Olympic, World Cup and children at physical education classes professional titles. He continued to during regular visits to many of provide the full spectrum of athlete schools. Boris discovered Victor in an services from conditioning, health orphanage in Magadan while talent and diet, in psychology, education, scouting there. Boris helped Victor and career assistance. Perhaps the transfer to the Trud sport school near most remarkable indication of Eastern the club, and to receive room and European coaching approach was that board. When Victor showed his talent, after Victor’s boxing career was over, the municipal authorities provided Boris helped Victor find a job with him with a room in the building where Gazprom, one of the world’s largest the boxing facility occupied the first gas and oil companies and a major floor and upper floors contained Russian sport sponsor. apartments where Boris lived. Boris and his wife took care of Victor in most aspects of his life. Boris regularly visited Victor’s school teachers and administrators to ensure Victor’s successful academic progress and optimal overall conditions including special meals and assistance with homework and preparations for exams. The system did not allow Victor and other athletes to train if academic grades were not good. This practice stimulated academic development and sport achievements through a positive atmosphere of devotion to excellence, the high reputation of coaches, as well all the material and intangible benefits coaches provided to athletes. The family-like coach-athlete relations allowed coaches to serve as loved mentors to their athletes. The high level of education for coaches, similar to the U.S. masters degree, allowed them to provide a rich educational experience and guidance to their entrusted athletes.

64 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Analysis/critique Russia/ Eastern Europe This case is similar to many others; it case 2: illustrates the special role of the coach in Eastern Europe and helps explain Case of sport schools, colleges why coach education is important and universities in Russia in the micro-level processes of developing and educating athletes, Introduction particularly in finding what interests When asked to describe the system of each participant and how to inspire athlete development and education, and lead every athlete. The case also two respondents agreed that the highlights the role of the coach in Russian sports system is, first of all, facilitating meso-level services to the system of ‘our sport schools’. The athletes, particularly education, and pyramidal structure of these schools in attracting macro-level resources is designed to ensure that all children from organizations outside the sport have opportunities to enjoy sport, industry. The case highlights the integrated with their overall education central role of the coach in how the for harmonious development as whole sport system functions and athletes, individuals, and lifelong progresses. productive and responsible citizens. The future: concerns, In Russia the goal of nurturing an athlete’s progression from beginner opportunities, developments to world-class sport participation The USSR provided all education free is pursued by developing many of charge, including coach preparation recreational schools and a sufficient and ongoing training. In the new number of high performance sport capitalist economic context, colleges schools, colleges, and universities and universities offered their services across the country with constantly for payment, accepting students with advancing structures, policies and lower grades and inevitably lowering processes as summarized in this entry and graduation standards, case. As in the first case study, this which has led to diminished levels of case is based on Peter Smolianov’s coaching skills and expertise. Career interviews. fairs replaced the job placement service, which had guaranteed all Organization, governance, graduating students under the old structure, and processes Soviet regime professional positions The structural foundation of athlete according to the study specialization. development and education in Russia Guaranteed placement is a thing of are 3,559 Children Sport Schools the past. Sport universities continue which are after-school training to provide their advanced training centers providing recreational sport courses to improve knowledge of instruction about three times a working coaches, but now universities week with minimal initial selection charge for it. On the other hand, requirements and fees affordable the Sport Ministry together with the for most families and free for all federations and national governing members of families with three bodies and regional governments children or more, as well as for low provide increasing number of free income families and individuals with continuous education courses to disabilities. The cost of training to coaches: there is a special free parents was about $2-8 per hour or education center at the Sport Ministry $100-300 a month in 2018. If a child in Moscow, and federations provide is identified as potentially skilled in a free education courses for coaches as particular sport, the sport school is part of national conferences devoted free of charge. Children Sport schools to specific sports. Training and are mostly based at sport clubs (e.g., retraining of adaptive and disability Dynamo, subsidized through police sport coaches is also provided within and security forces, SKA financed the federal program “Accessible by the army, and others), which Environment”. have facilities in most towns across the country and provide only sport coaching, not academic classes.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 65 Coaches teach the theory of healthy become healthy high performance lifestyle, lifelong fitness, illness and athletes and knowledgeable sport injury prevention, and moral behavior specialists. Athletes can enter at as well as the history of sport. Starting grade two (eight years) through age depends on standards developed high school, specializing in sport and by sport scientists. Weight lifting and biomedical disciplines. Students can wrestling can start at age ten, but also attend three years of college gymnastics can start as early as at six to study sport related professions years. Progression is managed by the (coaching, massage, etc.). Sport sport specific ten-stage guidelines college graduates are assisted with developed by scientists from the getting the sport related jobs or with Research Institute of Physical Culture. entering universities, particularly Coaches advertise special open house providing special assistance with and enrolment days at least once a orientation and smooth transition to year. sport universities. Entry requirements are waved for world champions at all The next structural level of athlete public universities. Many sport schools development and education are and colleges allow students with no 1,038 Olympic Reserve and High- elite status to study for payment. The Performance Schools which are cost of instructional sessions is about highly competitive, fully subsidized $6 to 20 per hour. government training centers operating before and after school. Moscow Sport School-Olympic They partner with nearby schools College №1 includes Grades two where sport classes and cohorts through Grade 11, plus three years of start at 10-11AM to provide training college education with specialization twice a day integrated with study. in 12 sports and medico-biological Schools provide healthy sport meals disciplines. In 2016, there were 889 twice a day according to scientific student-athletes. From 1976 to 2018, recommendations and quality out of 2,648 graduates, 155 students controlled by coaches, initiating took part in 14 Olympic Games and healthy eating as a lifelong habit and won 62 medals. Best practices of teaching what and how to eat for Olympic Education at Moscow Sport specific training and health objectives. School-Olympic College №2 included Coaches work closely with teachers the courses utilizing the college’s to ensure both sport and academic Moscow Sports Museum, information success. All services are free for those and library center as well as the who show potential to succeed in a Club of Young Sports Journalists. particular sport and for all members of Olympic education lessons are taught families with three children or more, at the museum using multimedia as well as for low-income families and interactive technologies and with the individuals with disabilities. participation of graduates, more than 150 of whom are world, European Further, the 55 Olympic Reserve and Olympic champions. Students Colleges are the most comprehensive are prepared to work as tour guides structures integrating elite athlete at sports facilities in Moscow and development with education; they are as sports journalists, in addition to linked with sport boarding schools traditional sport-related professions across all regions and fully financed provided by the Russian sport by the government. Candidates to colleges. At Rostov-on-Don Sport regional and national teams and School Olympic College, students outstanding talent train two to three indicated a high level of appreciation times a day, study, live and eat three and performance as they participated to four healthy sport meals a day. in the GTO (Ready for Labor and ‘Open and supervised seven days Defense) fitness program detailed a week, these colleges provide earlier in the literature review section, multisport facilities with such medical including activities for 16 to 17 year services as traumatology, physical olds such as running, pull-ups, push- exams, sport performance diagnostics ups, weight lifting, standing long and physiotherapy, and individualized jump, throwing, back extension and school studies with additional touching toes as well as swimming sport curriculum to help students

66 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies and shooting. The student-athletes biomechanics, psychology, journalism, helped develop the following and management. To help athletes recommendations to those who are their combine competitive careers going to take GTO tests: and studies, the sport universities allow an extension for completion • Pay attention to physical qualities of the Bachelor degree over eight that are not a priority in your years. The best universities provide chosen sport individualized scheduling of studies • Include exercises from mandatory and exams in integration with camps and optional tests in daily and competitions, with a mandatory workouts so that they do not presence of five weeks per semester, interfere with your sport-specific or 20 to 30 weeks per five to six years training of studies. These best-personalized • Contact a specialist coach to services are provided to members of learn the correct techniques and national teams. There is also distance distributing the pace over the education available to further help entire distance those traveling frequently or living in other cities. Currently in Germany, • Stretch 20-30 minutes daily in the government also cares for athlete isometric and isotonic modes, education, but it subsidizes university including antagonist muscles studies after athletes’ career is over, • Start running for 20 minutes promoting the notion of separating every day and after about a intense full time sport from further week increase to 30 minutes at a professional preparation. As the moderate pace with a heart rate previous case demonstrated, Russian not higher than 150 beats per coaches constantly help their athletes minute and then increase to 40 advance education in the realization minutes that knowledge helps elite athletes better understand and drive all • Do not over train, and monitor aspects of their training strategies recovery process and tactics together with coaches, • For the highest super- and maximize and prolong high compensation test result, a week performance. As with all state funded before the test perform exercises higher education in Russia, most for five sets with your maximum students study at sport universities for number of repetitions free. Students with lower grades or no elite athlete status can be granted These instructions reflect best admission to study for payment: the practice for mass participation in cost in 2018 was $1,200 to $2,270 a Russia, leading to elite sport. year on-campus, and $620 to $1,000 Finally, at the top of the athlete for distance education, depending development and education structure, on specialization. Those who finish Russian government finances 14 the sport colleges do not have to public sport universities. Careers take a multi-subject federal school focused on medico-biological and graduation exam, but still have to pedagogical disciplines, particularly pass four entry exams in core study coaching in specific sports–degrees subjects except for world competition that are still unique to Russian sport winners who have to take only one universities. Moscow Sport University exam. graduated more than 47,000 specialists in physical culture and sports since established in 1918. Today there are 450 instructors working in eight colleges in 43 departments. Departments are organized by sport and study specializations including shooting, soccer, chess, fencing, volleyball, modern pentathlon, rowing, , boxing, etc. There are also such departments as sport medicine, physiotherapy, biochemistry,

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 67 Analysis/critique The future: concerns, The system of sport schools opportunities, developments integrated with networks of clubs The following trends are noticeable in and sport societies and supported the current Russian system of athlete by workplaces across the country development and education. The is being revived after deterioration Sport Ministry puts more resources since the breakup of the USSR in 1990. into advancing quality rather than Sports schools are to retain support quantity: if earlier the main task was from federal, regional, and municipal to attract children to sports, now it governments and regain support is the retention of participants and from all workplaces, and the study their transition to high performance. and sport clubs these organizations Focus now is on a more targeted finance. Federal government and the search for talented children and their Sport Ministry issued new policies preparation for ultimate Olympic in the 2010s to stimulate such victories. To better achieve this organizational support for sport. strategy, recreational sport and fitness Leaders in this support are Dynamo programs are subsidized through the (police and security forces) and SKA education system, while the above (army) clubs. After the recent review described sport schools, colleges of policies, all sport schools operate and universities are financed and on the basis of uniform federal coordinated by the Sport Ministry. standards: as mentioned, children have to be ten years old to start From 2016, per capita financing wrestling and weightlifting, and six based on the achievement of uniform years old to start gymnastics. The requirements, such as the ten athlete 2017 federal policy requires coaches development stages summarized in to educate participants about the literature review, was introduced moral/ethical and healthy behavior in the social sectors including sport. including knowledge and skills about This was expected improve budgetary general and sport-specific training, planning at all levels and the quality conditioning, diet, ensured by the of services provided. The optimization coaches’ sport college or university should help with the following: education and update courses every 1) preservation of the system of four to six years. organizations engaged in sports training; 2) transition to normative With increasing capitalism and per capita financing when calculating privatization in Russia, coaches cannot the state (municipal) assignments visit schools in search of talented of subordinate organizations; 3) children as done in the USSR. Many gradual transfer of organizations schools, as in the West, do not providing additional education in allow coaches to attend physical the field of physical culture and education classes. Parents or children sports, to organizations that provide themselves have to come to sport more targeted preparation to sport schools or register on the internet competitions. portal of public services. As in the past, every August to September, children are invited to sports schools and selected based on tests. Olympic Reserve Colleges now accept disabled children based on new policies enforcing the equal rights of all citizens in accessing sport services. Special attention is again paid to medical and biological support. For example, each sports school and college is planned to have a mini- clinic for regular medico-biological examinations and anthropometry for better health and performance, as was done in the USSR.

68 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies C. UNITED KINGDOM

A total of five interviews were have informally offered elite student- conducted in the United Kingdom. athletes education support through The data from these interviews special arrangements regarding has been used to create two case programs of study and assessment. studies representing two dominant This support, however, has not systems of education support in the been systematically organized or U.K. context. The first case study consistently provided across the will address education support for country. More recently, the U.K. has talented and elite-level athletes formalized efforts and has established who are not engaged directly in the policies, coordinated structures, four major professional sports in the allocated resources and developed U.K. (football, , rugby substantive mechanisms in order to league, and cricket). This system is pursue the vision of a world class most prevalent as it addresses the further and higher education-based needs of all sports outside the major talent development program for professional sports. The second case sportsmen and women (DCMS). study will focus on professional sport, specifically the education support Interview summary services available to professional Interviews were conducted with athletes. Each of the case studies four senior (high managerial-level) will present the key findings from the representatives of key stakeholders interviews and discuss these findings involved in the policymaking and/or against the macro-, meso-, and micro- policy implementation of education level contextual overview included in support for talented and elite athletes the literature review. in a non-professional sporting context. U.K. Case study 1. Non- • National Manager, Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme, DCMS professional sport • Strategic Lead, Talent and Introduction Performance, Sport England This case gives detailed attention • Head of Sport Delivery & to the education support system Performance, BUCS of those who are talented or elite • Director of Sport, Bath University level athletes, but not engaged in professional sport. Historically, a number of universities in the U.K.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 69 The four interviews took place from the U.S. based college system between early October and mid- primarily due to the dominance of November 2018. The duration of the club-based sport development in interviews ranged from 45 minutes the U.K., the lack of commercial, to 75 minutes with a mean duration political, or historical power of college time of 60 minutes. All interviews athletics in the U.K., and the crowded were conducted in accordance with professional sport space dictated by the overarching methodology guiding football (soccer), rugby (union and the entire project including the set league), and cricket. Nevertheless, of question, recording of interviews, college sport in the U.K. has become keynote transcription, and thematic formalized over the past decade, analysis of transcripts. resulting in a more professional, more organized and consistent approach to Organization, governance, education support for elite athletes structure and key stakeholders in the U.K. As Duncan Truswell from Elite sport in the U.K. is governed by Sport England commented: “from a a key advocacy coalition consisting political and policy standpoint, it is of the DCMS (government), U.K. clear that the country is passionate Sport, BOA, BPA, the home country about elite sport and passionate about sport councils and the NGBs of providing proportionate support to sport. These stakeholders are elite sportsmen and women.” primarily responsible for making The system of governing education policy including the development support for elite athletes in the U.K. of strategy and the allocation of is a collective enterprise “involving a resources at the national level. The number of key stakeholders including World Class Performance Plans and the DCMS, British Olympic Association the talent pathways are central to (BOA), British Paralympic Association the process of organizing, governing (BPA), British Universities and Colleges and implementing elite sport policy. Sport (BUCS), U.K. Sport, the English The ownership of the WCPP and Institute of Sport (EIS), the Home talent pathway is each NGB of sport Country Sports Councils, NGBs of who is responsible for defining and sport, and both further and higher articulating this in specific terms education institutions” (DCMS). for their sport. The street-level Within this collective system “there providers and implementers of elite are those that are responsible for sport policy (i.e. those who work making national-level policy (DCMS), alongside NGBs of sport in the doing those responsible to nationwide of policy) include the English Institute coordination (TASS, U.K. Sport, NGBs of Sport, professional and voluntary of sport) and those responsible for sports clubs, and further and higher implementation and actually providing education. the support to the athlete (EIS, further In recent years, the education sport education, higher education)” (DOS, system including education support Bath University). In short, the system talented and elite athletes has been of governance in the U.K. aligns with subject to considerable change with the National Sport Federation as an a formalized approach to education intermediary type, although there support partly modeled after the U.S. is evidence of greater formalization system, with clearer structures and and moves toward more direct state clearly delineated functional areas intervention particularly through the of responsibility across different work of state sponsored initiatives stakeholders. That said, the U.K. such as the Talented Athlete system will always remain different Scholarship Scheme supported by the (in terms of size and resources) Department of Culture, Media, and

3Further education typically offers pre-university qualifications including A’ levels, and standardized qualifications in vocational areas of work such as sport. Traditionally, further education caters to 16 to18-year olds. Higher education offers undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. Traditionally, higher education caters to students aged 18 and over.

70 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Sport or the Winning Students initiative supported by the Scottish Parliament (discussed further below). Further, the system of governance reflects the fragmented and pluralist nature of sport governance in the U.K. This has resulted in what can be best described as “an a la carte menu of opportunities that are available to talented and elite athletes based upon their age and their skill level” (or more specifically their place on the NGB talent pathway) (BUCS).

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 71 Key programs for elite with each sport-specific plan development detailing the precise programs that will be delivered to support There are two dominant performance an athlete’s progression along the pathways for elite development in pathway. Alongside the World Class the U.K. context. One is centered Performance programs, U.K. Sport on competing for the home country directly funds athletes through an (i.e. Commonwealth Games and Athlete Performance Award, which some international sport-specific helps to pay for both sporting and competitions – football, rugby, living costs (DCMS). There are two cricket) the other is U.K.-based levels of award that are allocated (Olympic/Paralympic Games and the to Podium athletes; Band A which majority of international sport-specific provides up to £28,000 ($36,884) or competitions). Band B which allocates up to £21,500 As detailed in the literature review, ($28,319) both allocations are annual, the NGB of sport is specific to each per athlete awards that are committed home country (e.g. England Athletics, over each Olympiad (an annual award The FA, ) and for some committed for a four-year period). sports there is an overarching U.K. Band A athletes are typically medalists wide NGB who works with all home at the Olympic Games or Senior World country NGBs of sport (e.g. U.K. Championships or gold medalists at Athletics, ). Despite the Paralympic Games or Senior World the dual tracks, it is ultimately the NGB Championships. Band B athletes have (both home country and U.K.-wide) a minimum of a top eight finish at is responsible for the managing the the Olympic Games or Senior World talent pathway for all athletes involved Championships or gold medalists at in their sport. Obviously, this requires the Paralympic Games or Senior World a more resources, coordination and Championships. In addition to this, communication than would be the U.K. Sport and the English Institute case in single nation-state countries of Sport provide a number of support with only one representative NGB per programs that complement the NGB sport. Alongside the NGB of sport, World Class Performance Programs home country Sport Councils (e.g. and the APAs, including talent Sport England) and U.K. Sport are scouting campaigns, world class responsible for providing funding, coaching and leadership clinics, sport guidance and strategic support science and medicine support, warm to NGBs of sport particularly on weather training and acclimatization, matters relating to grassroots international competition schedules, development, talent development, bidding for major sport events, athlete facility planning and development, development programs, access to and good governance. More high performance training facilities, specifically, the primary role of and athlete lifestyle support. U.K. Sport is to strategically invest Support programs for access to funding to maximize the performance of U.K. athletes in the Olympic and education attainment Paralympic Games and the global Four key programs offer education events that precede them. Of central support to talented and elite athletes importance to this process is the in the U.K. These programs are led by sport-specific talent pathways as it a range of different agencies, have not only identifies the position of differing priorities and goals, are every talented athlete against the funded through different sources, and sport’s pathway but this position provide varied levels of support to on the pathway dictates the level athletes. of support and resources that are invested in each and every athlete. The key programs that align to the talent pathway are varied and bespoke to each sport. All funded sports are responsible for developing a World Class Performance Plan

72 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Analysis: What are the key agenda, at least up to and including issues and hot topic issues? the next Summer Games in 2020. The final major issue of concern at The three major pressing issues this time is the funding review of confronting elite sport in the U.K. elite sport. This review will set about today are Brexit (the departure of evaluating how funding for elite the U.K. from the European Union), sport should be allocated post Tokyo athlete welfare, and nationwide 2020. This is a contentious issue not decisions regarding the funding of least due to the uncompromising elite sport. The U.K. is currently faced method of allocating public funds, with the macro-level implications particularly based solely on criteria that flow from the decision to exit that relate to winning medals without the EU. There are clearly concerns any consideration of the sports about how this decision will affect size or resources. It is also viewed research funding, the central funding to be contentious insofar as the that flows to higher education, as myopic attention to winning and well as the implications that may the ‘No Compromise’ ethos that has come from no longer being part underpinned numerous medal wins of the European Council for sport for Team GB. It is also viewed by or the European-wide lobby for some to reinforce the problematic education support for elite athletes. culture of sport whereby athletes The issue of athlete welfare, whilst are dehumanized, seen merely as a global concern, is one that is machines, resulting in numerous dominating elite sport governance accusations from athletes of in the U.K. with Parliamentary sub- harassment and bullying. Thus, sport committee enquiries and independent administrators and politicians are left investigations into duty-of-care with a dilemma of how to cultivate a issues and how such issues can be funding formula that drives success in appropriately addressed. Education terms of sport performance whilst also for elite athletes is firmly embedded respecting and addressing the welfare within the debate on athlete welfare and broader rights of the athlete. concerns and thus will likely keep the issue relatively high on the political

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 73 Analysis: What works and the NGBs, were an inherent particularly well? structural challenge that made the work of sport and education more The interviewees identified several challenging. Unsurprisingly, although factors they considered important or funding was considered a critical critical to the success of the education success factor, the respondents support programs for elite athletes. all identified proportional funding First was the growing financial as a systemic challenge. Funding commitment of government and allocations to elite sport development individual universities – in the context are relatively high compared with of austerity and severe cuts in public those for general education support. expenditure – to the education for Ultimately, “the funding is pretty elite athletes . Linked to this was the limited really when you think about sense that such programs providing the millions allocated to U.K. Sport…” young athletes with appropriate and at the same time “the cost of lifelong support were ethically the education remains high and the ‘right thing to do’, and that this majority of the costs must be met by together with the public support the student” (DOS, Bath University). for Team GB helped to leverage and Some partners also commented secure political commitment (LTPSE). on the difficulties that come with The sport-education partnership was a collaborative efforts. While there is recurrent theme in which the strength much benefit in the partnership, there of relationship was based upon the are particular challenges associated varied skills-set and resources that with coordinating activities, especially partners can offer (BUCS). The benefit competition programs between NGBs of such partnerships are that they of sport and BUCS (Jenny Morris, are a win-win; they allow universities BUCS). to enhance their sporting programs There is also a tension among partners while allowing sport to utilize in settling on the delineation of roles academic programs and resources and responsibilities. The dominance for the benefit of athletes (DOS, Bath of certain sports over others was University). This is generally viewed as also noted, particularly those on the a result of the combined commitment Olympic or Paralympic program and from the investment of partners in those where the U.K. have strong the principle of better education winning potential. Sports that aren’t for talented athletes (DCMS). The well positioned or not supported final points reiterated the value of by a World Class program tend to each partner in contributing to the lose out. Often, there is nothing establishment of best developmental environments in sport in the U.K. (BUCS), and the additional commitment of higher education in investing in high quality sport infrastructure (DOS, Bath University). This is motivated not solely by supporting elite athletes but also by the institutions’ ability to leverage such developments for future student and student-athlete recruitment purposes. Analysis: What are the challenges inherent in the system? The primary challenges identified by the interviewees were largely controllable factors that could be addressed through a change in policy, leadership or management practice. All respondents noted, however, the complexity of the U.K.

74 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies for those athletes, despite their full relationship, restoring power to commitment. (DCMS). Elite sport also athletes and assuring that the myopic faces the overarching challenges in focus on elite sport development is attracting top athletes and coaches, replaced by a more nuanced approach and providing high-quality facilities that considers a broader concept with optimal support services across of excellence, with a core focus on the country. Geography is always a athlete welfare. factor; some benefit more than others The Duty of Care Independent (LTPSE). Annual evaluations of program Report presents a major opportunity success reflect another challenge. for the key stakeholders in elite The data clearly show, for example, sport development, particularly for that male athletes are more successful athletes. The report sets out several than their female peers in terms of important themes centered on athlete staying in the program, completing welfare, including the perspectives studies, and progressing on the talent and views of athletes themselves, pathway. The reasons for this are not equality, mental health and safety, conclusively established, and are education, and transition. It develops being examined in ongoing research numerous recommendations these on program effectiveness. theme (Grey-Thompson, 2017). There The Future are seven specific education-related recommendations ranging from The range of challenges and information dissemination to the opportunities for elite sport on the evaluation and retention of student- horizon have been identified in the athletes on the talent pathway. themes presented above. The U.K.’s exit from the European Union (Brexit) While these education-based poses, of course, the most prominent recommendations may be set of challenges for higher education unremarkable, the fact that the and sport. Othert challenges include government have commissioned an re-balancing the principal-agent independent report on athlete welfare and that education occupies a central place in the report is striking and bodes well for the sustained attention to education issues related to talented athletes. In addition, the ongoing consultation on future funding strategies for elite sport development in the U.K. (post Tokyo 2020) presents an opportunity to revisit elite athlete education in anticipation for Paris 2024 and beyond.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 75 U.K. case study 2. Organization, governance, Professional sport structure and key stakeholders The majority of professional team- Introduction based sport leagues in the U.K. Focusing on the professional sport (football, rugby, cricket) are based system in the U.K., this case study upon a pyramid structure whereby examines the policies, structures, clubs can move up and down and programs available only to league structures, based primarily professional athletes, or are formally on their performance. For example, recognized as an integral part of the professional soccer in England has 92 professional sport infrastructure (i.e. clubs playing in the top professional academies and centers of excellence). leagues (English Premier League, EFL The professional code is also Championship, EFL Division 1, EFL distinguished by its focus on a small Division 2). There are 20 clubs in the number of professionalized sports. In Premier League and 24 clubs in each the U.K., the sports generally deemed of the three leagues beneath. These professional are: football (soccer), professional leagues are underpinned rugby union, rugby league, cricket, by hundreds of clubs playing semi- , , darts, snooker, and professional football at the national, horseracing (PPA). Darts, snooker, and regional and county-level. For these horseracing are reasonably healthy clubs there is a pathway to allow a commercialized in the U.K. They have team to gain promotion into the full- a relatively large, traditional following time professional league structures in live spectatorship, TV audiences, (some clubs in the lower leagues and generate considerable revenues operate full-time and pay their through gambling. players as full-time professionals). The majority of the 92 professional The system of performance clubs have a comprehensive youth development and the policies and development system (academy or programs providing education to center of excellence) that underpin athletes (and coaches) are unique to the first team, providing coaching, each sport. This case study provides education, and lifestyle support (see a general overview of professional elite development, below). sport with a focus on football, rugby union, rugby league, and cricket. There are two codes of professional It also provides an overview of rugby in the U.K., rugby union and the youth development systems rugby league. Rugby Union in England embedded within professional sport, was an amateur sport until 1995, and education for young athletes meaning that there was no formal who are part of these systems. The national league structure (a sign of focus is on football, which is the most professionalization). Professionals comprehensive and well-developed (paid athletes) were not permitted. of all professional sport systems in the The recent professionalization United Kingdom. of the sport resulted in a formal, pyramidal league structure which Interview Summary has in turn attracted greater One interview was conducted, commercial opportunities including supplemented with a range of significant broadcasting rights deals secondary sources. The interview, and corporate partnerships. The with the CEO of the Professional professional league structure for Players Association, was conducted Rugby Union includes two full-time in accordance with the same professional leagues, the Premiership overarching methodology guiding the and the RFU Championship, each with entire project including the question- 12 clubs. Underpinning these two set, recording of interviews, keynote leagues, are three national leagues transcription, and thematic analysis (, National of transcripts. The secondary sources North and South, and a regionalized used are cited and included at the end of the paper.

76 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies National ). As in football, The concept of network governance there are hundreds of rugby clubs best represents the governance of competing in regional and county- each professional sport with the based leagues beneath these five network involving the NGB of sport divisions, all of which have pathways, (e.g. FA, RFU, RLFL, or ECB), the via promotion, into the professional league organization (e.g. EPL/EFL, league system. The majority of Premiership, Super League, County rugby union clubs competing in the Championship), and the teams (e.g. Premiership have academy structures Manchester United, Saracens, Leeds to support the development of young Rhinos, Sussex). In addition to these rugby players including integrated organizations, the professional players education support (RFU, 2018). unions have an increasingly visible role in representing their members Rugby League has been professional (PPA); this especially interesting since the late nineteenth century considering the overall decline in (payment of athletes was a primary trade union influence in the U.K. in reason for the division of rugby the post-Thatcher era. Furthermore, into two codes). There are three associations such as League Football professional leagues: Super League Education (LFE), a network of (12 clubs), Championship (14 clubs) professional football clubs outside the and League 1 (12 clubs), with Premier League, play an important the possibility of promotion and role alongside the professional relegation between the leagues players trade union, the Professional via the end of season play-offs. This Footballers Association (PFA), in league structure is underpinned by a providing coordinated support for all number of clubs competing in regional professional footballers outside the leagues. There is no consistent Premier League. youth academy model parallel to the professional clubs, although the These sport-specific player NGB Rugby League Football Limited representative structures are further (RLFL) are beginning to develop a new supported, as is common across county-based academy system (i.e. international sport governance, a academy players will be selected for, network of supra-national (European) train with and represent their county and international sport-specific of origin or residence). associations (e.g. FIFPro – the international professional football The structure of cricket has become (soccer) players union) as well as a more complex due to the recent network of generic player associations expansion and adaptation of the game at the national (e.g. Professional from first-class county cricket to the Players Association), surpa-national one-day game variant, and 20-20. This (EU Athletes) and international levels paper focuses on first-class county (World Players Association). cricket and minor counties cricket, as these are the preeminent U.K.-based structures for professional cricket. The county championship consists of two divisions. Division 1 consists of eight counties; Division 2 has a total of ten counties. Three counties are promoted from Division 2 and three displaced from Division 1 at the end of each season. While counties do have youth development programs, these are not integrated with any wider education support programs.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 77 Key programs for elite exams’. It should read: ‘Open and development supervised seven days a week, these colleges provide multisport All professional sports detailed facilities with such medical services as above have academy structures, or traumatology, physical exams, some variant, with the key purpose of developing young athletes and The classification of each academy building the pool of future professional and the phase of the performance athletes. Although all sports have pathway provide clear requirements youth development structures, some regarding the hours of coaching, the are broader (in terms of the numbers coaching curriculum, the competitive of athletes involved) and more games program, and the education comprehensive (in the services they program that players will access. The offer) than others. This paper provides Premier League advise that these an overview of the key programs in criteria are not merely guidelines but the elite development of academy regulations that are strictly enforced footballers, primarily as this is the by the league through regular most recognized and well-developed inspection and review. network of youth academies in the The support that supplements on-field country. As mentioned in case study training and competition includes #1, it is important to note that the athletic development, lifestyle and talent pathway for each sport varies psychology programs to enhance the and that the programs that form part knowledge, skills and understanding of the talent pathway are unique to needed professional football both each sport. on and off the field (Premier League, As well as developing more and better 2018). The league has instigated the home-grown players, the Premier performance clock concept in which League claims that the academy each club is responsible for providing system helps young players maximize academy players with regular their potential in football, education feedback about their development. It and life through their elite player is essentially a record of achievement performance program (2018). This detailing each player’s personal program for the academy system is performance data including number of based on three phases: foundation hours played, the analytical data from (under nine to under 11 years), the all games played, hours of coaching youth development phase (under the player has received, education 12 to under 15 years), and the progress, health and fitness data professional phase (over 16 years). (Premier League, 2018). This data is Players can join or leave at different used to review the progress of each ages or phases of development player on a regular basis, examining (Premier League, 2018). A number key issues including progress against of program elements such as hours pre-established targets and factors of coaching per week, the coaching that have prevented a player from curriculum, the competitive games meeting expectations, and sets program, and the education and performance targets. The review welfare program also vary according involves the head coach for the year to the category of academy. Each group, the head of education, the academy is independently audited club’s sport scientist and any other every three years and categorized relevant academy staff. In addition, according to the standards of reviews are conducted with parents coaching, evidence of player twice a year to discuss performance development, and their capability reviews in detail with parents (up to and record in providing access to a the age of 16). full-time education program (Premier League, 2018). Open and supervised seven days a week, these colleges provide multisport facilities such medical services as traumatology, physical

78 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Support programs for The education progress of players should be regularly reviewed and the access to education academy have a duty to provide extra This sub-section provides an overview help to ensure that the time away of the education support programs from school does not adversely affect that are in place for academy players academic progress. The academy as well as detailing the more general is also responsible for providing support available through the education at the club to compensate professional players associations. for the time away from school. In the The Premier League states that the FTTM, players receive football and education program of academy education programs through the players is a core component of the academy. The academic program academy program (Premier League, is delivered by a local school, in 2018). There are three specific partnership with the academy. The education models: the part-time club is responsible for making a training model (PTTM), the hybrid detailed assessment of each player’s training model (HTM), and the full-time educational needs and is expected to training model (FTTM). The delivery work closely with previous and new of these models per academy varies schools to ensure that the curriculum according to the academy category meets both government requirements and the development phase of and the academic abilities of each players. At the foundation level (under player. For the FTTM, clubs are nine to under 11), only the PPTM and expected to extend the registration HTM can be delivered. The PPTM can of players so that is lasts up to the be delivered by all academies and the end of secondary school education HTM can be delivered by category (16 years in England). The FTTM is a 1 and 2 clubs only. At the youth full-time program requiring residential development phase of development arrangements whereby players (U12-U16), the PPTM can be delivered will live away from home in a club by all academies, the HTM can be boarding home, boarding school, or delivered by category 1 and 2 clubs stay with a local host family. only, and the FTTM is provided At the professional development through category 1 clubs only. phase (U17-U23), academy players In the PTTM, players attend school between 16 and 18 years must take an full-time and attend the academy in education component as part of their the evenings, at weekends, and during full-time scholarship program. Players holidays. Academies have a regulatory are referred to as scholars during this and moral duty to keep in regular phase of development. As part of contact with the school, provide their scholarship, players will pursue reports on progress, and monitor an apprenticeship in football (training overall progress to ensure that the and competition), an academic football program is not adversely education program that commonly affecting their progress at school. In includes the Diploma in Sporting the HTM, players are released from Excellence (DiSE), and a Player Care school to attend the academy for and Lifestyles program. The DiSE part of the weekly timetable; the is a credit-bearing diploma that hours of commitment to the academy enables students to pursue a focused depend on the age of the player education in sport performance with and the specific academy program. modules of study in psychology, Agreement must be reached between nutrition, strength and conditioning, the school, the academy, and the wellbeing, health and safety, career parents of players. development, media, communication skills, lifestyle, tactical elements of sport, and technical elements of sport. To enter the DiSE program, scholars must have completed their General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) qualifications (age 16). Finally, for those over 18, clubs work with the professional players trade union, The

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 79 Professional Footballers Association transitions support workshop that (PFA), to provide support for players aims to help professional footballers who wish to pursue education transition to life after football. The opportunities although such workshop gives particular attention provision is based on an “as needed” to the athlete identity and how this approach rather than being part of a affects transition, strengths aligned to standardized plan that is offered to career options, reassessing finances, players. and player wellbeing (PFA, 2018). In addition to the education programs The professional player associations offered by football academies, for rugby union, rugby league and professional player associations cricket provide similar support play an important role in providing services. The Rugby Players a system of support to professional Association provide courses, financial athletes (PPA). The range and extent of assistance, and transition support support provided by the professional (RPA, 2018). The Rugby League Players association varies considerably Association is a part of the GMB Union by sport and is influenced by the with over 600,000 members; it offers financial power of the association education support and training, career as well as the collective bargaining guidance and a range of financial and agreement between the sport and legal services to current and ex-Rugby the professional players association League players, coaches and support (PPA). For example, the PFA have a staff (GMB Yorkshire, 2018). The large and well-resourced education Professional Cricketers Association department with an overall aim to runs a multi-faceted personal provide guidance for the provision development and welfare program of education and vocational courses, accessible to all current and former in preparation for a second career professional players. The program for all former and current registered aims to improve performance of members of the PFA (PFA, 2018). current professionals through easing To support this aim, the PFA offer a range of further and higher education programs delivered with a range of education institutions, that provide grants and other funding support, board member support (for ex- players who transition into soccer governance), and a more general

80 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies and minimizing potential distractions, This is an emotional issue in the U.K., and to better prepare them for life with some fans committed to the idea after formal competition (PCA, 2018). of leveraging free-market principles to The program encompasses specialist assemble the highest quality league guidance (skills development, possible, while others are concerned personal welfare, transition support, about the impact that such practices experiential learning opportunities, may have on the ability to develop a etc.), education courses, funding and competitive British national team. personal development scholarship awards, career awareness and Analysis: What works education support, and a transition particularly well? camp to support retiring professionals It is important to stress the clearly (PCA, 2018). normative point concerning resources Underpinning this support, the and services. Those with the greatest Professional Players Association resources, such as the English Premier provide a collective national voice League, can best afford resources for for professional athletes. It promotes, the most comprehensive programs, protects, and develops the collective including residential, integrated interests of these players through elite sport and education within an advocacy, representation and environment offering world class partnership work with supra-national coaching, world class facilities, and and international associations world class competition. According to (Simon Taylor, Professional Players the Players Professional Association, Association). While this does not the other aspects of the education necessarily translate to direct support program that work well provision of education programs or are the individualized planning and services, it does provide an important one-to-one support for athletes, channel for athletes to ensure that that the program is driven by the such issues are on agenda of the athlete, not the government or powers responsible for governing some other agency, and that the national and international sport. network, including the sports-specific association and the Professional Analysis: What are the key Players Association, are objective in issues and hot topic issues? fighting for the rights of the athlete (PPA). Finally, it is clear that a range As with non-professional sport, Brexit of multi-stakeholder partnerships and athlete welfare are the two major are emerging among clubs, higher concerns confronting professional education and player associations sport in the United Kingdom. The toward formalizing education support increasingly commercialization and for professional athletes. While this globalization of the EPL, in addition, may once have been about the market is dominating professional sport. and opportunism, it now seems linked One of the implications of this to ensuring that the holistic needs of dominance is the impact on the long- the athlete are being addressed to term commercial viability of other both respect and nurture the welfare professional team sports. While these of the athlete and to prevent mental sports are not at risk of imminent health problems among professional failure, the dominance of the EPL and athletes after they leave formal the Matthew effect that flows from competition. it (i.e. the rich get bigger and richer, the poor get poorer) suggests that any attempts by other professional sports to grow and further develop, while not impossible, are immediately challenged. Another hot topic related to the EPL is the impact that a globalized league, with talented athletes recruited from all over the world, has on the development of home-grown talent.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 81 Analysis: What are the The future challenges inherent in the The issues with the greatest impact system? on the future of education in Another challenge involves a professional sport in the U.K. are tendency among some athletes to Brexit, athlete rights and welfare, and exclude or distance themselves from the mandate and work of the World further education support once they Players Association. Brexit-related turn 18. “This is a particular concern issues include, among others, the among 18 to 19-year olds who really focus on immigration (bringing players do not know better but feel that they from other countries) and freedom of know enough to ignore the advice movement of employees. Both issues of those around them” (Simon Taylor, have until the present been regulated Professional Players Association). by EU law; their future enforcement Obviously, this is a high-risk strategy is dependent on the outcome of the in the football academy environment troubled Brexit negotiations. Failure where only a small fraction of the to appropriately address these issues 12,000 boys in the system are offered will carry significant and problematic a professional contract with the club implications for clubs in the U.K. as (Conn, 2017). But highly motivated regards doing business with overseas young men may not be ready or clubs, recruiting overseas players willing to fully absorb this reality, with (professionals or academy players) the result that many do not take their and potentially impeding the free education as seriously as they should movement of players once their (Rumsby, 2017). Evident stakeholder contracts expires. efforts to provide a high quality and Premier League and other highly effective sport performance stakeholders appear to take and education environment for young seriously issues of athlete rights people often seem to mask the reality and wellbeing or welfare, such as that many young academy players addressing physical, psychological lack genuine focus on education and and emotional problems. There fail their GCSE exams (Rumsby, 2017). remain significant gaps, however, A range of ill-conceived programs both in the proportional amounts and poorly implemented projects of funding invested in this area (as a contribute to this unfortunate trend. percentage of the funding allocated Although empirical work to test such to professional sport), and the extent claims is difficult given the power and to which professional athletes have control of Premier League clubs over a legitimate voice in the governance academies, current data suggests of elite sport and over the range of that the current system may be less services for professional athletes. effective, and less athlete-focused There may be less public sympathy than the Premier League would have in this area for professional athletes us believe (Conn, 2017; Rumsby, 2017; because of their generous pay and Platts & Smith, 2009). seemingly luxurious lifestyles. The majority of professional athletes, however, are not wealthy and live modestly. Clearly, there is growing unrest among athletes and others at the lack of consideration for athletes’ voices in the decisions taken by the leaders of international sport governance. This is undoubtedly a turbulent time in sport governance; the future is likely to bring renewed opportunity for structures such as the World Players Association and others to asume a more prominent platform to ensure that athletes’ voices are heard and respected.

82 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies D. Senegal

Case study 1. Football As MoS Advisor 1 (2018) explained, a ministerial decree mandated that all academies football academies offer academic Introduction or vocational education to all their trainees. The government (Ministry of This case explores the football Education) can then assist academies academy model in Senegal and that in providing qualified and certified country’s education provision for teachers to the school. The section their young elite athletes. Football that follows presents education data academies are defined by Darby fundamental to the macro level of elite et al. as facilities or coaching athlete development and education. programs designed to produce football talent (Darby, Akindes, & Education context Kirwin, 2007, p. 148). Since the early The secondary education system in 1990s, the number of academies has Senegal is crucial to the development mushroomed across Africa. Diambars of successful athletes and citizens. Academy is considered the first Although the United Nations academy in Senegal. Their first two Development Program and the promotions of young football players World Bank indicate that Senegal’s started their elite footballer training in youth have a high primary-education 2003. Since then, several residential enrollment (83.1 percent), only academies have emerged with the 48 percent of students go on to clear desire to develop elite football secondary school sport sheds light on with globally competitive players. the motivation behind the choice of this particular group.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 83 Figure 2: Official school ages by level of education (UNESCO UIS, 2016)

Figure 2 (UNESCO, 2016) illustrates school categories by age. Youth who attend secondary school range in age from twelve to eighteen, but only around half of that age group actually go to secondary school. In this study, the discussion on athlete development will focus on the secondary school age group. The section addressing education and sport sheds light on the motivation behind the choice of this particular group.

Total Male Female Year

School life expectancy ISCED 1–8 (in years) 8.97 8.56 9.39 (2017)

Percentage of repeaters in primary 1.41 1.51 1.31 (2017)

Survival to the last grade of primary 56.89 57.32 56.22 (2016)

Gross intake ratio into the last grade of primary 60.19 54.72 65.78 (2017) ( percent)

Primary to secondary transition rate 72.98 75.28 71.02 (2016)

Table 1: Progress and completion in education (UNESCO UIS, 2016) education (UNESCO UIS, 2016)

84 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Tables 1, 2, and 3 are indications Yet this system leaves behind talented of the high dropout level in the athletes not in school and those who education system in Senegal, and drop out of high school (Table 2). A provide context to understanding quality education for all prospective the demographics and education of athletes depends on the effectiveness the population. Table 1 (UNESCO UIS, of the education system as a whole. 2016) shows that only 56.89 percent Table 3 details the current low of students survive to the last grade of numbers of young Senegalese who primary school. Of that group, 72.98 attain secondary school. For a more percent transitioned to secondary intimate view of Senegal’s sports and school. As this review details, sport education, interviews were conducted schools offer education to youth for with sports administrators and others the improvement of Senegal generally, involved with football academies and and in its international sports sports institutes. performance.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 85 2017

Out-of-school children

Total 628,099

Female 257,466

Male 370,633

2017

Out-of-school adolescents

Total 690,532

Female 318,098

Male 372,434

Table 2: Out-of-school children and adolescents (UNESCO UIS, 2016)

2017

Gross enrolment ratio (percent)

45.42

Female 47.43

Male 43.45

Net enrolment rate (percent)

Total 37.1

Female 38.87

Male 35.36

Table 3: Student enrollment in secondary school in 2017 (UNESCO UIS, 2016)

86 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Interview synopsis To broaden the search for talent, academies involve several thousands Ten in-depth, semi-structured youths through their network of interviews consistent with the overall football schools and the volunteer protocol defined for the countries coaches. Director Academy 2 of covered in the study interviews Institute Diambars said that their were conducted. The wresting recruitment will screen three to five strength trainer, who gave a portrait thousand twelve-year-old players of wrestlers in the Senegalese sport across the country (Director Academy development context, was asked 2 personal communication, 2018). unique questions. The method was Generation Foot has network of 20 tailored to the specificity of Senegal to 50 recruiters to ensure country- as an African nation with a lower GDP wide screening. Director Academy 1 and economic indicators very different of Generation Foot has an additional from the other countries in the study. regional network for talent detection The founders and CEO of the four to screen five to ten thousand youth most successful football academies annually. The Aspire Dream Academy, in Senegal were the key respondents. which started in 2007 over six African Open-ended questions explored countries, screened more than the history of the academy, the 500,000 youth every year (Director recruitment processes, the education Academy 3 personal communication, of the young players, and their post 2018). A.S. Sacré Coeur, a school, academy options. Other interviews has a similar process with a focus consisted of conversations with on Dakar. It has a network of scouts, senior directors and advisors mostly in the south. Its director, at the MoS. They provided the argues that Dakar, with a population essential information for a current of 4 million, is already an exceptional understanding of the country’s sport source of talent (2018). He says that system, as well as education systems in addition to the tests, they have an in place for sports development and ongoing screening system in place athlete education. that allows the academy to identify talented players. Talent identification and development Football academies have developed their own talent detection Talent identification at the four infrastructure with scouts throughout academies is conducted through short Senegal and beyond. In his 2018 trials. The geographical target and the book The Away Game, Sebastien network in place to conduct the first Abbot describes how Aspire Dream screening of the young candidates Academy makes sure that talented may differ from one academy to young African players are found, another; nevertheless, the approach is recruited, and developed. Unlike very similar and consists of organizing other systems described covered in football tests for youths aged twelve this report, youth sport (specifically, to thirteen to select the best sixteen youth football) in Senegal is not to twenty players who will work with structured for children eight to 13 the academy for four to five years. years. Which children show aptitude? Talent detection and recruitment is a The answer cannot be determined several-stage process that relies on without organized screening and a network of small private, individual testing. Because the country lacks a football programs called ‘football national youth football system with schools.’ In these programs, kids in teams and regular competitions, a neighborhood are coached by a the recruitment effort has to rely on volunteer on public playgrounds or football schools and a large number of other accessible facility. The schools scouts to detect the talent needed for and the coaches represent scouts the residential elite training programs. connected to the communities and to The geographical target of the the youth who play football wherever talent recruitment often determines an open space is available. the magnitude of the scouting infrastructure.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 87 Education and football According to the Director Academy 2 academies (2018), the right age and the student’s football talent are the primary Once young players are recruited recruitment factors for an academy: by an academy, they attend the academy boarding school where they Recruitment is equalitarian, with simple learn to play football while pursuing criteria. Age and football skills come their education. Director Academy first. There are no other criteria. Any 1 (2018) believes that education other criteria could be discriminatory. is the priority. The other directors Some of the kids could be excluded if we of the academies interviewed for used education level or financial means. this study also emphasized the These criteria would have excluded importance for providing a quality young players. We force ourselves to not academic or vocational education to have any education criterion. their players during their time at the Similarly, Director Academy 3 (2018) academy. The education is provided said: directly by the academy itself with its certified teachers; in the case of We received kids who have never been to Generation Foot, education is through school at thirteen. I have… [an] example a partnership with a local school. of a kid who had never been to school. His Nevertheless, Generation Foot is in mother used to sell peanuts at the gate the process of building a school. of the school—but he wasn’t in school. The Aspire Academy partnered with When we were conducting our screening, a private school with an additional his neighborhood friends asked him to customization of the curriculum. join the tests. We end up selecting him. Director Academy 3 (2018) relates His mother couldn’t afford to send him that because of his academy’s to school; the father was in , regional and continental recruitment, maybe working for the fishing industry. the players’ initial education was in But what was sure, their income level English or French. A special program could not allow their child to be in school. was put in place to make sure English- Director Academy 2 and Director speaking players studied in English Academy 3, while describing the but also learned French. Certified importance of education in their teachers in the academies ensure an academic standard and an education equivalent to the Senegal national norm. Despite the compliance to national education standards, there are challenges. For example, players entering the academies often show a range of education levels; this will be addressed more later. Furthermore, the topic of graduation rates is an open concern.

88 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies academies, also raised a major Once we recruit the players, our objective challenge: providing a quality is to have them get their baccalaureate. education when the first criterion For those who pass their baccalaureate, of recruitment is athletic ability. even if they get a professional contract, Additionally, leaders of the academies we give them a scholarship for college in consistently highlighted a social factor Senegal up to a masters. Nevertheless, --that there could be an opportunity when a player knows that he cannot for a youth regardless of his or make it to the baccalaureate, it can her socio-economic background. be a problem. A few who couldn’t see Education is essential to the training themselves’ finishing high school may of the young player, but not the main become defiant toward school. One told recruitment factor. me, “President, do you see me with the baccalaureate?” He has now a masters Education in Senegal is mandatory in management. Many will persist and from age six to 16. All the players succeed, but we still have those who will recruited should be schooled by not. the academy and enter secondary school when recruited. However, Aside from the success stories, as previously mentioned, when graduation rates are not available students are selected to start their and would have a limited significance academy journey, not all of them in evaluating the overall academic have been consistently schooled to success of the players enrolled in the be eligible for secondary education. academies. The uneven entry level of Although students are in the same players’ education makes it dfifficult age group, their education level is to evaluate success on baccalaureate uneven. The age group targeted for results. Football skills had been the recruitment corresponds to the end main recruitment criteria; education of primary school and the beginning success is accessed case by case, as of secondary school. Only 57.32 explained by Director Academy 3: percent of male students in primary The player whose mother was selling school continue to secondary school. peanuts at the school gate is a typical Considering the context, recruitment case where evaluating his success exclusively on academic qualification couldn’t be academic. He is very unlikely would exclude more than 40 percent to pass his baccalaureate. We try to and reduce the talent pool. Football school them the best possible… [and] to academies integrate the reality of push them through school. Some respond the education system to make sure very well and succeed; while others, they fulfill their education mission; despite all our effort, will not succeed. teachers work hard to address the We are conscious about the situation challenge of managing multiple and really try our best. They can’t pass levels of students recruited. The the [middle school national exam] but academies have students who finish learn to read, count, and speak French, high school when graduating from English, and Spanish with our Spanish the academy. Director Academy 1 coaches. We emphasize the value of (2018) stated that “two out of three of learning, especially the languages, which the players successfully passed their can be useful for a career in Europe. That baccalaureate, but we want to do motivates them, because it’s aligned with better with a 100 percent success.” their football-career dream. His hope is optimistic. But academic success stories are often promoted to demonstrate the commitment to the education of the players. Undeniable education success stories are highlighted by the Diambars Institute, which has alumni in college in Senegal, the United States, and France. Director Academy 2 notes:

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 89 Despite academic successes, It is possible that vocational option according to Director Academy is not viable. The best trajectory may 3 and Director Academy 2, fewer be to stay in school and finish high than ten percent of the players school. Vocational training is always a will effectively graduate with a possibility when they are older. But as professional contract. The academies long as reality is delayed, vocational recognize the challenge that those training is not attractive; they see students without a contract and an themselves as professional football academic baccalaureate pose to players, on track to a glamorous life their model. Vocational training is an of the professional football players option mentioned by two directors. they see on television with million But for the Diambars Institute, this euros contracts. It is an image that the option remained a difficult element to successful players and the media sell validate. to vulnerable youth. We try to put the kids in vocational Football academies discussed in schools and try to explain to them its this study present an original model value. Unfortunately all our attempts of football and education. Once to provide vocational training recruited, schooling is need-based, opportunities were a failure. We tried according to the student’s academic to start a gardening program… but the level. Consequently, the education players did not get involved. We tried outcomes are not constant. Success a video production training section to can depend on their past education train them to become video producers, and their individual willingness and cameramen, etc., but only one or two motivation to receive an education continued the training. We also started along with their football dream. a screen printing shop, but no one got With the exception of the Diambars involved. The players think that even Institute, vocational education is not after not having a professional contract, fully integrated in the academies and they can still succeed… the dream of remains an undervalued education being professional football players is too option for the young players dreaming strong. (Director Academy 2, 2018) about a successful European career. The football academies, with a professional development model, represents the main structure for elite athletes. Academies have a legal mandate to educate players while they pursue their athletic training. Successful athletes emerge from the academies who are contracted across Europe in the top football clubs. One iconic player, Sadio Mane, an alumnus of the Generation Foot academy, plays for FC Liverpool in the English Premier League, in a significant professional contract. Fewer than ten percent of the players from the academies have achieved this success. Many questions remain about the whole system of recruitment and education. Of the many students who fail to get a contract, and cannot continue in higher education, how will they move ahead toward good jobs? In some ways, the questions are relevant across the whole of Senegalese society.

90 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Macro-meso-micro According to a strength trainer with intersections beyond the long experience with many elite football academies wrestlers, literacy challenges are prevalent in the wrestling world Other academies, such as the (Strength trainer, 2018). Young basketball academy Sport wrestlers in quest of a professional for Education and Economic career (which will consist of one or Development (SEED) in Thiès and the two yearly high-priced fights) often newly implemented NBA academy come from rural areas where they in Saly, are not legally obliged to have not been schooled. Aware provide education to their players. of the education challenges, the According to MoS Advisor 1 (2018), ministry has developed a framework while the SEED academy and the to address professional education NBA academy are two functional for the teachers and training needs basketball academies with education, for the athletes. The sport system the ministerial decree does not (with few formal professional elite yet apply to them. MoS Director 3 programs except the football mentioned that she was asked by a professional leagues 1 and 2, club president to assist in providing the football academies, and two vocational training to a few young basketball academies) has limited female basketball players who offerings for athlete development dropped out of school (MoS Director and education. Newly identified sport 3 personal communication, 2018). and sport-affiliated professions that The request is an indication that there can offer employment opportunities is a need for vocational training for are included in the options to be athletes in nonprofessional structures. considered by the MoS for athlete MoS Director 3, the director of professional development. training and development for the MoS, acknowledged the necessity to create a vocational training system. She wanted to include the ministries of training and employment to support the education needs of many athletes who did not complete their secondary-level education but are registered with the federations and associations affiliated with the MoS. This challenge is prevalent in wrestling, the most popular sport in Senegal.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 91 Case study 2. Training body trainers, and the certificates are recognized and endorsed by the and education of sport MoS. In football, license 1 and license management 2 are coupled with the Confederation of African Football Federations (CAF) How sport is governed in Senegal licenses 1 and 2. influences the country’s capacity to develop the well-trained and A third coaching licensing approach quantitatively sufficient technical is through the MoS. These licenses personnel needed for the are organized on demand by the development of elite players. The MoS federations or the regional and oversees training and development departmental sports administrations. for federations and associations. The ministry and its technical staff According to the director for training organize these trainings and deliver and development at the MoS, “We licenses for initiation, level 1, and organize coaching training when level 2. MoS Director 3 summarizes requested by the federations and our challenges facing the three MoS sports directors working in the regions coaching education and training and departments” (MoS director 3, offerings. According to her, there personal communication 3, 2018). was a limited emphasis on coaching She said that a training institution for education. She argued that according coaches does not exist. to a 1973 policy, only six or seven federations had the mandate to train There are two main ways coaches coaches (MoS Director 3 personal are certified, however. The first communication, 2018). Training certification track is through the coaches was clearly not established National Institute of Sport and and required by the MoS. For the Physical Education (INSEPS) and training led by the international the Center for National Popular and federations, the MoS is confronted Sports Education (CNEPS). These are with a quality control problem: national physical education teacher- training institutions. They offer a The trainings with international coaching certificate according to the federations are often no longer than one graduate’s sport specialization and week. It is not realistic to have license degree. CNEPS physical education 1 or license 2 training in one week. We teachers are trained to teach in are often invited to the opening and primary and middle schools. They closing ceremonies. But since training finish with a coaching license level 2. is a federation prerogative, we cannot INSEPS physical education teachers intervene. (MoS Director 3 personal are trained to teach in high schools, communication, 2018). in higher education, and are taught The frequency of the training is how to administer sport institutions. another challenge highlighted by These graduates have the highest MoS Director 3. The training led by recognized coaching license, license international federations depends on level 3. They must obtain two years’ these federations’ training calendar, coaching experience to have their which is not specific to Senegal and licenses validated by the MoS. furthermore is organized in multiple The second license track for coaching countries. For instance, the CAF leads directly from the federations. licenses in football haven’t been These licenses are often organized organized for more than a year and in collaboration with the discipline’s a half, while CAF is revising their international or continental governing curriculum and content (MoS Director bodies. The MoS (on federation 3 personal communication, 2018). demand and according to budgetary The concept of coaching education availability) then provides logistical was identified in the Sports Sector support with sport facilities and Development Politics Document (La evaluation. Because all certificates Lettre de Politique Sectorielle de must be endorsed and accredited Développement des Sports) (LPSD) by the MoS, the evaluator is critical. as one of the main elements of the These certificates are delivered by the 2025 national sport development discipline’s international governing- vision. But in actuality there are

92 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies structural and financial challenges access the needs in human resources inherent to a sport process with and the relevant trainings needed to limited emphasis on training. Many fully support and develop sport in experienced coaches never received Senegal. Sport governance in Senegal formal certification training; and is a mixed model (government and in some cases, these individuals private) with a stronger directional, have limited formal education. But strategic, and funding role for the their valuable experience cannot government through the MoS. The be dismissed. The MoS is working model, common in developing on possibilities to validate their countries, was initially designed for experience with a license before amateur sport and strongly relied licenses become a requirement for on both volunteer management all federations. In football, where a and patrons to support individual license is already mandatory to coach athletes, clubs, and associations. As a pro league club and youth national previously stated, national sports teams, very little reinforcement is in policies and laws are detailed in the place. Relationships often work better information of the MoS, the LPDS, and than rules. The MoS is pointed in this the government of Senegal. Sport positive direction, but so far not much is financed through the federations has been accomplished (MoS Director and associations. The national teams 3 personal communication, 2018). are organized when there are any international competitions. The In regards to training, few sectors daily management of sport, clubs, of sports have a formal, systematic associations, federations, and athlete approach. The INSEPS (in collaboration development are delegated to private with the Center for International entities and associations. Education in Sport, CIES, in Neuchatel, Switzerland) has launched a sport Federations, therefore, represent the administration post-graduate degree. core structure for sports development. According to Director 1, the director Professional sport is not established in of INSEPS, the need for trained sport Senegal, with the exception of football administrators is real, but countries with professional structures and two are confronted with labor market divisions. Sports development is left reality, similar to traditional social to an amateur infrastructure. Although sciences degrees from the universities building a professional sport system (Diop, 2018). Other professional is mentioned in the LPDS, athlete education related to sport, such as development fully depends on clubs athletic training and sport medicine, is and associations. Other stakeholders not in place. Individuals with medical of the sports system in Senegal (such credentials and an interest in specific as the schools, the army, and the sport disciplines will support the navétanes) are all contributors through needs of federations and clubs. their associations; but members will fall under the federations with Despite the challenges, the Training either registered teams or by the and Sports Development office of the double affiliation of their athletes. For MoS is developing plans to better instance, the basketball, handball, support sports development programs and volleyball teams are affiliated with adequate training in a wide range with their respective federations and of sectors. The documents produced regularly participate in the federation intend to develop training for the competitions. MoS Director 2 posits whole sports industry in Senegal that the army men’s basketball by identifying professions directly had been a great supplier of elite involved in sports activities, and players. The Dakar University Club those supplying services to support (DUC) and more recently the Institut these. Two final reports are useful Supérieur d’Entrepreneurship et milestones: the feasibility study of the de Gestion (ISEG) (both higher National Plan for the Training of Sports education institutions) are affiliated Actors (Plan National de Formation with multiple federations and des Acteurs du Sport, PNFAS) and the consistently participate in the national Project for the Promotion of Sports competitions. They also supply and Sports Associated Professions. national teams with elite athletes. These comprehensive documents

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 93 Macro and meso challenges Mitigation of the macro-level for sport development and challenges education To mitigate the existing education Outside the football academy system, challenges in athlete development, the education of athletes depends a sport-school project has been exclusively on national education sketched by the MoS that would which has no specialized provision for provide a more systematic training elite athletes engaged in their sports. to elite athletes enrolled in schools. This challenge is magnified when the This education could be academic traditional education system has to or vocational. For the sport-schools manage athletes with limited literacy. academics, rather than sports, would be the primary criteria of enrolment, Sport governance is built on the thus limiting the numbers of athletes club system; it remains amateur, without some level of education. with no responsibility for education. MoS Director 2, a strong advocate for With the exception of the football sports in schools, believes that the academies, the micro- and meso-level sports schools development and the of athlete development does not revival of the Union of Associations of include education. The sports system Universities and Schools Sports (Union currently relies on a functioning des Associations du Sport Scolaire et national education system. Therefore Universitaire) (UASSU) will improve all amateur and elite athletes depend the development of Senegal’s elite on the general education system. athletes, with a subsequent gain in Recall that the LSPD promotes an the overall performance of Senegal increased professionalizing of clubs in international competition. This and associations (Ministère des approach positions education at the Sports, 2015, p. 26). Consequently, core of the Senegalese sport system. the micro- and meso-level require How would this model integrate reinforcement to better HP athlete talented athletes of the unschooled development. As such, in the LSPD population or those who drop outs of plan, workable solutions for athlete high school? How would the school- education must be required for all based elite training school become youth who engage in professional part of the professionalization of sport sport training as already required for clubs and associations (as requested football academies. The MoS report, by the LSPD)? Despite the academies’ “Feasibility Study of the Project dedicating specific resources to the ‘Promotion of Sports and Sports players’ education, these schools Related Professions’” (Ministère are confronting problems. Football des Sports, 2016, p. 7) emphasizes academies will continue to have a necessarily close collaboration difficulties in overcoming the existing between the MoS and the Ministries challenges inherent to the education of Education Professional Training. system in Senegal. This element for the future of Senegal cannot be overlooked. All of the Regardless of the sport model and stakeholders interviewed in this system in place, as mentioned in study believe in the education and this report, successful HP athletes’ professional training of athletes. The development depend on macro combination of sports and school factors. In a developing country was often discussed and raised as a like Senegal, the challenges at the valuable route for Senegal. macro-level limit the development of a well-articulated sport and education system that fully supports participation in competitions, and elite athlete development as seen in the other countries studied in the report.

94 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies E. Qatar

Case study 1. Primary The program is structured as a one-day visit to schools. We have two teams: one and secondary related to female and the other male. education The QOA also provides workshops As with many other countries, sport to develop skills in the PE schools development in Qatar is introduced sessions. These workshops vary from a at the level of schools, clubs, and day to a week in length, depending on federations. As part of their education need. The EDQOA added: students have access to sports Our main objective at the academy is to through the school physical education help improve the level of PE at schools (PE) curriculum. Clubs and federations while focusing on the Olympic values. It provide further sports experience. is important that students develop their With sport, including elite sport level of physical activity while respecting development, as a major pillar of the each other through spreading the country’s development, Qatar created Olympic values. the Aspire Academy, part of the , the only academy providing Macro level: The Aspire Zone both education and coaching of In line with the Qatar 2030 Mission potential elite athletes. Moreover, and Vision, Aspire Zone Foundation Qatar Olympic Academy (QOA) (AZF) was founded in 2008, with has introduced Olympic Day, when a major national role in sport students visit governmental schools development and facility management (gender segregated), providing (Sulayem, O’Connor, & Hassan, 2013). sessions to students and instructors Its stated mission is to develop on how to integrate the values of sports champions, while managing the Olympics in sport lessons. The high-level sporting events and executive director at QOA (EDQOA) maintaining infrastructures in sport. remarked: The mission of AZF, commonly known Our visit to schools has been ongoing as Aspire, is to liaise with Qatar 2030 since 2010. The idea behind this program by promoting healthy lifestyles and is to provide workshops for students at developing the sports sector in Qatar. their different levels. AZF is the umbrella organization

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 95 comprising Aspetar, a FIFA accredited sports unique to Qatar entitled ‘kun riyadi’ [be an medicine and orthopedic hospital, Aspire athlete]. It follows the model of the Athlete Logistics, which handles events and facility Development Pathway (ADP) to produce a management (Sulayem, O’Connor, & Hassan, new generation of Qatari sporting champions 2013), and Aspire Academy, the only one in (Sports Reporter Doha, November 2016). As Qatar that identifies potential athletes while mentioned by the president of the QOC HE delivering schooling through the secondary Sheikh Joaan bin Hamad Al Thani: level. “Producing world-class Qatari sporting AZF, through Aspire Academy, is unique in champions is a fundamental part of providing sports training, education, and Qatar’s vision for sport. While Qatar medical services to develop student athletes has made considerable progress on (Sulayem, O’Connor, & Hassan, 2013). Aspire the sporting field in recent years…, we is partner to the Qatar Olympic Committee are keen to build on this success and (QOC); the two organizations signed a continue to increase the performance three-year initiative to create a framework of our athletes across a wider range of sports.” (Sports reporter Doha, November 2016).

Increase opportuni- Educate and ties for people of all Increased engage the public ages and abilities to community on the importance participate in physi- participation of healthy and cal activity active living

Improved and inte- Increased and grated planning for Sport improved sports community and talent development, elite sports facili- Outcomes management and ties performance

Ensure accessible Improve sports talent facilities for recrea- identification pro- tional and competi- grams and athletes tive sports sponsorship

Figure 3: Outcomes of the sport sector (Qatar Olympic Committee, 2011).

96 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Following international standards will definitely improve their game and best practices, Qatar has built a and boost their confidence…. The system for grassroots development event will also attract young kids of sports at every level. The Aspire to this sport which will be a huge Academy director of Education and boost for Qatar gymnastics. We are student affairs (AADOE)reinforced optimistic that we will reach these the objectives of this project, which goals.” seeks to improve the level of athletics in Qatar. Within all its departments (Hussain, October 2018). Aspire will be working hand in hand to The QGF’s statements are aligned with implement this remarkable initiative As Qatar 2030 Mission and Vision on the the AAD mentioned: important role of physical activity and “….such an ambitious project will sports as a foundation of good health have a significant and positive and enjoyment for all, and in inspiring impact on athletic development lives. (Qatar Olympic Committee, for generations to come. It will 2011). Using sport development hone our athletes’ talents, enabling and awareness as part of Qatar’s them to achieve their maximum strategy of increased visibility focuses potential from [a] young age on four pillars: 1) direct investment throughout their careers.” in the sports industry; 2) hosting major sports events; 3) elite sport (Sports Reporter Doha, development; and 4) sport diplomacy November 2016). (Amara, 2013). Accordingly, this project contributes Aspire Academy meso level to the objectives of the Qatar 2030 Mission and Vision, focusing conjointly Since its inception, Aspire was able to on the outcomes of the sport sector deliver on various levels. The Academy strategy. was founded in 2003 with just 31 football players born in 1989 and 1990, Hosting the 48th Artistic Gymnastics and in grades 7 and 8. Recently, the World Championships (2018) at number has reached 289 students Aspire, the president of the Qatar from diverse fields of sports. For Gymnastics Federation (QGF) stated instance, the first graduating group that the event could launch Qatari in June 2008 (Figure 4) consisted gymnasts to elite levels: of 23 student athletes from various “Yes, it can be a breakthrough for specialties. our gymnasts… and it will also help Figure 4 (Source: The Aspire Qatar gymnastics in many ways. It Academy) will be motivating for our gymnasts when they compete alongside the likes of Simone Biles and Kohei Uchimura. Competing at this level

Number of student-athletes and graduates per year

student-Athletes Graduates

289 271 249 211 219 230 197 202 180 192 198 186 194 152 94

31 23 27 28 41 33 33 29 33 36 38 42

2003-4 2004-5 2005-6 2006-7 2007-8 2008-9 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 20017-18 2018-19

Figure 4: Number of student-athletes and graduates per year

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 97 Although the government funds Aspire Academy offers state of the Aspire Academy, and it provides a art facilities both for teaching and similar curriculum to any school in education the AADOE added: the country, when first established What makes us different is that all our Aspire had to convince students and facilities exist in the same place; even their parents to join the academy. The shooting exists in the basement of Aspire AADOE explains: Academy. Furthermore, only one other At Aspire we count on the athlete and academy is similar to us (Singapore parents. Since this approach is new in sports school), with a small difference the country it created a lot of stress that our students do not pay and fees to to the student. Being a part of the join, which is not the case in Singapore.” Aspire family, and in order to develop Taking into consideration Qatar’s them becoming elite, it requires population, Aspire operates within traveling, attending camps outside the a small talent pool compared to country. Therefore, the academy was other nations. Given the numbers, the solution for the parents and the the result achieved so far can be students. We inform the parents that considered impressive,for instance, we are responsible [for] the education the majority of the Qatar Footbal of [their] child. Through our career national team players, graduated from university networking we assist and Aspire Academy . Aspire was able to support student athletes to qualify for highlight its talents nationally and university. internationally through the number of achievement of its current and graduated students. For instance, the first indicator for Aspire was the performance of its Junior National Team, summarized in Table 4.

98 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Year Achievements

2014 Champion U19 Asian Football Confederation (AFC) Championships Football

2015 U20 FIFA World Cup representative

2016 4th place U23 AFC Championships

2018 3rd place U23 AFC ChampionshipsChampion U19 Asian Football

Top 4 U19 AFC Championships

2019 U20 FIFA World Cup qualifier

2012 Bronze Medal, London Olympic Games Athletics

2012 World Junior Record IAAF World Junior Championship

2014 Gold and Silver Medal, Athletics, Asian Games

Gold Medal, IAAF World Junior Championships

2016 Silver Medal and 4 Academy Athletes at Rio Olympic Games

Gold Medal, IAAF World Junior Championships

2017 Gold medal and 3 Academy Athletes, IAAF World Championship

Gold Medal, Youth Olympic Games, Athletics

2018 Gold and Bronze Medal, Asian Games

Silver Medal, 2018 IAAF World Junior Championships

Table 4: Qatar Aspire Academy sports accomplishments since 2012, November 2018

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 99 Aside from the results, Aspire was able Micro level: Aspire’s to show in a short time, it is important to highlight the participation of Academy education its student athletes to the senior and elite athlete national football team. In 2017, the percentage of Aspire athletes joining development: the team was 58 percent, compared Aspire Academy talent to 16 percent achieved in 2013-2014, 24 percent in 2014-2015, 23 percent identification approach in 2015-2016 and the 35 percent in Aspire developed a program, Talent 2017-2018. For the first time, this Identification (TID), that works in close year the Qatar national team won the cooperation with the QOC, and the Asian Football League (AFC) Asian Supreme Education council (SEC) Cup games. These successes reflect, to seek school students who show at least regionally, Aspire’s leadership potential to become elite athletes, in developing elite athletes to a high and offer them academic sporting level. Many high-level professionals in scholarships at Aspire. Once these athlete development are required in athletes are identified, they are placed such an achievement, but they would into specific programs developed and not be effective without students managed by Aspire professionals, and showing high level performance. The tailored to their natural talents. Deputy Sport director (DSD) at Aspire Academy, noted that: The TID’s main responsibilities are to organize, coordinate, and administer without students we could not reach a mass nation-wide screening to our objectives. Therefore… we should go identify potential sporting talent; back to the basics: the first level where follow and evaluate the screening of the students are introduced to sport. We athletes nominated by federations are talking about schools. In Qatar the seeking to join Aspire; and conduct majority of schools have three different tests on the students within the phases where the students are introduced Aspire talent center programs. The to sport. The first is the class of physical program starts with a mass screening education, the second is the pre-school of students, applying valid and reliable activity, and the third one is the Olympic testing protocols. Many factors day.” (Fareed, H. 2018, November 7). should be considered in the process, related not only to fitness levels and physiological aspects, but including neurological, and sociological elements. Since the program’s launch in 2004, it has scanned some 22,000 male, and almost 13,000 female students from 192 schools in Qatar. The mass screening starts with the bronze level, designed to identify the top five percent of school boys each year; it targets students in Grades 6 and 7. The program now includes both public and private schools, opening the opportunity for all male Qatari students. The bronze stage was completed in collaboration between the Ministry of Education and Aspire. The staff of the TID visits individual schools and oversees the assessment administration. After the test, the selected bronze stage students are invited to Aspire for the next silver stage. Testing at this stage is more complex and provides more accurate measurements.

100 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies The Aspire coaches in this stage Aspire education interact directly with the selected students, and to provide them with Aspire Academy follows the observation and feedback. The curriculum provided by the ministry students who complete the silver of Education and Higher Education, stage of evaluation, testing, and and is more flexible than other schools performance progress to the final, in accommodating coaching for elite gold stage. athletes. The AADOE explains: Around 25 percent of the silver stage We are an institution that follows the students reach the gold stage. In this same academic year applied in other stage, the students are invited to schools. Our objectives are not… winning spend two days at an Aspire mini- or losing, our main interest is to focus camp, organized by TID staff and on the education of these students. …no coaches. Smaller groups are formed other institution in the country is similar depending on the strengths of the to us, so we are challenging ourselves. We students. The camp is intended prepare our students to be champions in to provide a better understanding life not only in sport. of each individual athlete and Furthermore, the AADOE notes that concentrate on their physical talent, the academy continually follows up skills, work ethic, ability to learn, etc. with its students, advising them on Prior to the gold camp, the potential their higher education goals. student athletes could participate in a six to eight week training program From the beginning of the academy, with Aspire coaches. During the gold we created career consulting. We start stage, the students go through three approaching students starting from assessments. The first is academic, Grade 9. …students perform some revealing a better understanding of electronic exams or interviews, with abilities and to assess needed extra his parents as well, to make sure that academic support. The second is we provide them with all information focused on sports science to analyze needed to help him in choosing his career. and measure required features; the … When the students leave Aspire we third is designed to measure physical follow up with them and supporting capability. them [in their university studies]. … we have only had positive feedback from The Aspire TID also tests the students our [graduates], and that explains the nominated from the federations; level of education provided at Aspire they attend the silver stage at Academy. Students entering universities Aspire. Importantly, all students do not feel on the education level with potential must go through the different from others. same phases. The success of the TID Aspire also considers the injured program in measurement, evaluation, athlete, depending on which year and recruitment of potential talent from the career of the student the notwithstanding, Aspire pursues injury happened. continual improvement in the process –including ways to improve the health and well-being of students and the Qatari community at large through sports. Physical education and fitness levels at schools remains problematic. As the deputy sport director of Aspire noted, the level of physical performance of the students before reaching Grade 6 in the majority of the schools is still below global averages. This tends to restrict the numbers of students able to progress through the bronze phase, and poses challenges to the Aspire TID mission.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 101 For the injured students in Grade 11 education. The Aspire TID program and 12, we provide emotional support. developed a program called Multi But if the injury is at the beginning Sport Skill Program (MSSD) including of the student’s career, it will put him physical education and after-school in a difficult situation regarding his sports practice for students ages colleagues. At Aspire, we have a difficult four to 14 to teach movement skills program combining [academics] and to improve physical performance sport development. Therefore, we and support success in any chosen advise the student and his family to go sport. As noted earlier, to encourage back to conventional schooling. … such a direct positive impact in developing decision is not made easily. Instead, it students physical skills, Aspire is based on the results that we receive TID teams visit schools, provide after the injured student is treated at instructors and PE teachers with Aspetar. … we monitor all our students workshops on methods for lesson for performance. [If] the student is below delivery, and hear feedback from the level of his peers, we give him special students. This pedagogic strategy focus and follow up to help him attain increases the number of students the desired level. He is given two years prepared to progress through phases to catch up with colleagues. In case the before attending Aspire. student does not reach the requirement, Additionally, there were several we advise the parents to send the child attempts by Aspire and universities back to regular school. in Qatar to support graduates in Analysis continuing their higher education studies. Aspire asked universities to Aspire respondents explained key understand the situation of these issues the academy faces in recruiting athletes and be flexible with them students for the program. There were since they have responsibilities on a two general areas of concern. The first national and international level. We related to the level of students before will elaborate further on the higher the TID process was introduced; education within the second case the second one is related to higher study, and precisely the case of the Qatar Football National Team.

102 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies Case study 2. Higher Macro level education (Josoor & The higher education system in Qatar does not have a strategy to QNFA) adequately accommodate athletes Introduction within their programs. A high level of flexibility is required for athletes to Elite athletes who spend most of be able to continue their studies. The their time training and competing AADOE expounds: internationally remain concerned about their life after competition, and Universities in the in general look to education and a university have a problem in accommodating elite degree for future job security. The athletes. They need to understand that subsequent case will focus on the this player is representing the country, approach made by the QFA (Qatar and therefore some flexibility is required Football Association) to provide with course delivery. There were some football players with opportunities attempts within Qatar University, and to continue their education. Aspire we hope that the university will now Academy‘s graduating athletes face seriously take up this agenda. the challenge of managing their Micro level academics and their training, and need flexibility attending classes. Institutions provide a variety of According to the head of the Sport certificates and degrees that Science Program at Qatar University indirectly or directly target elite (SSP), most universities in Qatar have athletes in Qatar. The Qatar Olympic attendance regulations that do not Academy delivers certificates and accommodate athletes’ coaching and diplomas for administrators and competition regimes. practitioners working in sport. One program is related to those athletes Qatar University allows a rate of 25 reaching the age of retirement. The percent for absences from classes offered QOA executive director said: mostly during the day. There are several Memoranda of Understandings (MOUs) Our program with the International between sports organizations and Olympic Committee targets players education institutions on developing before they decide to retire. Different more opportunities for elite athletes in subjects are offered on a daily basis for higher education. …there is still a need to one week giving the athletes a variety of activate these MOUs effectively. Aspire options and ideas in the field where they graduates willing to join university would like to continue their career. programs still face the same challenges Additionally, the Academy offers relating to attendance and the type of a diploma in sport management. delivery that would accommodate their This diploma is endorsed by the commitments as elite athletes --training, International Olympic Committee. travelling with the team. Moreover, the Academy offers an (Head of the Sport Science Program, executive Masters in Sports Law. The Qatar University) AADOE further explains: It is a one-year executive Masters. To join the program the students should have a university degree. The program is delivered in cooperation with Lieda University and the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). This program would help in developing the sports-related legal knowledge locally and in the Gulf region.

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 103 The QOA is an academy under the The QNTDOO added: umbrella of Qatar Olympic Committee. We have a new program, QAED (Qatar Apart from the sport management Athlete Education), with a different program, the athletes do not have university, developed between QFA and any other choice of fields in higher Josoor institute, which has structured education. Jossor institute and the a professional platform. The program Qatar Football Association (QFA) are provides athletes with the opportunity working to overcome this challenge. to continue their higher education while They proposed a new project allowing pursuing their professional careers. athletes to continue their higher There is a certain flexibility from the education. university’s side, to give the player the Meso level possibility to do both. He continued, explaining how the idea QAED program for program evolved from addressing As repeatedly noted, elite athletes various issues. face a challenge of access to First, [there is the issue of] the large university and to progress in their number of Qatari players dropping out career objectives. With the situation of football by the age of 18 because they unresolved in Qatar, some institutions needed to pursue their studies, or they have sought to find solutions hoping chose to enter the army or police force, the situation will soon change. The or look for a more secure job. Second, position of the QFA is unique, given when the football industry looks for that Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA leaders, it looks for people who have a World Cup matches. As a federation, deep experience in football, and at the QFA worked under the umbrella of same time are educated. Third, it is not the QOC previously, as well as with ethical to use our players in football, the Ministry of Sport and Youth, like and send them back to the society other sport systems all over the without the right tools to be productive world. The Qatar Stars League (QSL) and give back to society. Therefore, we is another partner of QFA in governing [established] QAED to offer these players football that manages and prepares the opportunity to pursue a university the football leagues. Each of the 17 bachelor degree, after their athlete professional clubs in Qatar has its careers, providing them the chance to own academy for youth development. grow and develop outside of sports as There is a program for football any person in the society. development provided and supervised by QFA, according to the Qatar The QNTDOO explains further: National Team director of operations Two years ago we launched QAED with and acting executive director of the idea to approach the university competition & football development to be more flexible with our football (QNTDOO). Like any other federation, players. The program is in international the QFA is trying to provide solutions business, conducted in English. Today, for problems its athletes face, we have 15 students registered. The elite particularly the issue of continuing athlete students will have flexibility in their higher education. QFA signed attending classes. They will be excused MOUs with institutions achieve faster from class only if they have training or results. Within the higher education a match or are recovering from injuries. system, The QNTDOO clarifies: For that the athlete will get a letter from We have an MOU with Qatar University, QSL explaining the circumstances of the which still needs to be activated. It is absence. the same problem in other cases with elite athletes. For instance, some of the football players are participating with the national team in the Asian Cup, so they are absent from their classes at the university.

104 Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies The future international competitions. The idea of the QAED program is to As regards the paramount challenge be a platform, transferable among for elite athletes in access to higher several universities, giving the athletes education to support their careers a choice from several programs. The and contributions to society, there QNTDOO states that: are several further observations to make. The flexible education offered We hope to award our graduates with a by Aspire using technology should diploma in governance as they will be our be implemented for their higher new leaders. Today we are starting with education such as Qatar University. a bachelor degree, which is not currently Technologies such as distance being offered by Qatar University. But learning, video conferencing, and Qatar University is our main university online systems would give students and I hope we will get there. full access to lectures and content. Today the QAED program is for Supplemental supervision would football players, but in the future it ensure that students are provided will be accessible to all athletes with with same quality as regular students access to several universities. The attending the university. Moreover, QNTDOO further stated: Aspire provides online exams for students who are out of the country I hope that in the future the QAED on a sports mission. Interestingly, the platform becomes applicable with many online infrastructure already exists at universities, where athletes willing to Qatar University, which uses the same continue their degrees from all education e-system for delivering lectures and levels can choose from a variety of even exams. University students have programs. I am hoping that Josoor access to all the materials needed Institute will push this project and apply for courses, but as regards the strict it to all athletes from different sports, attendance policy, lecture schedule, so we can create a benchmark for elite and the mandatory in-person exam athlete education globally. attendance remains a limitation. A special, flexible program at the university level can easily be offered Analysis and conclusion in Qatar to athletes representing The respondents described the main the country without sacrificing their issues elite athletes face regarding training and performance. their education. Physical education The MOUs signed among the is not a priority in schools, limiting various entities are helping improve students’ chances to fully develop communications. A national program their well-being and sports. It is now needs to be established to important to make quality physical sustain the success of elite athletes, education mandatory in all private and to ensure that every organization and public schools, and to increase is taking responsibility in participating, the frequency and duration of these engaging, and delivering for young sessions. A more competitive strategy Qatari athletes. These steps for should be implemented linking improvement would support future schools and clubs within a national elite athlete performance, but also program, offering exposure to more their future career transitions. The sports activities and competitions attempts made by QFA and Josoor that would support their preparation Institute (QAED) are important first as future potential athletes. Further, steps in helping athletes pursue and the number of female athletes earn their university degrees. Further representing the country in sporting innovative approaches should be events should be increased. It is pursued to build confidence among important that they participate fully athletes that they can securely and as competitive elite athletes. Aspire fully continue their sporting career Academy currently offers its program while not neglecting their higher to male athletes exclusively. A similar education goals. program for female Qatari athletes could be established, increasing the chances of winning medals in

Chapter Four: The case studies Chapter Four: The case studies 105 The main concern is flexibility. The In this regard, options may be QFA and Josoor Institute initiative, considered, including either to bring specifically for football athletes, will athletes from outside (naturalizing require more time to understand them), or preferably, to invest in the results of the process. Potential homegrown athletes. Such athletes, outcomes for other elite athletes have of course, require the security of an not been explored. They continue to education that can lead to viable face the same issue, the false choice career options. Additionally, elite sport between continuing their studies as a career can also be accepted, and their careers as athletes. The socially and otherwise, as an option. Josoor Institute collaboration with Without the security of education QFA could replicated with a similar access, parents might pressure their approach with larger institutions like children to pursue other livelihoods, Qatar University, or Hamad bin Khalifa believing that elite sport is insecure. University (HBKU). Qatar’s educators The challenges mentioned lead to can recognize the value of providing the meso level, reflecting elements elite athletes the opportunity to join of education system organization, any program across all disciplines, including elite talent identification. without being limited to certain The system should convince and programs. encourage all stakeholders in On the macro level, the presence education to accommodate elite sport of Qatar in Asia means it competes development. Education in Qatar is with China, , South Korea, and currently in a transition, driven by others. Qatar’s small population the initiative of Josoor Institute and perhaps explains its focus on a few QOA to formalize accommodation; sports rather than a broad investment and some private universities are in many. Despite attempts made in beginning to tap the elite athlete sports such as fencing and beach demographic. volleyball, the strategy implemented needs to be modified to rationalize resources. Today’s focus on specific sports is correlated to return on investment; but in the future changes may be needed in a strategy to win more medals.

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FIVE RECOMMENDATIONS OVERALLCONCLUSIONS AND There are systems in place for elite Macro level4 athletic development and national team success in these five countries. Education, sport, community, and Elite sport success is considered an government leadership at appropriate important cornerstone of national levels should strive to: development and sustainability. • Better understand the significance These countries recognize the need and national peculiarities of to provide adequate educational population, GDP, and the historical opportunities for elite athletes to commitment to sport on elite better prepare them for their post sport development to build and competitive life. However, it is also further advance incremental clear that certain country systems fall plans facilitating greater short of the objective. The purpose sustainable growth and enhanced of this study was to identify the development in both elite sport best practices and methods for elite and in the education programs athlete education, and to assess their provided for elite athletes quality. All the examined countries • Recognize in more detail the present some positive options at impact that national context and the macro, meso, and micro levels specifically the state-society of scrutiny and analysis. Education, relationship has on the policy sport, and political leadership from process and be clearer and more any of the studied countries could specific about what policies adopt practices and methods from (i.e. regulatory, distributive, re- other systems and potentially apply distributive, and constituent) them to their own with positive results are most likely to be effective for athletes and the education sector and what barriers are likely to in general. challenge the implementation Based on the literature review and the of such policy (e.g. inequality, cases studies presented, the following funding, organizational conflict, section sketches a range of ideas, etc.) recommendations, and practices for • Realize interconnections between adoption in any country. sport and national socio-economic factors and structures, and capitalize on the power of sport to positively influence advancements in society and economy. In particular, leadership should help sport education to lead and improve overall education, and in turn, receive more appreciation and resources from society, business and government for sport, including from education and healthcare sectors to sport education.

4The researchers do not present a comprehensive list of recommendations at the macro- level as this level of analysis involves a range of variables that are typically outside the direct control of sport organizations. 109 Meso level • Develop a clear, coherent delivery system for all stages of policy- Education, sport, community, and making and regarding elite athlete government leadership at appropriate education with specific, agreed levels should strive to details of the roles, rights, and • Establish an elite sport coalition responsibilities of all stakeholders (network of organizations) to involved in the policy strategize, implement, and review • Formalize a code of conduct to policy in elite sport and education identify athlete’s rights regarding support for elite athletes, ensuring flexibility in education and other that athletes themselves have areas of support representation in such networks • Develop short and long- • Develop cross-departmental term scheduling strategies to champions to advocate for elite accommodate athlete calendars sport, and identify rationales for around training, competition, and developing education programs academic commitments, provide to support elite-level athletes; an appropriate national network • Develop evidence-based policies of accessible support for athletes, that formalize and clarify the and ensure that key stakeholders, commitment to elite sport and particularly athletes, coaches, and education support for elite NGBs have a prominent voice in athletes decision-making and infrastructure development • Commit ongoing research for national elite sport systems and • Cultivate a tailored, fully continually identify practices resourced athlete lifestyle support especially relevant to the program for elite athletes in development of elite sport and education elite athlete education • Create a consortium of • Integrate organizational structures commercial partners, bound by a at the national level for the cooperation agreement, in which transparent, publicly-funded the commercial partner provides coordination of athlete education funding to support elite athlete as part of lifelong development education in return for pre-agreed and wellness promotional benefits • Coordinate a repository of • Ensure clear vision, mission, and resources to advocate for, support goals in the leadership of overall and provide guidance to elite policy, and a commitment to athletes in education evaluation with clear benchmark data to support comparative • Distribute education support and analysis, and a growth mindset resources for teachers, coaches, that is open to change in pursuit parents, and athletes outlining the of continual improvement knowledge, skills and abilities to be taught at each level of long- term athlete development

110 Chapter Five: Overall conclusions and recommendations Chapter Five: Overall conclusions and recommendations • Micro level • Provide and promote education opportunities that lead to specific Education, sport, community, and career paths, and make available government leadership at appropriate career opportunities at various levels should strive to levels of existing education and • Prepare and implement plans sport programs to grow the range of flexible • Offer opportunities for learning opportunities for elite personalized scheduling of studies athletes: online, block release, tailored to sport specific training, weekend and evening, master camps, competitions and other classes, hybrid programs, personal life challenges for athletes guidance and tutoring, assistance with research, publications and • Develop a full spectrum of conference participation, etc. education programs for various levels of athletic attainment, • Undertake routine, systematic, and ensuring training routines are methodologically sound research rationally rotated with study, rest, to build insight into the needs of meals, and socializing for optimal the elite-level and talented athlete productivity in sport, academics pool and lifelong career. • Build an athlete-focused support system to ensure they receive the holistic support needed for The research team believes there are success in sport and academics many aspects of all of the examined systems that are positive, but overall • Integrate particularly sport- there needs to be a reframing of specific, pedagogical, and elite athlete development and mass medical academic studies with participation sport development physical training for both sport worldwide. Through that lens, the success and for sport specialist totality of athlete progress should not competence be exclusively assessed by victory • Develop a seamless system of on international stages. While those progression through school and goals are important and laudable, it is university sport education through critical to develop the whole athlete, connected organization and clear and provide education access and communication career development that benefits the athlete over a lifetime, as well • Create a broad spectrum of study as supporting the progress of the and career options, particularly country as a whole. in sport related areas, from sport medicine and science to journalism, management, and, most importantly, coaching specialization in Olympic and nationally important sports, as is being done at many universities worldwide

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126 References References References References ABOUT THE AUTHORS

B. David Ridpath

Dr. B. David Ridpath, Ed.D, is an Associate Professor of Sports Business at Ohio University and previously worked in American intercollegiate athletics. An accomplished researcher, he has authored over 20 academic journal articles, 5 book chapters and two books. His latest book is titled Alternative Models of Sport Development in America.

Peter Smolianov

Peter Smolianov, PhD, Professor at Salem State University, USA. Educated in Australia, USA and USSR. Provided business analysis and strategic planning as an internal and external consultant to corporations as well as governmental and sporting organizations. Has over 100 publications, including books, book chapters and conference papers in 20 countries.

Spencer Harris

Spencer Harris is an Assistant Professor of Sport Management at University of Colorado – Colorado Springs. He completed his PhD at Loughborough University in 2013. His background includes over 15 years’ industry experience in community sports development. He has been working in academia researching sport policy and governance since 2008. Gerard Akindes

Akindes earned a Masters in Sports Administration and PH.D. in Sports Media Studies at Ohio University where he taught Sport Management. He has co-edited a book and published several journal articles and book chapters, He has also co-created the Sports Africa conference series. At the Josoor Institute, he supports education programs and coordinates research projects.

Wadih Ishac

Dr. Wadih Ishac works at Qatar University as an Assistant Professor in Sport Management. His research focuses on the social and political impacts of Mega sport events and foreign investment in sport industry. He earned his MBA in Marketing and Management of Sport at the University of ISC Paris, and his PhD in Sport Management from University of Burgundy Dijon, France. About OHIO University ABOUT WISE

Ohio University holds as its central purpose the intellectual and personal development of its students. Distinguished by its rich history, The World Innovation Summit for diverse campus, international Education was established by Qatar community, and beautiful Appalachian Foundation in 2009 under the setting, Ohio University is known leadership of its Chairperson, Her as well for its outstanding faculty Highness Sheikha . of accomplished teachers whose WISE is an international, multi-sectoral research and creative activity advance platform for creative, evidence-based knowledge across many disciplines. thinking, debate, and purposeful action toward building the future Ohio University will be the nation’s of education. Through the biennial best transformative learning summit, collaborative research and a community where students realize range of on-going programs, WISE is a their promise, faculty advance global reference in new approaches to knowledge, staff achieve excellence, education. and alumni become global leaders. The WISE Research series, produced in collaboration with experts from around the world, addresses key education issues that are globally relevant and reflect the priorities of the Qatar National Research Strategy. Presenting the latest knowledge, these comprehensive reports examine a range of education challenges faced in diverse contexts around the globe, offering action- oriented recommendations and policy guidance for all education stakeholders. Past WISE Research publications have addressed a wide range of issues including access, quality, financing, teacher training and motivation, school systems leadership, education in conflict areas, entrepreneurship, early-childhood education, twenty-first century skills, design thinking, and apprenticeship, among others. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Josoor Institute – Research The authors would like to thank Her Sponsorship Acknowledgement Highness Sheikha Moza bint Nasser, Josoor Institute would like to Chairperson of , and thank Her Highness Sheikha Moza the leadership of Qatar Foundation, for bint Nasser, Chairperson of Qatar their unwavering commitment to the Foundation, and the World Innovation cause of education globally. It was the Summit for Education (WISE), under vision and guidance of Her Highness her visionary leadership, for their that led to the creation of the World generous support for research in Innovation Summit for Education the sports industry. We are grateful (WISE). Without her ongoing support, for such continuous commitment to this WISE Report would not have been the promotion of excellence in the possible. multidisciplinary fields of education, The authors would like to thank research, and human development. our universities and organizations along with the following individuals and entities for their support of We would also like to thank the this project. This report would have individual authors, contributors, not been possible without their institutions, and organisations assistance: involved in undertaking this vital research. -Qatar’s Supreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy and Josoor Institute for sponsoring this research Knowledge and education are the -Ohio University Office of Research key pillars of our mission to support and Sponsored Programs and the the growth of our sports and events Ohio University Office of Research industries in Qatar and beyond. Compliance, specifically Brandie Josoor Institute is therefore proud Hawk, Sherri Galbraith, Bailey Kormick, to have sponsored this research. We Jenny Whan, Michelle Allison, Pamela believe the findings offer meaningful Harvey and Jessica Creamer. insights into how best to support our dedicated athletes to achieve their -Dr. Aaron Clopton of the University of educational and sporting successes, Kansas for his diligent peer review and which ultimately contribute to the suggestions for improvement sustainable development of our -Special thanks to all who participated nation, in keeping with the Qatar in interviews as anonymous resources National Vision 2030. -WISE team, in particular Dr. Asmaa Al- Fadala, Director of Research, and Dr. Ahmed Baghdady, Manager-Research and Content Development. -Malcolm Coolidge for proofreading the report, and the Frazil House Advertising team for design and layout formatting of the report.

GLOBAL SPORT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS AND ATHLETES’ ACCESS TO EDUCATION GLOBAL SPORT DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS AND ATHLETES’ ACCESS TO EDUCATION TO ACCESS AND ATHLETES’ SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT SPORT GLOBAL

B. David Ridpath Peter Smolianov RR.2.2019 Spencer Harris Gerard Akindes Wadih Ishac