Climate Change in Literature and Literary Studies: from Cli-Fi, Climate

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Advanced Review Climate change in literature and literary studies: From cli-ﬁ, climate change theater and ecopoetry to ecocriticism and climate change criticism Adeline Johns-Putra*

Edited by Mike Hulme, Domain Editor and Editor-in-Chief

In the last 5 years, climate change has emerged as a dominant theme in literature and, correspondingly, in literary studies. Its popularity in fiction has given rise to the term cli-fi, or climate change fiction, and speculation that this constitutes a distinctive literary genre. In theater, the appearance of several big-name productions from 2009 to 2011 has inspired an increase in climate change plays. There has been a growing trend, too, of climate change poetry, thanks to the rise of ecopoetry (poetry that exhibits ecological awareness and engages with the world’s current state of environmental degradation) and the launch of some key climate change poetry initiatives in the media. This prevalence of climate change literature has brought about a greater engagement with climate change in literary studies, notably the environmentally oriented branch of literary studies called ecocriticism. The increasing number of ecocritical analyses of climate change literature, particularly novels, is helping to shape a canon of climate change fiction. In a separate development, there has been greater interest in the phenomenon of climate change in literary or critical theory (the branch of literary studies concerned with literary concepts and philosophies rather than with literary texts). This development—centered on the study of climate change as a philosophical or existentialist problem—is sometimes termed climate change criticism or critical climate change. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

How to cite this article: WIREs Clim Change 2016. doi: 10.1002/wcc.385

INTRODUCTION from that initial review, it is clear that climate change is no longer a marginal topic in literature and literary n discussing climate change in literature and in lit- studies. Climate change fiction, or cli-fi, has gained Ierary studies, this article updates a 2011 article on considerable public and critical attention. Climate 1 the topic and takes account of substantial subse- change in literary studies, particularly in literary or fi quent developments in the eld. Almost 5 years on critical theory, is also now being heralded as a discrete subfield of literary studies. This is more than *Correspondence to: [email protected] just a matter of perception and of naming: there has School of English and Languages, University of Surrey, been an actual increase in literary engagements with Guildford, UK climate change, and literary scholars have been busy Conflict of interest: The author has declared no conflicts of interest exploring both these texts and the concept of climate for this article. change as a cultural phenomenon.

I proceed in two broad sections. In the first of these, I deal with climate change in literature. I begin BOX 1 with climate change fiction, making a brief summary of the novels mentioned in the 2011 review and then THE STATE OF PLAY IN 2011 taking account of novels published subsequently. I In 2011, we set out to show that climate change then move beyond fiction to climate change in drama fi had begun to register in the cultural imagina- and poetry, where some signi cant developments tion. Because of the paucity of climate change have occurred. In the second section, I deal with cli- drama and poetry at the point, we focused on mate change in literary studies. (The distinction I fiction. We took account of early science fiction make between literature and literary studies corre- that considered climatic concerns generally. We sponds to the common division in literary scholar- then charted climate change fiction from the ship of primary or literary texts on one hand and first climate change novel in the 1970s through secondary or critical discussions on the other.) I first the 1980s and 1990s, mainly in science fiction. deal with ecocriticism, that is, environmentally We also noted that climate change appeared as oriented literary studies, and discuss the substantial a theme in some political thrillers in the 1990s increase in ecocritical analyses of literary texts about and first decade of this century. We demon- climate change, which is beginning to help shape strated a recent emergence of climate change- what I call a canon of climate change literature. I related novels by ‘serious’ or ‘literary’ authors, then consider two ecocritical approaches to climate who tend to be published by well-known change literature: some ecocritics read climate change presses and receive mainstream media atten- literature as helping us to understand how to live tion. In discussing literary studies or literary crit- per se with climate change, while others suggest we should icism, as distinct from literature , we dealt read them simply and objectively as a way of under- with recent engagements with climate change standing the complexity of climate change as a cul- in literary or critical theory. We noted, in con- tural phenomenon. I end with a consideration of trast, an apparent lack of such interest in those significant developments in literary theory or critical branches of literary studies that deal more directly with literary texts and less with literary theory, that is, the more abstract branch of literary concepts. We suggested that it was the time studies concerned with literary concepts and philoso- when ecocriticism took seriously the relation- phies rather than with literary texts, in particular the ship between climate change and literature as critical movement sometimes termed climate change a worthwhile topic of study, whether historical criticism or critical climate change (Box 1). or contemporary. We proposed that a histori- cally oriented ecocriticism, what one might call an ecohistoricism, could contribute much to CLIMATE CHANGE IN LITERATURE such a venture. Fiction The novel is a ubiquitous literary form and the dominant one of our age. It should come as no surprise, then, that climate change fiction far outstrips poetic psychological character studies favored by main- and dramatic engagements with climate change. stream authors such as Maggie Gee, Barbara King- Indeed, climate change fiction has been labeled cli-fi solver, and Ian McEwan. In other words, climate – and identified as a genre of fiction in its own right.2 4 change fiction names an important new category of However, in considering cli-fi as genre, one must contemporary literature and a remarkable recent lit- consider the slippery character of literature—which erary and publishing phenomenon, although it is not is, after all, a human endeavor subject to human necessarily a genre. foibles—and thus one must remember that genre is Just how prevalent is the phenomenon of cli- fluid in nature. Many texts straddle generic bound- mate change fiction? Trexler puts the figure at 150 or aries, and genres themselves evolve over time. It is more.5 However, this includes what he terms the probably more accurate to identify climate change as ‘considerable archive of climate change fiction’ (Ref a topic found in many genres, for example, science 5, p. 8), that is, novels that are about climatic change fiction, dystopia (themselves two genres given to phenomena generally. I would prefer to define cli- much cross-fertilization), fantasy, thriller, even mate change fiction as fiction concerned with anthro- romance, as well as fiction that is not easily identifia- pogenic climate change or global warming as we ble with a given genre, for example, the social or now understand it; with such a definition, the

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. WIREs Climate Change Climate change in literature and literary studies number may, of course, be lower but this is coun- What is most striking in any discussion of cli- tered by the fact that it is still growing, and has mate change fiction is the considerable increase over grown since Trexler made his estimate. Indeed, Trex- the past 5 years. This may have to do with the pub- ler and I implicitly assumed such a definition in 2011 licity that surrounded the appearance of McEwan’s when we identified Arthur Herzog’s Heat (1977)6 as novel as one of the best known authors thus far to – the first climate change novel and the point at which attempt climate change fiction.32 34 Since then, there ‘the history of climate change fiction begins in ear- have appeared about 20 or so climate change novels nest’ (Ref 1, p. 187). With this as a starting point, we that have gained significant critical and public atten- identified about 30 novels, most notably, science fiction. Many of these may be categorized as dystopian tion such as George Turner’s The Sea and the Sum- (broadly definable as the depiction of a negative or mer (1987),7 Kim Stanley Robinson’s ‘Science in the undesirable future, as opposed to the utopian depic- – Capital’ trilogy (2004, 2005, 2007)8 10 and Paolo tion of positive and desirable futures) or postapoca- Bacigalupi’s The Windup Girl (2011),11 with lesser lyptic (broadly definable as the depiction of a future known texts including Robert Silverberg’s Hot Sky at created by an apocalyptic event). Obviously, there Midnight (1994),12 Bruce Sterling’s Heavy Weather are overlaps between the two, as many postapocalyp- (1994),13 and Norman Spinrad’s Greenhouse Sum- tic futures are also negative and therefore dystopian, mer (1999).14 We also noted other genre fiction such but the postapocalyptic tends to focus on the imme- as thrillers Portent (1993) by James Herbert,15 State diate effect of catastrophe. Recent dystopian and/or of Fear (2004) by Michael Crichton,16 Arctic Drift postapocalyptic climate change narratives include: (2008) by Clive Cussler,17 and Ultimatum (2009) by James Miller’s Sunshine State (2010),35 Robert Matthew Glass.18 We then identified an emerging Edric’s Salvage (2010),36 Peter Heller’s The Dog trend of what might be called highbrow or literary Stars (2012),37 Nathanial Rich’s Odds against climate change fiction, starting with Gee’s The Ice Tomorrow (2013),38 Jane Rawson’s A Wrong Turn People (1998)19 and The Flood (2004),20 Doris Les- at the Office of Unmade Lists (2013),39 and Karl sing’s Mara and Dann (1999)21 and The Story of Taro Greenfeld’s The Subprimes (2015).40 In such General Dann and Mara’s Daughter, Griot and the grim futuristic scenarios, climate refugeeism becomes Snow Dog (2005),22 and T. C. Boyle’s A Friend of an obvious theme. This is the case in Things We the Earth (2000),23 and becoming a noticeable phe- Didn’t See Coming (2009) by Steven Amsterdam,41 nomenon in this century with Margaret Atwood’s Lighthouse Island (2013) by Paulette Jiles,42 The Oryx and Crake (2003)24 and The Year of the Flood Swan Book (2013) by Alexis Wright,43 Shackleton’s (2009),25 Will Self’s The Book of Dave (2006),26 Man Goes South (2013) by Tony White,44 California Sarah Hall’s The Carhullan Army (2007),27 Jeanette (2014) by Edan Lepucki,45 and On Such a Full Sea Winterson’s The Stone Gods (2007),28 and John (2014) by Chang-Rae Lee.46 Mention must be made Wray’s Lowboy (2009).29 We also considered the too of Atwood’s MaddAdam (2013),47 the much- attention being paid to climatic concerns in Cormac awaited final installment in a dystopian series that McCarthy’s The Road (2006),30 although I would includes Oryx and Crake24 and The Year of the note here that the book never names the cause of its Flood25 and is now commonly known as the Mad- climate catastrophe and therefore does not deal with dAdam trilogy, and The Collapse of Western Civili- anthropogenic climate change per se: one could label sation (2014), a scientifically accurate work of it a climate change novel in effect if not in intent. science fiction by historians of science Naomi Our review culminated with the then recent publica- Oreskes and Erik M. Conway.48 Other notable sci- tion of Ian McEwan’s Solar (2010).31 ence fiction novels set in future climate-changed In this updated review, I will focus on main- worlds include The Peripheral (2014) by steampunk stream fiction—novels that have been well received writer William Gibson49 and follow-up novels by in critical and/or popular terms—rather than enumer- Bacigalupi.50,51 Again, there is overlap between sci- ate more obscure instances and vanity publications. ence fiction, dystopia and the postapocalyptic, with This is because of the sheer number of climate change the emphasis in science fiction being on an imaginary novels now extant. Indeed, this is common practice but internally consistent world characterized by its in literary studies, which cannot account for the vast scientific and technological processes. majority of novels constantly published worldwide A small number of recent climate change and must perform some kind of selection on the basis novels are set in the present: such texts include J. M. of value, whether that value is perceived to be intrin- Ledgard’s Submergence (2011)52 and Barbara King- sic (due to literary merit) or extrinsic (due to socio- solver’s Flight Behavior (2012).53 Ledgard’s work cultural influence). could be characterized as postmodern for its

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Advanced Review wires.wiley.com/climatechange innovative style and fragmented, inward-looking nar- as a political, ethical, or even psychological problem. ratives: it juxtaposes two lovers’ estranging and alie- For example, climate change emerges as a complex nating experiences with war and climate change. political problem demanding just as complex solu- Kingsolver’s more conventional and realist Flight tions for the scientists of Robinson’s Science in the – Behavior presents a young woman’s unexpected Capital trilogy8 10 and the politicians of Glass’s Ulti- encounter with the scientific and moral demands of matum.18 It figures as a profoundly personal ethical climate change, as she deals with an ecological disas- dilemma for the protagonists of Boyle’s A Friend of ter in her back yard. Also worth considering is James the Earth23 and McEwan’s Solar,31 an environmen- Bradley’s Clade (2015), which takes a long view of talist and a scientist, respectively. It is the prime climate change in the lives of one family across sev- cause of psychological anxiety and delusion for the eral decades, ending with the near future.54 vulnerable adolescent protagonist of Wray’s Low- There has emerged, too, a range of climate boy.29 The trend toward exploring the ethical or change novels outside the Anglophone world. The existentialist dimensions of climate change in the majority of these are German. Goodbody55,56 pro- present continues in Ledgard’s52 and Kingsolver’s53 vides useful lists of these, starting with Anton- novels. Ledgard and Kingsolver both introduce Andreas Guha’s Der Planet schlägt zurück (The scientists as significant characters and detail their Planet Strikes Back, 1993).57 Bestsellers include emotional engagement with the problem of Frank Schätzing’s Der Schwarm (The Swarm, climate change. Indeed, in many of these novels, the 2004),58 translated in 2006 and Ilija Trojanow’s Eis- problem of how we deal with future generations is a Tau (Melting Ice, 2011).59 Other key works are: prominent theme, figured by the parental concerns of Dirk C. Fleck’s trilogy of GO! Die Ökodiktatur many protagonists. These include Kingsolver’s pro- (GO! The Eco-dictatorship, 1993),60 Das Tahiti-Pro- tagonist Dellarobia Turnbow and Boyle’s Ty Tier- jekt (The Tahiti Project, 2008),61 and Maeva! water, as well as—in a negative example—McEwan’s (2011)62; Liane Dirks’s Falsche Himmel (False Skies, Michael Beard, whose selfishness as a father chimes 2006)63; Christian Kracht and Ingo Niermann’s with his failure to act altruistically on climate Metan (Methane, 2007)64; Klaus Lehrer’s Natürlich change. grausam (Naturally Cruel, 2008)65; Ulrich Hefner’s As I have indicated, however, overwhelmingly, Die dritte Ebene (The Third Level 2007)66; Helmut climate change appears in novels as part of a futuris- Vorndran’s Blutfeuer (Bloodfire, 2010)67; and Nele tic dystopian and/or postapocalyptic setting. In such Neuhaus’s contrarian conspiracy thriller Wer Wind novels, climate change is depicted not just as an inter- sät (He Who Sows Wind, 2011).68 Trexler (Ref 5, nal or psychological problem but for its external p. 10) notes a number of climate change novels that effects, often as part of an overall collapse including have been translated into English from other lan- technological over-reliance, economic instability, and guages: the Dutch Tongkat (Tongue Cat, 1999) by increased social division. This is not to say that such Peter Verhelst,69 translated in 200370; Slottet i Pyre- novels fail to deal with climate change’s psychologi- neene (The Castle in the Pyrenees, 2008)71 by the cal or political ramifications but to show that they Norwegian author Jostein Gaarder, translated in emphasize its physical dramas over its emotional or 201072; Auðnin (The Desert, 2008)73 by Icelandic mental ones. Often, then, the difficulty of survival novelist Yrsa Sigurðardóttir, translated as The Day is becomes a dominant theme. Once again, it should be Dark in 201174; the Finnish Ennen päivänlaskua ei noted that many of these novels register the impor- voi (Not Before Sundown, 2000)75 by Johanna Sini- tance of intergenerational obligation in order to sur- salo, translated as Troll in 200476; El ángel perdido vive climate devastation, for example, the depiction (The Lost Angel, 2011)77 by Spanish writer Javier of fathers attempting to save their sons in Sierra, translated in 201178; to which I would add McCarthy’s The Road30 and Gee’s The Ice People19 the Finnish Parantaja (The Healer, 2011) by Antti and the alignment of motherhood with environmen- Tuomainen,79 translated in 2013.80 tal consciousness in Hall’s The Carhullan Army27 In surveying such fiction, one is struck by the and Winterson’s The Stone Gods.28 range of uses to which climate change is put as an It should also be noted that a small number imaginative device. Nonetheless, some general trends of novels—futuristic or not—approach climate can be discerned. The distinction I have made change in a satirical mode, in a similar manner to between present-day and futuristic settings is perti- the Ben Elton novels previously noted in 2011 (Ref nent here. In some novels, usually those with contem- 1, p. 188). McEwan’s Solar31 is probably the porary or very near-future settings, climate change is best known satirical treatment of climate change, a phenomenon that requires individuals’ engagement centering as it does on the flawed and unlikeable

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. WIREs Climate Change Climate change in literature and literary studies physicist Beard, who functions as an everyman the UK. In 2010, Earthquakes in London by Mike (a representative of humankind) but represents us at Bartlett94 premiered at the National Theater and our selfish worst. Other notable instances of satire received positive reviews for its depiction of a climate include Atwood’s use of parody in the MaddAdam scientist and the effects of his apocalyptic warnings trilogy,24,25,47 Rawson’s light-hearted depiction of on his three daughters.95 The 2011 saw the premieres the future,39 and Greenfeld’s darkly comic mocking of three major dramatic works about climate change. of American neoliberalism in The Subprimes.40 Richard Bean’s The Heretic (2011) is sympathetic to scientists’ ethical burdens but takes a comedic and satirical stance toward academic bureaucracy and Drama data cherry-picking.96 Turning from science to psy- In the first decade of this century, playwrights and chological matters, Wastwater (2011) by Simon Ste- directors made relatively low-profile forays into cli- phens hints darkly that human nature is incapable of mate change concerns. Notable earlier works include caring for the environment.97 The most controversial The Weather (2004), British poet Clare Pollard’s first of the year’s climate change plays was Greenland play and an earnest study of character psychology (2011) by Moira Buffini et al.98 The play’s four wri- and climate in action81; The Ice-Breaker by Ameri- ters were engaged to write it by the National Theater; can scriptwriter David Rambo, first performed in their separate plots, mostly dealing with the ethical 2006, which charts environmental anxiety and sexual dilemmas faced by climate scientists and activists, tension between two climatologists82; We Turned on were coordinated by director Bijan Sheibani. How- the Light, a choral work by Orlando Gough with a ever, critics complained, for example, that the ‘NT libretto by British dramatist Caryl Churchill83 that ha[d] commissioned four playwrights […] to cobble was performed at the BBC Proms in 200684; Stephen something together’99 and that the play ‘lack Sewell’s It Just Stopped, a play first performed in [ed] focus.’100 2006, about two couples and their contrasting atti- Despite these mixed reviews, these plays consti- tudes to global crises such as climate change85;UK tute a significant point in climate change and theater, dramatist John Godber’s The Crown Prince, per- for they went on to inspire a trend not just in the UK formed in 2007, a dystopian black comedy set in a but around the world. In 2012, following her experi- devastated Hull86; Andrew Bovell’s When the Rain ence directing Wastwater, Katie Mitchell collabo- Stops Falling, first performed in 2008, a tale of one rated with computational scientist Stephen Emmott family’s internal conflicts across a climate-changing on a theatrical lecture called Ten Billion,101 subse- present and future, and winner of several awards quently published by Emmott as a book,102 and in Bovell’s native Australia87; and Canadian play- 2 years later attempted a similar theater-lecture wright Nicolas Billon’s prize-winning Greenland of hybrid, 2071 (2014), with playwright Duncan Mac- 2009, a comparison of familial rift with glacial millan and climatologist Chris Rapley.103 Other drift.88 Also worth noting is the lyrical one-man- notable new and critically acclaimed productions show The Word for Snow by Don DeLillo, commis- include two more Australian plays, Ian Meadows’s sioned and performed in 2007 by the much-respected Between Two Waves (2012), about a government cli- Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago.89 It was matologist distraught at the future confronting reprised in London in 201290 and published in his unborn child,104 and Stephen Carleton’s The 2014.91 Turquoise Elephant (2014), which imagines some The appearance of Steve Waters’s The Contin- surreal ecological impacts in Canberra,105 as well as gency Plan (2009)92 was a watershed in climate American novelist and playwright Gordon Dahl- change theater. The work is a set of two plays—a quist’s Tomorrow Come Today (2014), set in a double bill—that share the same characters and science-fictional dystopian future.106 themes. In the first, On the Beach, two scientists, As these brief descriptions of these plays and father and son, are helpless to act on their dire mete- their plots might indicate, there are two characteris- orological predictions; in the second, Resillience, the tics of climate-change-themed theater. First, it usually son is similarly stymied when he turns to politics. In refers to a disastrous climatic event, either depicting both plays, frustration turns to disaster when much such an event dramatically or setting the action in its of the UK is devastated by floods. The play was criti- dystopian aftermath. Second, it often deals with the cally acclaimed, with Waters praised for making ‘the psychological implications of climate change, from most important issue of our times into engrossing the ethical and political challenges faced by climate theatre.’93 In the wake of Waters’s work, several scientists to the anxieties experienced by scientists high-profile climate-change-themed plays appeared in and nonscientists alike as they consider the impact

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Advanced Review wires.wiley.com/climatechange on their loved ones. Indeed, Waters’s work combines Berry, Linda Hogan, W. S. Merwin, Mary Oliver, both concerns, not just depicting an apocalyptic and Gary Snyder as prominent ecopoets. Its editor event but also exploring the personal challenges of contextualized the collection by referring to ‘pro- climate change. Since Waters’s work and the other blems such as overpopulation, species extinction, pol- plays of 2010 and 2011, it appears that the theme of lution, global warming, and ozone depletion appear how individuals, especially scientists, must grapple [ing] almost daily in national headlines’ (Ref 110, with the public and private dilemmas wrought by cli- p. 1) and defined ecopoetry as a ‘subset of nature mate change has continued to preoccupy dramatists poetry that … takes on distinctly contemporary pro- and theater-goers alike. As is the case with climate blems and issues’ (Ref 110, p. 5). change fiction, some of these plays specifically frame With its interest in understanding humankind’s personal engagement with climate change in terms of place in the web of life, the new field of ecopoetry intergenerational relationships: witness the scientist thus offers itself as an avenue and impetus for poets fathers (and they are usually fathers) of The Contin- to write about climate change. This is evident in sev- gency Plan,92 Earthquakes in London,94 and eral recent anthologies. The British anthology Earth Between Two Waves.104 Shattering attempts to present ‘an ecopicture of the whole earth in all its diversity exposing the many ways in which the very fabric of our living planet is Poetry being torn apart.’111 It devotes a section, ‘Force of Any account of the poetry of climate change must Nature,’ to poems that, among other things, show consider its roots in the contemporary genre of eco- ‘the effects of global warming and climate change on poetry, itself a development from nature poetry more nature and on people’s lives’ (Ref 111, p. 190). These generally (which, in the western literary canon, is a include Fleur Adcock’s ‘The Greenhouse Effect’ (Ref long-established tradition from classical pastoral to 111, pp. 198–199). Helen Dunmore’s ‘Ice Coming’ Renaissance versions of pastoral, 18th-century land- (Ref 111, pp. 207–208), Robert Hass’s ‘State of the scape poetry and Romantic celebrations of nature). Planet’ (Ref 111, pp. 210–112), Simon Rae’s ‘One Ecopoetry, however, can be distinguished from tradi- World Down the Drain’ (Ref 111, p. 196), Jane tional nature poetry by its emphasis on the intercon- Hirshfield’s ‘Global Warming’ (Ref 111, p. 215), and nectedness of human and nonhuman life in a time of John Powell Ward’s ‘Hurry Up Please, It’s Time’ (Ref unprecedented anthropogenic environmental dam- 111, p. 198). It also includes work originally com- age. Writing in 1995, Gifford notes of what he calls missioned by the insurance syndicate Lloyd’s and the ‘green poetry’107 that it is ‘part of a wider social con- London charity Poet in the City for their 2007 Trees cern with the future of our planetary environment in the City initiative,112 such as Patience Agbabi’s that has demanded a re-examination of our relation- ‘Indian Summer’ (Ref 111, pp. 200–202), John Burn- ship with the natural world’ (Ref 107, pp. 5–6). side’s ‘Certain Weather’ (Ref 111, pp. 240–207), and Ecopoetry—more or less synonymous with Matthew Hollis’s ‘The Diomedes’ (Ref 111, Gifford’s ‘green poetry’—became more widely recog- pp. 214–215). Another British collection, Entangle- nized as a genre of poetry around the start of this ments, purports to reflect ‘this specific time of transi- century, with the appearance of two important ave- tion: the transition from a world in which global nues for publishing ecopoetry. The Ecopoetics jour- ecological damage is just one issue amongst many, to nal was founded in the United States in 2001, a world in which our species’ relationship with the explicitly seeking to ‘take on the “eco” frame, in rec- global ecosystem is the issue.’113 Most of its poems ognition that human impact on the earth and its deal generally with global environmental crisis rather other species, is without a doubt the historical water- than with climate change in particular, with the shed of our generation.’108 In 2002, the British envi- exception of Allen Tullos’s ‘Data Points Cloud the ronmentalist magazine Resurgence, active since the Event Horizon,’ with its reflections on global weather 1960s, drew attention to itself as an outlet for ecopo- patterns (Ref 113, p. 92). Another important anthol- etry by bringing out an anthology of such poems pre- ogy is Facing the Change,114 an American collection viously published in the magazine, and recognizing of essays, short stories, and poetry about climate that ‘many of our best poets are giving voice to what change, some of which had already been published must be the greatest issue of our time: the continuing elsewhere. Notable poems include Dane Cervine’s violation of the natural order and its catastrophic ‘The Last Days’ (Ref 114, pp. 85–86), Barbara Croo- effect on all of life.’109 Around this time, too, a pio- ker’s ‘Weather Weirding, 2012’ (Ref 114, p. 20), neering collection of critical essays on ecopoetry Diane Gage’s ‘Ursus Maritimus Horribilis’ (Ref 114, appeared.110 It helped to identify US poets Wendell p. 62), Harry Smith’s ‘About the Weather’ (Ref 114,

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. WIREs Climate Change Climate change in literature and literary studies p. 7), and J. R. Solonche’s ‘Polar Bears’ (Ref nonhuman species, (2) a tone of regret toward the 114, p. 72). nonhuman species of the present and to the humans The chief characteristic of an anthology is its of the future, and (3) a protest against human inac- attempt to gather together a coherent selection of tion on climate change. sometimes previously published work. Some influential poems about climate change have appeared inde- pendently of ecopoetry or climate change poetry CLIMATE CHANGE IN anthologies. Ruth Padel’s ‘Slices of Toast’ (2007)115 LITERARY STUDIES has been singled out for praise as a climate change poem.116,117 Derek Mahon’s recent volumes, Har- Ecocriticism and the Canon of Climate bour Lights (2005)118 and Life on Earth (2008),119 Change Literature deal in part with climate change. In addition, two The relative lack of engagement with climate change initiatives by the Guardian newspaper have yielded a literature in the field of ecocriticism that was previ- number of important poems on climate change. In ously noted (Ref 1, p. 189) is no longer the case. 2009, as part of its 10:10 campaign (referring to the Analyses of literature, especially fiction, in the con- need to cut emissions by 10% by 2010), the newspa- text of climate change have proliferated. Climate per published Carol Rumens’s ‘2084,’120 Kathleen change now appears as a major strand in the regular Jamie’s ‘Spider,’121 and Andrew Motion’s ‘The Sor- meetings of ecocritical scholarly societies, such as the cerer’s Mirror.’122 These were specially commis- Association for the Study of Literature and Environ- sioned, with the exception of Motion’s contribution, ment (ASLE) in the United States, the Association for which was a series of sonnets written for Cambridge the Study of Literature and Environment in the UK University and to be set to music.123 In 2015, the and Ireland (ASLE-UKI), and the European Associa- newspaper followed this up by asking British poet tion for the Study of Literature, Culture and Environ- laureate Carol Ann Duffy to curate ‘Keep It in the ment (EASLCE). In the section that follows, I discuss Ground,’124 a set of 20 poems that appeared in its ecocritical analyses of climate change novels, setting pages over 20 days and included pieces by Alice out their arguments and themes. As this discussion Oswald125 and Simon Armitage,126 which Duffy shows, although ecocritical studies of climate change described as ‘an anthology of poetry on climate literature serve a primarily analytical function, they change.’127 also have a selective effect. As I have already indi- Looking across the poems mentioned here, it is cated, judgments are inevitably made in literary stud- possible to discern some prevalent approaches and ies about which texts bear closer scrutiny and themes, namely, the use of lyrical descriptions of analysis and, in this way, literary corpuses—or what nature and our place on the planet to promote eco- are called canons in literary studies—are created. For logical awareness, the striking of an elegiac or apolo- better or worse, a canon of climate change literature, getic attitude over damage done (indeed, lament is by particularly climate change fiction, is now develop- far the most dominant tone of climate change ing, with the novels of Gee, Kingsolver, McCarthy, poetry), and the use of satire or jeremiad to criticize McEwan, and Robinson emerging as key texts. humans for their careless treatment of the world (sat- Trexler’s Anthropocene Fictions is the first ire refers to a mocking or comic invective and jere- book-length study of climate change fiction.5 It sur- miad to a solemn or dire one). Correspondingly, veys a large number of climate change novels and Bryson identifies three characteristics of ecopoetry: aims to investigate their over-riding themes; even so, (1) ‘an emphasis on maintaining an ecocentric per- it necessarily restricts itself to close analysis of a spective that recognizes the interdependent nature of select number of texts, including Crichton’s State of the world,’ (2) ‘an imperative toward humility in Fear,16 McEwan’s Solar,31 Glass’s Ultimatum,18 relations with both human and nonhuman nature,’ Bacigalupi’s The Windup Girl,11 Herzog’s Heat,2 – and (3) ‘an intense skepticism concerning hyperra- Robinson’s trilogy,8 10 Turner’s The Sea and the tionality … that usually leads to an indictment of an Summer,7 Self’s The Book of Dave,26 and Gee’s The overtechnologized modern world and a warning con- Flood.20 Trexler argues that climate change has cerning the very real potential for ecological catastro- transformed our day-to-day experiences; in order phe’ (Ref 110, p. 6). One could say that these are adequately to represent these transformations, the refined thus when it comes to addressing climate contemporary novel has had to adapt existing formal change in poetry: there tends to occur (1) the repre- conventions. Drawing on the deconstructive insights sentation of climate change as a prime example of of Clark (detailed below), Trexler calls, too, for a humans’ failure to recognize their impact on new way of critiquing such novels, namely, an

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Advanced Review wires.wiley.com/climatechange incorporation of Science and Technology Studies as postcolonial (Maxwell)138 and gendered (Johns- (STS) into ecocriticism and the development of what Putra)139 perspectives. he labels ‘economic criticism,’ a criticism that draws Not all analyses of climate change fiction are on the many ‘senses of eco’ and attends to the myriad positive in their evaluations. Some posit that a num- dimensions of modern life (Ref 5, p. 26). ber of climate change novels ultimately preserve the Other studies also consider climate change fic- political status quo that has so far proved ineffective tion as a reflection of the contemporary response to in dealing with climate change. Hamming140 and climate change; for example, Borm offers a relatively Kilgore,141 while applauding Robinson’s trilogy for straightforward account of McEwan’s Solar31 as a confronting issues of race and gender, suggest that satire of the different sides of the climate change the novels could go further in challenging the bias in debate.128 However, most scholars, like Trexler, pro- contemporary climate change scenarios toward pose that contemporary understandings of climate white, male privilege. Garrard makes a much change, far from being simply about debate, com- stronger critique of Solar,31 arguing that McEwan prise a complex and peculiarly modern world-view. implicitly defends the very Enlightenment values he Squire129 and Stark,130 for instance, read McCarthy’s should be satirizing, since they have led to humans’ The Road30 as expressing an anxiety with, respec- environmentally destructive habits.142 Notably, this tively, death and vision, anxieties that both argue are critique is a follow-up to Garrard’s initially positive, endemic to society in a time of climate change. An prepublication review of Solar, a novel that he antici- important trend in this regard is the suggestion by pated as a chance to explore whether or not humans several studies that contemporary society’s attitude have evolved sufficiently to do something about cli- to climate change is part of the increasingly dominant mate change.143 concept of risk. In this, they follow Beck’s identifica- The idea that the contemporary novel, in tion131 of modern society as a ‘risk society’ (that is, engaging with climate change, has itself undergone as highly attuned to and organized in its potential profound formal and generic innovation is a theme response to the hazards and insecurities that might not just in Trexler’s analysis but in several other affect the individual) and Heise’sinfluential applica- studies that deal with the generic experiments tion132 of Beck’s theory to literary criticism; most that occur in climate fiction. Clarke’s analysis of notably, Heise suggests that the concept of risk con- J. G. Ballard’s The Drowned World144 and The tributes to an increasingly global rather than local Crystal World145 as fore-runners of climate change view of place. Thus, Mayer reads Kingsolver’s Flight fiction, and as influential in their distinctive use of – Behavior53 and Robinson’s trilogy8 10 as ‘risk dystopia, is particularly relevant here.146 Robinson’s narratives,’ whose focus is on anticipating the risks adaptation of utopian and dystopian genres to of climate change rather than on its catastrophic accommodate the theme of climate change in his – aftermath.133 Goodbody further proposes that trilogy8 10 is discussed by Prettyman,147 Johns- novels such as Kingsolver’s Flight Behaviour53 and Putra,148 and Cho149; Cho also provides a thoughtful Trojanow’s EisTau59 shed light on public attitudes to account of Robinson’s distinctive handling of climate change risk and skepticism.134 Mehnert sug- novelistic time and space. In addition to utopian and gests that Amsterdam’s Things We Didn’t See Com- dystopian traditions, climate change fiction draws ing41 is an example of a ‘riskscape,’ that is, a view on apocalyptic expectations; Wheeler’s analysis refracted through the lens of risk.135 Elsewhere, of novels about the ‘Anthropocene era,’ such as Mehnert reads Fleck’s Maeva!62 as reflecting the kind Gee’s The Ice People19 and The Flood,20 discusses of ‘ecocosmopolitan’ worldview theorized by these novels’ debt to religious eschatological Heise.136 writings.150 Some studies suggest that, in depicting contem- Ecocritical accounts of climate change have porary social and cultural responses to climate tended to focus on fiction to the detriment of drama change, climate change fiction brings important— and poetry. The main exception is Hudson,151 who and sometimes neglected—perspectives to the fore. provides a comprehensive survey of climate change – Markley argues that Robinson’s trilogy8 10 ‘asks us theater. Also of note is Solnick,152 who briefly men- to take seriously the potential of science … to foster tions The Contingency Plan92 and Earthquakes in new, expansive visions of humankind’s coimplication London94 as representations of the pessimism that in the natural world.’137 In addition, there are studies can result from society’s inability to act on climate that propose that some climate change novels con- change, and Woolley153 who references Ten Bil- tribute to a fuller understanding of climate change by lion101 before going on to discuss filmic representa- highlighting often marginalized points of view, such tions of climate change. In addition, this relative lack

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. WIREs Climate Change Climate change in literature and literary studies may be being addressed by two developments. The to cope with, adapt to, or mitigate against climate first is the inauguration of a subset of ecocriticism change. Murphy suggests that climate change fiction termed ‘ecodramaturgy,’ a term coined by May154 encourages us to move from denial to ‘recognition, and further developed by Arons and May.155 The acceptance, and the will to act.’166 Rigby reads a second—more directly concerned with climate selection of writers in traditions from European change—is the emergence of ‘ecotheater,’ that is, Romanticism to contemporary Australian Aboriginal ‘theatre that would literalize and materialize the literature for their invitations to ethical reflection that porousness and diversity of the ecological world,’156 can help us confront catastrophe.167,168 Similarly, combined with ‘research theater,’ in which the ‘goal Adamson analyses contemporary folk stories and is not to use research to make theatre, but rather to finds that these offer ‘ecocritics and activists new use theatre to do research.’157 These two concepts tools’ for ‘making abstract, often intangible global were brought together in Chaudhuri and Enelow’s patterns associated with climate change accessible to ‘ecocide project,’158 one outcome of which was a wider public.’169 Christensen too suggests that texts Enelow’s climate change play Carla and Lewis that ‘focus on the way the weather shapes the physi- (2014).159 cal contexts, personalities, and destinies of their Some ecopoetic scholarship has considered cli- respective characters’ can help us live with weather mate change in relation to poetry, usually in discuss- and climate.170 Many ecocritics, for example, Gabriel ing which poetic conventions and theories might be and Garrard171 and Sitter,172 have also focused on most effective in capturing the uncertainty engen- pedagogy, indicating that the role of the ecocritic dered by climate change. For example, Solnick dis- includes teaching students about the dangers and cusses irony152 and deconstruction160 as important complexities of climate change. In this vein, Cenkl poetic tools, through readings of the poetry of describes how the work of poets of the Arctic Mahon and J. H. Prynne. Morton161 and scholars regions has helped him and his students to under- influenced by him, such as Lilley,162 refer largely to stand changing lived experiences in a changing Keats’s concept of negative capability (which one climate.173 could define as a deliberate rejection of the ratiocina- On the other hand, there are those literary stud- tive or logical pursuit of answers) as a useful poetic ies that seek simply to analyze the representation of approach to climate change. Griffiths discusses T. S. the seemingly unrepresentable topic of climate Eliot’s radical ideas about poetic tradition as a recon- change within literary conventions. Many such stud- ceptualization of individual agency that is pertinent ies are motivated by the same theories that underpin to understanding climate change.163 climate change criticism or, indeed, have been influenced by the theorists working within climate change criticism. Trexler’s analysis5 is such a study, drawing from work in STS and the theories of Latour174 in Ecocriticism and the Role of Climate order to explore how climate change fiction is part of Change Literature the same network of things as the scientific and polit- Quite apart from their specific themes and perspec- ical discourses of climate change; in the process, tives, ecocritical analyses of literature’s use of climate he argues, the form of the novel itself has been recon- change may be broadly divided into two categories, figured. In a comparable move, Baucom175 invokes which I characterize as normative or prescriptive on Chakrabarty’s argument176 that the very concept one hand and objective or descriptive on the other. of history has been profoundly challenged by This is part of a larger debate currently rumbling climate change, and consequently argues that the his- through ecocriticism.164 This concerns the question torical novel too must respond to this challenge of whether ecocritical literary studies and scholars (Box 2). should play an active, even activist, role in educating or advocating on behalf of the environment, or whether they should maintain a conventionally objec- Climate Change Criticism tive stance and work to probe and reveal the com- I view the trend of climate change criticism in literary plexities in the relationship between literature and or critical theory as a separate development to ecocri- the environment, a stance that some argue is—in its ticism. Although ecocriticism may be thought of as own way—profoundly educative and political.165 simply an umbrella term for the study of environ- Thus, on the one hand, some ecocritical ana- mental issues in literature, it has in practice tended to lyses promote literary representations of climate serve as an identifier for only some—and by no change as providing lessons to their readers on how means all—literary scholars working on

with ecocritical forums and have recently begun to BOX 2 exert considerable influence on ecocritical scholarship. ECOHISTORICISM Climate change criticism or critical climate change—a term introduced by McKee184—has Two opposing tendencies may also be discerned mainly been formulated in essays in a number of spe- in ecocritical studies of the representation of cial issues of literary theory journals over the past climate in historical texts, a brand of ecocritical 185,186 scholarship that has become more common 5 years, including the Oxford Literary Review, 187 188 189 since we identified it in 2011 as a fruitful area Angelaki, SubStance, symploke, and Diacri- 190 of investigation into literature and climate tics. These, along with the works I mention below, change (Ref 1, p. 195). Scholars have followed have helped to develop the field of climate change Wood’s 2008 suggestion for developing an ‘ecocriticism. historicism’177 with a call for greater interdisci- Generally speaking, climate change criticism plinary collaboration between ecocritics and treats climate change in two ways. First, it scrutinizes environmental historians.165 ‘Ecohistoricist’ climate change as a cultural phenomenon using the studies of climate change are concerned with conventional approaches of literary theory. These the literary depiction of climate through his- approaches, drawn from the broader realm of late tory. They fall into the two broad camps dis- 20th- and early 21st-century continental philosophy, cernible in contemporary studies of climate include deconstruction (inspired by Derrida),191 ana- change literature—what could generally be lyses of power and discourse (in the style of – called the prescriptive and the descriptive. Foucault),192 194 or actor-network-theory (based on fi There are, rst, readings of historical literary the work of Latour).195,196 All such theories tend to texts as potentially educative documents for us emphasize the contingent, shifting, and slippery qual- living in a time of climate change. For example, 178 179 ity of concepts often taken for granted as factual or Bartels and Beckett suggest that the ideas real: climate change is one such concept. However, of William Morris and James Joyce respectively theoretical treatments of climate change should not could provide modern readers with clues as to be confused with the kind of cultural relativism that how to live with and understand climate would claim that anthropogenic climate change does change. In contrast, there are investigations of not exist; rather, they usually argue that how climate texts centered on the way they help reveal the cultural context of key moments in climate his- change is understood is a result of a host of inter- ’ linked psychological, sociocultural, political, and tory. Kwiatkowska s survey of medieval witch- 197 craft literature,180 along with Jonsson’s linguistic factors. Goeminne, for example, examination of 18th-century naturalist Pers subjects climate change modeling to a Latourian Kalm’s travel journal,181 shed light on mile- analysis to show how it is a matter of concern stones in the early modern understanding of rather than a matter of fact, while Roelvink and 198 climate as a global phenomenon. Meanwhile, Zolkos examine the affective dimensions of Carroll’s182 and Johns-Putra’s183 studies of climate change. early 19th-century British literature show how Second, climate change criticism sometimes sug- texts written at the time of the Arctic ice-melt gests that the contingency and slipperiness that of 1818 were part of broader debates about many literary theorists have long argued are part of a the extent to which humans could affect profound but unrecognized condition of our exist- climate. ence are now an unavoidable and undeniable part of our day-to-day lives, thanks to climate change. That is, climate change has turned what till now were simply theoretical or existentialist problems into lived experience. Thus, instead of scrutinizing climate environmental matters. Early ecocritics, in particular, change, some literary theorists use climate change, often dealt with literary texts rather than with liter- along with the insights of literary theory, to scruti- ary theory, and many ecocritical scholarly societies nize contemporary life, culture, and thought. In pos- emerged in opposition to what they perceived as the iting these arguments, many theorists have had anthropocentric concerns of the continental philoso- recourse to the idea of the Anthropocene. While the phies that underpin literary theory. Indeed, few of term was first suggested by Crutzen and Stoermer199 the theorists I go on to discuss here have identified to suggest that human behavior had affected the themselves as ecocritics, although they have engaged atmosphere to such an extent that it might be a

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. WIREs Climate Change Climate change in literature and literary studies discrete geological epoch, it was used in an influential massively distributed in time and space relative to essay by Chakrabarty as the descriptor for a pro- humans.’215 Although Morton’s critiques have been found historical shift.176 Following Chakrabarty’s widely read, the rigor and consistency of his theories, argument that the ‘geologic now of the Anthropocene particularly his notion of hyperobjects, have been has become entangled with the now of human subject to ongoing scrutiny and debate.216 history (Ref. 176, p. 212),’ the Anthropocene has While climate change criticism shows no signs become useful in climate change criticism to signify of abatement, it must be pointed out that it has, in not just how humans have become geological agents turn, generated its own criticism. Gaston queries the but how human destruction of both civilization and idea that the Anthropocene is a profound challenge environment has engendered an existentialist crisis to representation and cautions against what he calls and radically altered human ontology and epistemol- ‘green deconstruction.’217 Aravamudan reads critical ogy, that is, our ways of being and knowing. climate change as catachronistic, that is, as applying Much of the work of prominent exponents of a future event to present criticism, and, in doing so, climate change criticism falls into the second cate- compares it unfavorably with the mid-20th-century gory. This is the case with many of the critiques movement he calls nuclear criticism, that is, the liter- inspired by deconstruction, for example. Deconstruc- ary theories that surrounded the cold war in the tion as a literary approach adopts the insights of Der- nuclear age.218 For Aravamudan, because nuclear rida191 to reveal hidden and often contradictory criticism was interested in texts rather than objects, meanings within texts. Broadly speaking, deconstruc- it was able to imagine an agency after the apoca- tion in critical climate change is the recognition that lypse, which climate change criticism is not yet climate change is itself a deconstructive force because able to do. it shows up the many inconsistencies in our cultural concepts. Clark has been one of the foremost advo- cates of such a position, suggesting, for example, that climate change has helped to deconstruct some of the CONCLUSION anthropocentric assumptions at the heart of ecocriticism, for example, those to do with nature and The end of the last decade, which saw the publication – beauty.200 202 Other important theorists of climate of McEwan’s Solar (2009),31 the performance of change as cultural deconstruction are Cohen, who Waters’s The Contingency Plan (2010),92 and the compares the philosophical challenge of climate 10:10 initiative by the Guardian newspaper (2010), – change to an existentialist threat;203 205 the much- paved the way in this decade for climate change to respected Derridean scholar Miller, who uses the emerge as an important and urgent topic for writers, concept of climate change to deconstruct globaliza- playwrights, and poets. Literary scholars have tion206; and Colebrook, who collaborated with responded with an increase in the number of analyses Cohen and Miller on a deconstructive analysis of cli- of such literary texts. These ecocritical analyses are mate change.207 Colebrook has since written much partly responsible for an emerging canon of climate on climate change in the context of mass extinc- change fiction. In addition, some of these ecocritical tion.208,209 Her work draws on several continental studies of climate change literature suggest that it thinkers in addition to Derrida, from the psychoana- plays a role in teaching us how to live with climate lyst Lacan to the postmodern theorist Deleuze change, while others have attempted to maintain and the post-Deleuzian theorist Agamben, to show an objective stance by teasing out the complex repre- how the possibility of extinction has profound— sentational challenges that climate change poses. usually ethical—implications for the category of The problem of complexity underpins the burgeoning human.210,211 Finally, Morton, in a similar vein to field of climate change criticism, which is centered Clark’s deconstructive ideas, has suggested that the on the idea that climate change is a slippery concept Anthropocene has challenged our ontological and posing not just a literary but an existentialist epistemological foundations by revealing how the challenge. environment is not to be understood from any However, this review of climate change fiction, single subject position but is instead a ‘mesh’ of drama, and poetry suggests that literature is con- many objects.212 Initially terming this approach the cerned not just with climate change’s representational ecological thought, Morton213 has since linked it to and existentialist challenges but with its emotional Harman’s object-oriented ontology.214 He has subse- and psychological dilemmas. Climate change fiction quently dubbed climate change one of several and drama, with their preoccupations with parent- ‘hyperobjects,’ which he defines as ‘things that are hood, and climate change poetry, with its dominant

© 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Advanced Review wires.wiley.com/climatechange tone of lament, all circulate around the problem of with the future and its increasing prevalence in cli- the legacy of environmental degradation that humans mate change literature that deserves closer scrutiny in today are handing on to species of tomorrow— literary studies as it continues its engagement with human and nonhuman. It is this emotional concern the global crisis of climate change.

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