PAPER 2 UNIT 1 (1.3)

Child Development

Developmental psychology is the study of the physical, cognitive and psychological growth of the individual throughout the life span. Ranges of expected normal development are established and deviations and individual differences observed and studied.

The influence of genetics and environment (nature and nurture) on child development are examined to enhance our understanding and offer insight into possible therapeutic interventions. Although the nature/nurture debate is often heated, it is prudent to remember that most complex behavior is usually the result of a combination of both genetic and environmental influences. The expression of personality or intelligence is the result of many factors and is a mix of inherited (genetic) and acquired (environmental) influences.

Developmental psychologists often describe stages of development. A stage is usually defined by an expected age range and its accompanying identifiable developmental milestones.

Below is a common classification of age ranges.

Age Range Stage Conception to Birth Prenatal Birth to 2 years Infant 2 years to 3 years Toddler 3 years to 6 years Early Childhood 6 years to 13 years Middle Childhood 13 years to 20 years Adolescence 20 years to 40 years Young Adulthood 40 years to 65 years Middle Adulthood 65 years and up LateAdulthood

Biological Development

Prenatal development is characterized by rapid changes. It is broken down into stages. We commonly hear of the three trimesters that mark the equal division of the nine months of pregnancy. Prenatal development is also usefully divided into the germinal, embryonic and fetal stages.

During the germinal stage, which begins at conception and lasts approximately eight weeks; the zygote (the one celled organism formed by the unification of sperm and ovum) cells divide rapidly. This growing mass of cells travels through the mother's fallopian tube to the uterus. there, it becomes embedded into the uterine lining and the placenta is formed. The placenta surrounds and protects the zygote and brings in nutrients and oxygen while removing wastes.

At approximately two weeks after conception, the zygote has increased in mass and become implanted in the uterus. At this point we begin to speak of it as the embryo. The embryonic stage lasts from approximately week two to week eight. During this period, the embryo continues to grow and most of the body systems and organs begin formation.

The final stage of prenatal development, the fetal stage, lasts from approximately week eight to birth. During the fetal stage growth continues by cell division and the fetus becomes stronger, movement develops and the biological structures become increasingly functional.

Cognitive Development

The growing ability to think, including memory, learning, language and perception is called cognitive development. Children make great strides during their early years as their first impressions interact with their inherited capacities to create concepts and structures to facilitate growing understanding and mastery of their world.

One of the leading theorists of cognitive development was Jean Piaget. He postulated four stages of cognitive development.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Age Sensorimotor Stage Birth to two years Preoperational Stage Two years to seven years Concrete Operational Stage Seven years to eleven years Formal Operational Stage Eleven years and beyond

Psychological Development

Sigmund Freud was one of the most important of all the personality theorists. His theory of child development postulated five "psychosexual stages" in which the child's orientation to the world was based on the biological development of sexual excitation which is focused on different body organs and systems (erogenous zones) as the child develops. The child's activities during these stages are heavily influenced by the gratification of sexual impulses.

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Age Stage Organ, System, Activity Birth to 18 months Oral Mouth/sucking, biting 18 months to 3 years Anal Anus/bowel and bladder control 3 years to 6 years Phallic Genitals/self stimulation Repression/relative dormancy of sexual 6 years to puberty Latency excitation Puberty to adulthood Genital Mature sexual functioning or fixation

1. Prenatal Stages of Development Prenatal development is the process by which a baby develops inside the mother's womb. Prenatal development takes about 38 weeks to complete. During this time, a single cell becomes a full-term baby. This time period is divided into different categories of development. The 3 primary stages of prenatal development are the germinal period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. Each of these stages is important for reaching the ultimate goal of a healthy baby.

Germinal Period Pregnancy is considered to begin at first day of the mother's last menstrual period. Conception typically occurs at what is considered the 2nd week of pregnancy. Conception is also the beginning of the germinal period of prenatal development. This stage occurs during the first 2 weeks of development (or the 2nd - 4th weeks of pregnancy). The union of the sperm and egg cell forms a single cell called a zygote. The zygote moves along the Fallopian tube toward the uterus. At the same time, the zygote is rapidly dividing in a process called cleavage. Once it reaches the uterus, the zygote becomes what is called a blastocyst, and it begins to implant into the wall of the uterus. The germinal period ends when the blastocyst is fully implanted into uterine tissue. Embryonic Period This is the embryonic period of prenatal development. This stage lasts from implantation until about 8 weeks from the time of conception (or the 10th week of pregnancy). This is the most important time of prenatal development because the embryo is developing the foundations for a healthy baby. The blastocyst that implanted in the uterus continues to divide rapidly after implantation. Through a process called differentiation, cells begin to take on different functions. One of the first examples of this is a division between the cells that will make up the placenta and the cells that will make up the baby. After this, a process called gastrulation forms three layers called germ layers. The outer layer is called the ectoderm, the middle layer is called the mesoderm, and the inner layer is called the endoderm. Each germ layer will differentiate into different structures. The ectoderm will form many outer tissues such as skin and hair, as well as most of the nervous system tissues - including the brain. The mesoderm will form tissues inside the body such as the lungs, bones, and muscles - including the heart. The endoderm will form tissues such as the digestive tract and bladder, as well as other internal organs. All of the essential structures have been formed (both inside and outside) by the time the embryonic period comes to an end. The new title of fetus is now given to the embryo. Embryogenesis is a term that can be used to describe all of the processes of embryo development up until the time it becomes a fetus.

Fetal Period

Fetal period. Starting with post conception week 9, or gestational week 11, the term fetus is used. The fetus is characterized by fused eyelids and distinct human somatic characteristics. The fetal period covers gestational weeks 11 to 26. During the fetal period, the total body weight (TBW) increases from approximately 5 to 500 g. Fetal period precedes embryonal period, during which a viable fetes is delivered. At the beginning of the perinatal period, the eyelids separate and the eyes of the fetus reopen.

Preschool ages (3 to 5 yrs) Developmental milestones: ages 3 through 5 Knowing what to expect as your child grows can reassure you that your child is on track with his peers or alert you to potential concerns. Below are some developmental milestones to watch for during the preschool years.

Since birth, you’ve watched your child grow and develop. You’ve noted his height and weight, when he crawled, stood, and walked, even when he spoke his first words — and perhaps compared all of these developmental milestones of his infant and toddler years to the “norms.” The preschool and early school years are also full of changes. From three to five your child’s motor skills, language, thinking, and social development change dramatically.

Knowing what to expect as your child grows can reassure you that your child is on track with his peers or alert you to potential concerns. Below are some milestones to watch for during the preschool years.

Milestones: 3-year-olds Motor development: gross motor skills

 walks with an agile, almost adult style  runs around obstacles  catches large balls and throws overhead  climbs ladders; uses slide independently  rides a tricycle  alternates feet when climbing stairs

Motor development: fine motor skills

 assembles simple puzzles  manipulates clay; finger paints  copies simple shapes, such as a cross or circle  stacks blocks up to nine high

Language and thinking development

 understands most of what is said and 75 percent of speech is understandable  speaks in complete sentences of three to five words  matches pictures to objects  learns by doing and through the senses  understands concepts of “now,” “soon,” and “later”  begins to recognize cause-and-effect relationships

Social and emotional development

 follows simple directions; enjoys helping with household tasks  begins to recognize own limits — asks for help  likes to play alone, but near other children  does not cooperate or share well  able to make choices between two things  begins to notice other people’s moods and feelings

Milestones: 4-year-olds Motor development: gross motor skills

 running is more controlled; can start, stop, and turn  turns somersaults; hops on one foot; gallops  can easily catch, throw, and bounce a ball  can brush teeth, comb hair, wash, and dress with little assistance

Motor development: fine motor skills

 copies crosses and squares  prints some letters  uses table utensils skillfully  cuts on a line

Language and thinking development

 uses a 1,500-word vocabulary; speaks in relatively complex sentences (“Mommy opened the door and the dog ran out.”)  understands words that relate one idea to another — if, why, when  continues to learn through experience and the senses  understands, mostly, the difference between fantasy and reality  understands number and space concepts — more, less, bigger, in, under, behind  thinks literally; starting to develop logical thinking  begins to grasp that pictures and symbols can represent real objects  starts to recognize patterns among objects — round things, soft things, animals  grasps the concepts of past, present, and future but does not understand the duration of time

Social and emotional development

 takes turns, shares, and cooperates  expresses anger verbally rather than physically  can feel jealousy  may sometimes lie to protect herself, but understands the concept of lying  enjoys pretending and has a vivid imagination

Milestones: 5-year-olds Motor development: gross motor skills

 runs in an adult manner  walks on tiptoe, broad jumps  walks on a balance beam  skates and jumps rope

Motor development: fine motor skills

 hand preference is established  laces (but cannot tie) shoes  grasps pencil like an adult  colors within lines  cuts and pastes simple shapes Language and thinking development

 speaks fluently; correctly uses plurals, pronouns, tenses  very interested in words and language; seeks knowledge  understands and names opposites  uses complex language  still confuses fantasy and reality at times  thinking is still naïve; doesn’t use adult logic

Social and emotional development

 distinguishes right from wrong, honest from dishonest, but does not recognize intent  plays make-believe and dresses up  mimics adults and seeks praise  seeks to play rather than be alone; friends are important  plays with both boys and girls but prefers the same sex  wants to conform; may criticize those who do not

School Age Children (6 – 12 years) Raising school age children can be awesome. Watching them try new activities, cheering them on at athletic events and applauding their accomplishments at recitals are usually some of the high points for most parents. However, achieving success is often preceded with frustration and sometimes learning to accept one’s weaknesses as will as celebrating and building on strengths. When will equipped parents can be excellent coaches for their child no matter what the endeavor.

While toddlers and preschoolers need constant supervision, school age children become gradually ready for more independence. However, learning to make good choices and exercise self-discipline does not come easily for many. Parents need to impart a moral code that the child gradually internalizes. As children struggle with these important tasks parents must be able to provide praise and encouragement for achievement but parents must also be able to allow them to sometimes experience the natural consequences for their behavior or provide logical consequences to help them learn from mistakes.

Pre vocational stage (13 to 18)

Vocational education is education that prepares people to work in a trade, in a craft, as a technician, or in support roles in professions such as engineering, accountancy, nursing, medicine, architecture, or law. Craft vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities and are traditionally non- academic but related to a specific trade oroccupation. Vocational education is sometimes referred to as career education or technical education Vocational education can take place at the secondary, post-secondary, further education, and higher education level; and can interact with the apprenticeship system. At the post-secondary level, vocational education is often provided by a highly specialized institute of technology/polytechnic, or by a university, or by a local community college. Until recently, almost all vocational education took place in the classroom, or on the job site, with students learning trade skills and trade theory from accredited professors or established professionals. However, online vocational education has grown in popularity, and made it easier than ever for students to learn various trade skills and soft skills from established professionals in the industry.[2] Vocational training is used to prepare for a certain trade or craft. Decades ago, it used to refer solely to such fields are welding and automotive service, but today it can range from hand trades to retail to tourism management. Vocational training is education only in the type of trade a person wants to pursue, forgoing traditional academics.

Vocational training, also known as Vocational Education and Training (VET) and Career and Technical Education (CTE), provides job-specific technical training for trades, such as auto repair, plumbing and retail. These programs generally focus on providing students with hands-on instruction, and can lead to certification, a diploma or certificate. Vocational training can also give applicants an edge in job searches, since they already have the certifiable knowledge they need to enter the field. A student can receive vocational training either in high school, a community college or at trade schools for adults.

In High School Some vocational training is found in the form of high school CTE programs that include academic study as well as a variety of courses and work experiences designed to introduce students to trades ranging from construction, business and health services to art and design, agriculture and information technology. This form of education can be offered at high school campuses or separate vocational training centers. The ultimate goal of these programs is to prepare students for the job field and help them complete their high school education.

After High School Community colleges and technical schools also offer a variety of vocational courses and programs. This form of instruction includes hands-on training without the added emphasis on standard subjects like math and English. Instead, students take specific classes related to the job they're training for. Vocational schools typically utilize cooperative training techniques, where students are able to work in the job they're studying for and attend classes. Most vocational training programs can be completed within six months to two years.