Les Américaines Et La Politisation De La Sphère Privée Dans L'après

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Les Américaines Et La Politisation De La Sphère Privée Dans L'après UNIVERSITÉ CHARLES DE GAULLE LILLE III École Doctorale des Sciences de l’Homme et de la Société C.E.C.I.L.L.E. (Centre d’Études en Civilisations, Langues et Littératures Étrangères) Les Américaines et la politisation de la sphère privée dans l’après-seconde guerre mondiale Thèse pour le doctorat d’Études anglophones Présentée par Florence KACZOROWSKI Sous la direction de Madame le Professeur Catherine POUZOULET Soutenue le 25 novembre 2016 Volume 2 Jury : Mesdames et Messieurs Guyonne Leduc (Professeur à l’Université Charles de Gaulle Lille III) Vincent Michelot, rapporteur (Professeur à l’IEP de Lyon) Catherine Pouzoulet, directrice de la thèse (Professeur à l’Université Charles de Gaulle Lille III) François Vergniolle de Chantal, rapporteur (Professeur à l’Université Paris Diderot-Paris 7) TROISIÈME PARTIE : Politisation de la sphère privée et participation politique des femmes dans le Deuxième après-guerre 434 Comme nous l’avons vu dans la deuxième partie de ce travail, la culture dans l’après-seconde guerre mondiale promouvait tant les mérites de l’idéologie domestique que l’obligation morale des femmes d’intensifier leur engagement civique et politique et la période établissait donc un climat particulièrement propice à un activisme féminin à domicile. Le foyer de banlieue résidentielle, et sa cuisine plus précisément, étaient considérés comme un haut-lieu de la sociabilité féminine tandis que les ‘kaffee klatsches’ et les ventes à domicile faisaient partie intégrante du quotidien de ces femmes au foyer banlieusardes. La maison et les nombreuses activités qui étaient conduites pouvaient fonctionner comme « un forum de politisation des femmes », surtout des ménagères.1 Si « la place de la femme est à la maison » comme le voulait l’adage, rien ne l’empêchait d’y exercer des activités économiques ou politiques. Cette notion fit son chemin en politique comme le suggère, par exemple, la promotion de « l’approche du salon et du patio » (‘the parlor and patio approach’) mise en avant par Nora Lynch Kearns, présidente de la NFRW (National Federation of Republican Women) de 1953 à 1956, que nous examinerons dans le premier chapitre de cette dernière partie. Par ailleurs, les organisations féminines d’obédience conservatrice semblent avoir capitalisé plus encore que les autres sur les modes d’activisme à domicile (‘kitchen-table activism’). La première page du bulletin des 1 Voir Elayne Rapping, “Tupperware and Women,” Radical America 14.6 (1980): 39-50, et Alison J. Clarke, “Tupperware: Suburbia, sociality and mass consumption,” dans Visions of Suburbia, Roger Silverstone (dir.), Routledge, 2012, 132-160. E. Rapping et A. Clarke considèrent que les activités de vente Tupperware à domicile avaient un potentiel émancipateur pour les femmes qui se voyaient offrir des opportunités à l’intérieur comme à l’extérieur du foyer en plus de renforcer leur indépendance financière. Une étude portant sur les vendeuses Tupperware françaises pendant les années 1960-1970 semble corroborer cette thèse. Voir Catherine Achin and Delphine Naudier, «La libération par Tupperware? Diffusion des idées et pratiques féministes dans de nouveaux espaces de sociabilité féminine,» Clio Histoire, femmes et sociétés 29 (2009) : 131-140. 435 Minute Women of the U.S.A. (MWUSA), organisation féminine conservatrice fondée en 1949 dans le Connecticut, illustre parfaitement la manière dont certaines femmes au foyer choisirent de se servir de la sphère privée comme support de leur activisme politique. La maison américaine représentée en couverture du bulletin était décrite comme les « quartiers généraux nationaux ». 2 C’est dans ce cadre social et politique particulier que VWBA émergea en réponse à la demande de plus en plus soutenue de réviser le droit des traités (‘treaty law’). Le recours au ‘kitchen table activism’ par ce groupe s’avéra une réussite au début de la campagne, comme nous le verrons dans le deuxième chapitre. Enfin, nous nous intéresserons à deux organisations conservatrices, Mothers of Servicemen et Mothers’ Crusade for Victory over Communism, qui se trouvaient au cœur d’un réseau conservateur traditionaliste et anticommuniste opposé aux échanges commerciaux avec les pays communistes durant la Guerre du Vietnam. 2 Voir l’expression utilisée dans les bulletins de l’organisation Minute Women for the United States: “our national headquarters.ˮ Lucille Cardin Crain papers, Coll 095, Box 83, Folders 10-12, Special Collections & University Archives, University of Oregon Libraries, Eugene, Oregon. 436 Chapitre 1. L’activité politique des femmes démocrates et républicaines durant les campagnes présidentielles de 1952 et 1956 et l’essor de « l’approche du salon et du patio » “[I]n the 1950s, for the first time in the thirty years since women won the vote, they were credited with working together to put a president – Dwight D. Eisenhower – in the White House.” Eugenia Kaledin, Mothers and More (1984) 3 Les élections présidentielles de 1952 et 1956 opposèrent, fait unique dans l’histoire américaine, les deux mêmes candidats – le républicain Dwight D. Eisenhower, auréolé du succès de ses victoires militaires, mais novice en politique ; et Adlai Stevenson II (1900-1965), ancien membre du Département d’État sous FDR, et gouverneur de l’Illinois de 1949 à 1953. Face à eux, un Parti Progressiste affaibli, dont la campagne électorale fit la part belle aux femmes – non seulement le parti nomina une femme noire, Charlotta A. Bass (1874-1969), comme colistière de Vincent Hallinan4, mais l’épouse du candidat emprisonné, Vivian Hallinan (1896-1992),5 fit un temps campagne à sa place.6 D’après Edith P. Mayo, il fallut attendre les années 1950 pour qu’un parti politique majeur 3 Eugenia Kaledin, Mothers and More: American Women in the 1950s, Boston, Mass: Twayne, 1984, 83. 4 Avocat à San Francisco, il avait défendu le leader syndical de l’ILWU, Harry Bridges, australien naturalisé américain, condamné à cinq ans de prison pour faux témoignage. La cour l’accusait d’avoir nié son appartenance au Parti Communiste au moment de la procédure de naturalisation. Marie-France Toinet, La chasse aux sorcières : 1947-1957, 1984, 155. Hallinan fut condamné pour fraude fiscale. 5 Voir “[Rev. William Howard] Melish Plea Wins $5,000 in A.L.P [American Labor Party] Drive,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle 19 avril 1952 : 3. Il y est fait référence à Vivian Hallinan (1910-1999) ayant pris la parole au nom de son mari emprisonné lors d’un meeting de l’ALP, la branche du Parti Progressiste dans l’État de New York. Voir également : “ALP Opens Campaign,” Kingston Daily Freeman [Kingston, New York] 14 mai 1952 : 8 ; “Mrs. Hallinan Will Be Speaker at Party,” Daily Capital Journal [Salem, Oregon] 3 septembre 1952 : 5. 6 D’autres partis mineurs nominèrent des femmes cette année-là : le Washington Peace Party choisit Ellen Linea Jensen comme candidate à la présidence ; Mary Kenny, femme au foyer du Nebraska, reçut l’investiture de l’American Party, et fut également nominée à la vice-présidence pour un autre parti conservateur, le nouveau Constitution Party, cofondé par Suzanne Stevenson, présidente de Minute Women of the USA, Inc. (1949). Le Constitution Party choisit pour candidat Douglas MacArthur, malgré le refus de celui-ci de concourir à l’élection. Mary Kenny se retira de la course à la Vice-présidence en septembre 1952 pour se consacrer à l’American Party. Voir : “Two Moves To Start New Party Announced,” Jacksonville Daily Journal [Jacksonville, Illinois] 10 août 1952: 1 ; Clarke Thomas, “MacArthur Won’t Sanction Parties Rising in His Name,” Lincoln Evening Journal [Lincoln, Nebraska] 13 août 1952 : 1 ; “Lincoln Housewife Withdraws as Vice Presidential Nominee,” Lincoln Star [Lincoln, Nebraska] 26 septembre 1952 : 22; “Madam President?” Denton Record-Chronicle [Denton, Texas] 17 octobre 1952 : 4. 437 bâtisse une campagne ciblant délibérément l’électorat féminin : “American political parties have always produced and distributed campaign items with a special appeal for women, but it wasn’t until the fifties that a political party launched the first deliberate campaign aimed at women voters.”7 En réalité, Jo Freeman a mis en évidence l’élection de 1928, durant laquelle le parti républicain de Hoover avait également déployé des efforts considérables afin de courtiser les électrices américaines – avec succès, selon les observateurs de l’époque. Toutefois, Edith P. Mayo a raison de considérer les élections organisées dans les années 1950 comme uniques, en ce qu’elles révélèrent le désir renaissant et grandissant des partis de voir les femmes voter « en bloc » pour un candidat, et offrirent une visibilité sans précédent aux femmes.8 Si ces dernières occupèrent une place cruciale durant les campagnes électorales, il n’en demeure pas moins que les stratégies choisies par les partis politiques, dans l’intention de les mobiliser en masse, reposaient sur une vision traditionnelle de la femme, et de son rôle en politique : “In both presidential elections in the fifties, campaign devices and images of women conveyed time-honored ideals of home and family.”9 « Les moments de campagne électorale constituent des périodes d’activation des partis politiques particulièrement propices à l’observation de la répartition sexuée du travail partisan. »10 Dans les années 1950, les moments de campagne mirent en lumière la rigidification des rôles militants selon le sexe. Comme l’observent Catherine Achin et Laure Bereni, « [s]’il y a des activités peu discriminantes pour les militant.e.s en campagne 7 Edith P. Mayo, “Be a Party
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