CENSUS OF INDIA 1971 SERIES-9 KERALA
PART V B (i) ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES ON SCHEDULED TRIBES (HILL PULAYA, MALAI VEDAN, URALY AND KADAR)
M. K. DEV ASSY OF THE INDIAN ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICE SUPERINT ENDENT OF CENSUS OPERAnONS. KBRALA AND THE UNION TERRITORY·OF LAC(:ADIVB, MINICOY AND AMINDIVI ISLANDS (1961) \...... ,MYSORE KERA~A '.~~ DISTRIBUTION OF lMPORTAN T \'( SCHEDUL ED TR1B'E:S, 1%1
, >
ARABIAN SEA II~
LEGEND o PULAYAN • PANIYAN MARATI ® MALAYARAYAR __ KURuM.6.NS ~ IRULAR OR IRULAN .. KURICHCHAN <:) KANIKARAN OR KANIKKAR ~ ADIYAN !Jil!lI MUTHUWAN. MUOUGAR OR MUOWAN KATT UNAYAKAN til fO· l'Z';l MANNAN CD ULL ACAN NOTE : EACH ':J'fMBOL REPRE5ENT5 500 PERSONS, 01; PART THEREOF . POPULATION eEl.OW 10 H .... S ,..OT BEEN SMOW~ ,.0 "1 7 · EA5l OF Citt£NWICH 7.· " ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Field survey and first draft P. V. James, Investigator (Hill Pulaya and Malai Vedan) P. K. Harid, Investigator· (Kadar and Uraly) Photographs K.. V. Ravindranathan Nair, Photographer, Public Relations Department, Government of Kerala P. V. James, Investigator Arts and sketches K. Krishna PilIai, Draughtsman M. Tbankappan Pillai, DrB;ughtsman Draft finalisation K. V.Joseph, (Hill Pulaya) Deputy Superintendent of Census Operations, Kerala A. M. Kurup, (Malai Vedan, Research Officer, Offioe of the Kadar and U raly) Registrar General, India, New Delhi Proof reading ·N. Aravindan, Proof-reader N. Madhavan, Proof-reader Editing M. K. Devassy, B. A., B. L. of the Indian Administrative Service, Superintendent of Census Operations, Kerala iii FOREWORD The Consti tu tion lays down that "the State shall promote witb special care the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections of the people and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Schejuled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation". To assist States in fulfilling their responsibility in this regard, the 1961 Census provided a series of special tabulations of the sl.)cial and economic data on Scheduled Cas tes and Scheduled Tribes. Tbe lists of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are notified by the President under the Constitution and the Parliament is empowerad to include in or exclude from the lists, any caste or tribe. During the Census operations, the enumerators frequently face the problem of identifying the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In the President's notification, though in some cases, the na:nes of the sub-castes and sub-tribes and synonyms are given, there are many cases where such names have not been provided in the list. The Census enumerators, therefore, require guidance about the acceptance or reje.::tion of claims that they come across during the operations of so ne communities to be treated as sub-castes or sub-tribes of the notified Scueduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes. For this purpose, the Census Organisation has thought it wise to undertake detailed ethn05raphic studies in respect of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes of India. This is also in conformity with the past Census tradition of pr~)e 1tin3 authentic ethnographic acc,Junt of Indian communities. For conducting the ethnographic studies, a nUllber of ancillary operations are undertaken by the Social Studies Unit of the Office of the Registrar General, India, as well as the staff of the Superint;;ndents of Census Operations in the various States. These ancillary operations include: (i) compilation of available information on each Scheduled Caste and S::heduled Tribe and preparation of bibliography io respect of them; (ii) preparation and interpretation of maps showing distribution of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribl:s over time and space; and (iii) special studies on cui tural, technological and economic changes taking place among the various tribal communities. Dr. B. K. Roy Burman, Officar on Special Duty, Hanjicrafts and Sodal Studies Unit, assisted by Shri. A. M. Kurup and Shri. N. G. Nag, Research Officers, is co-ordinating all these studies at the Central level. At the State level, the Superintend;;nt of Census Operations and his staff are collaborating iil cOilducting the field investigatio.ls and preparing the report. Shri. M. Joseph and Shri K. V. Joseph, Deputy Superintendents of Census Operations supervised the study at tbe State level and ~hri. P. V. Ja ne" and Suri. P. K. Harid, Investigators, carried out the field investigation :lnd prepared the draft. I avail of this opportunity to extend my warm thanks to all my colbagues who have un lertaken varjous studies on djfferent aspects of the Scheduled Castes anJ Scheduled Tribes of India. A. CHANDRASEKHAR, Registrar General, India. v CONTENTS pAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS jji i FOREWORD v HILL PULAYA Chapter I Name, identity, origin and history I Chapter II Distribution and population. trend 5 Chapter III Physical characteristics 8 Chapter IV Family, clan, kinship and other analogous division 9 Chapter V Dwellings, dress, fo->d, ornaments and other material obj~cts distinctive of the community 10 Chapter VI Environmental sanitation, hygienic habits, diseases and treatment 13 Chapter VlI Language and literacy 14 Chapter vm Economic life 15 Chapter IX Life cycle 18 Chapter X Religion 22 Chapter XI leisure, recreation and child play 23 Chapter XII Relation among different sections of the community 24 Chapter XIII In ter-communi ty rela tionshi p 25 Chapter XIV Structure of social control and leadership 26 Chapter XV Social reform and welfare 27 Bibliograpby 27 Appendix Extracts from earlier publications: 1 The Travancore Tribe~ and Castes, Vol. r, by 31 L. A. Krishna lyer, 1937, Pages 117--134 2 Census of India, 1931, Vol. XXVIII, Travancore, Part I by N. Kunjan Pillai 38 MALAI VEDAN Chapter I Name, identity, origin and history 41 Chapter If DistrIbution and popUlation trend 43 Chapter III Physical characteristics 45 Chapter IV Family, clan. kinship and other divisions 46 Chapter V Dwelling, dress, food and ornaments 48 Chapter VI Environmental sanitation, hygienic habits, diseases and treatm,ent 50 Chapter VII Language and literature 51 vii CONTENTS PAGE Chapter Vfl[ Economic life 52 Chapter IX Life cycle 54 Chapter X Religion 59 Chapter XI Leisure, recreation and child play 61 Chapter XII Relation among different sections of the community 62 Chapter XIII In ter-comm uni ty rela tionship 63 < Chapter XIV Structure of social control, prestige and leadership 64 Bibliography 64 Songs of Malai Vedans 66 Appendix Ex tracts from earlier publications: 1 Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. VII, Madras, 1909 by Edgar Thurston, Pages 331-335 73 2 Native Life in Travancore, 1883, by Samuel Mateer, Page 60 75 3 The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Vol. 1• .1937 by L. A. Krishna lyer, Pages 135-160 76 VRALY Chapter Name, origin and history 85 Chapter II Distribution and population trend 87 Chapter IIJ Physical characteristics 89 Chapter IV Family, clan, kinship, and other analogous divisions <90 Chapter V Dwelling, dress, food, ornaments and other material objects distincti ve of the communi ty 93 Chapter VI Environmental sanitation, bygienic hahits, diseases and trea tmen t 96 Chapter VlI Language and literature 97 Chapter VITI Economic life 98 Chapter IX Life cycle 102 Chapter X Religion 107 Chapter XI Intercommuni ty relationship 109 Chapter XII Structure of social control, prestige and leadership 1W Chapter XIJ[ Social reform and welfare 111 Bihliography H2 Census tables relating to-the tribes, viii CONTENTS PAGB 3 The Travanc:>re State Manual, Vol. IT by Nagam Aiya, Pages 412-416 131 4 Native Life of Travancore by S. Mateer, 1883. Page 80 134 KADAR Introduction 135 Chapter Name, origin and history 136 Chapter II Distribution and popUlation trend 137 Chapter HI Physical characteristics 138 Chapter IV Family, clan, kinship and other analogous divisions 139 Chapter V Dwelling, dress, food, ornam;;:nts and other rna teria1 objects 140 Chapter VI Environmental sanitation, hygieni~ habits, disease and treatments 144 Chapter VII Language and literature ]45 Chapter VIII Economic life 146 Chapter IX Life cycle 150 Chapter X Religion 154 Chapter Xl Leisure, recreation and child play 155 Chapter XII Inter-community relationship 156 Chapter XIII Structure of social control and leadership 157 Chapter XIV Social reforms and welfare 158 Bibliography 158 Appendix 1 Kadars of Wynad 160 Appendix 11 Tables from 1961 Census data 163 Appendix III Extracts from earlier publications: 1 Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. Hf, Madras, 1909 by Edgar Thurston, Pages 6 -29 .. 167 2 The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, 1909 by L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, Pages 1-27 176 3 Malabar and its Folk, 1900 by f. K. Gopala Panikkar, Pages 139 - 142 188 ANNEXURES List of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in Kerala 189 2 Rural, urban and sex-wise distribution of Scheduled Tribes by districts, Kerala State, 1961 ... 191 3 Rural distribution of Scheduled Tribes by districts and taluks, Kerala, 1961 201 ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS HILL PULAYA PLATE 1 Terraced paddy fields in Marayoor village Between pages 4 & 5 Dolmen like structures in Keezhanthoor village 2 " " .3 Kurumba Pulaya women " 4 Karavazhy PuJaya woman " " 5 Government tribal colony for Kurumba Pulaya-Chamt>akad ,. ., 6 Koltapallam settlement of Kuru.nba Pulaya " •• 7 Kurumba PuJaya settlement " " 8 Karavazhy Pulaya but .. Kurumba Pulaya hut 9 " 10 Near the Government-built house " .. 11 In front of the hut .0 . 12 .. Hair style-Hill PuJaya woman tt .. 13 A family group .. t, 14 Karavazhy PuJaya females at smile " " . 15 A Karavazhy Pulaya woman wi tb typical ornaments 16 Women with modern and old type of dress " " " 11 Ornaments (1) Koppu (2) Ola (3) Passy (4) ThudaI " (5) Mairothukki (6) Bangle (kaivaJa) (1) Modaki ,t 18 Vakkatbi and digging stick ,. 19 Mortar (Ural) 20 Grinding stone " " .. t • 21 Koodu 22 Chulaku (Winnow) " " " 23 Basket to keep egss for hatching .. t • 24 Grazing the cattle of VeIlala landlords .. Kurumba Pulaya temple-Kodanthur 25 " 26 With offerings-lying below are the clay models offered by devotees " 27 Koil of Karavazhy Pulaya-Marayoor " 0' " 28 Girls learning to dance-Champakad II 29 Musical instruments " " " 30 Dancing in Kummittankuzhi settlement- Karavazhy Pulaya .. t, MALAI VEDAN 31 A tree.hut in the hills Between pages 48 &: 49 .12 A Malai Vedan woman wearing garment of tree-bark (Maravury) " .13 A Malai Vedan female-Kulathupuzha " t," J4 A Malai Vedan male-Kulathupuzha •• " 35 Tribal colony at Urukunnu ,0 x LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE 36 Tapioca cultivation around the hut Between pages 48 & 49 37 Malai Vedan group-Kulathupuzha " u 38 Malai Vedan males-Urukunnu ,. " 39 Malai Vedan females-Urukunnu .. ,. 40 Malai Vedans-Kulathupuzha .. o' 41 Malai Vedan household-Urukunnu " 'O, 42 Fishing with bow and arrow-Urukunnu •• U 43 'With the day's earnings'-Kulathupuzha .. ." 44 Firewood coUection-A means of livelihood .. " 45 The Plathy in action -Kulathupuzha '. ., 46 The Plathy-Note the bells· around his leg, shell, betel leaves etc, in the winnow and the kuda .. , . 47 Mudiyattam-A folk dance-Urukunnu •• 48 Mudiyattam-The dancers hold the hands of each other and shake " the heads to the tune of ~he music ., .,. 49 Keeriyattam-Mongoose dance-See the Women dancing in front of the lighted lamp .. 50 Keeriyattam -The participants shake their heads and move the " hands to appear like a mongoose moving ,-- " H 51 Vetan wo:nen selling grass in tll~ evening market -Uliyakovil " " URALY 52 Uraly couple going hom;: - 3ee the peculiar way of carrying the children Between pages 88 & 89 53 An Uraly settlement ,. Of 54 Water to drink " .. 55 Tree hut-Anamadam ., ,. 56 An Uraly hut ., H 57 An Uraly old woman .. 58 U raly women, young and old " " .. 59 A typical Uraly woman wi th ornaments ., 'J 60 Bill hook-Kathi .. •• 61 A male Uraly-with the favourite implement 'kathi' u 62 Uraly at hunt "., 63 With trapping implement " ." •• 64 A seclusion shed for women ,. H 65 A tree hut built on stilths -Sometimes this type of hut is also used as secl usion shed .. ... 66 A man with his two wives and children u 67 Mid-day meals at Welfare School, Poomala, Thodupuzha " ".t. xi LIST OF ILLU5TRATIONS KADAR PLATE 68 A Kadar group Between pages 136 & 137 69 Government-built houses for Kadars-Parambikulam " " 70 A Kadathy with her child ,. " 71 Splicing the reed-Basket making t. .. MAPS AND CHARTS 1 Distribution of important Scheduled Tribes, Kerala. 1961 Page ii 2 Distribution of the Scheduled Tribe-Hill Pulaya. 1961 Facing page 1 3 Distribution of the Scheduled Tribe-Malai Vedao. 196 r .. - o. 41 4 Percentage decadal variations of Vetan including \IIalai Vdans and Vettuvans from 1881-1961 44 " 5 Population of Vetans (including Malai Vedans) and " Vettuvans from 1891-1961 so H, 45 6 Distributio.Q of the Scheduled Tribe-Uraly, 1961 " .. 85 7 Distribution of the Scheduled Tribe-Kadar, 1961 135 " t. xii ERRATA Page Table/Column Line For Read 3 Col. 2 8 brotheren brethren 6 Table 4, Col. 5 7 1073.02 1074.02 16 Col. 2 47 own own 22 Col. 1 25· intened intended 23 Col. 2 37 Persond Person 31 Col. 1 36 251 254 49 Col. 2 39 monkies monkeys 65 9 1945 1941 87 Col. 2 24 2210 2110 142 Col. 2 32 as is 145 Col. 2 10 curricnlam curriculum 154 Col. 1 28 Devi dancers Devil dancers 164 Table VI, Col. 13 5 31.1 31.11 164 T1lble VI, Co}. 3 12 23 213 194 Col. 30 24 187 1827 197 Col. 59 28 1814 1844 201 Col. 3 1 62402 64402 MYSORE KERALASCHEOULED ' N OF THE DISTRIBUTIO LL PULAYA. 1961 TRIBE-,HI . " ARABIAN SEA I'. 10 £AS" OF GREENWICH HILL PULAYA CHAPTER I NAME , IDENTITY,, ORIGIN AND HISTORY 1. The western slope of the weste~n g~ats, .is to be derived from 'Pula', a word meaning poll . tbe ltbode qf Hill tribes, one of wh.lch IS Hlll ution because, of.all the indigenous clstes and Pulayas. The following study of Hill Pulayas tribes of Malabar they cause the greatest is mainly ba$ed on the investigations conducted impurity frvm the' stan~point of mediaeval in the villages of Marayoor, Keezhanthoor and conventionalism. They may be said to corres Kanthalloor of the Devicolam taluk. pond to the Holeyas of the Canarese district, whose name too has perhaps a similar origin, 2. Hill Pulayas are a Scheduled Tribe. ",,!,he but Which, Mr. Lewis Rice of Mysore derives· Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists from 'Hola' a field".' According to another Modification Order 1956" does not recognise interpretation Pulaya is derived from the word any synonym, sub.~aste/sub.tribe name for Hill 'Pulam' 2 which means a corn field and the Pulayas. In the case of Pulayas, how~ver, community was called Pulaya as their tradi 'Cheramar' is recognised as a synonym in Kerala tional occupation was agriculturdl labour. Con· except Malabar, where it is a Scheduled Caste. sidering the social and occupational background Mala. Po'ayas of the community both these interpretations are applicable. 3. Hill Pulayas are also called Mala Pulayas. 5. Hill Pulayas are composed of 3 sections It must be said that the latter is more frequen viz., Kurumba Pulaya, Karavazhi Pulaya and tly'used and more popular than the former. In Pampu PUlaya. While L. A. Krishna (yer and fact, nowhere is the term Hill Pulaya seen used T. K. Velu PiIlai agree that there are three except in the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled groups or' sections among Mala Pulayas as named Tribes Lists Modification Order, 1956, and in above, A.A.D. Luiz thinks, "they (Kururnbas) t/Ie Census Report of 1931 of Travancore. In are popularly known as Kurumb.l Pulayan, the latter, the term Hill Pulaya is seen used Mala Pulayan, Hill Pulayan a'3d Pampu Pulayan but once, the community being indicated by the _ ...... _ In Kerala the terms Hill Pulayas and term Mala Pulaya in all other places in the Mala Pulayas are generic names for Kurumbas, report. Curiously enough, all the Hill Tribes Karavazhis and Mathas (Wynad Pulayas)"' 3. taking the prefix 'Mala' except Hill Pulayas Kurumba Pulayas are said to be so called as are retained by that same name in the Sched their early occupation was tending sheep (Kuru uled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists Modifi means sheep). They themsel ve. say that the cation Order 1956. e. g. Malai Arayan, Malai particular variety of sheep they are tending is Pandaram, Malakuravan and Malai Vedan. In called 'Kurumbad' (Kurumba . sheep). This the Census Report of Travancore of 1901 and variety is of good quality and has long hair. "It in the Travancore State Manual, 1906, Malai is also possible that their name originated from Pandarams is mentioned as HiIlpandarams the Tamil word 'Kurumba' meaning mischief, while Malai Arayans is mentioned as Mala because in their savage state they were very yarayans itself. It may, therefore, be possible arrogant and mischievous·'.4 Goddess Parvathi that tbe usage of the English equivalent of the and Chapplamma are among the dei ties wor prefix 'Mala' is more accidental than intentional. shipped by the Hill Pulayas. As a mark of devo Etymological Significance tion to Chapplamma some Kurumba Pulaya males add Chapla as suffix to their names. e. g. 4. There are different versions about the Pamparu Chaple, Mani Chaple, Cullen Chaple etymological significance of the name. Accord etc. Kurumba is one of the synonyms of the ing to N. Subramonia lyer, "Pulaya is supposed Goddess Parvathi. It is probable that they 1 Census of India 1901, Vol. XXV[, Travancore, 2. Sabdatharavali by G. Padmanabha PilIai, 1964, . Part I Repo rt, N. Subramonla ~iyar, p. 341 p. 1020 3. Tribes of Kerala, A. A. D. LUlZ, 1962, p. 116 4. Ibid. 1 HILL PULAYA acc:epted the name Kurumba Pulayas as their report of 1901. However, they claim that caste name as a mark of devotion to Goddess they migrated from Madura. A Karavazhi Sreeparvathi. Pulaya informant of Kumroittankuzhi settle ment said .. our forefather came to this settle ~. Regarding Karavazhi Pulayas, A. A. D. ment from Madura; wjlh seven housebolds; now LUI~ says" they are officially and popularly, we have increased to 94". The Saiva Vellalas bu t mcor~ectJ.y known as Hi}) Pu]ayans. They of Marayoor say that they brought the Hill have .nothlng In common with Kurumba Pulayas Pulayas with them wl:en they migrated from seen In the same district and the large numter of Madurai. The President of the M arayoor Pulayans of the coastal areas. The suffh: panchayat, a Ve]lala (Saivaite) by caste, infor '.Pl;11ayan' to t.hei.r name is surprising. Probably med that their ancient forefathers migrated from It IS use~ to lndl~ate that they are a polluting the border areaS of Madras State, especially commUnI ty of agncultural serfs like those in the from Madurai at«.the time of Tippu Sultan's low coastal regions. They came with the name invasion of the south aud that they brought with Karavazhi originated from their occupation of them pulayas who were their serfs. Tippu's 'kara' (land) as agricultural labourers. It is invasion of the south was in the last quarter of· also possible that the name is derived from the the 18th century. Therefore they must have combination of tbe words 'vazhi' (route) and migrated to KeraJa about 2eO years ago. Rely 'kara' (land) to connote that they caD'e by land ing on this tradition, it can be inferred that the route".' According to the version of Karavazhi HHl Pulayas migrated from their original Pulayas, 'KaTa vazhi' means agricultural land homes in Madurai about 200 years ago. That and: they are called Karavazhi Pulay~s due to the Pulayas origina1ly inhabited portions of ~helf association with agricultural land. A sect Madurai district and that they were serfs of lOn of the Mala Fulayans are called Pampu Vel1alas are borne out by W. Francis in the Pulayans as they eat snakes. (Pampu means Madura district Gazetteer. "The pulayans were snake). Kurumba Pulayas and Karavazhi apparently the earliest inhabitants of Palni Hills Pulayas are met with in Kerala while the Pampu (Madurai district) and had things their own Pu~ayas are found in the adjoining district of way until the arrival of the Kunnuvans" COlmbatore to the East of Chinnar. An infor (Vellalas)4 ...... "Their (Kunnuvans) own m~nt belonging to the l(urumba Pulaya section traditions say that their ancestors were VeJlaJas sa~d. tha t Pampu Pulayas are still in their pri froIll Dharmapuram and Kayayarn country in mItIve s[~ ge. In the Census Report of Travan Coirnbatore who went up the Palnis some four core of 1911, Mala Pulayas are "regarded as a or five centuries ago because the low country class of Dralis".2 was so disturbed by way (other accounts say Origin and History devastated by famine), and they call themselves 7. The or!gin an.d history of Mala Pulayas or Kunnuva VeUalas and state that the name of any of thetr sections areensbrouded in a thick Kunnuva is derived from Kunnur village in cloud of obscurity. They are unable to remem Coimbatore. Other tradition~ add that the ber any myth, legend or story about their origin Virupakshi AyakkudJ PoJigars helped them to or bistory. Though the statement quoted by set tie on their land in the hills which up to Mateer, cannot be authentically said to rleate to then had only been cultivated by indolent PUl Hill puJaya, as tbe Mala or Hill is not prefixed. aiyans. The Kunnuvans ousted these latter and to the term Pulaya, it is doubted to be relating eventually turned them into predial serfs a to Mala PuJaya. The statement reads as follows. position from which they had hardly yet fr~ed "There is also a hUnter caste called Pulayars, themselves··.5 which Mr: Baker considers to be nearly the same as the Uralis, except that their speech is Tamil'·.3 HilJ PuJayas Vs. Pulayas '!hus there ~s no reference about Mala Pulayas 8. Hill Pulayas do not caH themselves 'Hill 10 any pubhsbed sOUrce earlier tban the Census Pulayas·. If one asks them the nam~ of their t. Tribes of [ 2 NAME, IDENTITY, ORIGIN AND HISTORY community they invariably answer 'Pulaya' that long ago there was a primitive community unless they give their sectional name i. e. called Pulayas in Travancore, who lived in the Kurumba Pulaya, orKaravazhiPulaya. In Madras plains as well as in the hills, that some Pulayas a community by name Hill Pulayas does no't migrated from Madurai and settled in the ghat exist now. \ There is no evidence either, of such section of the Devicola'll taluk and that, in a community having eVer existed there. On the course of time the Pulayas hving in the plains other hand, there are Pulayas in Madlas. " The retained the name Pulaya for their community. Pulayans were apparently the earliest inhabi their brotheren in the hills being styled as Hill flnts of PaJni, HiJls", Therefore the community Pulayas in view ot' the fact that the latter conti said to have migrated from Madurai must have nued to be in the primitive stage while the been PuJayas and not HIll PuJayas. former attaine-d civilisation and social advance 9. There is a community called Pulaya in ment. Kerala. Pulaya is a Scheduled Caste in Kerala 12. The following passage from the Census except Malabar and a S~heduled Tribe in Malabar. Report of Travancore 1931 is rei event in this Similarly in Madras, Pulaya is a Scheduled context. .. There are certain tribes which are Caste in Kanyakumari district and Shencottah now found both in the forests and in the plains taluk of Thirunelveli dist rict and Scheduled e.g. Kanikkaran, Kuravan. Ullatan and Vetan. Tribe in the fest of the State. The reason for The Kanikkaran who has left his home in the the same community being both Scheduled Caste jungles and began to live in the plains has and Scheduled Tribe in Madras and Kerala are changed his na-ne into Malavelan. In their social obvious. Before the reorganisation of States, customs there is no difference betweeu these two PUJaya was Scheduled Caste in the whole of the sections, and they could only be regarded as Travancore-Cochin State and a Scheduled Tribe belonging to the same tribe. Tn the previous in the whole of Madras State. As a result of censuses tbe Malavelan might have been wrongly the reorganisation of States Kanyakumari dis· included under Velan. a tribe generally found trict and Shencottah taluk, which belonged to in the plains and treated as one of the depressed the former Travancore·Cochin State were trans olasses. At this Census the Malavelans have ferred to the Madras Stale, and the Malabar been included not under Velan bu t under Kani area which was part of Madras State was trans kkaran to which tribe they really belong In the ferred to Kerala. The Pulayas of Kanyakumari case of Kuravas, Ullatans and Vetam, those district and Shencottah taluk continued to be living in the jungles were treated separately !:)cheduled Castes and those of Malabar to be from t'1ose found in the pia ins· a t the previous Scheduled Tribes irrespective of this transfer of censuses, the former being designated Malan terri tories. kuravans, Mala-Ullatans and Malavetans and 10. The Pulayas of the erstwhile Travancore the latter simple Kuravans, Ullatans and Cochin State are found mostly in the plains. Vetans. There is no difference in their customs Most of the Pulayas of Malabar aJso are in the and hence there is no jUstification to make this plains. The topography of the regions of Pulaya distinction. The distinction has, therefore, been concentration in Madras is not known. It is, abandoned and both sections of these tribes have however, possible that an overwhelmingly large· been included under Kuravan, Ullatan or Vetan portion of the Pulaya population in Madras are in this Census' '.~ in the hills leaving only a small percentage in 13. The Constitution of India has recognised the plains like Malab.H, that the Pulayas living certain communities which are socially, econo· in the plains are at least as backward as those in mically and culturally backwarJ as Scheduled the uplands and that, therefore, they were all Castes or Scheduled Tribes so that they may be declared as Scheduled Tribes. brought at par with the other sectors of the 11. The question naturally arises whether Hill nation by affording certain privileges, protect Pulayas and Eulayas were two distinct commu ions and benefits. The less backward of them nities from the very beginning. The observations are treated as Scheduled Castes and the more and circumstances lead one to the conjecture backward S.;heduled Tribes. Accordingly, l. Madras District Gazetteen, Madura, 2. Census of India, 1931, Vol. XXVIII, Travancore, 1906, p. 104. W. FranCIS. Part I Report. N. KUnjan Pillai, p. 387 3 HILL PULAYA Malakuravan and M&lavedan are treated as Sche field, where they work ...... Tn the interior duled Tribe and Kuravan and Vetan as Schedul taluks there is a spare hut built on the top?f ed Caste. The Schedukd Tribes are mostly found a powerful tree to whic.h. the Pulaya and ~lS In the hilJs and the Scheduled Castes in the family retire for the ntght to escape the wtId plains. As civilisation and culture reach the elephants. "I plains n:ore easily and sooner than they do in the mountains, it is reasonable that backward J6. Both Pulayas and atleast a strong communities in the plains are less backward section of Hill Pulayas have agricultural labour than their counterparts in the hilly tracts. as their hereditary occupation•. 14. The earliest mention about Mala Pulayas 17. "It is probable", observes Blandford, is seen in the Census Report of IS'OI of Travan "that tbey (hillmen) were the original inhabit core, while reference about PuJayas goes as far ants of Travancore, and tbat when the colony back as 1871. Dr. Gundert in his Malayalam brough t down from the north by . Parasurama English Djctionary, describes, .PuJaya • as" a ',~disputed the hind with them, tbey retired to 'Caste of iice slaves'.' 'pt.iJriHve bill trihs of the hil1s and escaped the. slavery which fell t? Travancore.,' like Malakuravan, 'Mala Velan the lot oftbe Pulleyans" (pulayan).2 Velu Pillal and Mala .6~ayim have, found a place in Gun supp()ses, that Pulayas a.re the descendants of dert's diC(iQ~a(y;, The:refore~ if a' tribe by the aborigines "who. pr~fert:ed. ~layery in the name Mal;!. PuJaya' ~xist.ed at that time, it plaink,to. freedom. with starvation in the would alsQ~,have' teen rr.enticned by Gundert: . jungles".3. , . ,,' . . ' " . - .'.: • . -, ;' ~; . . • • ,. r :'. '.1 1.5. Na!!8m Aiy~ !lp.eaks. ,(\f :~.u.hiyas iri th~ .' 18. i)Jl'!s~ .f~cts and cirCUmstances also sup plaIDS and, ID'oun_tains.: ",His, (P'\1]_.aya), ,",'omen < P9rt the,'theory tbat.Hill ,'.PulaX8s.· and PuJayas and chil.drep sp~nd, tb~. '\1Yhol~ day "iil'~u;t':'do.or 'were originally one uid tbe' same' community. occupatlOus:in- their, ;masters' , lenQ;. the: hbH~S , Probably; a'separate community by the name taken Itlo_i)" ar~ ~p,<,t1!~'p!a~e,: ilf ,'W9r~, .aii~f)~i 1. Census or Iudi!! ]M!; Trav~~ore, 'V. ~aga'l!l Aiya, ~. The 'land of the Concb Shells, by Miss ~ugusta ~W" . . ' M.~ Blandford, p. 8, quoted in Travancore State Manual 3. Travancor~Sta;te, M'apu~l; \ 940, 'Vol; I, p., 861 -, _,," '.!" .•.• '. ]906; Vol., n, p; 407 Pl. I TERRACED PADDY FIELDS IN MARAYOOR VILLAGE Page 5 PI. 2 DOLMEN-LIKE: S:"I:R{:JCTQRES' !N KE~?IiANTHOOR VILLAGE Page 5 Pl. 3 KURUMBA PULAYA WOMEN Page 8 PI. 4 KARAVAZHY PULAYA WOMAN Page 8 Pl. 5 GOVERNMENT TRIBAL C OLONY FOR KURUMBA PVLAYA-CHA MPAKAD Page 10 Pl. 6 KOTTAPALLAM SETrLEMENT OF KURUMBA PULAYA Page 10 Pl. 7 KURUMBA PULA Y A SETTLEMENT Page 10 P l. 8 KARAYAZHY PULAYA HUT Page 10 PI. 9 KURUMBA PULAYA HUT Page III Pl. 10 NEAR THE GOVERNMENT-BUILT HOUSE Page 1 i) PI. 11 IN FRONT OF THE HUT Page I t) PI. 12 HAIR STYLE-HILL PULAYA W OMAN Page 11 Pl. 13 A FAMILY GROUP Page 11 Pl. I--t KARAVAZHY PULAYA FE:\1ALES AT S~lJLE Page 11 Page 11 A KARAVAZHY PULAYA WOMAN WITH TYPICAL ORNAMBNTS PI. 15 Pl. 16 WOMEN WlTH MODERN AND OLD TYPE OF DRESS Page 11 " 6 2 , 5 : PI. 17 ORN AMENI'S-.. (1) KOPPU ~ - " (2Y OLA' (3) P.ASSY (4) THUDAL Page 11 ,- (5) ~ '. MAIROTH'lj KKI (6)" BANGLE (KAIVALA) (7) MODAKI PI. 18 V AKKATHI AND DIGGING STICK Page 12 PI. 19 MORTAR (URAL) Page 12 P1. 20 GRINDING STONE Page 12 P1. 21 'KOODD' Page 12 Pl. 22 CHULAKU (WINNOW) Page 12 PI. 23 BASKET TO KEEP EGGS FOR HATCHING Page 12 PI. 24 GRAZING THE CATTLE OF VELLALA LANDLORDS Page J 7 Pl. 25 KURUMBA PULAYA TEMPLE-KODANTHt;R Page 22 PI. 26 WITH OFFERINGS-LYING BELOW ARE THE CLAY MODELS Page 22 OFFERFD BY DEVOTEES Pl. 27 KOIL OF KARAVAZHY PULAYA-MARAYOOR Pa e 22 PI. 28 GIRLS LEARNING TO DANCE-CHAMPAKKAD Page 23 PI. 29 MUSICAL INSTR U M ENTS Page 23 Pl. 30 DANCJNG IN KUMMITTANKUZHI SETTLEMENT-KARAVAZHY PULAYA Page 23 CHAPTER II DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION TREND 19. Hill Pulayas are mainly concentrated in Physical Features of the Art:a cf Concentration the Devicolam taluk of Kottayam district. Their 20. The localities of Hill Pulaya concentr!l main abode is in the villages of Marayoor. tion are invariably hilly. Their settlements In KanthalJoor and Keezhanthoor apd places ne~r Devicolam taluk are in places which are 3t an about these villages. They are also found In altitude of 2,500 ft. or more above the sea leveL villages of MeJukavu, Punjar Vadakkekara, The terrain is undulating with granite rocks Punjar Thekkekara an~ Punjar Nadubhagom?f and arable land, _side by side, with plains A Meenachil taluk. hst,of set,tlements of HIll bordered by hills and fietd.~< by (Qr~g.ts"· :There PuJayas with approxima.te nut~ber of hQuse~ holds in""each'tie'ttteFpef}t In Dey.lcolal1l" italuk,ls ~r,~ .!l~r:{£V(',.~~~.~!ii~ j~i~e: ,rq.!t: !Jl~~~::, ~u.t,:~hey "dPc;i1~~,~n~l:t-H~(r~,~at_e., r.h~ .pad~y-~~~.s' a~,:they given iti-TalYle t Tbe s~ttlem~nts::i~.~lUlJ.IJ:t~H'!~'~ HQ\¥.,frr l~v~llHro-\v'er",:than tna( ,of'l~·iielrdst' 7ft1e kuzhy; T&t-tikkad, " Nathi vayal, ,:blhd~kj:>~~,!: s:qitls Tei'filp, l!nd reta~~ '\va\er,:tltf9;1;!gb.~Jl'l: the Malakkatl: 'and' Cherakul-am i ate" ·of", K~ra'Yaz1H PulayasS :T~eir settleint:ni~ ;used t:q ~b'~:':n:eai . cu!tivatio~ seas~n. ;' ..' ,',. '" '.,",< _ ;.--;. •• " pli:lces_ \v-bere "yet1.aI,as;,liav~. ~staP\i~~~, . ~~ , '-fL '~!p. ~ 'pl,a~~)~aped Po,n~~m~~J.1Y~1h}~~z.!la ntI1bor':VJHage sev~ral'struC'!ure~ aJe ~!!e{1. ~!lilch reason b~!~g .t~~J 1l!e1;:a!~-:: ~~n_£~ltur~l_, 5 HILL PULAYA the lowest in Trivandrum and Ernakulam dis 157 persons in the former and 2 in the latter. In tricts with 8 and 4 persons respectively. Accor the case of rural population also Kottayam ding to the rural-urban break up, 2823 persens district leads with 1240 persons. Rural popula are in rural parts and 159 persons in urtan tion is distributed among 15 taluks, all of the areas. The urban population js distributed former Travancore-Cochin State. Among the between Kottayam and Quilon districts with taluks Devicolam taluk leads with 1105. Table 2 . DISTRIBUTION OF HILL PULAYAS BY DISTRICTS, 1961 RUlal Urban ,-__--J<-- Total ___..... ,---___.A. ____ ---, State! r-- District P M F P M F P M F Kerala 2982 1484 1498 2823 J406 J417 159 78 81 Trivandrum District 8 3 5 8 3 5 Quilon ., 224 ]18 106 222 118 104 2 2 AUeppey 25 11 14 25 11 14 " KottaYfm .. 2659 1318 1341 2502 1240 1262 157 78 79 Emakulam 4 2 2 4 2 2 " Trichur 27 13 14 27 13 14 " Palghat .. 35 19 16 35 19 16 Table 3 possible as fjgures for the Censuses of 1921,1941, DISTRIBUTION OF HILL PULAYAS BY TALUKS and 1951 are not available The increase of Hill Pulaya population from 1911 to 1931 (20 years) (RURAL) 1961 is 464.44 per cent and that from 1931 to 1961 Taluk District P M F (30 years) is 1074.02 per cent. As the interval between the censuses, of which figures are avail Neyya ttinkara Trivandrum 8 3 5 able, are not uniform, these figures are not com Pathanamthitta Quilon 222 118 104 parable. But comparison is possible if the figu Thiruvalla Alleppey 25 Jl 14 res of 1901, 1931 and 1961 alone are taken, as Devicolam Kottayam 1105 572 533 the intervals between these three censuses are Udumbanchola 135 53 82 uniform. The Hill Pulaya population increased " 238 125 113 Meenachil " by 876.92 per ceni from 1901 to 1931 and by Vaikom 140 68 72 1074.02 per cent from 1931 to 1961. The general " 1 1 Kottayam " popula tion increase during the corresponding Chang anacherry 695 341 354 periods was 48.63 and 77.80 respectively. Kanjirappally 168 78 90 Peermade .. 20 3 17 Table 4 Thodupuzha Ernakulam 422 SEX-WISE POPULATION OF HILL PULAYAS Trichur Trichur 2 2 FROM 1901 to 1961 Mukundapuram Trichur 25 13 12 Year of Percentage Chittur Palghat 35 19 16 Census Total Males Pemales variation Note: Taluk-wise distribution of urban populatio.D is 1901 26 14 12 not available 1911 45 17 28 73.08 24. A table showing the sex-wise popUla 1921 tion of Hill Pulayas from 1901 to 1961 is given J 931 254 125 129 464.44 in Table 4. The table shows that Mala Pulayas 1941 are on the increase. Their number increased by 1951 73.08 per cent from 1901 to 1911. Beyond 1911 1961 .2982 1484 1498 1073.02 the assessment of decennial increase is not The figures of 1921, 1941 and 1951 are not available 6 DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION TREND 25. A table showing the sex~ratio of Hill T*bJe S Pulayas by broad age-groups is given as Table 5. 41.85per,cent of the Hill Pulayas are in the SEX-RATIO OF HILL PULAYAS. 1961 age-group of 0-14, 43.09 per cent in the age-group (Number of females per 100J males) of 15-44 and 15.06 per cent in the age-group of 45 and above. There are among Hill Pulayas Females Sex-ratio 1009 females per 1000 males as against the gene Age-group Persons Male! ral sex-rati9 of 1022 females for every 1000 1498 1009 males in Kerala according to the 1961 Census. All ages 2982 1484 Considered by age-groups the highest sex-ratio 0-14 1248 634 614 968 is recorded' in the reproductive age-group of 15-44 1285 609 676 1110 15-44, which is even higher than the general sex 45+ 449 241 208 863 ratio of the tribe. '1 CHAPTER III PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 26. Speaking of Karavazhy Pulayas l uiz the hill tribes. The average stature is 161.0 says "the fact that they are earlier Dravidian cm. (63.3"). Out of 21 Kurumba Pulayas, two aborigines stands accepted but their origin is are tall. The biUest man is 169.5 cm. in stature. lost in antiquity. It would be incorrect to consi They have long head with an average cepbalic der them as a section of Kizhakkan (eastern) index of 74.1 The forehead is receding and the Pulayas who took agriculture in the high moun brow-ridges are prominent. The nose is short tains. Ethnically they have features similar to and fiat, the average nasal index being 86.6. The those of Kurumba (a section of the ancient average facial index is 86.5. They have the lar Pallavas who, tiJl the 11th century, dominated gest span of arms, the average being 170. In cir South India); but the two groups violently deny cumference of chest, they stand the second kinship"'. According to Kunjan Pillai 'the among the hill tribes with 77.8 cm." 3. The ptimitive people of Travancore are the modern Hill Pulayas of Devicolam tal uk present representatives of the Pre~Dravidians' 2. almost the same appearance and physical featu 27. L. A. Krishna Iyer has summed up the res as observed by Krishna Iyer. Nor is there physical characteristics of Hill Pulayas thus: any striking difference between Karavazhy "The Mala Pulayas are black in complexion. Pulayas and Kurumba Pulayas in their appear_ In point of stature, they rank the highest among ance or physical features. 1. Tribes of Keraia, A. A. D. Luiz, p. 79 3. The Travancore Tribes and Castes, 1937, 2. Census of India, 1931, by N. Kunjan Pillai, L. A. Krishna Iyer, Vol. I, p. 133 Pint I, p. 397 8 CHAPTER IV FAMILY, CLAN, KINSHIP AND OTHER ANALOGOUS DIVISION " 28. , The Kurumba Pulayas follow the singl~ place, followed by Karavazhy Pulayas. The family pattern i. e_ a household consisting of former do not intermarry or interdine with the' the husband, Wife and their unmar,ried children. latter. There are many settlements of· each As soon as the!, marriage of a person is fixed, a group. There is no prohibition a~ainst a male separate hut is.put up in the settlement for Mm marrying a female of his settlement. But such and his bride. 'After the marriage which takes marriages are very rare. Marriages take place place in the bride's residence, the couple return mostly between pernns of two diff~re!lt settle to this new hut and not to the hut of the boy's ments. parents. As a rule. normally, they do not even eat from their parental homes after marriage. 30. Formerly the different sections of Hill If. for some reason, such as sickness etc. they Pulayas were distinguished by tl:!.eir occupation. have perforce to stay in their parental huts, Kurumba Pulayas were cattle tenders or sheep food is prepared in separate' vessels. Among tenders and Karavazhy Pulayas were agricul Karavazhy Pulayas, this practice is not strictly tural serfs. Nowadays Kurumba Pulayas also observed, even though they also prefer to esta are employed as agricultural labourers. Kara blish separate families in separate huts. The vazhy Pulayas are showing a tendency to break husband and wife move to a separate hut as away from the tradi tional serfdom, though they early as possible after marriage. still continue to be agricultural labourers. This bas been brought about by the advent of settlers 29. The average family of both section of from the plains, who migrated to those areas Hill Pulayas is composed of the husband, wife as cultivators. Quite a few Nair and .Christian and 3 to 5 children. In the settlements visited, families h:lVe of late migrated to this area and families of mOTe than 7 members could not be settled down there as agriculturists. They did seen, Sons inherit the father's property.. As the not bring with them agricultural labourers as property of a person, which will consist of the Saiva Vellalas are said to have done.· There nothing more than a spade, a knife or two, a fore they went in search of field labour and fish.catching devjce and a few pieces of cloth, managed to secure some Karavazhy Pulayas, is next to nothing, the system of inheritance whose eagerness to adhere to the traditional has no economic effect of any magnitude on the serfdom was waning. Beef is taboo for Kurumba individual or community. Except for the three Pulayas but not for Karavazhy Pulayas. The sections mentioned above. which Kunjan Pillai latter eat beef and meat of buffalo freely and calls "endogamous septs", I Hill Pulayas have no clans or gotras among them. In the order of therefore they are considered inferior to the social status, Kurumba Pulayas enjoy the higher fOJ;mer. 1. Census of India 1931, Travancore. N. Kunjao Pillai, Part I. page 402 9 CHAPTER V DWELLINGS, DRESS, FOOD, ORNAMENTS AND OTHER MATERIAL OBJECTS DISTINCTIVE OF THE COMMUNITy Settlel"ent Kummittankuzhi. There are Chakklliyans also 31. The villages of Marayoor, Keezhanthoor in the locality. There is a traditional patron and Kanthalloor are the chief abodes of Hill client relationship between Vellalas 'and Kara Pulayas. These villages are at altitudes ranging vazby Pu1ayas. from 2000 ft to 4000 ft. above sea leveJ. Their 34. A Hill PuJaya settlement is called a 'Kudi.' settlements are cn upland plains. The settle Settlements are .of various sizes ranging from 15 ments of Karavazhy PuJayas are near agricultural households in Nanchivayal to over one hundred fields. The settlement at KUmmittankuzhi is just in Kummittankuzhi. A family Hves in a hut by the side of the main road wi th a few public which is a separate unit in the settlement But offices and shops nearby. The settlements of in some cases tbe huts are so close that they Kurumba PuJayas are more removed to the appear to be double houses. Kurumba' (Sketch3) . interior with greater attention to proximity of Pulaya but is a small house with a plinth area pastures, of which there are clear indications in of about 20' x 15'. The floor is raised to a the settlement of Kurumba Pulayas at Kotta height of 10 to 20 inches by beaping earth and pallam .. Of late, however, the position of this beating it to a plain level and smearing the settlement bas improved by the constrUction of surface with cowdung. The walls of pres!ied a road close by, by the establishment of a scho bamboo, on which also a thick mixture of cow lasticate of Carmalite Missionaries at Piusnagar dung and earth is applied to close holes and a few furlongs away from the settlement and by crevices. The roof is of bamboo and ju[)gle~ bringing under the plough a major portion of wood poles and thatched with straw. The hut· the land adjacent to the settlement. is divided into three part viz., two rooms .and 32. The settlements do not follow any regu a verandah. The verandah accommodates the lar pattern. The settlement at Kummittankuzhi kitchen at one end and the poultcy':'cum-sheep (Karavazhy Pulayas) is clustered while that at pen a t the other. The space for keeping poul~ KottappaJlam (KuTumba . PuJayas) is part1y try is made by digging a cavity in the basement clustered and partly linear. Neither of the sect of the verandah portion with a small hole a f ions has a set pattern as such for the community. tbe side as entrance and exit (or the birds. They put up huts in a settlement according to There is only one door for the hut. There are necessity and as the nature of the site would no windows or ventilators, with the result that permit. The Department of Harljan Welfare, the rooms are not properly ventilated. The Kerala State has established a.colony for Hill rooms are so dark tbat even during day time one Pulayas at Champakad consisting of 15 twin can hardly see tbe inside. There is no separate houses all in a row, each house intended to compound for each but. While some huts have accommodate two families. The colony is excl interspaces of 15 to 20 feet. others leave usivel), occupied by Kurumba Pulayas. hardly 1\ yard of space In between. The huts are invariably rectangular in shape. No separ 33. As the settlements of Kuru mba Pulayas ' ate enclosures are provided in any of the settle (Sketch 1) are segregated, they bad no neigb ments for answerir,g the calls of nature.. They bours till recently. Even the few recent settlers use the open ground at a convenient distance froni the plains, both Christians and Hindus from the huts for this purpose. The buts in the are not their iIPItlediate neighbours, with th; settlement of Karavazhy Pulayas also 2(Sketch2) result, that no perceptible influence of such are of almost the same pattern. But the neigbbou{hood has taken place. The settlements basement would be raised to a height of 2' to ('f Karavazhy Pulayas are not so segregated and 2i'. In the settlement of Karavazby Pulayas at remote from non-tribal people as those of the Kummittankuzhi there are two houses construc former. There are settlements of Saiva Vellalas ted by Government according to the colony pat and recen t migTsn ts f10m the plaJns in the vici tern with granite basement, brick walls and tHed nity of the Karavazhi Pulaya settlements at roofs. These houses are bowever single family 10 · DWELLINGS, DRESS, FOOD, ORNAMENTS. ETC. units. The Kurumba Pulaya .settlements occasi~ a bangle without the ends "touching. Modaki has onally provide common cattlesheds,' where they· a 6 curious (sketch 6) shape and given a spring keep their ~ ~heep. The location of huts in a' effect. so that when tucked on to the upper arm settlerpent, 'be it of Kurumba Pulayas or it holds firmly. The lower ear lobe is also bored, Karavazhy Pulayas does not follow any paltern~ into which is inserted a ring or a roll of palm but are clustered. However ~he Karavazhy leaf. Metallic chains containing keys and coins Pulaya settlement at Nachivayal has huts and chains of coloured beads are worn on the constructed arQund a central common court~ neck. The latter is called 'passy' and is worn yard. ' in several folds. Married women wear the Dress 'minnu', the marriage badge. in addi~ion to the above. Most of the metallIc ornaments are 35. Men wear a lungi or dhoti and a sh irt made ofeither brass or silver. At Kottappallam or a banyan. Rarely when they go for work a one woman wears a pair of gold Koppus. Some small towel would be tied round their heads. women wear aluminium or glass bangles. Elderly women wear a che1a about 6 to 8 yards lung wound round the waist and carried over 37. Men are invariably careless about thei.r to the upper part of the body . ,with a knot in hair. The Hi]] Pulaya women on the other the region of the right collar bone. They do hand attach some importance to the hair-do. They divide the hair into two equal parts be not use blouse. Women of the lower age~group hind the head, wind one half around the other wear blouses in which case the chela is not kno~ tted bu;t the end is put free on the left shoulder. at the root. The other half also is wound in a Feeding mothers carry their babies by tying like manner and the end is tucked in about 3" them to their back or left side wi th another of the tip being left loose. Their hair-do, piece of cloth in the manner ofa cross belt. Boys though simple and easy, has a touch of fashion wear either shorts or a towel round their loins in it. and girls either frock, or skirt and blouse. Food Small children especially males go about naked. 38. The staple food of Kllravazhy Pulayas is Ne:ither men nor women use any footwear. A rice and that of Kurumba Pu1ayas ragi. As striking feature about their dress is that, what~ Karavazhy Pulayas are traditionally attached to ever dress they wear are dirty and never clean. paddy cultivation, either as agricultural labour They do not have any special or spare dress for ers or in very rare cases as ~ultivator. they have occasions, for going ou t of doors and for wear sufficient rice to meet their daily needs, with during work, obviomly because they cannot the result that they do not ha ve to go to the afford more than one piece or one set. forest frequently in search of forest produces Ornaments like tubers, roots, honey etc. to supplement their food. Food i terns collected from the forest 36. Males do not wear any ornament. Fe~ as mentioned abQv~ do not, therefore, form a males however use quite a few items of orna part of their common diet. They are non-vege ments. The ornament for the upper ear is called tarians. The ccmmon item~ of meat they use are Koppu. Koppu consists of two pieces each cow, buffalo, sambur, deer, rabbit, wild bear; with an ornamental head and a stem. The stem fowls and rats. Fish is also consumed by them. of one is hollow into which the stem of the They use vegetables like tamarind, plantains, other can be screwed. 'Mairothukki' is another horsegram, pumpkin etc. As livestock rearing ornament used, as the name indicates, 5 (sketch is not common among Karavazhy Pulayas, milk 5) to keep the hair in ,posi tion. It consists of a and milk products do not form an item of double chain with a small ring at one end and their common food. a flattened hook at the other. The Koppu is inserted through the ring and thea downwards 39. One important difference between Kara through the hole of the upper ear and screwed vazhy Pulayas and Kurumba Pulayas is the lightly. The other end is hooked on to the hair taboo tbe latter attach to meat of cow or at the occipital region. 'Mookuthy' or nosepin buffalo. Though Kurumba Pulayas are also non is used in the nose. On the arm two kinds of vegetarians, they never eat beef or flefh of bangles are worn, one called the 'kaivala' and the buffalo. As they tend more cattle than the other 'modaki'. Kaivala is a thin red with sphe~ Karavazhy Pulayas, they can get sufficient milk. rical nobs at both ends and curved in the form of Bu t they do not drink milk on the ground that 11 HILL PULAYA if they drink milk, which nature has provided (Sketch 10) a basket, a wooden spoon, an im for the young ones, the latter will be deprived provised 8 (Sketch 8) grin.ding stone and a mor of their eSfential food. As they are not essenti tar 7 (Sketch 7) would make a more or less ex ally cultivators or agricultural labourers they haustive list of their household equipments. A have perforce to resort to fishiI'g, hunting, and knife cal1ed vakkathi ,will be seen in every gatheri~g of forest produce for their daily household. Some of them have a spade for needs. Birds like vulture, crow, uppan, owl tilling the soil. They have a peculiar i.nstrument 4 etc. are forbidden items of food. but wild fowl, (Sketch 4) consisting of a small flattened dove, mina. kuruvl etc. are relished by them. piece of iron, 6" to 8" 10llg and about 1!'~ wide Almost every family bas a sma)) poultry unit fastened to a long jungle wQod twig used for coniisting of a limited number of birds. But curi burrowing holes for catching rats or for dIgg ously enough they do not use e~gs or chicken. ing roots and tubers. Another device generally ]aggery and naruneendy (Homedasmis indicus) used by them is a kind of nes~ for catching is a favourite beverage with them. Ragi and fish. This is known as 'koodu' and 9 is conical in maize are converted into flour, inspissated and (Sketch 9) shape. The peculiar device t t made consumed. Sweet meats are also prepared from (Sketch 11) use by them to keep the egg with the flour of ragi and maize. Erutbakaya (fruit the hen for hatching is done by splitting one end of cycus) is precessed and eaten. The powder of a bamboo tube of about 5' length, and tying obtained by pounding the dried fruit is moist the splitted ends after inserting· a bamboo ring ened and puttu is prepared by passing steam of 2' diameter, to appear like a funnel. The tail through it. Some of them are said to be addi of this funnel like structure is planted on cted to liquor. Chewing pan and tobacco, the ground and the upper portion is packed with however, are inevitable stimulants for both the straw conveniently so as to provide place for sections of the Hill Pulayas. the hen and eggs. This will save the hen from HObsellold Equipments its enemies like dogs, snakes etc. Most of the 40. The household equipments of Hill Karavazhy Pulayas ha ~e spedes for tilling the Pulayas are few and simple. Two or three either corn fields and doiRg other work connected earthen pots or aluminium vessels, a winnow, 10 with cultivation. 12 CHAPTER VI ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION, HYGIENIC HABITS, DISEASES AND TREATMENT 41. Both. the Kurumba Pulay~s and Karava hospitals or get modern medical treatment, zhy Pulayas 'are a11 dirty set ofpeople. The envi because medical institutions are not within easy ronments of their settlements are insanitary. reach and the people are not fully aware of the They seldom take bath or wash their bodies modern systems of treatment. A pitiable sight in any case not more frequently than once or in the Karavazhy PuJaya settlement at Kotta twice a week. Their dress is dirty and stinky. pallam was thit of a girl, said to be 14 years The settlements are infested with common flies old, appearing not more than 5 years old, born and are insanitary. L. A. Krishna Iyer has paralytic, unable to move or to speak, laid on r~corded that the women cl~an the huts and the rocky ground with no other sign of life premises at sunrise. But no sooner are the than the occasional winking of the eyes and with huts and premises cleaned, than they are rend ered dirty by the excreta of-birds and animals huge swarms of flies flustering all-round. inside and outside the huts and by children Scabies and jaundice are the most common answering the calls of nature. They rarely go to diseases among Hill Pulayas. 13 CHAPTER VII LANGUAGE AND LITERACY 42. As the Hill Pulayas claim to have migr with ease. 17 Hill Pulayas have English as subsi~ ated from areas of Madras State \vhere Tamil diary language and four Malayalam as subsi is lhe predominent language, they claim also diary hinguage. that their mother-tongue is Tamil. A large number of persons in the settlements at Kum 44. Among Hill Pulayas, 822 persons made. mittankuzhi and Kottappallam speak Tamil up of 441 males and 381 females have returned well. A few young men, however, speak Mala as literates. These make 27.57 per cent for total, yalam more fluently than Tamil. This is, 29.72 per cent for males and 25.43 per cent for according to them, due to the fact, that they females. Considered from the point of view have been living away from the settlements, in of the general literacy rate of Kerala, these places where Malayalam is the common appear to be low. But they stand commendable language. comparison with the literacy rates of Scheduled Tribes which are 17.26 for total, 22.63 for males 43. 62.01 per cent of the total Hill Pulayas and 11.92 for females. Tn the neighbourhood of the State have returned Malayalam as of the surveyed settlements in Kummittankuzhi mother-tongue while the remaining 37.99 per and Kottappallam there are two primary cent Tamil as mother-tongue. In the Devi schools, one established by the department· of colam taluk, where there is the largest con Tribal Welfare as a Tribal school and the other centration of Hill Pulayas, 62.25 per cent started by Catholic nuns. There is another of the total population have returned Tamil as school in the Government colony at Champakad. their mother-tongue, while only 36.38 per cent The practice of noon-feeding which was in have returned Mala)!,alam as their mother vogue in the Tribal schools was an attraction, tongue. It is surprising that, in spite of the to the pupils. Moreover the Harijan_Welfare fact that the HilJ Pulayas are migrants from Department was putting forth a concerted Tamilnad and live in a locality where Tamil attempt in maintaining a minimum tribal atten is the predominent language, a little more than dance. In 1965 all Tribal schools of the Harijan one-third of the Hill Pulaya population alone Welfare Department except residential ones returned Tamil as their mother-tollgue. It was were transferred to the Department of Public however, noticed that an overwhelming majority Instruction, when the noon-feeding was stopp of the inhabitants of the Kurumba Pulaya settle ed. As a result of this, the attendance began to ment at Kottappallam and of the Karavazhy thin. From this academic year onwards, how Pulaya settlement at Kummittankuzhi speak ever, noon-feeding has been revived. There are Tamil and are unable to speak Malayalam. Not 10 Hill Pulayas (7 males and 3 females) who more than a handful of persons from both the have reached the educational level of matri settlements together could speak . Malayalam culation and above. >-:~. , 14 CHAPTER VIII ECONOMIC LIFE 45. According to the Census of 1961, 1,354 bondage of serf!iom to some extent. A larse Hill Pulayas of tbe State are workers. of wnom section of the Kurumba Pulayas also are agri 797 are males andl,557 females. Tney form 45.44 cultural labourers. They seem to have almost per cent of the 10tal, 53.71 per cent of the, given up the occupation of cattle rearing or males and 37.25 per cent of the females. Tbis is· sheep tending which is attributed as their tradi distribated in the rural and urban areas tional occupation.· L. A. Krishna Iyer found respectively as 51.21 per cent and 2.50 per cent Kurumba Pulayas as nomadic agriculturists, for males and 36.32 per cent and 0.93 per cultivating land for four or five years and then cent for females. Classified by the industrial changing to another location, clearing the category of workers 26.06 per cent are agricult jungle and sowing ragi.2 At Marayoor and url:l,l labourers and 3.25 per cent cultivators. Nachivayal there are vast expanseg of terraced 13.68 per cent are engage-j in other services. cultivation of paddy. There is no sign of either Other services generally consist of persons enga Karavazhy Pulayas or Kurumba Pulayas culti ged in personal service, religious service, teacho: vating paddy or raising any other crop by ing service etc. and general labourers with themselves in Devicolam taluk, though they out any specified item of work. As far as Hill go and work for wages in the paddy-fields of Pulayas are concerned an overwhelmingly luge others. Therefore, unlike U ralis or Mala. percentage of persons in other services are likely Arayans of Thodupuzha taluk, who are agri to be general labourers without any specified culturists, raiSing paddy and cocoanut in f(lrest item of work. areas cleared by them for the purpose, the Hill 46. 1,627 (57.56 per cent) persons made up of Pulayas do not show any interest in raising any 687 males and 940 females are non-workers. food or money crop for themselves. Neither in Considered sex-wise 46.29 per cent males and the Kurumba Pulaya settlement at . Kottappal- . 62.75 per cent females are non-workers against lam nor in the Karavazhy Pulaya settlement at 52.80 percent and 80.30 percent respectively for Kummittankuzhi in Marayoor could any sign Kerala and 46.20 per cent and 59.80 per cent for be seen of the inhabitants' taking any interest Scheduled Tribes of the State. 15.09 per cent in raising a crop. Hill Pulayas are full-time students, of whom Collection, Hooting and Gathering 8.35 per cent are males and 6.74 per cent are females. Though 15.09 per cent is low when com 48. Whatever foreH wealth is available in pared with the percentage of full-time students the areas where Hill Pulaya~ live is used by of the general population (20.03), it stands them mainly to the extent required a~ food. favourable comparison with the percentage of The Kurumba Pulayas dig out roots and tubers fuIl-time students among all Scheduled Tribes which are pleaty in that region and use it as of the State taken together viz. 10.64 per cent. an item of foo::1, and tnat too only wben food 39.37 per cent of the non-workers bdong to the materials like paddy, tapioca or ragi are not category 'others'. available or when they have n·J money to buy them. The Kurumba Pulayas generally gather 47. From very early times, Hill Pulayas tubers like Kallukizh'2ng~ and Valiakizharrr{u. depend on the agricultural economy, they being The~e tubers are parboiled and eaten after agricultural labourers or serfs. The Census removing the integument. They collect fruits report of 1931 has pictured Karavazhy Pulayas like Alunlca and A{hipazham for eating. During as dependents of Vellalas and Kurumba Pulayas balnboo flowering 3ea30n, they collect ba;nb-lo as nom .. dic agriculturists.! At present Kara seeds. Bamboo seeds are dehusked and co;):ced vazhy Pulayas ar.:: entirely agricultural labour like rice and use;! as an articl~ of food. They ers, though they have freed themselves of the collect honey, wax and damnar resin. The 1. Census of India 1931. Travancore. N. Kunjan Pillai, 2. -:The Travancore Tribes and Castes, L. A. Krishna Part I, Report p. 3402 Iyer, Vol.l. t p. 127 1{) HILL PULAYA honey is of two varieties; Perunthen (of big bees) food materials available in the forest like wild and Cheruthen (of small bees). They sell the tubers and fruits. But they have recourse to former variety to the contractors of the Forest these less frequently than do the Kurumba Department. A burning fire torch is shown at Pulayas as they get more paddy than the latter. the honeycomb by which most of the bees are The Karavazhy Pu]ayas do not generally coHec t killed and the remaining ones are scared away. honey. Nor do they take to hunting of fishing. The entire honeycomb is then taken out and The main reason for this relative inactivity is honey extracted from it. They chew the honey that they will have to work in the paddy-fields comb and tastefully swallow the larvae and throughout the cultivating season. During off honey spitting away the wax as refuse. Though season they mainly depend upon the paddy the Kurumba Pulayas are not clever in hunting, they have collected. Occasionally, they collect they hunt small game by using bows and arrows. gooseberry, Kadukka, Kattukaya and other They catch wild game by trapping also. For fruits on the collection of which the Forest trapping they place rope nooses at spots where Department has not imposed any res tfiction animals are known to frequent and remain in and sell· them. Women also climb treeS as well hideouts. As soon as the prey is caught in the as men. On an average a Karavazhy Pulaya noose, it is beaten to death. The animals, they male earns Rs. 1.25 and a female Re. 0.75 per are allowed to consume, are sambur, rabbit, day from the sale of these wild fruits. RareJy deer, wild fowl, veruku etc. Buffalo, elephant, they ·rear live-stock. donkey, bear etc. are taboo. They make win nowing fam and baskets from bamboo splinters, Patron-clieDt Relationship which are used partly as merchandise and 51. In olden times, the patron client relation partly for their own domestic use. The Hill ship between the Karavazhy Pulayas and the tribes, as a. rule, have to do certain items of Vellalas was very intimate. At the time of the work on behalf of the Forest Department such migration of the Vellalas to Devicolam taluk as collection of teak seeds, clearing the forest from their ancient homes in Madurai, they boundaries etc They have also to execute the brought with them the Karavazhy Pulayas and ·C'rders of the Forest Officials. The reward they established settlements for the latter in the get for tbese items of work is meagre. The vicinities of their own settlements. Each Kurumba Pulayas have the right to collect fire Vellala family had a serf from among Karavazhy wood from the forests. But there is a tendency Pulayas which was hereditary. Th~ Pulaya among tbem to misuse this previlege by un serf depended on the VeIl ala master throughout au thorised cutting of sandalwood logs for smug the year who met all his necessi ties and fed gling. Though they coUect honey and firewood him and his family on off days as well as d<.lYs and manufacture articles with bamboo splinters of work. If a death occurred in the' master's and sell these produces and finished articles, house, pollution was observed also by the their economic position is very poor. The forest Pulaya. The Pulaya officiated as priest in the contractors who collect honey pay a much lower death rights in his master's household. The price than what the contractors are. getting Pulaya officiated also as priest during the from the department. Similarly they get only festival celebrated in the temple by the Vella1a a pittance by selling firewood and bamboo articles. master. The intensity of this bondalle is how ever waning. Now it is almost imposs ible to 49. The Kurumba Pulayas, as has been find a VeHala who can claim patronage over a pointed out already, rear cattle, especially a Pulaya or a Pulaya who will admit any Vellala particular variety of sheep called Kurumbadu. as his exclusive master. Formerly the Kara They also keep a sma]] unit of poultry consist vazhy Pulayas worked only in their master'S ing of a few birds. But they are not in the fields and they would not work for any other habit of drinking milk, using eggs or eating person than their owu master even if the master mutton or chicken. They sen the eggs, the had no work of bis own. But. now they go for birds and the sheep but the price which they work for wages only. They would work for get is much lower t.han competitive rates. anybody who calls them to work. A male usu ally gets Rs. 3 a day as wages and a female 50. The position of Karavazhy Pulayas in Rs. I. 50 or Rs. 2. Men work from 8 a. m. in ; this regard is much the same. They also collect the morning to 5 p.m. while women work from 16 ECONOM[C UFE 10 to 5 witb. a break at noon for lunch. Items others. The work they do is mostly connected' of wor:k '. such, as tilling, forming ''the bund wi th culti vation and the ra tes of wages are , (Varalllbu')~e.tc. are attended to by men. Women more or less similar to those of Karavazhy usually atten~ to weeding operations. Both men Pulayas. and women at,e put '0 work at the time of har 53. Concluding an account about the Hill vest. Regular workers are giv~n 4 padis ot Pulayas, L. A. Krishna Iyer says the Kara-. paddy per day for harvest (one padi = 1/7 stand-- c. ard para). \ ' vazhy Pu)ayas are in the state of economic bond age to Vellalas on whom they depend for their 52. Among the Kurumba Pulayas there is po existence they graze cattle and cultivate the patron-client relationship, as they do not depend land in r~turn for which they get their wages. on any other community or individual. [n for mer days they dependod completely on the for The Kucumba Pulayas are not in subjection, est wealth for their maintenance. Nowadays, they are steeped in ignorance and in a very back however, they work. for wages if called by ward condition".1 J. The Travancore Tribes and Castes, L. A. Krishna Iyer, Vol. J, p. 134 17 CHAPTER IX LIFE CYCLE Birth festivity is observed in connection with the 54. Unlike among many other tribal and naming ceremony. non-tribal communities, the Hill Pulayas do Puberty not observe the custom of the girl going to her 55. Among Kurumba Pulayas pollution in parent's house for the first child-birth. The connection wi th puberty is observed for 30 child-birth usually takes place in the hut of her days. As seon as the first menstruation comm husband. The verandah of the hut is improvised ences the fact is intimated to the KoJkaran Qr into an apartment in which child-birth takes Thardakaran who officially announces it, where place. Assistance of a qualified midwife is never upon all the members of the settlemeJ?t. stop obtained. Some experienced female of the com work immediately. The male members Jom to tnuni ty; usually her own mother or mother-in gether and put up a c~nic~l shed with j.ungle law, acts as midwife during the child-birth for wood strips and grass WhICh IS called Kud71 for which no reward ot' fee is given. Among Kara the stay of the girl during the petiod of pollu vazby PuJayas pollution is observed for 15 days. tion. The girl is then ceremoniously taken for On the 16th day the mother takes bath and the bath and conducted to the Kudil. An elde!ly . enters the hut. If the household can afford to woman called Tl:onakari keeps company wtth keep the mother out of work for some days the girl. During the entire period of pollution m<'Te, she takes rest for a fUl'ther period ext~nd no male should see her face. She takes bath on ing upto 2 months. Jf, on -the other hand, the alternate days. The members of the settlement mother also has- essentially to work she goes perform dances ;o;nd entertainments and :t;nake for work from the 16th day onwards. The merry dU,ring nights. On the concluding day, Kurumba .Pulayas observe 30 days' pollution. the girl takes bat}l with-all pomp and ceremony. The mother takes bath in warm water after Sbe is taken to the nearest stream accompanied applying turmeric paste on the body. Among by beating of drums. On reaching the stream Kurumba Pulaya a decoction made of garlic. 2 pots of turmeric water is poured on her head. turmeric. asafoetida and pepper is given to the Then she takes bath in the stream; and puts on mother. Regarding the naming ceremony L. A. new clothes. The party returns and are treated Krishna lyer has recorded "the date for the to a feast. Pansupari is selved to an assembled naming ceremony is governed by considerations which is tbe responsibility of the Ihandakaran. of the condition of the baby. If the baby cries The Thlmdakaron is rewarded with 25 paise incessantly, it is reckoned as a sign for giving a by the father of the girl. The girl is seated on naIr.e to it. A medicine man takes some paddy a mat and another girl circumambulates her 7 grains, holds them in the palms of his hand and times. Entertainn:ents and dances are then held. scans them. He teBs them of the name that Tbe next morning a paste of ash is applied on should be given .and it is done accordingly. her garments and she takes bath with two.of Naming is occasionally on the 16th day among her friends. If her marriage has been fixed With Karav3zhy Pulayas and the name.is tbat of the any preferential mate the latter presents her 1 paternal grandfather or grandmother". Even new clothes. Otherwise presentation I of new now the naming ceremony -is on the 15th day clothes is the responsibility of her father. As among Karavazhy PuJayas and on the 30th day she returns she bows before the elders who in among Kurumba Pulayas. But most of the other turn give her certain valuable advice. The ritualistic details observed by Krishna Tyer have Kurumba Pulayas ob~erve seclusion for 8 days di~appeared. At present a name is given to a for subsequent menstruations also, dUring cl:liJd by one of the elders and jf the child cries which period tbe girl neitber cooks food nor it is reckoned as an indication that it does not even goes inside the but, the period being spent like the name and so another name is given. No in the verandah. 1 The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, 1939, L. A. Krisbna lyer, p. 124 18 LIFE CYCLE , .~,. ...' . 5,6. Among Karavazhy Pulay~s pollution in the number of persopS'''' to be invited and other con'nectio~, wi th puberty is observed only for details connected with the marriage are decided. IS days~'\A separ~te seclusion sn'ed is not usu'al. The marriage party consisting of the biide-' The girl \tak~s bath in warm w~ter every day. groom, his relatives arid friends proceed to the' OQ the 16th !lay however she proceeds to: t\le bride's settlemerit accompanied by the Kolkaran~ nearest st'ream with relative~ and friends.' All On arrival at the birde's settlement they ale women pre~ent throw \yater on her. The Maman received by the Kolkara'n of that settlement who pre~ent~ her wlth new clothes an 19 .HILL PULAYA 60. Among Kurumba Pulayas there are some other section. As soon as death occurs to a per· differences of details in the marriage celebrations. son of a settlement the Than4akaran notifies The bridegroom's party first visits the hride's the incident to the near relatives and friends of hut and ifboth parties agree to the aJ1iance the the deceased While doing so, the Thandakaran bride-price is fixed. The bride-price usually wi1l be holding a staff, which signifies tha~ he is consists of a chela, pansupari, and a necklace engaged in the act of notifying the dea.th 'in his of rolled gold and cheap beads which forms the' settlement. All sympathisers assemble tq pay marriage badge. The wedding ceremony usually their respects to the deceased and to partici takes place at night. at an au·spicious time fixed pate in the fun.eral ceremony. The funeral by the Kdka,.an of the settlement. After tying is ~iven almost the colour. Qf a marrillge the marriage ba~ge the couple take meals from If the dead person is a married woman the'same leaf with the exchange of balls of rice and if her husband is sHlI alive, the latter as in the case of Karavazhy Pulayas but repeat removes the minnu from the corpse. Tt is then ed 7 times. The fea&t consists of cooked rice taken out and washed. While Karavazhv and a curry m~de of all available vegetable~. PuJayas Nse 6 pots of warm water for males The couple bow before elders when the latt~r and 7 pots for females for the purpose, the present money ranging from 1 anna to 4 annas. KUTumba Pulayas just clean the cC'rpse paying The party then leaves for the bridegroom's hut. little importance to the quantity of water used. They sleep with others. The next morning the Turmeric paste is smeared on the face. nose and coupJe are Jed to a nearby stream and Ibathed. ear-lobes. Rice is put in the mouth of the 61. Polyandry is prohibited among HiJI deceased. This is called Vaikariyidal. Also Pu]ayas. Though polygamy is not prohibited, new cloths are laid on the corpse. The first it is not in vogue. Adultery is strictly prohibi cloth is laid by the nephew or a relation of that ted. If a case of adultery is detected, it is order. The laying of cloths on the dead body reported to the Kudumban (the headman of the is the only way of manifesting the regard and settlement) through the Kolkaran. The esteem for the deceased. If the cloth thus re Kudumban sits in judgement over the case rnd ceived is more than what is required for the awards proper punishrrent if the accused ..is funeral the surplUS is divided among the-rela found guilty. tives themselves. The dead body is placed on a bier and taken in procession to the burial 62. There are 35 divorced or separated per ground. Men alone take part in the funeral sons among Hill Pulayas. Doubtful morality, procession. Women do not go to' the hurial inefficiency to perform household duties and .ground When the funeral procession reaches sterility among women are the ground leading half way, the bier is lowered to the ground and to divorce. After divorce the responsibility of the eldest son, carrying a pot of water on his looking after the children falls on the woman. head. circumambulates the bier and breaks the Approval of the caste council is necessary for pot of water at the feet of the corpse. The the divorce, as otherwise remarriage is not Thandakaran thereupon takes a small quantity possible. As is generally the case, the divorced of that water and sprays it on the son's head. Hill Pulaya male got remarried more eas ily than The Kurumba Pu]ayas take 7 rounds c8rryinJ! the female. Similarly, the Hill Pulaya widower the pot of water, but the Karavazby Pulayas remarries more easily than the widow. This fact take only 3 rounds. At the burial ground a is borne out by the preponderance of females grave is dug in the north-south direction. After over males among the divorced and widowed covering the face with a cloth, the dead body Hill Pulayas. is lowered into the grave in the supine position with the head south and feet north. AlI Death present hold their hands like a pair of scissors. 63. The observation of death rites is more or When the corpse has been laid in the grave, less similar among Kurumba PuJayas and they throw some earth on it. The grave is then K aravazhy Pulayas, witn slight variations in fiHed.. A big stone is placed at the head-end of details. Both bury their dead in the burial the _ve. The Karavazhy Pulayas pJace a stone ground called 'chudala'. Both sections have at#fTi~ leg-end also. The bier on which the serarate bUrial grounds and one section do not :dead body is carried to the burial ground, is bu ry their dead in the burial ground of th9.'· also placed on the grave. These things are 20 LIFE CYCLE being done as a precaution against the dead Pulayas for 5 days. During these da:ts offer person rising up and roaming about. Formerly ings of food materials and pan are maae in the , Karavazhy P;lllayas used to drive bamboo thorns house of the deceased. These offerings are on the grave.·. The Kurumba Pulayas observe death pol1ution for 7 days and Karavazhy intended for 'the spirit of thc deceascd. 21 CHAPTER X RELIGION 64. In the Census of 1961, 1 618 Hill Pulayas great rejoicing for them. All the couples wedded w~re returned, as, Christians and 1,364 persons as during that year attend the celebration. Those Hmdus. Ch~lsuans thus constitute 54.26 per who are unable to finance the marriage celebra cent and Hmdus 45.74 per cent. The deities tion independently, get themselves wedded on worshipped by Hill Pulayas are Kali, Mariy tbis day. amma, Katlal?a~amma and Chaplamma. Kali 66. The temple of ChapJamma at Kodan or BhadrakaIt IS the most important among them. The temple called Arunakshiamman Koil thur near Chinnar river is Ihe most important of Karavazhy Pulayas is situated in Marayoor temple of Ku.rumba Pulayas. It is situated in an~ is dedicated to Sree Bhagavathy or Bhadra-: the midst of a forest about 2 miles interior kah. The expenses connected with the festivals from the road in the Madras tern tory near celebrated in this tea pie are entirely met by Chinnar river. The spot is a rock surrounded by the VelIalas of the locality. But the Poojas bushy growth. Three deities are worshipped here are performed by a Karavazhy Pulaya. He is viz., Chaplamma or Katlamari, Kannimari and Karupuswamy, represented by three stones called Th~r~di,or Poojari. Muttayan, son of placed on a piece of granite and smeared with Nagan reMdmg 10 Pattikkad settlement is the present Therfodi. Tv.o festivals are celebrated marks of clotted blood. There are a few tri by the Karavazhy Pulayas in this temple, one dents stuck vertically. By the side of the pede· on the day of commencement of sowing and the stals are seen many clay models of animals like other the harvest fesJival. Offerings are made borse, elephants and bullocks and men and to the deity in the temple on both these occas women most of which are broken. Elsewhere ions, by the VellaJas, in the morning and by the on the san:e rock can also be seen pairs of foot Karavazhy Pulayas in the evening. Animal marks carved on the rock, On the trees sur sacrifice is ~Jso· conducted once every year. A rounding the spot several small wooden cradles buffalo calf mtened to be sacrificed is let loose are hung. All these are votive offerings, the in the fields when ploughing begins. No one latter being an offering for bealing children. may hurt it. On a specified date the calf is The carving of foot prints is in satisfactioil for caught and sacrified in the temple which funct having got some foot-sores cured. Devotees ion is largely attended by the VeIialas as well as including those of other castes also assemble by the Karavazhy Pulayas. here to worship the deity every Sunday and Thursday. Sacrifice of cocks is also performed. 65. Karavazhy PUlayas also celebrate a In the Pongapany settlement Chaplamma has pongal in the Tamil month of Panguni (April) been consecrated and it is said that the deity at a place near the river. The day is one of was brought from Kojanthur. 22 ~CHAPTER XI LEISURE, RECREATION AND CHILD PLAY 67. The Karavazhy Pulayas get leisure during around the bonfire and begin to dance in various the off-seasons i.e. between the harvesting of ways in unison with the tunes of the orchestra one crop ~nd the commencement of agricultural or of the songs. Tn one variety of dance the operation$ for the next. crop. 'Formerly when participants hold both corners of the loose ends the Kuturilba Pulayas used to follow thtjir tra of their saries and move the hands alternately ditionaloccupation of cattle rearing they did upwards and downwards, by Which the end of not have regular off-seasons. But now they are the sui of each dancer assumes correspondingly also growingly resorting to agricultural labour, concave and convex surface. Simultaneously with the result that they also have inter-culti with these movements the participants also turn vationaJ periods which synchronise with those of round. At certain intervals they make Kurava. Karavazhy Pulayas. During spare time the (Kurava is a peculiar sound made by push"ing Karavazhy Pulayas. both males and females, out air through the mouth vibrating the tongue collect firewood from the forest either for their at the same time. This sound is usually made own use or occasionally for sale. The Kurumba by Hindus during functions like marriage, Pulayas also avail of their leistlre time to coll death etc.) These dances and merry-making ect forest produce and to hunt small game either continue till late in the night or even till the for domestic consumption or for sale. The small hours. Kurumba Pulaya boys begin to use catapults, Musical Instruments . bows and arrows at a very early age and go to the'nearby woods to hunt small game using the 69. There are a few musical instruments above weapons. By the time they reach adole used by the Hill Pulayas. The Maddal:zm is a scence they become expert huntsmen. The boys wooden hollow cylinder of about 2' length and go in search of honeycombs, and having found l' diameter, both the ends of which are covered one, report its location to the elders of their tightly wi th animal hide. The tension of the settlement. They are traditional shepherds. A hides is adjusted on the strings passing through Kurumba Pulaya boy can manage a herd of the circumference of the hide all round the cattle 30 or 40 strong very efficiently. More wooden frame. The Muraau is also a drum often than not the grownups engage the boys for very much like the Maddalam.- But its middle the above work. ' portion is constricted. A cord is tied at the constricted portion around the threads drawn 68. Harvest season is a particular period from the hides. The drummer changes the notes of merriments to the Hill PUlayas. During of the. beats by tigh tening or loosening the cords. this season the nights are almost invariably Kuzhal is another musical instrument resem spent in revelry and merry-making. Some of bling the clarinet. The Kidumuthi is conical them play their traditional musical instruments, in shape, the base being covered with the hide. some others sing and stilI others dance to the It differs from the Maddalam or Murasu in that tune of the instrumental as well as vocal music. it has only one bearing surface while the latter The songs recited by them during the harvest have two. The persond sits with his knees up, season are narrative of agricultural operations holds the Kidumuthi between his knees with like sowing, transplanting, harvesting etc. the apex down and beats it with sticks. Cymbals Every night after meals the members of a settle also are used by the Hill Pulayas. The Kara ment assemble in the courtyard or in a conveni vazhy Pulayas are generally experts in playing ent open ground near the settlement, where a the musical instruments. They are the" bandsmen bonfire would be li t. Women stand in a circle of the Vel1alas. 23 CHAPTER XII RELATION AMONG DIFFERENT SECTION OF THE COMMUNITY 70. As pointed out already the Hill Pulayas are the most backward among the Hill Pulayas. are divided into 3 sections viz., Kurumba Pulaya, A Kurumba Pulaya informant said that Pampu Karavazhy Pulaya and Pampu PuJaya in the Pulayas are very primitive that one would hesi descending order of social status. The relation tate even to approach them, that they ate very ship between these three sections is not very reluctant to come near others and that members cordial. The section holding sUperior social of that section are even now very scantily clad. status do not interdine or intermarry with the As Pampu Pulayas are not living in any part lower sections. The Kurumba Putayas will not of KeraJa State their settlements could not be admit a member of the Karavazhy section to visited. There is a small settlement of Pampu their fold as the latter are beef-eaters. But the Pulayas in the Madras State beyond Chinnar Karavazhy Pulayas have no objection to admit river. An attempt was made to visit that settle persons of the Kurumba Pulaya section to ment but when the investigating party reached their settlements, provided the latter adopt their ways of life. Both· these sections, however, the settlement there was none and it was in have no sort of relationship with the Pampu formed that they have all gone to the interior Pulayas. According to them the Parnpu Pulayas forests. CHAPTER XIII INTERCOMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP 71. The relationship of Hill ,pulayas with not vice versa. Chakkiliyan is a Scheduled ~aste other communities is not so cordial or intimate living near Karavazhy Pulaya settlements. They as to deserve special mention. The Karavazhy call each other either by name or by such terms Pu)ayas had established intimate associatiolil as Annan or Thampi. Neither Hill Pulayas nor with th~ Siva Vellalas at a time when the Chakkiliya.ns attend any function of the other servant-master ties were firm. When the Siva community. They do not also eat food from Vellalas migrated to the high ranges of Devi each other. The Karavazhy Pulayas appear to colam taluk they brought Hill Pulayas: with be more susceptible to association and contact them as their agricultural serfs. The latter with outsiders than the Kurumba Pulayas, as maintained a high degree of loyal ty to their Karavazhy settlements are near to public roads masters. But in course of time these ties loose and to settlements of other communities. In the ned, leading ultimately to the present state of Karavazhy Pulaya settlement at Kummittan affairs, where the Hill Pulayas olVe no more obli kuzhi there is an Ezhuva (neither a Scheduled gation to Vellalas than casual labourers to their Caste nor a Scheduled Tribe) having married employers. Vellalas accept parched rice, honey. a nKaravazhy Pulaya girl of that settlement and plantain t:ruits, Pansupari etc. as presents from settled there itself. Though at first tbe headman the Karavazhy Pulayasduring festival season. But of the settlement resisted this alliance, later be they never take cooked food from the latter. The gave 'ex post' facto consent. Pulayas, however eat food at the hands of the 72. The relationship of Kurumba Pulayas Vellalas. The Scheduled Tribe Muthuvans live with other communities is improving. This is in the higher altitudes of Marayoor forest. They due to the fact that they are working for wages are socially superior to both the s~ctions of for employers of other communities more than Hill Pulayas. Hill Pulayas call them Swamy or they used to in former times, when they did Thalapanar (one who came first). Bllt Muthu not go for casual labour at all. Moreover more vans call Hill Pulayas by their names. Hill settlers from the plains are establishing their Pulayas eat food given by the Muthuvans but abojes near Kurumba Pulaya settlements. 25 CHAPTER XIV STR UCTURE OF SOCIAL CONTROL AND LEADERSHIP 73. The Hill Pulayas have an established are tried by the headman and persons found social organisation. The headman of the guilty, are punished. The role of the Varian is Kurifroba Pulaya section is known as A,asan. alm'ost that of a secretary. The Kolkaran is in The Arasan has an assistant called Varialf for effect the chief executive. In the Kurumba each village, who has in turn a Kolkaran . or Pulaya settlement at KottappaIIam, there .was Thandakaran to execute his bid dings. These no one who could claim any influence or accep offices especially that of the chieftain is herldi tance beyond the limits of the settlement. The tary, the eldest son succeeding the father as Arasan is obeyed and respected in the settlement Arasan. The Karavazhy Pulayas have a headman only. One Karavazhy Pulaya from the settlement called Kudumban or Pradhanz who wields auth at Kummittankuzbi is a member of the local ority over all the villages. He is assisted by a Panchayat. He is also the Kudumban of the Vadan and Kolkaran. All matters of importance settlement. It may be said that he is an accre in the community are presided over by the head man. All disputes are settled by him. All com dited leader working for the improvement of the plaints are referred to him. Cases of adultery social condi Hons of the tribe. 26 CHAPTER XV SOC'lAL REFORM AND WELFARE 74. It can hardly be said th&t any improve not - so much due to the enthusiasm to learn ment in the social or economic sphere has taken as due to the fact that mid-day meal was given. place in the· community. The Department of The Department of Public Instruction has Tribal Welfare. which is the state agency for stopped mid-day meals, which is attributed as the advancement of Scheduled Castes and the main reason for fall in attendance. The Scheduled Tribes, has established a colony at awareness about the advantages of education is Champakad for the Hill Pulayas. In the Kara yet to dawn among HilI Pulayas. To them, a vazhy Pulaya settlement at Kummittankuzhi child born means enhancement of labour force there are two houses constructed by the Gover to that extent. The influence of religious or nment. Barring these, aU the huts of Hill philanthrophic organisations has also not had Pulayas are of the primitive pattern. Some time any effect in these localities, obviously because ago the Department of Tribal Welfare started a no such organisation has been functioning there. Tribal welfare school near Marayoor _ The school Recently a Scolasticate of the Carmelite Miss- was funclioning sathfactorily till recently, when ioneries has been established at Pius Nagar il was taken over by the Department of Public near the Kurumba Pulaya settlement at Kotta Instruction from the Department of Tribal Wel fare. After the taking over, the attendance in the ppallam. It is not yet time to determine whether school is said to be ve ry low. It is stated tl1lat this religious institution has had any inB Uence the Hill Pulaya bo)s and girls attend school on the Hill Pulayas. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Francis, W., Madras District Gazetteers, Madura. 1906 2 Gundert, Dr.• Malayalam English Dictionary 1871 3 Krishna Iyer, L. A., The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Trivandrum, Vol. I, 1937 and Vol. III. 1941 4 Luiz, A. A. D., Tribes of Kerala, New Delhi, 1962 5 Mammen, K .• Kerala Culture. Trivandrum, 1942 6 Mateer, S., Native life in Travancore 1883 7 Padmanabba PilIai, G., Sabdatharavali 1964 8 Velu Pll1ai, T. K., Travancore State Manual. Vol. I. 1940 CENSUS REPORTS AN D JOURNALS 9 Subramonya Aiyar, N., Census of India 1901. Vol. XXVI, Travancore, Part I and II 10 Subramonya Aiyar, N., Census of India 1911, Travancore Part I and Il 11 Kunjan Pillai, N., Census of India 1931, Vol. XXVII[, Travancore, Part I and H 12 l'arayanan Thampi, A., _Census of India 1941, Vol. XXV, Travancore, Part 1 and II 13 Devassy, M. K., Census of India 1961, Vol. VII, Kerala, Part I A (i) 14 " " Vol. VII, Kerala, Part VI G 15 " " Vol. VII, Kerala, Part V A 27 APPENDIX 'EXTRACTS FROM EARLIER PUBLICATIONS 1. The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, by L. A. ~rishna lyer, 1937. Pages 117 to 134 2. Census of India, 1931, Vol. XXVIII, Travancore, Part I by N. Kunjan Pillai APPENDIX 1. The Travancore Tribes and Castes - Vol. I by L. A. Krishna Iyer M. A., 1937, Pages 117-134 MALAPULAYA Introduction Origin of the Tribe The Malapulayas are found in the Anjanad The Malapulayas say that they came from Valley of the Devicolam taluk in North Travan Madura to Anjanad after the advent of the core. There are three endogamous septs: Vellalas. They.call the Muthuvans (rOlaD2:::l.ClllO 31 MALAPULAYA mat facing east. The bridegroom then ties a produce somewhat of identity of substance. necklace of beads round the bride's neck. They When the act is done, its sacramental character then have their food from the same leaf.· The is intensified." . husband gives a ball of rice to his wife which Polygamy and Polyandry she eats. She in turn gives a ball of rice to him which he eats. They then eat the remaining food A man may marry more than one woman, from the same leaf. The bridegroom's father then when the first wife is sterile. He may marry directs the Kolkaran to seat all the men for his wife's sister. The same ceremonies are gone supper. The gathering disperses after the distri through as on the occasion of his first marriage. bUtion of pansupari (betel leaf and nut). Morality is very loose among them and sexual The married couple are then taken· to . the license is easily tolerated. Polyandry is said to bridegroom's hut, where they stay together for prevail among them. the night. The next day all the men assemble Levirate there to the beat of the tom-tom. A pan of saffron water is placed in front of the hut. A man does not marry the wife of his deceased Husband and wife each puts a ring in the water, elder brother. The elder brother may marry one being brass, the other iron. The ring is then the wife of his deceased younger brother. He picked out of the water. The husband is expected becomes the guardian of the children. to get the brass ring and puts it on, while the Sororate bride puts on the iron ring. If the reverse ring A Malapulaya may marry the sister of his happens to be picked up, the process is repeated first wife not only after the latter's death, but thrice. It is a bad omen, if the husband gets even while she is still alive. the iron ring. The married couple dip in saffron water the tip of c16th of the husband's Adultery mother and the wife's father. The same process Formerly when a man committed adultery is gone through in the caSe of the Kudumban, among the Kurumba Pulayas, the culprits were Variyan, and others. They then proceed to the taken before the village panchayat (committee stream to the beat of tom-tom and throw their of five elders) over which the Kudumban wedding garlands into the water. They then re (Headman) presided. If they were found guilty, turn to the husband's hut and bow to all elderly they were tied to a Mullumurukku tree men. The bridegroom is then advised as follows: (Erythrina stricta) otherwise known as Vall1bu metal 6)()_j6mL!Ot1ll16)(Q) em.oo 6).e,§' al~It puberty at the age of fifteen. She is lodged in the eighth month. Delivery takes place on the a separate· sh~d 100 feet away fro.m the main verandah of the hut which is enclosed. Her hut, so that she may not see men or be seen·by motber attends on her. Among the Kurumba them, so that the dangerous resul ts of associa Pulayas, the pollution lasts for thirty days, The tion with the other sex may be guarded against. mother enters the hut on the 31 st day after Pollution lasts for thirty days. If she wants bathing. The peri od of pollution is only fifteen to go out, she does so when there are no men days among the Karavazhy pulayas, as they are in the vicinity~ On all the thirty nights, they dependents Qf the VeHalas, and cannot afford play on the drum and pipe till midnight. The to remain without work for a longer period. The girl is led to a stream to bathe on the 31st day woman bathes on the sixteenth day, but she accompanied by the beat of tom-tom. On her cannot enter the hu t for another fifteen days. return to the village, all are feasted. The same The men do not mate with their wives until night, she is seated on the verandah and screened the baby begins to smile. from the view of the gathering with mats. Men of the tribe play on the drum .and pipe all night. Naming Ceremony The next morning she is taken to the stream The date for the naming· ceremony is governed followed by two girls. A pan of water mixed by considerations of the condition of the baby . . wi th ash is boiled, and in this her cloth is If the baby cries incessantly, it is reckoned as a dipped. She dons a new cloth after bathing, and sign for giving name to it. 'A medicine-man reLUrns home. _ The Kudumban and Variyan takes some paddy grains, holds-them in the palm are seated on mats and given pansupari. The of his hand, and scans them. He tells them woman bows before the asserubled guests and what name should be given, and it is done is advised as follows: accordingly. Naming is generally on the six~ aru6)() QrlBOJiI 33 MALApULAYA Funeral Ceremonies 3. Mother's brother Mama , When a man dies, information is sent round 4. Mother's brother's wife Marni .the village. All the men and women gather in 5. Mother's sister. Periamma or Chinnamma, if the house. where the body lies. A grave is dug the younger a short distance from the hu t hip deep by two men north to south. Turmeric powder is mixed III. Relatiolls through wife with oil and smeared on the corpse by the wife 1. Wife No name of tbe deceased and other women. The son, 2. Wife's father Maman nephew, and others cover it with a new cloth. 3. Wife's mother Mami After taking it to a certain distance, the corpse . 4. Wife's brother Machinan 'is placed on the ground, when the son goes . 5. Wife's brother's wife Akka or round it thrice with a pot of water which he Thangachi, if breaks at the feet of the corpse, which is then the younger taken to the grave, lowered in, and is covered .6. Wife's sister Thangai with a new cloth. The grave is then tilled up 7. Wife's sister's husband Annan or with earth. Thorns are planted over it. Three Thambi, if the stones are planted, one at the head, one at the younger breast, and one at the foot. Pollution lasts for five days., On the 6th day, all bathe. The chief . IV. Relations through husband mourner, the son kills a fowl and treats all the 1. Husband's father Mama relations to a feast. 2. Husband's mother Mami Kinship 3. Husband's brother Macbinan 4. Husband's brother's wife Akka or The system of kinship among the Mala Thangachi, if pulayas is of the type called classificatory. The the younger terms of relationship arid their vernacular 5. Husband's sister Nangai eqUivalents are given below: In regard to the terms of relationship, we No. English name Vernacular name may note: I. Relations through father (1) That Pattanar is the name given to th~ 1. Grandfather Pattanar grandfather on botb the paternal and maternal 2. Grandmother Patti sides, and Patti to their wives. 3. Father Appa (2) Maman is the name used to denote the 4. Mother Amma mother'S brother, the father's sister's husband, 5. Father's elder brother Periappa the wife's father and husband's father. Mami 6. Father's elder brother's wife - Periamma is the name given to the father's sister, 7. Father's elder brother's} Annan or mother's brother's wife, wife's mother, and son Thampi, if the husban,d's mother. younger (3) Machinan is the name given to the 8. Father's elder br()ther's} Akka or father's sister's son, wife's brother and husband's daughter Thangachi,,if brother. the younger Social Organization 9. Father's younger brother" Chittappan 10; Father's younger The Kurumba Pulayas have a Headman brother's wife Chinnaya known as Arasan for a group of villages. The 11. Father's sister Atbai or Mami Arasan has an '"assistant called Variyan for 12, Father's sister's bblsband Mama eac!} village; he bas in turn a Kolkaran to 13. Father'S sister's son Machtnan execute his biddings. The son succeeds to chief. 14. Father'S sister's daughter Nangai tainship. Cases of adultery and village disputes go before the Arasan for decision. II. Relations through mother The Karavazhy Pulayas have a headman 1. Grandfather Pattanar called Kudumban who wields author4_!y over 2. Grandmother Patti all the- villages. He is assisted by a Variyan 34 APPENDIX and Kolkaran. The Kudumban sits on a mat " ,.q) m, ~ c9fiI on' c9Qrm Q1 a.uu 1 rum OllU® n.m 1B>m'll with the Variyan close by. The Kolkaran re .at§la.fi)~ ,a,0;tj0«:m» 1 ~'!IIlB6)c86)~Oo O'\lruIZlO<:Ol° mains .. standing. The Kudumban hears and mtlBOl»ottib CIlTZl ~iOllJ)ruroan 0 ~ 1m CJ1..IalCib e.a.J ~ disposes of all complaints. <5I~CJ uoo." Economic Condition "r f we lead a prosperous life without any The Kurumba Pulayas are nomadic agricul illness, and if our children are protected, we turists. fhey cultivate land for four or live shall make a similar offering next year". The years and then change to another location. goat's flesh is cooked and the villagers enjoy They clear the jungle in Panguni (March-April) a feast. and sow ragi broadcast in Chi thirai (April May). They mark their area with wood or 2 Mariamma. This goddess is propitiated stone. The Kudumban and Variyan have the in PanilUni to prevent any illness to their chil benefit of free labour by the tribe for clearing dren. The ceremonies O.bserved in the worship land and weeding, but he has to make his own of Kali are observed here also. No temple arrangements for harvesting his crop. Women is dedicated to Mariamma; she is worshipped weed the area with a Kothukole (hooKed only once annually. wood",n implement) in Vaikasi (May-June) or 3. Katlaparamma. There is a sacred spot on a small mammatty (,a,~6),a,:J!IDID). After harvest the bank of the Chinnar where offerings are ing the ragi, each man prepares some pongal made to the deity once in three years Pongal which he places in front of the stack. He then is offered on the sacred spot along wi th cocoa kills a fowl and goes round the stack once nut and plantains. A goat is sacrificed and letting the blood around it. He then stands in prayers are made for their prosperity. The front and says. "Oh God, Sylvan. deities, we offerings are then eaten by-the worshippers. want a bumper crop. Our livelihood rests on it." They then partake of the offering. A man 4. Chap/amma. This goddess is propitiated gets on an average two to five shalakas or once in eight years at the temple in Kodanthur forty padis of ragi. They sow about five padis on the banks of the Chinnar. They remain of ragi in an acre of land. celibate for ten days prior to the ceremony. The offering consists of a cow. It i~ washed in the Among the Karavazhy Pulayas, no cultivation stream and a garland is thrown over its neck o is possible, as they are dependants of the The priest also wears a garland and a sandal Vellalas and get as daily wages one big padi mark on his forehead. The image of the goddess of paddy. They generally do all the agricultural is installed in the midst of a Kayam (deep water) operations of the Vellalas and get in return a in the Chinnar river. The priest rides on the fifth of the produce after the harvest. Bill animal and goes round it seven times. He then hook, mamma tty and axe are their implements. goes to the goddess walking. with the animal. Very few own cattle, but most of them keep Its legs are washed with milk, and frankincense dogs for protection and assisting in catching is burnt. An ear of the animal is then cu t small game. off. The priest is presented with the cow. The Kurumba Pulayas do not get enough 5. Aragalinachi. This goddess is installed ragi to last for a year. They supplement it by rn Marayur and is worshipped by the Kara daily labour to Government and priVate vazhy Pulayas alone at night. The priest ropes individuals. They chew pan, but do not smoke. a buffalo and it is driven along the paddy flats Religion awaiting harvest. Ten men harvest the crop The Malapulayas worship the following over which the buffaloe treads, and the sheaves deities - are tied in a bundle and taken to the temple. The buffalo is sacrificed at night and the blood 1. Kali. This goddess is annually worship let into a hollow on a rock with the prayer. ped in Panguni in the morning at a sacred "May we have a bumper crop." Before the spot, but without an image. They prepare sacrifice, a fanam is put into its mouth and the pongal and place it in the spot along with animal wrapped in~ new cloth. All the men cocoanuts, betels and nuts. A goat is sacrificed, and women dance to the drum and pipe throu and the following prayer is offered. ghout the night. The dance is very attractive. 35 MALAPULAYA The participan ts hold the hems of a cloth ,-'\"ith shou-Iders with one of the free ends and the the two hands while dancing. In the morning, end of the inner fold. When they go out for the flesh of the buffaloe is divided among the work, they carry their children on their backs. village folk and the priest. - They bathe onre in two or three days. The Children look healthy and tidy. Ceremonies Connected With Hunting Ornaments Th~ Malapulayas have no guns;_ they get such game as the dogs can catch, when they go out The men wear brass ear-rings and women hunting. Wolves kill sambur. boar and other tubular olas. The women wear brass nose-screws animals. The Malapulayas pick up the carcase. and a necklace of beads. They make a fire and hold the carcase over it to Musical Instruments remove the hair. The heart is fried, and a small part is placed on a stone for the hunting The Malapulayas have a variety of musical deity. They then pray. instruments. "We salute you, sylvan deities, with this They are: offering. We wish to get -similar game to 1. Murasu. Jt is a variety of drum. The morrow, when we go out hunting." They then frame is of wood I) or brass (I II). (t is cylind partake of the offering, and the remaining flesh rical and constricted in the middle. In the is divided equally among them. case of a drum with a wooden fr~me, the sound Habitation is made by drawing a convex wooden piece of vengai (Pterocarpus marsupium) over the skin. The huts of the Malapulayas are huddled In the case of the drum with a brass frame, the together and are insanitary. They are two sound is produced by two curved sticks. roomed 15' x 12'. One room is used for cooking, and the other is used as a bed room. There is 2. Mathalam (Chenda JV). The frame of the always a hearth on the eastern side of the drum is made of wood. It is cylindrical. The ki tchen. They are made of junglewood posts, sound is produced by two curved sticks. The bamboos and grass. Bamboo trellis forms the drum plays a prominent parl_in Indian music. walling, which is mud plastered. The huts have 3. Kuzhal (II). This is of the flute type. The no windows. The floor is raised from the ground upper holes are fingered, but the lower ones by two feet. They sit on mats of Kora grass, are stopped with wax to regulate the pitch. The made by themselves. There is a chavadi in the sound is shrill and carries a long distance. centre of the hamlet. It is used as a bachelor hall. Formerly, they made fire by flint and steel. 4. Kidumuthi (V). This drum has a conical Safety matches have now taken their place. They base with a flat bottom. The skin is held tight use earthenware vessels for cooking. on one side. The sound is produced by t IVO sticks. Diet 5. The Cymbals (ft!lO§O) are employed to Ragi is the staple food of the Kurumba mark time to all kinds of songs. Pulayas, and rice of the Karavazhy Pulayas. Both eat the flesh of goat, fowl, sambur, deer, DaHy Life rabbi t, and wild boar. The Kurumba Pulayas The flute is played to the accompaniment of avoid the flesh of the cow and the bison, bu t drums and cymbals on both festive and funeral the Karavazhy Pulayas have no such restriction. occasions. . They do not drink intoxicating liquor. At sunrise, a woman cleans the hut and pre Dress mises. She hulls paddy or grinds ragi, and pre Men wear a cloth six cubits long and two pares the morning food. The family have their wide. Some wear a coat and shirt. They also breakfast at 8. Both men and women go out for put on an upper cloth. Women wear coloured cooly work and return in the evening. Women cloth sixteen cubits long. This costs three to carry fuel. They again have rice or ragi at night. five rupees. Young women have now taken to On an average, a man or WOman earns It wearing jackets. Women drape their body with measures 0 f paddy as wages per day. They have the cloth and have a knot over the right not much to spare for visitors. If a man is 36 . APPENDIX without means, they collect rice or ragi from (63.3"). Out of 21 Kurumb1 Pulayas, two each hut and give it to him. Wo.nen are on a are tall. The tallest man is 169.5 ems in stature. level with m'en in status and take part. in all They have long head with an average cephalic religious and social functions. index of 74.1. The forehead is receding and Fecundity the brow ridges are prominent. The nose is short and fiat, the average nasal index being The Malapulayas number 254 of whom 125 86,6. The average facial index is 86.5. They have are males and 129 females. From statistics the largest span of arms, the average being 170. collected byrne, it is seen that the average In circumference of chest, they stand the s·ize of the family for eighteen families among second among the hill-tribes with 77.8 ems. the Kurumba Pulayas is 4. 3. The average birth rate is 4. 0, and the survival rate, 2.3. There Conclusion are 27 male and 20 female children. Infant The Karavazhy Pulayas are in a State of mortality is 33; this is very high. Among the economic bondage to Vellalas on whom - they Karavazhy Pu)ayas, the average size of the depend for their existence. They graze the family for eighteen families is 4.7. The average cattle and cultivate the lands in return for birth-rate is 3.4, and the survival rate, 2.6. which they get their wages. They are pipers Infant mortality is less among them. to the Vellalas. The Kurumba Pulayas are not under such SUbjection, and make their living Appearance and Ph),s!cal Features by nomadic cultivation. The :\.1alapulayas stand The MalapuJayas are black in complexion. at a distance of ten feet from the Muthuvans. In point of stature they rank the highest among They are steeped in ignorance and in a very the hill tribes. The average stature is 161.0 ems backward condition. 37 APPENDIX 2. Census of India, 1931, Vol. XXVIII, Travancore, Part I Report by N. Kunjan Pillai Page 396 Para 4 A girl, on attaining .puberty, remains in the seclusion shed for 30 days, during which period Of the three groups of MaJapulayan, Kuru she should not see any man. On the 31st day mba Pulayan lives at Pampar, Alampatti. Karu she bathes and returns home, when all the mutti and Palampatti; Karavazhy Pulayan at villagers are treated to a feast. Marriage takes Kummittankuzhi. Pattatholivu. Pulikaravayal place after a uirl attains pUberty. Cross-cousin and Nachivayal; and Pambu Pulayan in the marriage is prevalent. Marriage 'ceremony is forests to the east of Chinnar. conducted at the bride's hut and lasts for three Page 396 Para 6 days. Climate is also the deciding factor in deter Among Karavazhy Pulayas, the boy's parents mining the crops that man can grow in a loca give a bride-price of forty vallams of paddy and lity. Mannan, Muthuvan. Paliyan, and Kuru a coloured cloth to the bride and her mother. mba Pulayan, who are found at an altitude of Marriage takes place at night. The bride and 2,000 to 5,000 feet above sea-level, cultivate the bridegroom are seated on a mat, facing ragi, while Kanikkaran, Malayarayan, UUatan, east. The bridegroom ties a necklace of beads Vizhavan, and others who Jive at lower eleva round the bride's neck. They take food from tions cultivate rice and tapioca. Where climate the same leaf, each giving a t.>all of rice to the favours the growth of forests, there it prolongs other. All the guests are then feasted and the the hunter stage of buman development and married couple ar(' taken to the bridegroom's retards advance to agriculture. house. Page 397 Para 9 Among Kurumba Pulayas bride-price is not given. A cloth is presented to the bride and a The greater height of the Muthuvan, Mala string dipped in saffron water is tied round her pulayan. Paliyan and UraH may be due to the neck. The guests are then treated to a feast. An more \igorous functioning of the pituitary gland elder brother may marry the wife of his deceased at higher elevations. The effect of a scanty and younger brother and become the guardian of his uncertain food supply is seen on Malapantaram children. Polygamy is practised. and a man may and Vizhavan, who are shorter in stature than marry the sister of his first wife. Polyandry i's others. The groups classified as short are bet prevalent and even promiscuity is not un ween 58! inches and 62! inches. The average common. Sons inherit the father's property. height of Malapantaram is 61 inches, of Vizhavan 61.16 inches, of Muthuvan 62 inches, MaJapulayas worship. Kali, Mariamma, of Malapulayan 62.5 inches, of Paliyan 62 inches, Chaplamma, and Kattlaparamma. Men abstain and of Urali 62.8 inches. from intercourse with their wives for ten days prior to any religious ceremony th~y have to Page 402 Para 17 perform. Man wears a cloth, 6 cubits by 2t Malapulayas are divided into three endog cubits, and woman a coloured cloth 16 cubits amous septs, namely, Kurumba Pulaya, Kara long. The diminished vitality of this tribe is vazhy Pulaya, and Pambu Pulaya, in the descend due to the unhealthy environment in which it ing order of their social status. The higher lives. septs do not intermarry or interdine with the Page 411 Para 44 lower ones. Kurumba Pulayas are nomadic agriculturists. Ka ravazhy Pulayas are dependants Malapu)ayan's huts are 15 feet by 12 feet in of the Vella las. Ragi is the staple food of the dimensions and are two-roomed wi thout win former, while the latter live on rice which they dows. They are made of junglewood, bamboos get in the sbape of wages from their masters. and potha grass. Bamboo-trellis forms the wall 38 APPENDIX which is plastere:1 with mud. The floor is rheumatic patient who rubs his knee against raised, and -the huts face east. this stone will be cured of rheumatism, but no ¥age 414 Para 61 one ventures to do so at present. Dr. Borlase thinks that dolmens were connected with the Kurumba Pulayas of Anjanad Valley have activities of a shady priestho~d. Professor no separate chief for each hamlet. There is a J. Dubriel has tried to connect many of the common chief called Arasan for all the hamw De~can megali th'l wi th sacrificial houses men lets together. On his demise the office devolves tioned in later Vedic literature. on his eluest son. ,The Arasan has an assistant caJled Variyan, and a Kolkaran to execute his Page 420 Para 86 orders. The earlies t record of dolmens in Travancore Pages 414 & 415 Para 62 was by Ward and Conner in 1852. They Among Karavali Pulayas the headman is state that "the pandukulies or barrows. called Kudumban. He has under him Variyan those remains of pt'imaeval customs so common and a Kolkaran to assist him in his' duties. throughout the Peninsula are also found here. Kudumban and Variyan sit on a mat when the though they are not so numerous".Uralis believe council meets and Kolkaran stands close by. that dolmens are places where treasure is hidden Cases of adultery and other offences are tried but no such treasure has been found in any of by them, and the man and the woman are the dolmens excavated. Dolmens are chambers fined from Rs. 1-12-0 to Rs. 3 each. in which people of late Neolithic times 'buried the· dead bodies of important persons. ·In Page 418 Para 80 Travancore they are invariably found on the Malapulayas bury the dead and place a stone crtsts of hills in the Rani Reserve. and they at the head, breast and feet. are built of unhewn blocks of stone. In the Pages 419 & 420 Para 8S erection of the dolmens, the ancients observed certain architectural methodS" and principles. Dolmens are rude structures consisting of a By the use of orthostatic block, the maximum large un hewn stone resting on two or more of wall area was provided with the minimum others placed erect. They are found scattered of thickness. With the upright wall-technique all the long chain of wooded hills in Travancore. went hand in hand the roofing of narrow They are generally considered to be 'Stones of spaces by means' of horizontal slabs laid across the monkeys in India," but most of the primi on the top of the uprights. The second feat tive people of Travancore have no knowledge' ure of megalithic architecture was coarse of them nor do they evidence any interest in masonry, without the use of mortar, each block them. The people of Anjanad alone call them of stone placed on its side and not on its edge. Valividus or abodes of monkeys. UraUs call Such combinations are quite typical of mega them Pandukulies, pi IS made by the Pandus lithic worh. In other cases "a series of up or Pandavas, to whom ancient mysterious rights is first put in position and over those are structures all over India are generally ascribed. laid several horizontal courses of rather smaller They are looked upon by the credulous as sacred stone. "t A variant of the latter form is found and dangerous. It is said that peasants in France in the Anjanad Valley. will not take shelter under them nor go near them at night, but the Vellalas and the Mala Page 423 Para 101 pulayas of Anjanad have no such ·fear. They Sanitation is badly wanting in the hamlets sit under them when they graze their cattle. of the hill tribes. Kanikkar, Mannans, Muth "A dolmen in Pinistiere is said to cure rheu uvans. Paliyans and Vizhavans do not raise matism in anyone who rubs against the the floor of the huts above the ground level. loftiest of its stones and another heals fever Drainage is defective and the huts are over patients who sleep under it." * There is a mini crowded and ill~ventilated. Living under ature menhir, three feet high. at Marayur. insanitary conditions is one of the causes of called Vathamkolli. It is believed that any the decline of the tribes. In this respect * E. C. James, loco cit. p. 149 t Fergusson, Rough Stone Monuments, p. 465 59 MALAPULAYA Malayarayans. Ullatans and Malapulayas stand Sherring have shown that polyandry results in on a higher level as the floor of their huts sman families. A surplus of adult females over is .raised above the surrounding ground. males is a necessary condition of the stabilization and continued vigour of human races. Among Page 425 Para 112 the primitive tribe~ of Travancore, Paliyans, Copulation after marriage. but before the Uralis, and Karavali Pulayas have a shortage girl attains puberty, is common among Kani of women. Among the polygamous groups, kkar, Vizhavans, and Malapulayas of Anjanad females show a higher survival rate than males, Valley. Early coition is believed to be detri while among polyandrous groups the reverse is mental to health and fecundity. Marriage be the case. Polygamous marriages produce a larger fore puberty, which is an ancient Aryan custom number of children than monogamous ones. has been adopted by some of the primitive According to Pitt-Rivers, "the maintenance tribes of Travancore. Early intercourse is of polygynous institutions in an aboriginal race injurious to the general health of the mother is one of the best indications of its preservation and the child. It will weaken the reproductive as a race." * The primitive peoples of functions and cause abortion. This is probably Travancore are mostly monogamous. one of the causes of the prevalence of Page 425 Para 114 abortion among Kanikkar. By the operation of the various causes men Page 425 Para 113 tioned above the fertility of the primitive tribes Traces of polyandry are seen among Malaya of Travancore is declining and their numbers rayans. Ullatans. Paliyans, Muthuvans. Uralis are decreasing. Most primitive tribes have but and Malapulayas, probably due to the shortage small families, the number of children ranging of women. If polyandry is an indication of from one to three per family. The average shortage of women, and if a progressive distur survival rate of children is found to be 1.7 per bance in the balance of the sexes in the direc family among Kanikkar. 1.4 among Mala tion of an ever-increasing deficit of women is vetans, 1.-2 among Kurumba ·Pulayas. 1.9 among' an index of declining population, the polyan Vizhavans, l.5 among Malayal'ayans, and 1.4 drous communities should have disappeared among Ullatans. Owing to better climatic long ago. According to Westermarck, inter conditions in the High Range the number of course between one woman and several men is unfavourable to reproduction, because of the children per family is found to be 2.5 among counteracting effect on each other of the sper Muthuvans, 2.3 among Karavali Pulayas, and matozoa of different individuals. Rockhill and 2.2 among Cheruvetans. * Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Culture and the Contact of Races, p. 268 40 MALA! VEDAN 7.' KERALA DISTRIBUTION OF THE S<;HEDULED TRfsE-MALAI VEDAN, 1961 . '2' " ARABIAN SEA TATE BOUNDARY '0' DISTRICT BOUNDARY E TALUK BOUNDARY r "I ! " t' .' 'AST OF GAE[NWICM ,,' MALAI VEDAN CHAPTER I NAME, IDENTITY, ORIGIN AND HISTORY 1. Malai Vedan, more popularly known ~s 3. The word Malai Vedan has derived from Mala Vedan or Mala Vetan, is a legendary tribe* Malai means hill and Vedan means hunter. The of the Malayalam country. It is included in the change in spelling from Malai Vedan to Mala list of Scheduled fribes throughout the State of Vejan or Mala Vetan cq_n be . explained Kerala. (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes thus: In Tamil malai means hill; while in list modification order, 1956, 34). It had also Malayalam the term used for hill is Mala. In been recognised as a Scheduled Tribe for the different published sources the terms Vedan State' as a whole except Malabar district, in the and Vetan have been used to mean one and the Constitution (Scheduled Castes· and Scheduled same community. Owing to the hard intonation, Tribes) Order, 1950. This note is based on a and accent, the Vedans pronounce the word microcosmic study conducted :in the Urukunnu as Vetan and call themselves by the same term. locality of Edamon village in the Pathanapuram The local people call them Mala Vedan, while taluk ofQuilon district. a neighbouring Tribe, the Kanikar, designate them as Tolvetao, which is reminiscent of the 2. Besides Kerala, it has been r~cognised as leafy garment that they wore in former times a Scheduled Tribe in the Kanyakumari district (Krishna Iyer, 1937, vol. I, P. 135). and Schencottai taluk of Thirunelveli district of Madras State. In the 1931 Census the Mala Origin Vedans were returned under two heads viz. 'the Vedan (Mala Vetan) and Vettuvan (Cheruvedan) 4. The following legend is current in the (Krishna (yer, 1937, I, 136). Velu Pillai, in his community regarding their origin. "In the Travancore State Manual, has indicated that beginning there were only two Kings and their Vettuvan is the same as Mala Vetan (Velu Pillai, followers; one ruled the plains (Natturaja) 1941, 869). In the Madras Census 1901 Mala while the other was the lord of the Hills Vedan has loosely been applied to the [rulas of (Vedaraja). Both the Veda prince and the Chingalput district (Thurston, 1909, VII, princess of the plains learned the art of archery 331). Stuart, in the North Arcot Manual, has under the same teacher. One day, when the stated that "they (Vedan) are also called prince felt hungry, he ate the offal of the Valmikulu, which means those ,who live on the princess. The princess, on seeing this, teased products of Ant Hills 'Valmikum'" (Thurston him of his action, at which the prince stopped 1909, VII, 331). It Is noted in the Census his studies and returned horne. The Veda king Report of 1891 that the two castes Bedar (Boyar) used to command respect of the whole forest and Vedan were through a misapprehension of the animals, the birds and the vegetation. instructions, treated as identical in the tabu After the death of the king, the prince suc lation papers. The two words are, no doubt, ceeded him inheriting the boons as well as the etirnologically identical, the one being Kanarese kingdom. One day the cattle belonging to the and the other Tamil, but the Castes are quite king of the plains, grazing in the forests, were distinct (Thurston 1909, VB, 331). killed by a tiger. The furious king, whereupon, * In puranas especially in Mahabharata there are references about Tribes. Eg., Nisbadas Guha, who ferries Sree Rama and paTty during their exile, and several tribesmen who fought the Mah'lbharata war etc. It is possible that Vedans are descendants of one of these trib~s. Vedan is a changed form of Me:ha and means HiHman OI2l~ means ce.o~, OJffio etc. OIZSah = 41 MALAI VEDAN declared that anyone who brings the head of the plantain leaves. They led a nomadic life shift tiger would be honoured by givmg his daughter ing from hill to hill, huntjng and collecting in marriage to him. Tht: Veda prince, hearing forest produce. They were shy and did not this, brought the tiger itself to the court of come out of their forest hideouts. Their gar the King of the plains. He, thus married the ments were made of tree bark and -the women princess and Mala Vedans are supposed to be were very chaste. The Thalavan remarked "the the progeny of this union." chastity of a woman was tested by nature itself. If anybody committed infidelity, wild animals 5. Krishna Tyer gives another myth which devoured ber. The customs and taboos were sheds light on the origin of the various seg scrupulously observed, but alas! with the arrival ments of the tribe. "It is said that, when God of the natives the forests were cleared and Paramesw 8. Malai Vedans are found in the Quilon, According to the·1961 Census they are returned Kottayam, Trivandrum and Alleppey districts, from the following areas. though the concentration is in the first one. Table 1 POPULATION OF MALAI VEDANS-1951 * Kerala State ....____--", Name of Name· of Persons Males Females district Persons Males Females taluk Persons Males Females 720 352 358 Quilon 443 226 217 Pathanamthitta 353 18S 168 Quilon 13 7 (; Kottarakkara 19 8 ii Pathanapuram 58 26 32 Kottayam 23 12 11 Kottayam 1 1 Changanacherry 22 11 11 Trivandrum 224 102 122 Neyyattinkara 64 30 34 Nedumangad 160 72 88 AUeppey 30 12 18 Thiruvalla 30 12 . 18 * In the same CenSus 15,560 persons have been returned under Vetan(Scheduled Caste) from Palghat (230), Tdchur (9), Ernakulam (68), Kottayam (54R), AUeppey (143), Qullon (8,752) and Trivandrum (5,810) districts. 9. The. total population of 720 persons Vedans are classified under two heads viz., returned in the present Census, comprises 352 Vetans including Malai Vedans and Vettuvans males and 368 females. When compared to the or Cheruvetans (the Cheruvetans of Kulathu· total popUlation of the State Malai Vedans puzha have revealed at the time of Survey that are approximately 4 in a mUlion of the State they are returned as Malai Vedans) in the Population. They form 0.34 per cent of the Travancore Census reports. Thus it will not total Scheduled Tribes Population of the State. be incorrect to say that Malai Vedans are cry All the 720 persons have been returned from stallized from Vedans and Vettuvans of Travan the rural areas. The sex ratio of the tribe core State. Vetan is enumerated from as early works out to be 1,045 females per 1,000 males, as 1881 Census onwards and Vettuvans from a slight edge of the females to the males when 1891 in Travanco~e. There are no returns for compared to that of the S tate, which accounts Vetans or Mala Vetans in the Census reports for 1,022 females per 1,000 males. Out of the of Cochin State, or Malabar district of Madras no souls, 307 (42.64%) fall under the 0-14 age State, whereas Vettuvans are enumerated from group consisting of 148 males and 159 fema. all these places. According to 1961 Census les. In the 15-44 age-group there are 150 males there are_nO Malai Vedans, 15,560 Vetans and and 169 females, which account for 44.30 28,095 Vettuvans in Kerala State. When the per cent of the total population of the tribe. district-wise figures are analysed it is observed In the 45 and above age-group are· found 94 that Malai Vedans are returned only from persons (13.06%) consisting of 54 males and districts formed of teui to des of the erstwhile 40 females. Travancore State. Hence an attempt is made 10. The Malai Vedans are returned as a to study the popUlation growth of Vetans separate community only in 1961 Census. Malai (including Malai Vedans) and Vettuvans of the 43 MALAI VEDAN erstwhile Travanc.ore areas. The f.oll.owing ab.ove c.ommunities during different Censuses, table gives the sex-wise distribution or the which is als.o .observed fr.om the graph. Table 2 SEX-WISE FIGURES OF VETANS AND VETTUVANS DURING DIFFERENT CENSUSES Vetans Vettuvans ~------~------~ ~------~------~ Year Persons Males Females Persons Males Females 1881 6,155 3,015 3,140 NA NA NA 1891 6,809 3,498 3,311 87 39 48 1901 11,720 5,945 5,775 1,085 586 499 1911 5,051 2,584 2,467 1,486 746 740 1921 8,239 4,114 4,t25 1,321 635 686 1931 11,737 5,919 5.818 1,322 621 701 1941 11,667 6,029 5,638 2,367 1,230 1.137 195. Not available 1961* 16,590 8,272 8.318 2,959 1,524 1.435 "'The figure under Vetans is the total of Ma]ai Vedans and Vetans 11. The P.oPulation figures .of Vetans have Census the figure remained almost the same as increased upt.o 1901 and decreased in 1911 to less that of the previous Census. The table also shows than half of the 1991 figure. Again upward trend that the strength of Vetans always remained is noticed till 1941, When a slight fall in their higher than Vettuvaos. The following table gives number is observed. In the case of Vettuvans, the percentage decade variation of the above wh.ose number was only 87 during 1891, the communities. A pict.orial representation of the figure increased t.o 1085 in the next Census, and percentage decade variation of Vet~ns and Ve.ttu thereafte~ in all the Censuses except in 1921, vans during different Censuses IS als.o gwen when a slIght decrease is ~bserved. In the 1931 below. Table 3 PERCENTAGE DECADAL VARIATION OF VETANS AND VETTUVANS FROM 1881 TO 1961 Percentage decadal variation ~------~------~Decade Mala vetans Vettuvans 1881 - 1891 10.63 NA 1891 -19{)1 72.13 1,147.13 1901 - 1911 -56.9 36.96 1911 - 1921 63.1 - 11.1 1921 - 1931 42.5 0.01 1931 - 1941 - 00.6 79.05 1941 - 1961'" 42.19 25.01 ... This figure is for the span of 20 years as the population figures of those communities for 1951 are not available. 44 Percentage decadai variation of Vetans including Molai Vedans and Vettuvans from 1881 to 1961 ",,0 I I 1,130 l\\ I I I ~ 80 -1 60 -60L-____~ ____~ ____~ ____~ ____~ __~ 1881.91 1891.1901 1901-11 1911-21 1921-31 1931.41 1941-61 YEARS Population of Vetans (including Malai Vedans) and Vettuvans from 1891 to 196 i PERSONS IN THOUSANDS , 891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1961 YEARS CHAPTER III PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 12.· During the investigations no attempt has Travancore a~d North Arcot. They are as been made to collect data on the. physical chara follows:- cteristics of the Tribe. Thurston has described the Malai Vedans as "short in stature, dolichoce Table 4 phalic and Platyrhine" (Thurston, 1909, VII,_ ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS·OF 335). Krishna Iyer groups Malai Vetans in the MALAI VEDANS protoaustraloid racial stock (Knshna lyer, 1941, Average Average In, 42). On the basis of anthropometric meas Average cephalic nasal urements, Krishna rver sums up the physical No. Locality stature index index remarks characteristics of the tribe thus:- "TheY are dark in ·complexion, of short stature and have long 1. Travancore 60.S" 73.S 92.4 heads. They have dark curly hair. black eyes 2. Nortn Areot 61.1 " 73.4 85.0 and short nose depressed at the root. Their brow On the basis of these measurements he has ridges are prominent and their forehead is re concluded that the Malai Vedans of Travancore ceding." (Krishna Iyer, 1931,U, 131). and North Arcot are short in stature and doli 13.· Krishna Iyer has collected the anthro chocephalic and both have short, flat ·nose." pometric measurements of the Malai Vedans of (Krishna [yer, 1931, I, 137). 45 CHAPTER IV FAMILY, CLAN, KINSHIP AND OTHER DIVISIONS 14. Family is the basic unit among the Malai 10. Molavana Vedans. NormaJly familfes are simple, consisting 11. Vazhakkatan of husband and wife living along with their un Krishna Iyer has given a list of the exo&am married children, though joint families are also ous clans" he has observed among the vanous met with. Among the Malai: Vedans. lineage ;and subdivisions. inheritance are reckoned through tbe male line. The descent, however" is traced through the 1. Chernvetan (Vettuvan) mother. L Venatan illom 15. The tribe is divided into many endoga~ 2. Vendiri illom mous subdivisions. Krishna Iyer gives the 3. Churalayar illom following subdivisions. 4. Modandan illom 1. Tolvetans 2. Chingannivetan 2. Chingannivetans For Chingannivetans Krishna Iyer gives an 3. Cberuvetans (Vettuvans) additional cIan-Kozhakatan illom-in aadition 4. Elichathivetans to the clans found a~ Urukunnu. 5. Valiavetans(Krishna Iyer, 1937, 1.138). According to him Tolvetans are found in the 3. Elicbathivetans Neyyattinkara and Nedumangad taluks, the 1. Vellillom Chingannivetans in the Pathanapuram and 2. Kumari illom Patbanamthitta taluks to the south of Koni 3. Konchillom " river, and the Cheruvetans north of the Koni 4. Velillom river a_nd to the south of the Pampa river in 4. Tolvetans the taluks of Thiruvalla and Pathanamthitta. Elichathivetans are found on both banks of the 1. Panni il10m Manimala rivu in the Changanasseri taluk. 2. Manni illom Valiavetans are found everywhere. (Krishna 3, Vayali illom Iyer 1937, I, 138). 4. M u ttillom 5. Puli illom 16. Each of the above subdivision claims sup 6. VeliIlom eriority ov('r the other and neither interdines nor 7. Paral illom intermarries with the other groups. However 8. Pallikkal illom it has been reported that at times the Cheru vetans. in the low country may marry a woman 18. Though the members of the clan are not from among the Chinganni"vetans. in a position to explain to the origin of their respective illoms, it appears that the clan names 17. Ea~h endogamous subdivision is divided are after some animals, plants, or places, ego Puli into a number of exogamous clans. The (tiger), Panni (boar), Konch - (Prawn), all following clans have been reported from the animals, or Thumbayan (of the lucas plant), Urukunnu area where this study was conducted. Vazhakatan (of the plantain plant), pertaining to They belong to the Chinganni subdivision. plants or Mo]avana (coming from Molavana), 1. VeIiyan Pallikkal (from Pallikkal) pertaining to places 2. " Vartyan etc. As a rule clans are exogamous and as such 3. Kaavattayan the members of a clan consider themselves to be 4. Karumaruvan brothers and sisters. For the purposes of marriage 5. Venatan among the Chinganni Vetans and the Tolvetans. 6. Thumbayan the exogamous clans are further divided into 7. Polachan "Annan Thampi Tllom" (Brother Clans), and 8. Modayanatan Machambi illoms (Brother-in-law clans) 9. Padayan Marriage between brother clans is prohibited FAMILY, CLAN, KINSHIP AND OTHER DIVISIONS whereas betwee!l brother-in-law clans is not contributed to the fine levied from the wrong prohibited Marriages between a brother clan doer. In times of necessity the clans extend all and brother-ip... law clan are allowed. At -Uru possible help to their clansmen." kunnu there ate 11 clans out of which the first 20. A person, whether a male or female, 8 belong to the Annan Thampi Illom while the traces his clan from his mother. Even after rest are Machampi Illoms. marriage a woman con tinues to be in her own 19. 'the kinship relationship among the ·clan and does not adopt the clan-name of her Malai Vetans is very cordial. Clan solidarity husband. Inheritance, among the Malai Vedans, is very much preserved and protected. Even it is reported, is through the father's line. Both to this day, when a clansman is dead the pollu~ movable and immovable properties, including tion e:dends to all the members of the same clan. Formerly they used to observe collective heriditary status, etc. are inherited equally responsibility for the crime committed by the sons. Daughters on the other hand do by a member of the clan and therefore, all not normally inherit the property or status. 47 CHAPTER·,V DWELLING~ DRESS, 'FOOD, AND ORNAMENTS green leaveS'). Today, however, they have taken .41. As the name suggests, Malai Vedaq.s inhha much the dresses of the plains' people. Wh:n bited the inaccessible forest areas.. WIth t e • of they; a;re,at" wQr1<; •. ,~h~ ,Illen wear a small 10m cODversi,:m or fot;e~t:.~ .l~,nd,s itH~ ~grJ-cu~tut!;ll',-: lands many of tbj; Malar Vedans baye left then. clQth ,wrappt:ld l;lro_1lnQ ~J:ie loin which normally e:lCtenlis .uptp ~l1e ~n~es! The women on t~e forest abodes an8· have' st'arted living' in ,the i other' haad, :~e.s;~~srtJ:l:e)()jn cloth, cover their plains. Some of. tit.em also' .inhabit! ~the: lands; bl1dy, Lwi lh at blp~$t1 .. rhis is more true of the owned by their ~li\I)dlor9S, ~ .e)th;e,r·, ~ll co,?ol;lnll:~ , young 'volllen~ ·.Th~ Qld;w.omen do not wear any groves or by the sj~'r qf( Ba~~y; ¥c1fi,s. f'\l . Uru:k-:: , upper cloth·. unnu tpe Malai ;V~dflP~ ,hy~,U;ti~' s,ett.lf;p~n~, s~t : up by the GoverJ:?~eI?-~". Th:er~: the~ e.nJoy ,inO,st ::2.6. "On' fest-lve· anti· -ceremonious occasions of the basic ameiiities"lhchitlnlg. ttle~L'hou®s".~ and al~o.. ,yhen they go out of their homes to a protected water sUPP~X' ,etc., .c", ~', " nearby .I:fla~ket place~ .bo,th men and women put :on.:better- .. dtess'. A male, besides the loin-cloth, 22. In the plains their: _iii'ciddm.s. (llU\s) are ro~y·a1s<) ~. cheap cotton shirt or a banian spread in the cOIPpol!nds pf the. la*qlords. In' ,v.ear and, occasionally ~,a seGpnd cloth may also be the hills, howev~r they live together in large' groups. ,,' added to the above panlphernalia. The women ~e:a£ ~ 'bigger ,ioiry. Cloth. extending upto the 23. A Malai yed~~ hut-is 10caUy kn(j",'n as ' anldes and cover' their bosom with a blouse Of a madam. They co:~s~J;~~( srpaU 1,'i_th· m'ud, .. ~jq:ji'f clothor',p.ava4a ('skirt) and small blouse. walls. In mos'i'6f;'~the ,'c.ases··:'bamboo: or " * Krishna Iyer I ) 937 p. 135 48 Pl. 31 A TREE-Hur IN THE HfLLS Page 4t Pl. 32 A MALAI VEDAN WOMAN WEARING Page -f2 GA. R~ENT OF TREE-BARK (MARA VURY) PI. 33 A MALAI VEDAN FEMALE-KULATHUPUZHA Page 45 PL 34 A MALAr VEDAN MALE-KULATHUPUZHA Page 45 PI, 35 TRIB"L COLONY AT URUKUNNU Page 48 T APIOCA CULTIVATION AROUND THE HUT Page 48 ·:" ,-- .....• ~;. ...::,- - PI. 37 MALAI VEDAN GROUP - KULATHUPUZHA Page 48 PI. 38 MALAI VEDAN MALES - URUKUNNU Page 48 PI. 39 MALAI VEDAN FEMALES - URUKUNNU Page 48 Pl. 40 MALAI VEDANS - KULATHUPUZHA Page 50 PI. 41 MALAI VEDAN HOUSEHOLD - UB,UKUNNU Page 50 Pl. 42 FISHING WITH BOW AND ARROW-URUKUNNU Page 52 PI. 43 CWITH THE . DAY'S EARNINGS'-KULATHUPUZHA Page 52 PI. 44 FIREWOOD COLLECTION-A MEANS OF LIVELIHOOD Page 52 Pl. 45 THE PLATHY IN ACTION-KULATHUPUZHA Page 59 PL 46 THE PLATHY-NOTE THE BELLS AROUND HIS LEG. SHELL, Page 59 BETEL LEA YES ETC. IN THE WINNOW AND THE KUDA PI. 47 ::\-IUDIY ATTAM-A FOLK DANCE - URUKUNNU Page 61 Pl. 48 .\HJ D J YATTAM-THE DANCERS HOLD THE HANDS OF EACH. OTHER Page 61 A ND SHAKE THE HEADS TO THE TUNE OF THE MUSIC PI. 49 KEERIYATTAM-MONGOOSE DANCE-SEE THE WOMEN DANCING Page 61 IN FRONT OF THE LIGHTED LAMP PI. 50 KEERIYATTAM-TRE PARTICIPANTS SHAKE THEIR HEADS AND Page 61 MOVE THE HANDS TO APPEAR LIKE A MONGOOSE MOVING Page 62 Pl. 51 VETAN WOMEN SELLING GRASS IN THE EVENING MARKET VLIYAKOVIL DWELLING, DRESS, FOOD AND ORNAMENTS 29. The operation of chipping the teeth is the young women have become more and more described by Krislma Iyer as follows. "The common. It is not unusual to see a young Malai operation is done both for men and women as Vedan woman. dressed in • modern sari and ornamentation. It is done for men by men at blouse, with oiled a'ld well combed hair and the age of 9 or 10. Chipping is done with a small face applied with face powder, going about. knife or bill hook. When a girl is to be operated on, she lies down and rests her head on the lap 33. The other material objects found in a of a woman, who holds it firmly. A tbird women Malai Vedan hut include steel trunks, torches, takes a small knife and chips away the teeth framed photographs of Hindu Gods and God till they are shaded to a point. The girl suffers desses and national leaders. plastic combs. from excruciating pain during the operation and mirrors etc. Their kitchen utensils consist of her face swells. The pain and swelling last for earthenware pots for cooking and carrying a day or two;', :B~t:ore chipping :tbe: O!l:t~1" e~g~s ' water·, wooden -ladles, aluminium plates for ser.;. are smeared ',\Vi tb. ~ cb:un~m. !t i$,supp~)!!ed.' to : ving -(aod', and: p(i)rcelain- glasses: anp: cups fdc make the cni,ppiug' easier'·'. (Kris)1na, lyer., se~ing,wa.ter;: Screwpine_' hlilts wovtm :by them 1937, I, 159;-16,0). selves are W\ed.:.f<1r~.r steep;-ing.: - : .... ,:: : Ornaments :.~4; ,.It); ,re-p.afte~ th~t:Jhe,y -~~~~;:~~~ by the 30 TraditionaHyMalai Vedan women are fond fp,c!l~,n, qf wop_d ; as pr4c~ie.ej,~y; .th.:rJeat;likkacs. of ornaments. their 'vomen'had~immense neck;' (Th~~s.tQn' !9()9,; y1I7 ,334); i :T~i,~, P:fllcf~ce i3 nc)t howev~r . [QUnd today." Safety matches hdve laces of beads_; p~eC~s af~ leai.i;and. brass-. 6ne~ had a broad,:cba.in"qf I;)r~ss 'rounq:: ,Il~r 'p,e~k'. ~~o~~ very' ':popula~: with' the.JP apd:)hose who (P.Menon"ln3l_ :Ill .. 529). Thurst~n gh~(;:~ ~he' SJl1~e,. ~ay, carry on~. ,,' ,. ,. ___ following .desGr:ip;!ion regarding ,~he ;Qr~a~ent8: II'oOd _,.- worn by Malai 'Vedan women.; "Red· and ,blue - .. necklaces interstrlJl1g with sections of the',chank ,35~. :rap:ioca,t-ub~rs._ J.()r-Q1 tlle, s\aple food shell (Turbi'nella Rapa), adorned t11e. peal,<:s' and of. Jb,~ M:~l~C Yt;!qi:1.I1$.;: Piher.: t.libers·they use chests. One _woma,n was o.f speaial inter,est. H;er: ijl914,d~ ,:N,qQfan, ~~ K~Y~Ia: _' ¥~tty' .ana:! 'Kappu. neck and breasts were literally conceahid -by a' Tap.i9cl{:~s:e-iiher .. bQil~d :afte( 'r¢m6ving its medley of bead!;, 'shells; brass bems -and 't,y(): ~'16n '~)l"~ p_~e.p,~red ii;ito',a, d.~sQ a~?irlf ~pic~s and common ir0ft:~'ys_,thtlse last, ,she' said for,orna.; saft, ,and consumed., RIce IS, maInly - used ID the ment. Arou-ni'{':.her, hips, :over her cloth, bupg {o:rrp ,of tice-gtU¢1 '(K~injJ).,' bih' occ~sJ(:>Dally tbe several rO\YS ~f ~al1 bones, of pig and sa'tnbar siiiiie -, may 'be- 'used in 's-o-nd ,- form 'a:t6ng wi tho (carvus unicolorY';' ,(Thu):ston, 1909, VII, )34): c661 49 CHAPTER VI ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION,' HYGIENIC HABITS, DISEASES AND TREATMENT . 36. The sanitary condition in the Malai Vedan their hair after smearing cocoanut oil. Women settlements at Urukunnu and Kulathupuzha is use face powder when' they go out of their fairly satisfactory. They keep their houses some houses. Visiting their settlements, one nev~r what neat and tidy. Every morning the Malai fails to observe thei r women si t ting together tn Vedan women sweep the houses and premises. groups, one combing the other's hair. But the household utensils arid other articles, 38. The Malai Vedans of Kulathupuzha are which they-possess are left in a haphazard manner affected by scabies. Some of them are reported without proper arrangement. Their care of to have venereal diseases also. At Urukunnu houses and the premises can be compared \\ ith anaemia was found as a common disease. There that of Pulayas who are an advanced community is no Primary Health Centre, Hospital or Dis among the Scheduled Castes in the State. For pensary at U rukunnu and they reso~t to the answering the cans df nature they make use of traditional method of sorcery and magic. There bushes near their settlement. The Malili Vedans is a sales depot in the locality where Ayurvedic at Urukunnu take bath almost daily in the medicines are sold. But they seldom get medi stream which flows by their settlement. At cines, . partly because it is bey?nd their means Kulathupuzha this practice is not regular pr? and partly because they are addIcted to sorcery. bably because of the absence of a watercourse III If the disease is not cured by sorcepy, they con the neighbourhood of the settlement. clude that it is the will of God and subscribe 37. The Malai Vedans wash their clothes to it. There is a Government allopathic hos periodically. The younger folk wear ,nea~ and pital at Kulathupuzha. The Malai Vedans of tidy clothes and attach greater importance to Kulathupuzha also resort to witchcraft for cleanliness than the older people. The clothes curing their ailments. But when the magic fails of older people are usually dirty. Similarly, while the elderly persons pay little attention to they go to the hospital and submit to treat their hairdo, the younger people regularly comb ment. 50 CHAPTER VII LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 39. The m(}ther tongue of the Malai Vedan when compared with thit of the generalliteracy is a corrupt form of Malayala:n with hud into rate is quite lolV. 24.15% males and 14.40% nation and accent. According to Padmlnabha fem'lles h.ave bee 1 returned as literate when the Menon "they speak with peculiar words and in general litericV rate for the males and females a curious t.one rendering it v ECONOMIC L1FE 43. Traditionally Malai Vedans are hunters chamakai collected trom the forest which is and fowlers. In the former days they led a' either consumed or sold in the market. Some of' nomadic life eking out their living by hunting them collect firewood from the forest and sell animals and collecting m~nor forest produce. in the local markets which fetch about half-a With the advent of the natives, scope for noma rupee per bundle. dic life has diminished. Now, they have become "ettled and are mostly employed in agriculture 46. -The traditJonal occupation of hunting is and agricultural labour. Mateer described them also resorted to by a few of them occasionally. a~ "living injungle clearings or working in the They trap or snare wild animals in the near about rice fields and formerly sold and bought as forests. Bows and arrows are also used in slaves" (Padmanbha Menon, 1933, nf, 528). hunting. Thurston reports a peculiar method In the Census Report 1901 they were described of collecting 'Karadi Panchamritham' by the as, employed by farmers to guard their crops Vedans. "The bears are said to collect ripe wood apples (Peronia Elephantum) during the from . th~ wild beasts. Thurston has observed that they worked as weavers of grass baskets sea~on, and store them in the forest. After a (Thurston, 1909, VII, 334). small quantity has been collected, they remove th~ rind of the fruits, and heap together all the .44. Co?ditions have very much changed pulp•. They then bring honey and petals of SlOce the tImes when Thurston and Mateer made swee-t-smelling ftOlvers. put them on the heap of .these observations. Today they mainly depend pulp and thresh them with their feei and with on agricultural labour and occasionally resort sticks in their hands. When the whole has to cultivation.. The Chern Vedan of Kulathu become a consistent mass, they feed on it. The puzha normally reside in the cocoanut j!roves or Vedan. who knOlvs the season. is set to drive off by the paddy fields of the landlords. They are the bears by shooting at them and rob them of employed in agricultural operations like plough their feast, which is sold as 'Karadi Pancha ing, sowing, manuring, harvesting etc. They mritham' or bear delicacy made of five ingre are also employed for watching the paddy crop. dients". (Thurston 1909, VB, 332-333). The female folk work in weeding, transplanting and harvest operations. They get regular wages 47. Some of the very interesting hunting from their masters at the rate of Rs. 2 for a methods have been described by many infor man and Re. 1 for a woman per day. mants. To catch porcupine, which usually hides in the hollows of rocks. the Malai Vedan fumes 45. A few families of Malai Vedan who live the hoHows by burning dry grass and straw at inside the reserve fores.t area, it is reported, the entrance. Suffocated by the smoke. the eke out their living by' practising shifting culti porcupine rushes ou t and it is beaten to death. vation. This practice has become very rare due Aluku, a small nocturnal animal which avoids to the restrictions imposed by the Government people by shrinking itself, is picked up by them. on the practice of shifting cultivation. In the The young ones of Sanibar are caught by forest areas they cultivate hill paddy, tapioca, making them run for sometime whereby they plantains etc. According to the information become exhausted. For trapping tortoises they collected from the field the Malai Vedans of make small pits of about 1 foot radius on the Ottakkal and nearby areas go for gathering of banks of rivers and streams. The tortoises on forest produce like nuran, kapu. kavala and thelr wanderings might fall in the pit and·are matty. They resort to the collection of forest picked up by the Malai Vedan. Fishing is a use produce mostly in the lean months of February ful pastime for the Malai Vedans. During to April. During particular seasons Parandakka leisure hours they go to the nearby river or pond are collected in plen ty and after processing them and catch fish with the help of bow and arrow by removing the outer skin, is sold in the or with rod and line. They also resort to market. They get about one and one fourth poisoning by throwing crushed puthuvally or rupees for 22 lb. The women folk process Karinka bark in the water. Under the influence 62 ECONOMIC LIFE of these, the fish may loose its balance and float 15.83% of the total pODuhtion of the Tribe are near the surface of water and ar~ then picked up full-time students. None has been returned as by the Malai Vedans. either seeking employment or employed but now out of employmeqt and seeking work. ·48. Certain handicrafts are practised by the men and women among the Malai Vedans. They 51. The census data reveal that most of the collect caneS from the forest which are either Malai Vedan wOlkers are engaged in the agri sold to the forest contractors at the rale of cultural sector eithar as cultivators or .as .agri Rs. 5 per 100 canes or may be used for mak cultural labourers. 41.11% and 25.19% of the ing small baskets. Women collect panjaous total workers are employed as agricultural leaves and after processing them, prepare mats, labourers and cultivators respectively. Under baskets and putti (a kind of tain coat). These cultivation the male workers are more than tbe are mostly used by themselves. female workers· accounting for 33.33% and 6.17% respectively. III the field of agricultural 49. At. Urukunnu the Government have labourers, on the other hand, tlie position is apened a craft centre to teach wickerwork and almost similar with 41.27% males and 40.74% many girls are enrolled there, each one getting females. Only 2.59% of the worker-> are engaged a stipend of Rs. 25 per mon tho in mining and quarrying. Under trade arid 50. Out of the 720 Malai Vedans returned in com,nerce 1.85% are employed. An insignificant the 1961 Census, 270 (37.50%) are workers com number (0.37% each) is employed jn household prising 53.69% males and 22.01 % females. The industry. manufacturin'l and tra'lspor,t and stor male workers are more than that of the female age. A fairly good number (28.15% of the total workers, the for mer accounting for 26.25)i, workers) are returned as. engaged in other ser wliile that of the latter is only 11.25%. 62.50'~o vices. It is reported that the'workers under this of the Malai Vedans are returned as non-work category are mostly engaged in daily labour ers comprising 46.31 % males and 77.99% females. with the contractors.or work as casuallabo:irers Out of the non-workers 114 accounting for in the urban areas. 53 CHAPTER IX LIFE CYCLE Birtb confinement sheds. DUring delivery the woman 52. Customs and practices regarding birth is attended by some experienced old women of marriage, death etc. have undergone a lot of the cast~. She helps the former. to sever the changes in recent times. Even am 54 LIFE CYCLII when nobody is allowed to approach the hut. is touched on the forehead and the tongue of She lives on tubers and tbe pith of tbe saga the girl by the Thalavan to remove pollution. palm mixed with honey. At the end of the poll AU are treated to a feast, followed by folk ution period she is given a ceremonial bath after songs and dances, which may continue through which she is admitted in the society. out night. The ex.penses connected with the puberty ceremoftY is shared by tbe clansmen. 57. A ceremony called 'SanitheerpU" (exor cising) is observed when the child is about a 59. During subsequent monthly cycles she year old. On this day the Thalavan is presented abstains from work for 4 days. She is also not with bettis, tobacco, and a quar~er rupee and he allowed to mi 19le with others during the pollu drives the evil spirits away from the body of the tion period. On the 5th day she takes bath and child. The copper ring worn by the child is re purifies th'! hu t and the premises with COW-dung moved ,an'd kept in the Kutta (basket) containing milk and resumes her household duties. A divine things. This day the woman who attend woman in her monthly cycle is not allowed to ed the delivery is also adequately rewarded. The go to the forest for collecting forest produce, Thalavan and the elderly women, along with the as the sylvan deities dweHing the forest are mother, are treated to a feast. In some cases likely to be polluted by this action. this day is also observed as the name-giving day. 60. Crawly's discription of the menstruation Usually the names of the grand parents are ceremony of the Travancore Vedans noted given to 'the new born child and it is the head below indicates that lot of change have taken man or the father of the child who utters the place in the last few decades. "The wife at name first. Some of the common names given to menstruation is secluded for 5 days in a hut a the males are Vellathan, Chodhiran, Thiruva quarter of a mile from her home which is also thiran, Podiyan, and Nallan while Chodha, used by her at childbirth. The next 5 days are Podichi, Kannola, Ponni and Pava are some of passed in a second hut half way between the , the common names of the girls. fn recent ti mes first and her house. On the 9th day her husband the modern Hindu names like Bhasb.ran, \1ur holds a feast sprinkles his floor with wine and ali, Gangadharan, etc. are given to the boys invi tes his friends to a spread of rice and palm and names like Omana. Chellamma, Sarada, wine. Until this evening he is not dare to eat Syamala etc. are given to the girls. anything but roots, for fear of being killed by Puberty devil. On the 10th day he must leave his house, to which he may not relurn until the women, 58. As in other tribes the horror of poll his and her sister have bathed his wife, escorted uti~n due to menstruation is very much among her hom¢ and eaten rice together. For 4 days the Malai Vedans. With the start of the menstr after his return however he may not eat rice in uation the girl is removed to a cbaipu (puberty his olVn house, or have connection with his. hut) made of bamboo splints and thatched with wife". (Thurston, 1909, VII, 335). grass. The floor may be mud plastered. She is to remain in the seclusion hut for 6 days. Dur Marriage ing these days she takes bath everyday in the 61. Among the Malai Vedans, cross cousin near about stream. Turmeric paste is applied on marriage (mother's brother's daughter or father's the body before taking bath. She is not allowed to sister's dau!h ter) is preferred. Marriage witll be seen by the menfolk nor allowed to talk in the illom i~ prohibited. As indicated earlier' with them. A young girl may help her while among the Chinganni Vedans and Thol Vedans. she is in the seclusion hut. On the 7th day she illoms are exogamous and are further divided takes a ceremonial bath. Early in the morning into brother clans and brother-in-law clans for she goes to the' nearby river with her face veiled the purposes of marriage. Members of the same along with her family friends and relatives. diviSion have blood relations and hence marriage After propitiating the sylvan deities she takes cannot take place among them. But members of the bath. She returns home dressed in new clotn the brother clans can marry from the members es presented by her father or uncle. In th~ mean of the brother-in-law clans and vice versa. time the Thalavan makes offerings to the deit Marriage with the mother's sister's daughter or ies at hon1e with a view to warding off the evil father's brother's daughter and other consan spirits. The hut and the premises are springled guinal relations ~xcept cross cousins are· WIth COW-dung milk. Formerly cow-dung paste prohibited. 55 MALAI VEDAN 62. Usually" both males and females marry February) and Thulam (Oc~ober-November). late. According to 1961 Census returns none On the day of marriage tbe bridegroom. dressed has been returned as married in the age-group in a new shirt and loin cloth, along with his _of 0-14. Widow remarriage is allowed and kinsmen, goes to the bride's place when at the "many instances of the same have been reported entrance the party is received by the bride·s from the Urukunnu settle'ment. brother, On reaching the bride's place the guests are given pansupari. The marriage issolemnised, 63. Monogamy is the normal type of marri in a small marriage booth constructed for the age found among the Malai Vedans. Polygamy is occasion, with the tying of tali (marriage very rarely met with. Padmanabha Menon re badge). The bridegroom is brought to the marr ports that in the past "Polygamy was common iage booth dressed IIp in new clothes. The tali as men are not required to provide for the supp "is placed on the neck of the girl by the bride ort of their wives" (Padmanabha Menon, 1933, groom when the 'nathoon' (sister-in-law) ties it. III, 592). Polyandry has not been reported. Now, tbe right hands of the couple are joined 64. Lot of changes have crept into the by the girl's father, when the female folk shout marriage customs of the tribe. Tn the past the kuravas (a noise produced by the" vibration of headman of the tribe supervises and presides the tongue usually done on auspicious occas over the marriage ceremony. It was inevitable ions). The bride and the groom now go back to fo-r them to get tIre consen t of the headman for the former's hu t. This is followed by a feast for marriage. The spouses were invariably cros those who have been invited for the marriage. cou·sins." The bridegroom elect presents a mara They spent the ni~ht by singing folk songs and vuri (tree bark) to the bride. Ten panams (anci dancing. The marriage ceremony is presided ent Travancore coin worth about Rs. 1.40) were over by the headman. Before the couple starts to be given as 'artham' (bride price) to the par for the groom's house, the next morning, thala ents of the girl as purchase money on the day vans of both the parties are presented with one of marriage. The invitees are treated to a feast p{lnam each when they bless the couple. Oq the followed by the exchange of pansupari. The 7th day the bride~s parents visit the bridegroom bride is then tahn to the groom's house for and they a re offered a special feast known as 'Kudyiruthal' (ceremoniously made to dwell), 'Ezhama'. " Now onwards they become man and wife. 66. Minor variations in the marriage cllstom 65. Today, the selection of the bride need have also been reported from different places. not be necessarily be from among the preferent At Kulatbupuzha after the initial formalities ial mates. One can choose his spouse even from are over, and when the girl's parents approve outside. Marriage proposals start with the boy's of tbe alliance, a cup of toddy is given to the father or uncle visiting the girl's hut asking for boy's father and in return he presents_ one rupee the girl in marriage for their boy. It is followed to the otber. Along with the bride price of by the offering of pansupari to the girl's father. Rs. 5 tobacco and betel leaves are also pres If the proposal is agreed to, the girl's father ented to the girl. Another custom which is pre accepts the pansupari. On an appointed day the "alent here is that after marriage the couple has. girl's father, along with some of the elderly to visit the husband's hut for the first onam members of his village, pays a visit to the house -with a token present of five measures of rice, of the boy, when the date for nischayadianth - some pansupari. three rupees and some toddy. ram (betrothal) is fixed. On this day 4 import ant persons of the boy's settlement with the Divorce latter's father, visit the. girl's place and an amount of 5 panams (at pt:esent it is Rs. 5 or 67. Divorce is freely allowed among the Rs 7.) is presented to the girl's father. This is Malai Vedans. Even a minor incident would known as Kettuarrhapanam (marriage price or lead to a divorce. As divorce is easily allowed, bride price). The date for the marriage is also the remarriage of the divorced persoll is not a fixed by the headman on this day after consult,:" problem. Kri~hna Iyer reports of the presence iog the Malayalam almanac. Marriage generally of levirate among the Malai Vedaos. (Krishna takes place 00 some auspicious day in the month Iyer, 1937, I, 144). At Urukunnu neither levirate of Meemim (March-April), Makaram (January- nor sorrorate marriages are reported. 56 LfFtl CYCLE 68. Avoidance is observed between the journey to·the nether world. Sometimes a stone mother-in-Jaw and the son-in-law as wen as the may be placed to identify the grave. father-in~.law and the daugnter-in-law. They neither talk face to face nor do they take meals 71. In former deays, the Malai Vedans at together. Avoidance is also observed between Urlikunnu report, the dead body was tteat~d with a person and his wife's sister. 'turmeric powder and placed in the grave cover ed witnin a tree bark. The relatives assembled 69. Sta~istics collected during 1961 CensUs perform Vayakkarisu (last offerings) by, putt: throw some searching ligh:t on the marital status ing a handful of-'mahnellu (wild paddy) ih the of the Malai Vedans. Out of the 720 persons 307 mouth of the dead. It was the duty of ~riant fall under the "ge-group of 0-14 comprising 148 ails (affinals) to dig the gtave for the buriitl. males and 159 females. Under 15-44 -age-group Thalavan perfornts poojas for the soul to res't 3'19 persons have been returned out of which 150 fn peace. On the 16th day thalichukuli(removal are males and 169 are females. 94 persons (54 of cefemonial pollution) is -performed when the meles and 4{) females) have been returned under mruthu or chavu (spirit of the dead) brought tbe age-group 45 and above. In ot'he'r words by tying a \vet towel by the aliyan (brother-in 42.64 per cent of the total population falls law) of the deceased and is transferred to the under the 0-14 age-group while 44.30 per cent ancestor spirits by installing it in the kudam and 13.06 per cent fall under the age-group of (pot) which contains the spirits of the ancestors. 15 to 44 and 45 and above respect i vely. All th e At Uliyakoil it is known as pulakull and is per pers,ons under 0-14 age-group are returned as forme1 on the tenth day while at Kulathupuzha never married, while 71 persons comprising 51 it is Karichavu thullal and is performed' on males and 20 females of the 15-44 age-group fall tbe 7th day. [t was also necessary to feed the under this category. None has been returned as spirits on Onam, Sankranthi and Vavu. never married under the age-group of 45 and above. 228 persons comprising 9 7 male~ and 131 72. Krishna Iyer gives an elaborate descri females are rel urned as married under 15-44 age ption of the funeral obsequies among the Ching group. In the 45 and above age-group 69 persons anni Vedans. "When a man dies, information is have been returned as married of whom 48 are sent round to all the relations. When they males and 21 females. Under the age-group of . assemble, the brother-in-law of the deceased 15-44, 10 persons are returned as widows (one jigs the grave four feet deep about a mile from male and 9 females). In the same category in the the habitations. As soon as the grave is ready, age-group of 45 and above there are 18 persons corpse is washed and anointed with cocoanut comprising 2 males and 16 females. Under oil, covered with a new cloth and carry to the divorced or separated 10 persons have been retur grave on a framework of bamboo by two or four ned (one male and 9 females) in 15-44 age-group men (aliyans). Before doing so the floor is swept wbile in the age-group of45 and above 7 persons and the sweepings and broom are laid over the have been returned comprising 4 males and 3 framework along with the body. These are females. carried round the grave thrice and the corpse lowered into the grave with head towards south. Death The son puts three handful of earth over the 70. As soon as death occurs the kiths and head of the corpse- and the nephew and other kins are informed. A bier is prepared out of relations do the same. The grave is then filled bamboo on which is spread the bark of Arunda with earth, and the framework is laid over it. tree. The corpse is bathed in water, covered A handful of paddy is put into a leaf and tied with new clothes and laid on the bier. A grave up with creeper and the packet laid at the head is dug about a mile away in the forest. The of the grave. All disperse, bathe and return to headman initiates digging the grave while the the home of the deceased. A measure of rice is others present complete the work. The nephew fried and seven spoons of jack leaves are placed is the chief mourner. The funeral procession in a mortar. A vessel containing liquid cow starts with the arrival of all relations. The cor dung is placed near it. The mourners dip 'heir pse is placed in the grave and is then covered finger in the liquid and make a mark on the with earth. Some rice gruel, tender cocoanut forebead. Seven of the principal mourners in and some pansupari are kept at the grave which cluding the grave dlggers and carriers of the are supposed to be used by the deceased on his corpse eat a spoonful of rice powder and throw 57 MALAl VBD.AN the spoons back over their heads". (Krishna of pollution. If purse permits a feast is s'erved Iyer, 1937. I. 153-154). to all attending the ceremony. 73. Death pollution lasts for 16 days. The 74. About the ceremony for removing the headman Or an exorcist bedecked with figures pollution Krishna lyer writes, "On the 7th painted with coloured rice flour all over the day a plantain stump is fixed to the ground and body and wearing anklets chant manthrams. a chatty (pot) of liquid cow-dung is placed on During the COUrse of this, he asks questions to the stump. A few grains of rice are also placed the soul· to which he himself answers as the 0·0 a leaf~ the mourners go to the grave, untie ·spirit. He now requests the sou] to rest in peace the packet of paddy and throw it away. The without troubling the children of the deceased. exorcist .sprinkles liquid COW-dung on. the These are done at the grave, when cooked rice women. The mourners take a few grains of rice and pansupari are also kept there. All the and throw them on the plantain stump. The mourners are expected to be present there. exorcist who stood over the martyr So long gets Wben the ceremony is over, all take a cere down and casts away everythini. (Krishna Tyer, monial purificatory bath which marks the end 1937, T, 154). 58 CHAPTER X R~LIGION 75. The· Malai Vedan religion encircles the spi,rits and deities to help him in hili mission. worship of sylvan deities and the ancestor l11~. 'ratam' ~cause of the disease) is detected spirits. Till: not long ago animals. rivers and' looking at the PoSl tion in which the shell rests. mountains w~re worshipped. by them. . C Th~ 'ratam' is gehetaI1y done in the night. Ha thus detects the :teA'Sons of the disease, whether 76. Ponniyampeo.i, sup.p.osed to be the first it is due to"dfspleasure of the ancestor spirits'~ headman of the tribe, is repre~e\lted by a stone lack of worship, breaking of the taboos or d.ue who is offered tobacco and beaten rice. Merna ~o bla~k magic. (During one of (he rarams, the lakkarayappan, the mountain. deity who is afso InvestIgator was taken aback as one of the Malai worshipped by th~ Kanjkkar~ is venerated by the Vedan spectators, fell down which later on was Malai Vedans to whom. rice and other offerings repo,rted to be the' cause of his 'raram'). The ~re made. The NtUtiyonnu KU~>fp.eyi (The spir exorcist may sometimes wear anklets made out Its ?f the 101 hOl,lses) are, aIse) venerated by of small bells beaded on a string. It is.believe4 offenng bran mixed with wat~r. Arthakandam that the jinkling sound of the bells is more Kalamurthy, is propitiat~d QY off~ring gurusy effective than witholLt it. . and bali (sacrifice): In the former. lime and tur meri~ are mixed with water and offered while 79. After having found out the cause for the in the latter cocks axe sacrificed. Among the illness suitable offerings are made, This is kRoWn ancestor spirits Valiamuthukkan (the spirits of as Vathapidikkal which literally means. catc4ipg the uncle and father) is worshipped. This is of fhe spirits~ Thus the person w9uld n;gaip supposed to help them in difficulties. normal heal_th. The plathy gets a coupt~ pf rupees for hiS services. . 77. The ancestot spirit~ are worshipped generally during Onam, on M;ak,aram 28th (feb 80. Practice of black magic is also reported ruary 10th), lst of Medam (April 14th) and Kar from among the Malai· Vedans; 'Kalantllara.m' kadaka Sankramam day (in July). Things like is one such black magic designed to do away' a beaten rice, fried rice. toddy, betel, tobacco etc. foe. Occasions like illegal relations with one's are offered to the spiri ts on these occasions and wife or suspected black magic arc retaliated by they pray to the spirits that no harm be done to 'Kalantharam', The procedure for this includes the surviving family m~mbers. the offering of a cocoanut, gruel and plantain pith along with the chanting of manthrams. 78. The priest among the Malai Vedans is ~imilarly, Ponnadivelyand Moorthy are propit the pia thy , a member of the tribe who is well Iated and let loose to. inflict disease on a person versed in the art of magic and ri tuals. They be-. whom the doer does not like. lIeve that illness or any malady is caused due to tbe displeasure of the spirits. The pia thy, there S1. Other deities they worship include fore, is very much respected. He is in great Moorthy, Kaliamma, Kallelurali etc. The demand. He is also the medicine man, who Malai Vedans worship the deities of the caste knows a few herbs. He can diagnose diseases Hindus in the area. Hindus do not allow them and cure illness. The method adopted for curing to enter their temples but permit them to make diseases is very interesting. The plathy brings offerings of money standing at a distance. kuda (a pandanous basket) containing a shell Thurston indicates that their principal God ill and some rings supposed to be the seat of ances Chatan or Satan (Thurston, 1909, VII, 334). tOr spirits. Another divine tool is the Daiva At Urukunnu they have constructed a small shed vadi (divine staff) in which all their deities are where they offer worship everyday. A sacred supposed to rest.. The sick person is seated and lamp is kept burning there. a winnow containing betel leaves and a four 82. Most of the Hindu festivals are observed anna coin is placed in front of him. The first by the Malai Vedans; but with some difference. step is the detection of the cause of the disease, During Onam they worship the ancestors, so which he does by chanting certain manthrama also on Makaram 28th, Medam 1st and Karka and rotating the shell. He will also request the daka Sankramam. 59 MALA! VEDAN 83. On the Onam day the headman, : is during the annual commutiity celebratioQ., 'Veri' visited and offered some coins and pansupari. at the Mannampadukavu. Tn mudiyattam the This is followed by partaking of meals and folk . participants are women. They dance, and shake dance and songs in the night. They also per their heads in a rythmic manner with open locks form vedan pooja on the occasion when beaten of hair. Kolkali or Kolattam is performed aro rice, ears of corn made in~o a bunch, cocoanut und the burning wick lamp. Men with small flower, plantain fruits, incense, pan'supari etc. .sticks in both their hands form a circle and are offered to tbe Kuda and Theivavadi which strike the stioks one after the other accpmpanied would already have been kept at tbe courtyard by rythmic· dance and songs. Keeriattam or after consecrating with eowdung milk. mongoose dance is performed by women sitting in it recumbent posture, shaking the heads for 84. Uehal in the month of Makaram ward and backward accompanied by clapping (January-February), Meena Bharany (March of hands; thus the whole show gives the appear April), and Karkadak'a vavu (July-August) are ance of the dance of 'a mongoose. Most of the some other festive occasions celebrated by them. women and men at Urukkunnu are well versed 85. Before the beginning of Thettam (gather in these folk dances. Sometimes they dance ing of the forest, produce) in the month of throughout the night. Ceremonies like marriage, Thulam, they offer pansupari and other offerings puberty etc. provide ample occasion for practic to the mountain deities, entreating them to ing these dances. (Some of the songs, sung dur provide plenty of forest produce and also to ing these occasions are given in the Appendix I) prevent their becoming prey to the wild animals. 87. It has been reported tha.t most of the Thai Vetans in Neyyattinkara have embraced 86. Some of the entertainments resorted to Christianity. In the 1931 Census, 2,000 of them during the festive occasions are Mudiattam (Hair have been returned as Christians. (Krishna Iyer, dance) Kolattam (Stick dance) and Keeriattam 1937, r, 139). In the 1961 Census 19.31 per cent (Mongoose dance). These folk dances are accom-, of the Malai Vedans are returned as professing panied by folk songs and beating of drums and Hinduism and 0.6 per cent are returned as pro cymbals. The Uliakkovil Vetans perform this fessing Christianity. 60 CHAPTER XI LEISURE, RECREA.TION AND CHILD PLAY 88. A community like Malai Vedan which and Mudiyattam are the usual folk dances . struggles for its existence finds but little leisure they perform on these occasions; the former . time for recreation. The Malai Vedans of Uruk being exclusively meant for the men and the unnu are reported to be engaged in some useful latter for the women. It is reported that at economic activities like weaving of screwpine Urukunnu they have a well or~anised team of and bamboo mats, winnowing fans and baskets, folk dancers who perform these dances on in their leisure time. demand from the local non-tribal population. They were brought to the capital of the State to '89, On festival days like Onam and Uchal, the perform folk dances on the occasion of Republic men and women, resort to folk dance. Kolkali day celebrations. 61 CHAPTER XII RELATION AMONG DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE COMMUNITY 90. The Malai Vedans, as mentioned earlier, 93. These illoms (clans) are not exhaustive, are divided into five endogamous djvisions viz., but only illustrative. The informants were not Tol Vetans, Chinganni Vetans, Cheru Vetans, in a position to enumerate aU the illoms of Elichathi Vetans and Valia Vetans. their division, but only indicated those found in that locality. These illoms, if compared. show 91. In the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled that Vartayan, Venadan, Thumbayan. Mudaya tribes (lists) modification order, 1956, and also nadan and Padayan are common in all the three in the Constitution (Scheduled castes and Sched places. All the eleven clans of Urukunnu are uled Tribes) order 1950, besides including MaJai also found in Kulathupuzha. With the el(cept~ Vedan as a Scheduled Tribe, Vetan has been ion of Kuvariyan, Mullikkaran and Pazhayanadan included under the Scheduled Castes. An attempt all the clans found in Uliyakovil. are also met has been made to find out the relationship or with in Kulathupuzha. This indicates the otherwise of the Vetans and Malai Vedans. In common origin and affinity of the three sections. Quilon district, Ihe Vetans are found in Varkala, Paravur, Uliyakovil, Quilon town etc. The 94. The institution of headman-cum-magi Malai Vedans are found at Urukunnu, Kulathu cian is prevalent in all the three sections. At puzha etc. of the same district. Information Uliyakovil he is known as Muppan, at Uruk regarding their customs and manners has been unnu he is designated as Thalavan while at collected from Uliyakovil, Urukunnu and Kula KuJathupuzha he is called as Peyadi. In all the thupuzha. It reveals that there exists close three he is the diviner and it is his duty to sit relationship between the Vetans of Uliyakovil in jUdgement over the social delinquencies of and the Malai Vedans of Urukunnu. It has the members of the tribe, preside over social also been reported, that Urukunnu Malai functions like marriage, death, puberty etc., and Vedans have started marital relations with the also to lead and guide the members of the Kulathupuzha Malai Vedans and they have a community. feeling of oneness among them. 95. The method of divination. using conch 92. The following exogamous clans have shells. is common in all the three places. been reported from these different areas Marriage customs, death ceremonies and puberty rites are basically the same. Inter marriages Urukunnu Kulathupuzha Uliyakovil have been reported between the Urukunnu 1. Vartayan 1. Vartayan I. Vartayan Malai Vedans and the Uliyakovil Vetans. Though 2. Venadan 2. Venadan 2. Venadan not very common instances of socially accepted 3. Thulllbayan 3. Thumbayan 3. Thumbayan inter-marriage between an Urukunnu Malai 4. MUdayanadan 4 Mudayanadan 4. Mudayanadan Vedan and a Kulathupuzha Malai Vedan women 5. Padayan 5. Padayan 5. Padayan are also reported. There is however, a feeling 6. Veliyan 6. Veliyan 6 Kunnadan among the Kulathupuzha people that those in 7. Kavattayan 7. Kavattayan 7. Mylen the Urukunnu area are a little higher in social 8. Karumaruvan 8. Karumaruvan 8. Kuvariyan status. 9. Polachan 9. Polachan 9. MulJikkaran 96. The similarity in clans, social customs 10. Vazhakkadan 10. Vazhakkadan 10. Pazhayanadan and manners and inter-relations tend to indicate 11. Mulavana 11. Mulavana that all the three, the Vetalls of Uliyakovil, 12. Vellillam Malai Vedans of Urukunnu and Kulathupuzha 13. Pallikkal belong to the same stock. The little differences It. Thodappan noticed in their culture are owing to the stages 15. Chutteli of acculturation, proximIty to urban centres J 6. Kunnadan especially in the case of Vetans of Uliyakovil: 17. MyJen and they belong to the diffl!rent divisions of the 18. Mayilakkud i same group. 62 CHAPTER XIIr INTERCOMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP 97. The other tribal communities residing in 98. The other neighbouring caste Hindus their neighbourhood are the Kanil,{kar and Malai are the Brahmins, Nairs and Ezhavas. Malai Pandaram. fn the normal social tife, the Malai Vedans address Brahmins and Nairs as Thampur. Vedans do not have social intercourse with both an (lord) and accept food from them. They would these groups, mainly because of the fact that not, however, allow the Malal Vedans to enter they live mostly in the interior areas. The Malai their dwelling houses or draw water from their Pandarams and Kanikkar consider the Malai welh They wllrk as agricultural labourers to Vedans as belonging to a lower social group and the Thampurans. They work as agricultural as such interdining and inter marriage are serfs to the Ezhavas too, and accept food from abhorred. At Urukunnu there is a residential them. They can enter the houses of the Ezhavas. Tribal school where, Malai Vedan boys and girls 99. Muslims and Christians in the neighbour are studying. Great persuation was required to hood are addressed as Muthalali, to whom they make Malai Pandarams and Kanikkars agree to work either as agricultural serfs or casual send their children tothis school. Even the stud labourers. Food is accepted from both the ents did not like to share the same dormitory communities and they are allowed to enter the.r and to interdine with the Malai Vedan children. houses. None of the above communities accept Subsequently the parents took away their wards. fooi or water from the Malai Vedans. 63 CHAPTER XIV STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL CONTROL, PRESTIGE AND LEADERSHIP 100. Despite their culture- contact, the besides the Peyadi there is an BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Baliga, B. S., Madras District Gazetteer, Madurai, 1960 2 Evans Mrs., Mala Vedans of Travancore, Madras Government Museum, Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. I, Madras, 1901 3 Government of India-Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Lists), Modification Order, 1956 4 Krishna Iyer, L. A. - The Travancore Tribes and Castes, VoL I, Trivandrum, 1937 and Vol. Ill, Trivandrum, 1941 5 Luiz, A. A. D., Tribes of Kerala, New Delhi. 1962 6 Mammen, K., Kerala Culture, 1942, Trivandrum 7 Mateer, S., Native Life of Travancore 8 Padmanabha Menon, K. P., History of Kerala. Vol. HI, Ernakulam, 1933 9 Thurston. E. - Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. VII, Madras, 1909 10 Velu Pillai, T. K., Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Trivandrum, 1940 64 CENSUS REFERENCEs CENSUS REFERENCES 1 Nagam Aiya, V., Census of India lS91, Travancore, Part I Report 2 Subramaniya Aiyar, N., Census of India 1901, Vol. XXVI, Travancore, Part I and II 3 Subramaniya Aiyar, N., Census ofIndia 1911, Travancore, Part I and II 4 Krishnamurthy Aiyar, Census of India 1921, Vol. XXV, Travaneore 5 Kunjan PiIlai, N., Census of lndia 1931, Vol. XXVIII, Travancore, Part I and n 6 Narayanan Th3mpy, A., Census of rndia 1945 Vol. XXV, Travancore. Part lllnd II 7 Devassy, M. K., Census of India 1961, Vol. VII, Kerala Part I A (i) 8 Devassy, M. K., Census of India, 1961, Vol. VII, Kerala, Part V A 9 Devassy M. K., Census of India 1961, Vol. VII, Kedla. Part, VI G 65 APPENDIX SONGS OF MALAI VEDANS ..Qfru1~db~n eH A VITTUKALI 1. ( A folk song sung in accompaniment of 'Chavi ttukali'. A folk dance performed during ceremonious occasions. The theme is of sugar-cane cultivation and its protection from wild elephants.) c6>O(l)) QJOCl>! &h6mo OtmO~'l cUsm'l@tI)6I'W (lD dO c6>OCW .a.tI)1~c6>~o 6l()J~AJn.I§' aD aD ~(l))d>nmQolGlem .&~ cruru't6).&§1 tm 0 em rill s., roo c96) '\ QJ tIS) 1e..I6'l c6> § 1 c6> (0 '\ffi,J n,\, Cl)Y!)) 6) omo~ n,\, QJ Gro 0 c.& ~ cruru'l o..,IOCl)Y!))O~ Cll<1n QJGroolJ a.~ oruQ1'6)aJI~61tOlOlo(Oom QJI!Il'Q1's1~ ~m cB6)o iOoll dlto a.lffiltJlO1 61ln1l), • ~(l)61(glsmtilcS6l ruii! 1 ru1Si! 1cA6l('tn6')f.BO eOO6')c96)OO'lJm:)(l) 1ll9cn(01 6a 0 ()61c86l OffidQJ ,,~ 6)60ffi,J (0 6I'W ~ (9larm 16) eJ oem 6)60 ffi,J 0..,1 W l!Il'\O em 0..,1 WtIS) 1 t1m)a(1'n Q..los1 CLJos1 mtl)icA6lem(J~o 66 APPENPIX illJOO" ,(.(\bJuoomoOJ~tf3,) _CI;lAJTU 2. (A song sung by the l\'1agician (Peyadi) during divination) mJrDlAa;)W @.!lo..Q):J~() 6ru°Q..jCD(lI(o 601~\) (f):J!91<:Q1(O 1.86l ca,Ql°Q..Jm <&0 1~ 6>Q..J a ffiCl Q.J' (t) am 0 ~ It1l ffiJro:J 6> CD It1lffiJroomo 6> n.j~/l))Oi£)5'I~ .:O''''J~ICll1061cll>o~ c&.O§ 1 () cIl>O la Llj(])l qJ 'iTnu.J§ "li) r1ij)tltJloSl'UOcU ~ ::iMO'lll~'~ tT\)'lllAC1,)~ 'Q;;II(t)n.l(),\ db6nif~1Zi1~oCQJ.J dbO§o~ntl cIl>J§1(Jcfb01 6l.a.1cmlJiHoOG n....I9Jl 190(J!3Q.OIlM)'16>mo nJ5Z061GffiO, aJffi') aJ~rm()sCQ,lo ..aJ§IZlOC9A)O I§(JQj3.a..~ 6l,s,o§O(()o c&1Sl1~ @(/)OJIQ)1<:!lI6lS ~«MnIOOJOIJ6roO ~ClB IZIJ9J :1l2'9<1O..J(06l<1bo ~rmm(t)~oa51UO @.!In.mo(),\o 190 ru 61 (I) 61 (])I ~o (J ro c:q.> 0 6l..Q.J on1w 0 1:)0 6l6l db 6> cB6) ~ ell ro 0 0...10 6lJS 1dJ6l !'"f'0 tT\)'lllA~~ ~aJllO~<) 4RlHl'mAQ(t)Or.l)o ng);;;c.OOffiCl. KARMAM KODUKAL 3. (The song recited during the offering to ancestor spirits) :uoe..\6lcll>O~ Gl.J()cOO!ia1~ c&. ~ 6)c£bO 6\1l7 <> c&. QH"OIo Q..Jos1 6>Gl.J§tmim 1U1~, c&.§-mlm c&.~<&tmmlOo IU06lOllJl. IZIIJ~Bl'tt2t'Ol1(J,lUOC:O I1ml~O :1l2ffi')5)eJ6)(])Iot:o~ob ~m~osq,Q..j~.O~ lJ,lli!o .O~ 6ltma~ q, .e.~;;;, IQ'!JO <6tIlO~, 11mlq,~q, .O~ 6lOl§lcumD (JGl.JO(,(»6>OOIMO:LJ't\O '4 eJdb3i?tOo m08Je I1mls~61<:B6)§I(JlLloa»~&!() l'Y\)tmha;)~ ~n.moa('lJ mQ) ~om1~ ruoel.a. 1tI1ZI1,ru mJO.am 60 ~ n.m J ('lJ 16) m 6l OJ -9:! tm'.oo c£b MALAI VEDAN KALANTHARAM 4. (Through the son~ the magician seeks help of malevolent spirits to destroy the enemy) ca. {) g,)jIlA Q ...Qmo.!?d rib, .. 0 QI CZi ca. 6) mtIl6) C'tb o aiD OCl) ob . .e.OQlq_JO!)o, jJ1n'\"')5')Q.I m1Q1800 rm>QOOOmD.e.oal., ~OSI ~6)OO()mD .a.09.18)(1) 6lc8>0~ (l0tqo(')OmD .a.oQlrusICQll;u"~ 6l.a.§10)1'~@j!ClJmlo ill'!> .a.OQl61cn cG)1~5).a.§1 ~6)OOOcnD c1bOQl Odm.IldI cn16lJ800 "-IDm:l0 6lClJ~.smo. lImllm ~ § c6IIlo Q..I C'tb , ca. .:96)OQJ ob , .e.o n_j c1b::H~J rm S, Cl.-J 6o:'llocB!A0.:uob, .e.n'\"') 'dMlOQJnt, .a.§.'\cB!AJQJrd>, <1....!&m1COl1§c9>0Q.1C'tb, II ~O,§ a.o Q.loo, ~sl§ .. oru'1') lIml CI crnoa. .a. 0 QJob , \Q;J0G &mo q. -.a. 0 QJ ab , ilImn1§.OeJClb, IlJ.CWd36l1SdoOQJm, (J"OLW'§c8>oQ..l'1~ 6l.a.o~tOll»'\§ .a. 1ern 06'fOlO) , c86lO ru nt , 6) 610 MIlO! tOll» ".e. 0 Q> rn 1J.ll dJ6) g ' AOQJQ._}~CQ/o, .a.OQJ_q.,JmlO, Cl,--,\ 6)ce.O(J6U80~o c8DOruC'l'll, 6l"O~lUOc961o .a.OQJ 6la.05YlJ§ Cl.Ao dbO Qlm, m'!J ~m;'(o6)(OlmOIl"m .a. 09.1 mo, dhOQJ~ ~ CQ,l ° m'!l I!IImIIl!IIl <.QClO«J1m1tOO ru"lsm .a.OQJ0oDo 6)1IJ)c9Q 5OJQJ1c9Q1(')o1, ruSc9QI lU§(;ll') ml9Jl uS1 ~OQ. .AJ m. 0 AI Od 8 C\.! .. 6) ..o~lCl1Jo CldboSOQl1Cl1Jo dhtOl.a6lo dlolO1Ol1Cl1Jo, ~§16)m;wmlCDJ dbOQlm m '!l ~ 6Y!rn» '6lClb()~ _q.,J 1c9Q Q.I 16Tll)(').!?d dbOru 0 an .. 5ltnoC'l'll 6l ...... §16)(JJI~~ 6)dbo~(J~o(JJI1 61 tUo(1t)o81.!?d 6) 00 (') 6)db051 11110 (OlOl11rlb 6l1llom ClJ~~~C'I"I?) mm1 1lI1®~~Clh .a.oQJ_ o anQ.l 0 ~o IilfQOCZi 6) men J:l.l1!ll1 CQ,l 0 ~c96Jo IQm .. , WaDo Q..I~~o <'LI'®6OJO CZl6)«mn Q.I AO \9 A.lCl> lCQ10 6)01 §16lQ:» e \ID:ID 6'10)0 em. fi8 MALAI VEDAN ()mcO~~:::p~t (NERCHA PATTU) (This song also relates to offering) Cl.Oco'l ClOco 1 61 COl m.tb'l:lco aQ.l ~ i!.. ra 1.00 em all))16l'(O OJ1 I! ~ em 6):UOG em, 6llLlOemO a 1-9zl61 cUO Cl"m 0 1011 rIB "Us1 rOI(TIJIO OOl) 0 ce. 'I 1S'.oo e 1..g.j 1OIC11J«I ami 0 auS1 "imY1))OQ, 60Will1tOb 6).Q.1 \(Il) cu1GlsfoO§ '\~«m • rlnCYlJCloClb 1)d6lllil1c8QI!l i~ rln'tb~IZIOS' ~61000C1'm ..01c!),~o 6ltlSlo~61.a.o@l!em. tIftl) am OJ1 § 1rOb 6l..QJ C1'm tlSlCYlJ 1030b CL)ae..! 0 >1..)\9 C'l.l 0 ~ gm em ~!Y lru'§ lt13b 5).o..lCl"mo c66)o_ 6) ..o~~,.b (lmlGo Q cUoemo 6)6):~... ufl"l«lo(Jl) 1 6) i)lLI~ 6)5 61 uoemo 6l1l...lUCOI"cUO§ <>4)~~\(Il). a0 .a.'\p{,)\'lml'lI~ .a.'If{,)aJGCOO rln~lcSQr"(l1). n.Q) q.,j 16) Qj 'Boo Q·til ,<)3 61 "Uo 16Ylrn» (J .IJ '0'> cU~1 .a.rmcfB ;Tl::le..!o lUl§l'Si1sdJe\(ll). 6l:LIOmi)o 6§1'llb o...J1s1~1§(Jm«lo I.])~(lmcoo 6l rm laB ...... oc1l tal1 all (lj]) ~ ~ 1OlI!l6lT) ~ ('(ll) rm'la:s 1I...lcoalZlclOJIOClb 1Ol.I2JCOO~ a,1I...l0 g,U Clle1 mol llU ~:'OlI. aQ.lcmm'l~(g"ldl t1JIQj~o t:lJ~('1"m 1tS)Cf.lJIOOCll)o .& ,S'o«Jlln1~(])I1rtfu .,a,Of!J0 ru~rm61~:p1mD:I2J.olJm tlSl CYlJCOOCl!) 0 II U 0 CUi 1 'lII611'n i:Q1TlOo l)d-oJt!b DO!J'I.a.IJmroo 8,oc66)o ce.lfl6YmtD(J3llOo "4J\9(1) 6)Qj§I.fiQ l1»:12Jroam eosl ail'} .rom)a~:p .& 1\9Gd36lc86l0COloiU 1,d, 6l.1J.:'IW ItS)CYlJO.J61,Tll!! 6l.a.o~Jrmo omrolZloCOlI 6laJocmo cihDcomll61{'g/~~ tlSlffiJ.oom, 61 UOO6l;8§ ~mroe 6h...lO(l\h mQ.m()\£lI6l~~:IDID a.!C11J 6l'U~.mClo 6l<1Wocmo llI6lT)l61~§a.o '4)~IDID 1tS).TI,Joo."Ih m§I~:,,).aQ1liI n.Q)6lnho!y maill 0 ()J ClJlO6l1O 69 APPENDIX :12.~16)~mi~o G'l..aJ~IJ4J{)o.Q ~~rmmOqdm, em ru ~ .1J 0 eJ 6) ceo;) 6'tl1I Gmloc1i> LlO~g l.a&lom ~ \RS6!mm(1'lJruo n..Jo~6lc6>§on'h CJ(LI06l"m.· '. '!, ~(tB cU1s1 o...!~6)60q: lIZ6ltMl, 6mlom 63&::\6«»0 m(tB~om IJcUJOln II ~ocg,OJ 6) co QJC03 ~mGl 61mOa1> m rm em rum cB6I GmlO rili .a. ~ .e.QiCD 0 6).oJ ~ QClO IJCLJO.s. ffil). (}j~l6)<:Dosl~ OJruo 6)6)ceo~s'~ mOI?-.lo -u/'O)ImJG\o OJI'l'"0 mlo aQ)QlOJ ru 0 (J.oJ Cl'm 6) c9> § 1 m '\600 Va C:WIJ cmm 6'l QJ {) cB6'J 60)0 n{t)6)rnO db~" .e:.8.Hll)~o m16lm00 aQ)SOJIlB ~ rmtmm 6) rn 0 ~a916 0-,\ 0, Q a 009:1 0-,\ 0 m; 6lJ8 00 .e.()~ to camlc96) &m!) 6)OJ.gd G'lzo~ICQ1~rmo, Q.J06YO'ro)G'l210l9'CQI~CY'l?lo . m 16IIB 00 eno (J Ii! orm .e:.o ru iIDID .en 1cm 1§B ("(I?) ClJ rrt1I (J .LlO. (J ~ G'l.QJ§1 G'lrmo~ ~Oa.JIlsmcm <1Mcru~oo; . .. Rorm1 <&ruc96lorm 6)db:J§1 ~oo"mo 6).oJ<1lJrm dbQ.~@ID m1611B00 n.Q)en16'l~1lB. c&.oru, t>;)ru.a&o.o058 .e.'\!9 6) c96l db 0 em 1". ru, ~o.gd 0 :LIICul e QJ rm rm IIlB IZ 6TTU) c96l0§ am (6) S n.(I)Cl1106)6O), m 1<1'h06l6'l1) , nq)'O 1c96lCO 1 (LI6lIDJ()~) 1<0 ~ m06'l§6>Cl)JOC03 .e.aruo m101JB00 a{J)cr/l~6>.~o emQJ~o ~cOI'CJcUO.e.lJru n{t)O')()o Gmlocm _~Cil'.(6)(Q1~ 70 APPENDIX EXTRACTS FROM EARLIER PUBLICATIONS 1. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. VIr, Madras, 1909 by Edgar Thurston, Pages 331-335 2. Native Life in Travancore, 1883, by Samuel Mateer, Page 60 3. The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, 1937 by L. A. Krishna Iyer, Pages 135-160 APPENDIX 1. Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. VLl, Mldras, 1909 by Edgar Thurston, Pages 331-335 VEDAN The Vedans are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart, appear to have been naked savages not very long in the North Arcot Manual, as baving been ago, ani their civilisation is far (rom complete. "formerly hunters and soldiers, and it is this They are held in the greatest contempt by m~n caste which fur'lished a considerable and val ufible of all classes. They are described further in the contingent to the early Hindu Kings, and later Coimbatore Manual, as "a very degraded poor to the armies of Hyder and Tippoo. Taey are tribe, living by basket-making, snaring small supp:>sej by some to be the remnants of the garU!, and so on. They speak a iow . canarese, earliest inhabitants of the peninsula and identical and are as simple as savage. The deI-ig11t of a with the Veddal1s of Ceylon. They are also party at the gift of a rupee' is something called Valrnikulu, which means tllos~ who live curious". In the Salem district some Vedans on the products of ant-hills (valmiku n)". It is are said to be "known by the caste nam.e noted, in the Census Report, 1891, that the two TiNvalar, who are distinguishei as the Kattu castes Bedar (or Boya) and Ve1an were, "through kudugirajati, a name d"rivej fro:n a custO;l) a misapprehension of instructions, tr<}lted as among the:n, which authoiises temporary identical in the tabulation plpers. The two matrimonial arrangements. . words are, no doubt, etymologically identical the one being Canarese and the other Tamil, but The following story in oO:1Oectioo with bears the castei are quite distinct". It may be notei and Vedans is worthy of being placed on record. that the name Valmika or Valmiki is assumed The bears are said to collect ripe wood-:tpples (Feronia elephantum) during the season, and by [he Boyas. who claim descent from Valmiki. tbe author of the RamayaUi, who did penance store them in the forest. After a small quantity for so long in one spot that a white-ant-hill has b~en collected, they remove the rind of the fruits, ~nd heap together all the pulp. They grew up round him. th.en bnng hooey and petals of sweet-smelling In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the flowers. put them on the heap of pulp, Vedans are described as "a Ta uil-speaking and thresh tbem with their feet,and with sticks labouring and hunting caste, the members of in their hands. Wheit the whole has b~dome a which were formerly soldiers, and subse:tuently cO:1Sistent ma'>s, they feed on it. The VeJan, who decoits. The name means a hunter, and is knows the sea'>on, is paid to drive off the bears 100sely ap,;,lied to the frulas in some places (e.g. by sh03ling at them, and rob them of their Chingleput). There is some connection between feast, which is sold as karadi panchamritharn the Vedans and Tamil Vettuvans, but its or bear delicacy made of five ingredients. • precise nature is not clear. The Vettuvans noW The Vedars of Travancore are summe! up by consider themselves superior to the Vedans, and the Rev. S. Mateer as "living in jungle clear are even taking to calling the.nselves Vettuva ings or working in the rice fields, ani formerly Vellalas. Marriage (am.)ng the Vedms) is either sold and bougl1t as slaves. They have to wander infant or adult. Widows may marry their late about in seasons of scarcity in search of wild 1111sband's brother or agna tes. Some employ yam, which they boil and eat on the spot, and Brahmans as priests. They either burn or are thorough gluttons. eating all they can get at bury their dead. They claim descent from ~ny ti me, then suffering wan t for days. Polygamy Kannappa Nay~nar, one of the sixty-three IS CO'1l!ll:>O, as men are not required to provide Saivite saints. Ambalakaran'l also chi n to be for the supp:lrt of their wives, Some, who have descended from Kanmppa Nayanar. III fanjore, been converted to Christianity, show wonderful tbe Valaiyans declare themjelves to have a similar ani rapid iiIlprovement in moral character origin. Ti1e title of the Vedans is Nayakkan". ci vilisation and diligence". ' Tn the Madura Manual. the Vdan~ are described as a very low caste, who get their living in the For the following note on the Mala (hill) Vedans jungles. rhey are not numerous no\'I. They of Travancore. I am indebted to Mrs. J. W. Evans, 73 APPENDIX "They live in wretched huts amid the rice Vedans are, there is he in the midst of them. flats at the foot of the hills, and are employed They bury their dead in a recumbent posture by farmers to guard the crops from t~e. ravages near the hut of the deceased. The Malai Vedans of wild beasts. The upper incisor teeth of both practice the primitive method of kindling fire men and women are filed to a sharp point, like by the friction of wood (also practiced by the crocodile's fangs. One ugly old man, Tiruvatiran Kanakars), 74 APPENDIX· 2. Na live Life in TravancoFc, 1883,:?y Samuel Mateer~ Page 60 VEDARS Thollgh the caste name means "hunter", and eat on the spot, and are thorough gluttons, these people are in a condition very ·similar to eating all they can get at any time, tllen suffering that of the Pulayars, living in jungle .clearings, want for days. Women are filthy in their habits, or working in the rice fields, and formerly sold the sick are uncared for, and mortality amongst and bought as slaves. Their usages, worship, the children is great. Polygamy is common, 'as and supersti tions greatly resemble those of the men are not required to provide for the suppori Pulayars. They are in deep poverty, very timid, of their wives. But some who have been c()nvert and destitute of temporal comfort and conveni ed to Christianity show wonderful and rapid ences. They have to wander about in seasons of improvement in moral character, ci viliza tion·, scarcity in se3rch of wild yarns, which they boil and diligence. APPENDIX 3. The Travancore Tribes and Castes by. L. A. Krishna lyer, 1937 p. 135-160 MALAVETAN The Malavetans are found in the taluks of favour of the females. There are 113 females to Neyyattinkara, Nedumangad, Kottarakkara, 100 males. In 1931,"'"the Vetans were r~turned Pathanapuram, and Cbanganacherry. Mrs. J. W. as 9,446 Hindu, 241 tribal, and 2,000 Chnstians. Evans observed them first in Palode in ~1882 The Vettuvans were returned as 1,251 Hindu, "wearing dresses of leaves". The Kanikkar call nil Triba1, and 71 Christian. them Tolvetan which is reminiscent of the leafy garment that they wore in former times. It is It is said that, when God Parameswara went recorded that "they are meagre and stunted in hunting in the jungle and was attacked by an appearance. They are no longer a hill-tribe as enemy, the Valiavetans who were with him fled the name implies. They live like the Pu]ayas in to the hills. They were called Katan or Ullatan. wretched huts amid the rice flats at the foot of Since the Cheruvetans stood by him chival the hills and are employed by Sudra farmers to rously, they were called Vettuvans. Those who guard the crops from the ravages of wild caught and ate crocodiles were called Chinganni beasts". These observations are confirmed by vetans and those who ate rats were known as Mateer, who says, "The Vedans are scarcely moun Elichathivetans. The Tolvetans are so called taineers, being found at the foot of the hills and because of their leafy garments. in a social condition very similar to the Pulayas. Bishop Caldwell says that the Malavetans are They are most numerous in the Neyyattinkara not, like the Todas of the Nilgris, the surviving taluk, very rude and primitive in their manners. representatives of the earliest inhabitants of the They are not now so numerous in the above plains, bu t like the hill tribes of the pulneys the taluk. They number only 315 according to the decendants of some Hinduised low country Census of 1931 in the Neyyattinkara tal uk, people who were driven to the hills by the as most of them have become converts to oppressors or who voluntarily migrated thither. Christianity. They are dark in complexion, of short stature, The Malavetans are classified under two and have long heads. They have dark curly heads in the Census Report of 1931, the Vetan . hair, black eyes, and short nose depressed at the (Malavetan) and Vettuvan (Cheruvetan). It also root. Their brow ridges are prominent and shows that the Vetan men exceed women by their forehead is receding. The comparative 1,017 to 1,000. The table given below indica measurements of the Malavetans of Ttavancore tes that the Vetans show a large increase in and North Arcot are given below: numbers by 50 per cent since 1911 and that the Average Average Vettuvans have declined during the same period. Average cephalic nasal Name of No. Loca.lity stature index index No. tribes Year Total Males Females 1 Travancore 60.5" 73.5 92.4 1 Vetan 2 North Arcot 61.1 n 73.4 85.0 (Malavetan) 1911 5,051 2,584 2,267 do. 1921 8,239 4,114 4,125 It is observed that the Malavetans of do. 1931 11,737 5,919 5,818 Travancore and North Arcot a·re short in 2 Vettuvan stature and dolichocephalic. Both have (Cheruvetan) 1911 1,486 746 740 short flat nose. "The Vetans of North Areot do. 1921 1,321 635 686 are supposed to be remnants of the earliest do. 1931 1,322 621 701 inhabitants of the Peninsula and identical with the Veddas of Ceylon". Judged by the simi The Vettuvans register an increase by one larity of physical features, the Malavetans of since 1921 and a decrease of 164 since 1911, but Travancore may also be remnants of the Pre the balance of the sexes has been turned in Dravidian race. 76 APPENDIX The Malavetans are divided into the following marry a woman from anyone of the other four endogamous sub-divisions: clans which constitute machambi iIloms. The 1 Tolvetans children belong to the clan of the mother. 2 Chingannivetans The· Elichathivetans are also divided into 3 . Cheruvetans (Vettuvans) four clans: 4 Elicbathivetans Vellillom Kumari iIlom 5 Valiavetans Konchillom Velillom The Tolvetans are found in the Neyyattin The clans are exogamous. kara and Nedumangad taluks, the Chinganni vetans in tbe Pathanapuram and Pathanamthitta Most of the Tolvetans in Neyyattinkara have taluks to the south of the Koni dver, and the embraced Christianity, but they have not given Cheruvetans to the north of the Koni river and uo their exogamous divisions. They are divided to the south of the Pamba river in the taluks of into eigh t clans: Tiruvella and Patharramthi tta. The Elichathi I Panni illom 5 Puli illom vetans are found on both banks of the Manimala 2 Manni iIIom 6 Velillom tiver in the Challganasseri taluk. The Valiavetans 3 Vayali ilIom 7 Paralillom are found everywhere. The Cheruvetans neitha 4 Muttillom 8 . Pallikal iIlom interdine nor intermarry with the other Vetans. . The first four clans constitute brother illoms. The Chenivetans in the low country may marry The last four clans are machambi illoms to the a woman from among the Cbingannivetans. first four. In the event of a death of a man, all When a Cheruvetan dies, the widow and her the members of a clim observe death pollution children go back to her house. Each endogamous for sixteen days. The pollution does not extend group claims superiority to the rest, and nei ther to other clans. if a fine is impo~ed on a man interdines nor intermarries with the other for committing an offence, and he cannot pay it, groups. The Chingannivetans alone observe (he the clansmen collect the amount from among custom of chipping their incisors in the form of themselves and pay it. A needy man is helped sharp-po in ted cones. with money by the members of a clan on Each endogamous group is divided into a occasions like the marriage of his daughter. number of clans. The Vettuvans are divided in The Malavetan marries the daughter of hig to four clans: maternal uncle or of his father's sister. Marriage Vena tan· illom Churalayar ilIom by exchange of sisters also takes place between Vendiri iIlom Modandan illom men of different clans. Among the Cheruvetans, a girl is married before puberty between the age The members of a clan consider themselves of seven and nine. The girl's father and unCle to be blood rela tions.· Hence a man cannot marry go in search of a husband. If the elders agree, a woman of the same clan. He can marry from an auspicious date is fixed and the marriage any of the other clans. A woman after marriage . takes place in the girl's house. On the appointed cotinues to be of her own clan and her children day, the bridegroom-elect and party go to the take after her clan. girl's house. A pair of cloths is presented by The Chingannivetans are divided into twelve the bridegroom to the bride who gives it to her clans nathune (husband's sister). One. cloth is tied round the loins; the other is thrown over the 1 Veliyan illom 7 Vartyan ilIoIn head. The bridegroom ties the tali (marriage 2 Kavatayan illom 8 Karumaruvan iIlom badge) on the neck of the bride and the couple 3 Venatan iIlom 9 Thumbayan ilIom . are taken into a room where they are serv~d 4 Polachan illom 10 Modayanatan iIlom with food. The visitors are treated to a feast. 5 Kozhakatan iIlom 11 Padayan iIlom The couple remain under the parental roof for 6 Vazhakatan illom 12 Molavana illom a few months, until they find a new home for The clans are exogamous. The first eight themselves. Coition before puberty is tolerated. illoms constitute brother iIloms and a man of The marriage preliminaries take a tortuous ODC ilIom cannot marry a woman from anyone turn among the Chingannivetans. The boy's of the remaining seVen illoms. He Can only uncle and father go to the girl's house where 77 MAl;AIV~pAN they are fed. The boy's -uncle then moots the number of children who will work for the marriage question by handing over some pansu master, and that the master should enjoy a pari to the girl's father, who asks them why, bountiful harvest as a result of their labour".' they do. so. He is told t1,1at they are given for This is reminiscent of the days of slavery. If it chewing. He holds the betel and nut in his hand so happens that an odd number comes it. second and asks the question if they will give him time, it is treated as an evil omen, 'and they pansupari to chew for all time, to which they believe that the marriage may not be happy. answer that they.wil1. They talk in this strain The girl lives in the husband's parent!s ho~se. for some time. If tbe girl's father does not chew On the seventh day, the bridegroom's parents go what is offeud, it signifies that he is not agrf;e- • to the bride's parent's house with five measures able to the maniage. If he is agreeable, he chews of rice, four chuc.hams w'orth of pan, and ten and sends the boy's uncle and father to the girl's chuckrams. The bride's father al~o provides ao uncle. In the event of his approval, they take the equal quantity ~f these mate~ials fOr ·thb, uncle to the girl's house. The marriage is then occasion. Rice IS s~parately cooked by the settled and the day fixed. for the marriage. The wQmen of tbe two parti~s. Meanwhile, the' uncle and father of the girl are then taken to a male members go ',to the toady shop and regal e toddy shop, where they all drink toddy to the themselves with toddy. They return and exchange' value of'2 chuckrams each. Similarly, the girl's the cooked rice, and' pan. All enjoy a feast~ father and uncle entertain them with to~dy. Next morning the married couple go to the This gives the hall mark of approval to the husband's house. Even if the girl has not match. attained puberty, she is allO\ved to live wjth Some girls are married before and some after her husband. puberty. Tlie marriage takes place in the br'ide's A man may roarry the daughter of his marer bouse, and consists of tbe presentation of two nal uncle or of his father's sister. Marriage by . cloths to the bride by the bridegroom and the exchange of sIsters is also prevalent. A girl is. tying ·of the tali. On: the marriage day, 'the married before puberty. Marriage takes place bridegroom elect and his party go to the bride's in the bride's house. When aman has a daughter hut. The tali-kettu ceremony is generally in the of marriageable age, he ascertains from "his morning. The bridegroom presents tIte Clo:ths ·to brother-in-law whether he is agreeable to the the bride, who puts one round the loins and marriage of his daughter to bis son. If· he covers -the head' witb' the other: The bride agrees', the Kaniyan chooses the·auspicious date. groo-m's sister then ties the tali, gelleral~y a The bridegroom":elect and his party go'to the necklace of b~ads" rouQd the bride's neck. The bride's house on the date fixed, and the bride couple are then seated on a JIlat; l;lnd ~hey par groom-elect presents the bride With, twoj>airs take of a' handful of c.ooked rice, served on a of cloths and a jacket. He himself dons a, new plantain leaf. This is l;:aUed 'Kandu Kanji Kudi' cap and a cloth. The pait go to tbe matriage or the partaking of food in the presence of all. booth, where the bridegroom _ties on the tali. The 'bride's father is then given five fanams 8;S All-ar~ treated to a feast and pansupari. The "Kettu artha panam", or nlQney given. for the bridegroom tben departs wi th his wife to his purchase (Jf his wife. All are then treated to a house where he st~ys with his parents. feast. . The Cheruvetans and Elicha thi vetans are The next day, the bride and her party visit strictly' monogamous. If a woman is' sterile a the· bridegroom's hut, where they are again Chingannivetan marries another woman. ' The treated to a feast. ·Before the gathering disperses', two women remain in the same house. Strife the bride stands in fronf of the' hut and her uncle is . unavoidable; ,There is no instance of places before her a measure of paddy, pansupari~ polyandry. and one chuckram. 'He then takes a few grains . Among (he Cheruvetans, a man cannot marry of paddy and places them on his left hand. He the wife of his deceased brother :orthe sister of removes them in pairs, jf an odd number re his deceased wife. A man cannot marry the mains in the end, all the grain is thrown over younger sister of his wife, as she is reckoned the 'head of the girl. He' repeats the process to be his da ugh ter. If elder, she is reckoned as again, and if he gets an even number in the end, aunt, with whom he cannot co'averse. The elder he says " The 'girl will be blessed with a large sister runs away when she sees him. Among 7.8 APPENDIX Elichatbivetans a mim marrie$ the sister of liis Among the Chingannivetans, the seclusion~ deceased wife. ,He does not m::lrry the wife of shed is put up by the father, if the ·girl is his deceased elder brother as she is reckoned to married before puberty. Pollution lasts for nine be equivalent, to his' mother. An elder brother days. Ten pots of water are daily poured Over does not marry the wife of his deceased younger the head of the gi~l by the aunt, both morning brother. and evening. On the tenth day, 79 MALAI VEDAN tom-tom on the auspicious day to scare away sprinkled over the house. A mark in cow-dung is the devil. The mouth of a pot of water is made on the forehead of all the assembled men. covered with plantain leaves and fastened with a Kanji (rice gruel) is served to all by the motber string. A hole is made on the ground, and the of the baby.· The exorcist breaks a cocoanut pot of water is placed inverted in it and secured in honour of the baby the next day. in position with earth rammed about it. The pregnant woman is made to stand over it, and a Among the Cheruvetans, a separate shed is thread with four copper and brass ring' is pu t UP. wbt"n Qne of their women is about to be passed over her head down to the feet by confined. Pollution lasts for ten days. The tbe exorcist and it is then taken out. The same medical. treatmen' as has been described toes are then wound round with the thread above is given to the mother. On the eleventh which is then cut. The-woman then gets down. day. the woman bathes and goes home. Among Two pots of tamarind and saffron water are then Elichathivetans the woman before delivery is made and seven spoons made out of jack leaves confined to the seclusion-shed. Pollution lasts are put over each. A new cloth is thrown over for ten days, but the above mentioned medical her head and seven spoons of tamarind water treatment is not in vogue. are poured over them by the exorcist, who Among the Chingannivetans. giving a name throws the spoons behind. The p-ot of water is to the chUd takes place on the eleventh day. then poured over her bead and that of her hus Vallathan, Raman, Chathi, Thiruvaralll, Kan band. Seven balls of rice mixed with tamarind noran, Ponnan, and Nall&D are some of the juice are given to the pregnant woman by the names gi Yen to boys. Ponni. Karutba, Chakaru, exorcist. When she has eaten these, and a cocoa Thevani, Nalla are some of the names given to nu t has heen broken, the ceremony comes to an girls. A man's child belongs to -the clan of the end. During the ninth month, a human effigy mother. Among Cheruvetans, naming is done is made in straw and waved before her. It IS on the twenty-eighth day. then suspended over a tree at the cross roads to scare away evil sp-iri\s_ Among the Cheruve1ans, A man avoids conversation with his mother there is a pulikudi ceremony on. a small scale. in-law (aunt) He will not enter the hut where The tamarind juice is poured into the hands of hi~ aunt remains. Tf he sees her anywhere on the husband, who administers it to his wife. the lane or the road he moves away. He is free All the women are then fed. There is no such to talk with his uncle. A man does not talk with ceremony among the Elichathivetans. his wife's elder !lister; she runs away w!vm she sees him. He avoids his younger brotber~<~ife. When a woman is about- to become a mother hut there is no taboo regarding talking·wUh the among the Cliinganriivetans, she is confined to a wife of his elder brother. The ta~' f.gairi"t room in the hut itself. Tbe aunt or some other communication with the mother-in-law is inten~ woman keeps her company arid helps in the ded to prevent any clandestine ~nnection delivery. After delivery, a decoction of medi between them.· . _ cinal hetbs and charcoal powger is made in the husband's urine and administered to her by Mrs. J. W. Evans has recorded that inheritance him internally. It is said that this medicine is a mixture of matriarchy and patriarchy. Son is given especially when a woman delivers a and nephew equally divide. Now this has under still-born child or when she has had very hard gone a change. Two-thirds of the -property goes labour pains, and that it is intenjed to remove to the son and one-third to the nephew all dirt from tbe body. An OUnce of oil among the Chingannivetans. In the absence of Melia duMa is given internally. Urine is of both son and nephew, two:..thirds of the very commonly used in folk medicine. The property goes to the daughter and one-third to Australians employ the urine of opposite sex the niece. In the absence of any heir, the maste(, as a CUre for sickness. On .the third day, may take possession of all the property. Prope she is given a warm bath aud is fed on rice. rty consists of mammatty, bill-hook, and crow The anchukuli is the bath on the fifth daY. bar. Among the Cheruvetans, half the properly Pollution lasts for ten days. A quarter measure goes to the son and half to the nephew.- of paddy and betel leaves ate presented to the The terms of relationship among the Mala. midwife. On the tenth day, a measure of vetans are of the type called classificatory. The beaten rice is made ready. Liguid cow-dung is terms of relationship are as given below. 80 , APPENDIX No." English name' , 'Vernacular name In connection with the above, we note thus:· 1. Ammathan or Ammathi are the names , 1. Relations through father given to grandfather and grandmother on both the paternal and maternal lines. Among the 1 Grandfather Aroma than Cheruvetans, the terms used for them are 2 Grandmother Ammath'i Appuppan and Ammumma; and 3 Father Anthai 4 Motller Aroma 2. Father's sister's husband, mother's 5 Fath'et-'s elder brother Valianthai brother, husband's father and wife's father. , 6 ,,0.. wife Valiamma Ammavan is the name given to all these persons '1 Father's younger brother Chittappan and ammavi to the wives. Among the Cheru· 8 do. wife, Kochamma vetans, the names used are Maman and Mami. 9 Father's elder brother's son Chettan or Cross-cousin marriage,,in which the two terms Anujan, if the are combined, is still the prevailing form of younger marriage. 10 do. daughter Pengal 3. Aliyan is the name given to father's II Father's sister Ammavi Sister's son and wife's brother. 12 Father's sister's husband Ammavan 'The Cheruvetans bury their dead about , 13 do. son Aliyan hundred yards from the hamlet. The grave i$ 14 do. daughter Machambi dug to a depth of fotir feet' for both man and woman. A new cloth is wrapped round the II :l{elations through mother body, and another is tied round the head. The corpse is laid in the grave with' the headsouth. 1 Grandfather Ammathan wards. A handful of rice is thrown into the :l Grandmother Ammathi mouth by son and neIJhew. The frame work on 3 Mother's brother -\mmavan which the dead body is carried is laid over tae 4 Mother's brother's wife Ammavi corpse and the grave is filled up witb earth. 5 Mother's sister Valiamma or The betel bag of the deceased, tender cocoanut, O1eriamma and a pot ofgl1lel are placed over it to propitiate the spirit of the dead; Pollution lasts for 16 III Relations through wife days. On the 16th 'day, toddy, arrack, beaten rice cooked and uncooked rice, and plantains 1 Wife No name 2 Wifets father Ammavan are placed in front of a pala (Alstonia scholaris) 3 Wife's mother Ammavi stump, A human image is made in earth and the following prayer is offered "Olf aneestcr 4 Wife's brother Aliyan 5 WIfe's brother's wife Pengal spirits, I address you without any re~ervation. 6 Wife's sister Not called by name Do not let loose Pulicnavu on us ana trOUble if elder, by name, . us. Here are toddy and arrack for you. Give if the younger the spirits a resting place, where the old Spirits 7 Wife's sister's husband Chettan or Anujan, remain". All bathe on the seventeenth day and if the younger make a mark on the forehead with liquid cow· dung. No work is done in the jungle durl:ng the pedod of pollution. IV Relations through husband Among the Chingannivetans, f~eral ceremo l' Husband's father Ammavan nies are more elaborate. When a m n dies, infor· 2 Husband's mother Ammavi mation is sent round to all rela . ns. When 3 Husband's brother Cbettan' antha they assemble, the brothC1"-in-law o()he deceas or anujan if the ed digs the grave four feet deep abo'Ut a mile younger from the habitations. As soon as the -grave is 4 Husband's brother's wife Cbettatbi or ready, the corpse is washed, anointed with coco· Anujathi as the anut oil. covered with a neW cloth, and caNied case may be to the grave on a framework of bamboo by two 5 Husband's sister Natbune or four men (Aliyans). Before doing 86, the 81 MAtAI VE!DAN floor is swept and the sweeping and the broom some earth and then the others fill in the grave., are laid OVer the framework along with the All bathe. The mourners are then treated to a body. These are carried round the grave thrice howl of toddy. They do not take any food that and the corpse lowered into the grave with head day. On tbe sixteenth day, the nephew makes towards the south. The son puts three handfuls an offering of fried paddy, beaten rice, tender of earth over the head of the corpse, and the cocoanuts, and toddy, saying "Oh spirit, pray nephew and other relations do the same. The accept all my offerings and join the other grave is then filled with earth. The framework ancestor-spirits on any of the crests of hills". The is laid over it. A handful of paddy is put into offerings are partaken of by those present. The a leaf and tied up ,with a creeper and the packet nephew incurs a11 the expenses for the ceremony. is laid at the head of the grave. All disperse, The Malavetans have no temples. They visit bathe, and return to the home of the deceased. Hindu shrines at a distance in times of sudden. A measure of rice is fried and seven spoons of sickness. They worship ancestor-spirits once jack leaves are placed in a mortar. A vessel in three years. Every man does this in his own containing liquid cowdung is placed near it. The home, where all his relations also assemble. mourners dip their finger in the liquid and make Three measures of beaten rice, Ooe measure of a mark on the forehead. Seven of the principal toddy, four tender cocoanuts, four chuckrams mourners including the grave diggers and carri worth of tobacco, a bunch of plantains, and a ers of the corpse eat a spoonful' .of rice powder molasses are placed in front of the house at . and throw the spoons back over'tneir heads. All night. A fowl is sacrificed and the following: then go to a toddy shop, where the grave-digg prayer is offered. . , ers and carriers of the corpse are treated to a bQwl of toddy tQ the value of four chuck rams " Dh God, I am offering you a fowl. Pray each. protect me. Oh, ancestor- spirits, pray protect me. Oh, ancestor spirits pray accept my offer ·Pollution lasts for seven days. The mourners ing. May no harm be dolle to my children." gather on the sixth day. A measure and a half After saying this, he distributes the offerings to of rice is cooked and given to the exorcist, who all. In tbe month of Thulam (October 10 Nove offers the c~oked rice to the anc\lstor spirits and mber), they kad a life of plenty and- with Htth: then eats it. Pan to the value of four chuckrams thought of their deities, while, in other months, is presented to him and ~thers. They chew the they live a life of continence, because they live pa~ and make a mark of rice powder on their in dread of the jungle gods. forehead, breast, and hands. The exorcist ties bells round his ankle. A thullal. (an ecastatic Ancestors are also worshipped during Onam daT;lce) {?egips at n~ght, at the, end. of which he in Chingom (August), on 'Makaram 28th says that ,the spirit of ,the deceased has been (February 10th), Medom 1st (April 14th) and taken away by the ancestors. On the seventh Karkadaga Sankramam day· (in July). The day" a.'plantain st 4,mp is fixed to the ground and offerings of fried rice, heaten rice; toddy, betd, a chatt y (pot) of liquid cowdung, is placed on and tobacco are placed in front of the hut at the stump. A few grains o.f rice are alse) placed night, when the following prayer is made. on a leaf. The carriers go to the grave, ~ntie the May no harm be done to the children by the p~cket of p,il.ddy, and throw it, away. The exor spirits of ancestors. Pray accept these offerings. cist sprinkles the liquid ~owdung on the women. The offering is left for an hour and is then The mourners take a few grains of rice and partaken of by all. throw them on the plantain stump. The exorcist Before starting the clearing of jungle in \'vho stood over the mortar so long gets down January, an offering of pansupari and tobaceo and casts away everything. All return home is made to Kallel, UraIi, by the Cheruvetans, after bathing, and a feast follows. The soul is and the following prayer is offered. said to have an airy form and to go to Heaven. "Oh God, Oh GracIous Hills, be well disposed The Elichathivetans bury their dead about a towards us. Oh ancestors, may we and our hundred feet to the south of the house. The cultivation prosper. Oh ancestors, protect us nephew digs the grave. He purchases a new adequately. May our children prosper". cloth to wrap the corpse in. Then the body is In Chingom (August to September) a Kathi carried to the grave. The nephew first throws in ruttu patini (offering) is given to the hills 82 APPBNPIX before harvest for wbicb the services of a Velan to the nephew. He settles all their disputes. The are requisitioned. An offering is made .of 2! villagers meet frequently to settle village affairs. qIeasu~es' of paddy, cocoanuts, and :(lowers. The But the headman'S influence is declining. Velati wear:> a black cloth and cap and.· brealcs the cocoanuts in the early morning. Iftf. then The huts are one roomed IS' x 12' in dimens works himself into an ecastacy and s~ys "r~ ions. Tlieyare made of junglewood posts and Harvest will be satisfactory. No h~rm will mar reeds with grass for thatching. They use only your return to the Village. Truth pr~vails". earthenware vessles. They make fire by the flint He then comes to himself and return home and steel. They are said to have formerly "practi \.vith the offerings. sed the primitive method of kindling fire by the fricttOD of wood". In Kanni, an offering is made to the hills after harvest. Two and a half measures of The Malavetans are meat-eaters. The Ching paddy and seven teluler cocoanuts are placed on annivetans eat the meat 9f sambur, black and level ground near the cultivated area before the white monkey, wild boar, and crocodiles, also threshing of the corn. The Velan again comes. crab, and fish. They daily earn two measures of He places a stone 01\ a hallowed spot and. breaks paddy as their wages. They also use tapioca. the cocoa.nuts. Ile ~l1~n gets inspired and says. The Cberuvetans live on tortoise, porcupine, hare, wild boar, and sambur, but not on bison "Without any' damage to seed and' men; I and bear. They eat rice, tapioca, sweet potatoes, shall see to your safe return home." He then and other tubers. The Elicha thivetans are fond ' comes to himself. The threshing of the corn is of eating rats. then begun. The Velan is given 4! measures of paddy for his services. The Chingannivetans wear very scanty gar The Cheruvetans are nomadic agriculturists. ment. The men wear a loin cloth 3 x It CUbits. They jointly clear the jungle in January, and Women wear a loin cloth 4 x 2t cubits. The burn the debris in March. Seed is sown broad women cover their breast with another cloth. cast in April. Women take part in all the The Cheruvetans and Elichathivetans wear operations except threshing. Ouring March, similar dress. July, and August, the men abstain from any The Malavetans (Cheruvetans) wear ear rings inter course wlth their women as they belive that of brass or silver. Some wear a wristlet ef silver sexual relations would damage their crops. on the right hand and ring. Women wear a cyli The clearing of the land is done by all the men of ndrical tube of brass (ala) in the lobes of the ear. the hamlet. The headman g~ts free labour. From Theyused to wear necklaces of beads, but wear the process of sowing onwards, each man looks now only a black thread. The Chingannivetans to his own work. wear hardly any ornament. The most interesting The Chmgannivetans and Ehchathivetans live custom among them is that of chipping the \ly the swea t of their brow and are stIll in a s ta te upper incisor teeth in the form of short serrated of economic bondage to their landlords. They cones. "On being asked whether they have any earn two measures of paddy as their daily wages. tradition about the custom of tooth-filing, they replied that it is to distinguish our caste. Our Among the Cberuvetans, a man on an average God Chathan will be hungry, if we neglected gets paddy which may last for six months. Tapi this custom." The operation is done both by oca, plantains, and edible tubers are also culti men and women for ornamentation. It is done for vated. They sell their produce, plantains, kyvan men by men at the age of nine or ten. The chipp (Helicteres isora) coir in the weekly markets ing is done with a small knife or bill-hook. Wben and get on an average about seven chuckrams a girl is to be operated on, she lies down and rests with which they purchase their weekly necess her head on the lap of a woman, who holds it aries. When food is scarce, they go to the jungle firmly. A third woman takes a small knife and and collect wild tubers with the digging spud. chips away the teeth till they are shaded to a They do not hunt wild animals, as they have no - point. The girl suffers from excruciating pain weapons for the chase. during the operation and her face swells. The The Cheruvetans have a headman called Stani pain and swelling last for a day or two. Before in each settlement. whose wishes are carried out chipping, the ou ter edges of the teeth are smeared by the others. The office is hereditary and goes with chunam. It is supposed to make the 83 MALA I VEDAN chipping easier. The custom of chipping tbe they live on the wages that they get by the teeth is found among the Kadirs of Cochin State. sweat of thei r brow. It is found among several tribes in Africa, During the Census of 1931 it was found that Australia, where the custom is confined to the there were 1,017 men to every 1,000 women. incisor. It is gradually dying out, as the There is thus a shortage of women, The average operation causes great pain. birth rate is 3.0 and the survival rate, 1.5. Infant mortality is largest among males. The Cheruvetans get up early in the morning. The Chingannivetans stand eighteen feet awaY The women light the fire and cook food consist from the Cheruvetans who in turn stand at a ing of rice kanji and curry. After breakfast at distance of eight feet from the higher castes. 83. m. the men go to the jungle to gather wild The Malankuravans are superior to the Mala roots and tubers with tl'te digging spud accom vetans who stand at a distance of eight feet from panied by their wives. The women collect fuel them. Their poor economic condition keeps the They return home in the evening, and take their Chingannivetans and Elichathivetans in bondage. "They live in jungle clearing or work in rice meal at dusk. The Chingannivetans and Elicha fields and were formerly sold or bought as slaves. thivetaos rely entirely on their masters for their Polygamy is common, as men bave not to pro livelihood. Their work lies in the fields, and vide fort he support of their wives", 81 70· 77· 11 KERALA DISTRIBUTION OF THE SCHEDULED TRIBE-URALY.1961 12 ". . " ARABIAN SEA o· • 0 • STATE BOUNDARY DISTRICT BOUNDARY ~--.- TALUK POUNDARY .. 'So ,," EAST OF GREENWICH " URALY CHAPTER I NAME, ORIGIN AND HISTORY Known for living in tree huts, p!culiar marri who are called with a suffix 'Muthan' and age customs and 'Plathies" (witch doctors) 'Muthi' added to their names for males and Uraly, listed both as a Scheduled Tribe and a females respectively. Scheduled Caste in Kerala and Madras States, has been very little influenced by the culture of Regarding th::: origin of this tribe all earlier the plains and therefore retained most of their Ivriters opine that they were the humble sub original customs and manners. In Kerala State jects of the rulers of Madurai. Padmanabha they are mostly found in the forest areas of Menon in his History of Kerala observes. "The Quilon, Kottayam and Ernakulam districts. It Uralies, according to tradition, were dep:::nd is scheduled throughout the State of Kerala ants of the king of Madurai and their duty was except Malabar region and in the Kanyaku:nari to hold umbrellas in times of State processions. district and Shenkottah taluk of Thirunelveli Their ancestors are said to' have accompa'lied district of Madras State, as per the Scheduled the king while on a visit to the hilly tracts Castes and Scheduled Tribes List') Modification which were urder his sway, and were left behind Order. As per the 1931 Census returns URALI to rule, hence Vraly. (Ur=village and ali = to has been notified as a 'primitive tribe' from the rule) . districts of Alleppey, Kottayam, Quilon and The Mannans, Muthuvans and Uralies, all Trivandrum. Under the spelling URALY this say that they are originally dependants of the community was notified both as a Scheduled kings of Majurai whence they emigrated into Caste and as a Scheduled Tribe in tile Consti the Travancore hills". (Pad,n1'labha Menon, tution (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) 1933, Ill, 567). order, 1950, throughout the State except Mala bar district. Familiar with all the tracts and On the origin and history, Krishll1 [yer, by terraces of the surrounding hills, Uralis are quoting the Travancore Census Report of 1901, responsible in attracting the attention of Engi states "The UraHes say that they were depen neers to a narrow strait \1t Idikky in Kerala dants of the king of Madurai. It was their duty where a huge multi-purpose dam is being bujlt to carry umbrellas in State processions. In which, in course of time, would be one of the ancient times many of the parts included in epoch-making events in the te;;hno-economic Thodupuzha taluk belonged to the kings of history of Kerala. Madurai. Once, when the king came to Neria This report is based on the field investiga mangalam, the ancestors of the Uralies are said tions conducted at Naliyani, Thadiyanal, Meth to have accompanied him and were probably otty and Vanchivayal settlements of Ernakulam left there to rule (ali) that locality". Further and Kottayam districts. Some investIgations Iyer narrates another story in which Nedittu have also been made at Veliam village in Kotta Tampuran (a local chieftain) was involved. Once rakkara taluk of Quilon district. the Tampuran cursed a group of people who aimed against his life by saying "May you The members of the tribe are known by the Adiyans (slaves) remain prosperous. May those name "Uraly". Both out.siders as well as they who aimed at my life suffer annihilation". "The themselves call them by tbis name. It has been Uralies", Iyer fUrther adds, "Consider them observed that they take pleasure in introd ucing selves that they were his Vassals, and pay homage themselves as Uralies. Though e::onomically to Nedittu Tampuran who is believed to have had dependant on the local plainsmen _and educat come f~om Madurai" ([yer 1939, 1[, 225). ionally backward, the Uralies are a proud Accordlllg to MJ leer, the U ralies were origi people and, as such, they do not like to be called nally "slaves employed by their Nair masters by any other name. Individuals are addressed in cultivating rice on the lower slopes of hills by their respective names save the aged ones They afterwards migrated to highlands changing 85 .URALY their quarters annually and obtaining good interior (UIlu) village (Nadu) after coming to crop of rice from forest clearings." (Mateer, the high ranges. 1885, 80). Even to this day these three communities The tradition current among them also suggests maintain close relationship among themselves. that the Uralies along with Muthuvans and The Uralies and the Muthuvans intermarry Ullatans migrated to Kerala from a remote while marriage alliance are also reported bet country in the east, probably from Madurai. ween Muthuvans and Ullatans. Muthuvans were assigned that name for the . To sum 'up, it appears that the Uraly is an simple reason tbat on their trip to the high ran immigrant tribe from the East who originally ges, an idol of Meenakshi was brought on their migrated along with the Muthuvans and UIlat back (Muthukti). The n'arne Uraly was ascribed ans, The former two settled in the forest areas to those who were allowed to rule (ali) the vill of Quilon, Kottayam and Ernakulam districts age or the country side (Ur) The Ullatans, on while the bulk of the latter went further dewn the other hand, proceeded further into the into the plains. 86 CHAPTER II DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION TREND As mentioned above Uraly is listl!d both as a returned under Scheduled Tribes and 809 persons Scheduled Tribe and as a Scheduled Caste in the have been returned under Scheduled Castes. same are.iS in the Scheduled- Cl.stes and Schedul Tile distribution of poputation under both the ed Tribes (Lists) Modification Order, 1956. [n categories is as follows:- the 1961 Census 2,597 persons have been Total population Population (RUral) ,-______..J>.... ______~ ~ ______A ______~ Scheduled Schedu!ed As Scheduled As Scheduled Caste Tribe Caste Tribe ,--_ __,A... __~ ~ ,--__....A._~ ,....._,_..A... __ Name of the r---~---'"\ Name of the district P M F p M taluk P M F P M F Trivandrum 208 !l8 120 39 25 14 Nedumangad 10 4 6 Chirayinkil 3 3 15 11 4 Neyyattinkara 80 31 49 Quilon 228 114 114 223 JOI 122 Pathanamthitta 1 1 221 101 120 Kunnathur 10 6 4 . 2 2 Kottarakkara 203 98 105 Quilon 9 5 4 Karunagapally 5 4 1 Alleppey 624 Mavelikkara 6 2 4 Kottayam 372 182 190 218 101 117 Peermade 154 73 81 Changanacherry 3 3 3 I 2 Meenachil 4 3 1 29 15 14 Udumbanchola 210 102 108 32 12 20 Devicolam 1 1 Ernakularn 2111 1116 995 Alwaye 1 Thodupuzha 2210 1116 994 Grand Total 809 385 424 2597 1345 1252 530 255 275 2582 1335 1247 This shows that even in the same taluks of in their population. It may be that their classi Chirayinkil, Pathanamthitta, Kunnathur, Chan fication as Hindu and tribal religionists might ganacherry, Meenachil and Udumbanchola, have given chances to the return of a few Uralis Uralies have been returned both as Scheduled Ii ving in hills and mountains as Mala U ralis in Caste and as Scheduled Tribe while from Nedu this census, and thus to the rise in their popu mangad, Mavelikkara, Peer made and Thodu lation. In the 1941 Census there is an abrupt puzha taluks they have been returned as Sched fall in the population figure due to the aversion uled Tribe only and from Neyyattinkara, of prefix 'Mala' to their name. The Census Kottarakkara, QuiIon, Karunagapally, Devi Commissioner states "in the enU meration of colam and Alwaye taluks only as Scbeduled Caste. tribes in the 1941 Census, it is found that no one has returned himself as Malankudi, Mala In the earlier censuses there are returns of a ppulayan or Thandapulayan, a classification hill-caste by name Urali and of a hill-tribe, whi.ch existed in the 1931 Census" (Census of Mala Urali. The Mala Urali of the previous,. India 1941- Travancore- Page 242). Likewise censuses is the Urali mentioned in the present the figures of Tribes starting with the name note. Till 1931, they were considered as ani mists, but in the 1931 Census they were classi Mala (Mala Urali, Malapantaram and Malaya fied for the first time as Hindu and tribal religi rayan) have shown decline in their population onists. The 1931 Census shows a sudden increase in 1941 Census. 87 URALY The following statement gives the population Kizhakkanam mala, PathirappaUy, Kaduk- figures of the previous Censuses. kanal, Valiakandam, Maimutham. Mula- muttam, Pattijudi, Vonmany, Palaplavu, Year of Census Total Males Females Kunnam, Panthandom, Kozhippilly. ThadiyanaI- 1901 220 106 114 k;~di, N.al:iyan~, ¥et:!totti etc..:" are the places in 1911 36'6' 169, "19T . Thodup!-l~a' rallge wh~re tl:le Uraly settlements 1921 '2M) '129, 10.1 " ar~ met 'yitl1. ' Ip pat~anamtl;litta taluk they are 1931 " 91'6' '454 462' - . scatte,red ,in, Kattachira and Vadakkan Mala; 1941 ., iii ; '16' . 25" : j'n the': 'f¢erinade -, t~luk" they are mostly found 1951 N~A. N.A., N.A in Vancbivayal;' in the Udumbanchola taluk During the p-l:esent field' investigations' an they are found,in Upouthara, and Kanjiyar and attempt has been 'made t6 find ,QUC :W,hether in Devicolam nHuk they are reported inhabi ting those Uralies ret-utned-as' Scheditle 88 PI. 52 URALY COUPLE GOING HOME-SEE THE PECULIAR Page 89 WAY OF CARRYING THE CHILDREN PI. 53 AN URAL Y SETTLEMENT Page 93 Pl. 54 WATER TO DRINK Page 93 PI. 55 TREE HUT-ANAMADAM Page 94 PI. 56 AN URALY HUT Page 94 It. . PI. 57 AN URALY OLD WOMAN Page 94 Pl. 58 URALY WOMEN. YOUNG AND OLD Page 94 PI, 59 A TYPICAL URALY WOMAN WITH ORNAMENTS Page 94 PI. 60 BILL HOOK-KATHJ Page 95 PI. 61 A MALE URALY-WITH THE FAVOURITE IMPLEMENT Page 99 'KATHI' PI. 62 URALY AT HUNT Page 100 Pl. 63 WITH TRAPPING IMPLEMENT Page 100 PC 64 A SECLUSION SHED FOR · WOMEN Page 103 PL 65 A TREE HUT BUILT ON STILTHS-SOMETIMES THfS Page 103 TYPE OF HUT IS ALSO USED AS SECLUSION SHED Pl. 66 A . MAN WITH HIS . TWO WIVES AND . CHILDREN Page 103 Pl. 67 ~IID-DAY MEALS AT WELFARE SCHOOL, POOMALA, THODUPUZHA Page II I CHAPTER III PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS During the present inve3tigations no attempt the U ralies are dark brown in corn plexion in ba.s been made to collect information on the the Todupuzha range, bu t blonjness is noti physical characteristics of the Uralies. However, ceable in the high ranges. On lower elevati()ns the data published by the various authors are in Thodupuzha, their average cephalic index is presented below: The Census Commissoner 73.4 and average nasal index. 87.7. The average for India t9~1 stat~s a~ follows: "Height <)f th~ , facical index. is, 81.8 and; tb~,aYerage ch~~t, girth men is about 5', the hair is very curly bllt ,is, 7,1'; 2 ' crn; In' the liigh· ranges \ it is' ;157 em. also harsh aM in &orne .iJidividUafs Cf:\~p:)~n)1 , Tiley are doliclloce'pll'allic, the" ~~rage ~epha1ic kinky. The features suggest that the 'b~ic, type index 'heing: 10,6.: 'The aiill?rag.e.:nasal-{p,oex is is proto ~ustroloid 'with ~ some adn"ixfure of, 86:a~: ,%e "vaultJ pi :the( head '. is ,10,\\1. and the direction; of :the:,; brai1lJ is; .. b3~ward,s .. , Their negrito and, perhai>~ m~dite(r~nean:' '(PeO,sus' bro~~ ridges are. pr9mtri:~nf ~~d'~hhi ~s ,te~ding, of India 1931). , ' ' "" ' eyes ~re. darK; an4 the: 'bai r : black' ancJ·, q;urly." . ,- ~ Basing :his studi'es, L. A. K. [yer reporl!l that {Iyer, 1939', II;' 245.46)~ . . . ',. ". -. 89 CHAPTER IV FAMILY, CLAN, KIHSHIP ,AND. OTHER ANALOGOUS DIVISION Family is the basic unit of social organisation, fe~st to others on the Onam day. Koodi amOng the Uralies. Jointfamily is found quite, yakoottam (Kooduka= show attachment) to frequently. The social structure of the tribe th{)se who showed too much attachment with is based on the dual organisation. lhe tribe is ' things like granite and oil arid Vianavarkoottam divided into two moieties, the Annan Thampi (Viana == a kind of forest tree) to those who iIloms (brother clans) and the Macharnpi· or' distributed leaves of Viana. Aliyan illoms (Brotber.;.in-Iaw clans). Each' moiety is exogamous and consists 'of many Allihe abOVe clans are not found in the same Koottams or illom's (Clans). By Annan Th 90 VRALY themselves as they w.ere Annaotbampi" clans. then the kinship terminology of the Uraly cer Similarly Enniyakoottam and, Kanakoottam tainly contains elements proving bisection, of were Annaft.thampi clans at Vellur. th~ comm.unity." Mukherji, using the genealogical methods, "Among them the father's brother and the had tried to find ou,t the incidence of marril!~e . mother's husband ar~ grouped together under the alliances. in the moieties .. He has observed that term Appan and likewise the m.other, her' sister it was not possible to construct the original aod the father's brother's wife under amma, structure of the dual organisation as the differ although 'perla' and 'chinna' distinguishes the ent sets of Annanthampi and Alian groups are elder and the younger. Consequently the children not uniform everywhere. (Mukherji 1954, 8 -31). of the father's brother and mother's sister are Today. only the simple rule of clan exogamy classed together with brother and sister and are governs the marriage alliances. distinct from the children of mother's brother During the course of the investigations some and father's sister which, according to Rivers.r of the very important kinship terms of the is tbe natural consequence of the dual .organi Uralies have been collected. They are as follows: zation. Rivers' further contention that if there are two social groups the children of t,IVO brothers 1 Father Appan and two sisters must belong to the same 2 Mother Amma moiety; while the children of brother and sister must belong to different moieties, could not be 3 t Hill tops, _surrounded by dense forests in both the tribes did not attach any stigma. fested with wild animals, steep slopes, and Their relatiomhip with the Malayarayans is inaccessTble mountains are the abodes of the very cordial. "They call the -Malayarayans, U ralies. The habi tats of the U ralles are generally Vazhiyanmar, thereby acknowledging that the inaccessible to the plainsmen. During monsoon latter once ruled over tracts of land". (lyer, the area becomes clayey at the slightest driz 1939, II, 223). On the other hand the Muthu zling, making it almost impossible to tread vans and the Malayarayans are addressed by through it. The area is infested with innumer the Uralies as Vyan or Vyachi for males and able crawling leaches. With the heavy rainfall, females respectively. - during the monsoon the Uralies are threatened Normally the Uraly himself chooses the site with impending land slides of the steep mountain for the construction of his hut (Kudi). Occas slopes. The Uralies of Methotty still remember ionally a carpenter from the plains may be asked the calamity which occurred some ten years to . select a site, to whom an amount of Rs. 5 back when hundreds of people became home is paid. While selecting the location, facilities less and many died on account of cloud-burst for drinking water supply is always considered. and subsequent land slides. During summer they Thus a 93 URALY are planted. Two longer ones are planted mid house is made of fine wood and the roof is tIlat way between the shorter sides of the plinth and ched with plaited cadjans. the four shorter ones are planted at the four corners. The posts are connected with bamboo J>ress beams, length-wise on which bamboo rafters The common dress of the males consists of a are arranged and tied. The rafters slant down loincloth four cubits in length, locally known from the superior ridge pole on either side. The as 'mundu'. During ceremonial occasions or rafters are matted with reeds over which that 'When they go out they use an upper cloth and ching is made with reed leaves or wild grass. occasionally a shirt. The young boys use only Side walls are made out of spli t ban, boo pieces a small loincloth. The dress of the women arranged and fastened against long bamboo polls consists of a loincloth wrapped round the loin tied across the pillars. Occasionally reed leaves and a blouse. Old women do not, however, use are also used to make the bamboo wall. Some blouses. Young women use a second cloth space is left as an en trance to the hut ei ther on thrown loosely on the left shoulder, one end of one side or occasionally on .two sides. Sliding which partly covers the bosom. Small girls go bamboo doors are fixed to cover the door. The about with a small loincloth wrapped round. space inside the hut is utilised both as a kitchen Very seldom the Uralies dean their cloths, and as a living-cum-sleeping place. partitions though a marked change has been observed are also made with the help of bamboo splints. among the young educated mtn and women who Ventilators and windows are very rarely pro keep their dress neat and tidy. vided for a Uraly hut. The floor is levelled and plastered, Erst with mud and then daubed with Ornaments eowdung paste. Till the attainment of puberty girls do not Tree huts (Anamadams) are built with light wear gold ornaments in their ears, but keep a building materials. The mode of construction piece of cadjan -leaf- midrib, in the hole in the of the Anamadam is almost the same as that of ear-lobe. As the hole of the ear lobe becomes the huts on the ground, but for the plinth, larger, scrolls of coconut leaf varying in size which in this case is constructed by arranging replaces the cadjan-leaf-midrib. Gold ornaments bamboo poles tied on to the supporting tree. A are worn in their ears only after attaining long bamboo pole, nodes of which are cut short, womanhood. Kammals (ear stud) are worn in is kept against the tree-hut which serves as a the ears. Till marriage women do not wear gold ladder. ornaments around their neck, instead cheap In th~ Thodupuzha range Ural ies prepare metal chains and beaded neck-laces are used. their huts in a different pattern. Only steep Plastic, rubber, glass Ilnd cheap metal bangles headlong inclines are selected as a site for the are worn on thl! hands. Only middle aged and construction of huts. Only one house is made in old women wear nose-screws, having a fanam a plot. Another hut may be constructed a fur (coin of the former Travancore rulers which long or two away either at a lower al titude or looks like a modern 25 paise coin) fixed at the at a higher place. In this case one seclusion shed outer side of it. is built at a common place, to be used by the polluted female folk, belonging to a group of 'Chilangamanimala' and 'thalikuttam' are huts. Invariably such seclusion huts are built essential items of neck ornaments used by on stilts. The pattern of construction of the hut middle aged and old women. 'Chilangamani here is not different from that in the Vanchi mala' is a chain wi th small jingling brass bells vayal area, stringed on cotton thread. The 'thalikuttam' is a beaded necklace with coins strung on it. Cheap Some of the affluent Uralies have construct beaded chains (kaUamala) wi th black, green and ed houses wi th regular pucca walls of raised white beads strung on twisted cotton thread are basements made of granite. One such house has also used in plenty by the elderly women folk. five Hving rooms, a kitchen and a verandah as Males p.ierce their ears and wear 'kadukkan' against the singJe room huts of the common (an ear ornament) even to this day. Some of U ralies. It has ventilators, windows, and doors the Uralies are, however, found wearing wrist with wooden shutters. The superstructure of the watches. 94 DWELLING, DRESS, FOOD, ORNAMENTS ETC. OF THE COMMUNITY UraH females keep their ornaments away their favourite dish in this season. Other fruits during'puberty, menstruation and confinement. like Moottithoori, Chalunga, Vellipazham. Widows and divorced women do not wear the Karapazham, Kurumandipazham, Chithenta marriage badge (tali). pazham, Forest grapes, Ayamgauva etc. are also consumed when the same are available. Food All types of fish find favour with them. Salted Tapioca is the staple food of the Uralies of fish brought from the coastal area by hawkers the Thodupuzha range. Bu t their counterparts in meet their demand for fish. Flesh of most of the the Vandiperiar "range eat ragi as their staple birds and wild animals are relished very much. food. They cult iva te only a portion of ragi re The meat of buffalo, cow and bison is, however, quired by them. The deficiency is made good by strictly tabooed. Regarding their food habi t tapioca which they cultivate and the forest roots Padmanabha Menon writes "The Uralies eat and frui ts they collect. This may sometimes be the flesh of most animals, the elephant, and supplemented with the hill paddy they cultivate buffalo are held in 8u0h great respect that no on the hill slopes. In the Thodupuzha range all Urali will even venture to hurt them. Even the of them take various kinds of preparations made approach of the buffalo is religiously avoided". out of tapioca tubers which they themselves (Menon, 1933, I II, 557). Chama (panicum nibi cultivate. Forest roots are taken only when they acum) varagu and horsegram are not taken by have nothing else to eat or for a change. If at Uralies. Men take alcoholic drinks. Drink is no all they take rice, it is in the night, with one or abomination for women either. Carcasses are two curries prepared of fish and peas. Some rice abhorred by them as a food more than anything. gruel may also be consumed along wi th the pre Utensil8" parations of tapioca and forest roots. As tapi oca is a: seasonal crop, dried chips are preserved The kitchen utensils consist mainly of earthen in large baskets to be used ou t of season. Fresh and aluminium vessels. For drinking one or two tubers are pealed, cut into pieces, boiled and glasses and for serving meals a few aluminium then consumed. Some chutney, prepared out of plates can bo! seen in eacb and every Uraly hut. onion, chilly and salt is used as a side dish. For preparing meals earthen and aluminium Dried tapioca pieces are boiled along with salt pots are used. But Women in their seclusion and taken after decanting the water from it, shed prepared food only in bamb:)o hollows. using fish curry or chutney as a side dish. In the For carrying water large bamboo tubes called morning large quantity of unsweetened black 'vallath u11 u' are used. Salt and provisions are coffee is consumed along with pieces of boiled kept ~n hollow re~ds and in bags of areca-nut tapioca. Coffee plants are grown abundantly in petiole. Paddy and dried tapio~a slices ar.! pre every 'kudi'. Their poverty does not permit served in large baskets maje of blllbo~ splints. them to add neither milk nor sugar to the lar,;e Agricultural implements quantity of coffee they consume. fn the noon the Agricultural implements of the UralL consist same may be repeated when some may even con of a digsing stick (manthikolu)., bill-hook sume rice gruel instead of coffee. Night meal (kathi), a spade (karkottu), and an ax:e. Among mav be either rice, in the form of a solid mass these, the digging stick which is a poiate1 piec~ or gruel with or without some side dish. of bamboo or reed is the oldest of the LupIe ments used by them and is used mainly by Uralies at Vanchivayal take a boiled paste women. For loosening earth, which is often called "Kepa" prepared out of ragi in tho! day along with fish curry and gruel. If possible they very hard in the mountains, spade, is of great USe. The bill-hook or kathy is a constant com t'1ke the same preparation in the night as well. panion of the Uralies, carried as a defensive Some tapioca preparation with black coffee is weapon while traversing through the forests. In consumed in the morning. former days the fact that only a bill-hook was Forest roots such as Noorall, Mankal, Pew given as dowry, reveals the importance of this dom, Cheerria, Uzaala etc. are taken by tho! implement to the Uralies. An axe or kodali is Uralies. Generally forest roots are roasted in used by the,n for felling and cleuing of wood. tbe ember. Among the fruits jack, cashelv and In the Tllodupuzha range where a few of the mango are taken during December to May when Urali families have started wet cultivation, they they are available in plenty. A p'reparation with use plough in the wet fields. Traps are used by raw-jack-fruit known as 'chakka puzhukku' is tl1em to catch rats. 95 CHAPTER VI ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION, HYGIENIC HABITS, DISEASES AND TREATMENT To the Draly, cleanliness, both personal and frustrate these spirits and that he performs with environmental, is no problem. The hut and the help of his 'kilukkupetti'. the surroundings are kept untidy without perio "Kilukkupetti is such a revered object dic plastering or sweeping. Thanks to the which no woman is p'ermitted to pollute by her steep nature of the habitat, rubbish and dirt touch. If from curiosi ty or carelessness she are drained away during the rains. They attend does so, it will be a t her own peril, for, it is to the nature's call in a watersource as they highly charged battery the touch of which is believe that the mother earth should not be sure to bring sorre serious misbaps to her. If defiled by the touch of human excreta. Personal by any unlucky chance a woman toucbes a cleanliness is very remote to the U raly. They 'kilukkupet t I' the effects bas to be counteracted very seldom take bath and very rarely wash by the mantravadi by giving ch.anted water to their clothes. Both men and women keep their the woman fcr drinking. The priest himself hair unoiled and unkempt. does not touch orbandle it unnecessarily. "'hen he is called upon to cure an ailing person the As a resu] t of the unclean habits, many of mantravadi burns incense first, pray, to the them suffer from skin diseases like scabies. ckilukkupetti' and then takes it for the Common fever, and stomach diseases are some performance. of the frequent ailments they suffer from. Uralies believe that the ailments are due to the The 'kilukkupetti is a beautiful casket woven wrath of their ancestral spirits and sylvan au t of bamboo splints with a narrow mouth. deities. A pIa thy is, therefore, commissioned and filled witb pieces of bronze and brass. 'It is for the purpose. Gnanambal gives the following always placed on a,r.ew winnm"ring -fan with a account of curative rights: "The Urali little rice, a piece of new cloth, a few cowries Mantravadi combines offices of the physician and and few coins. . the magician in one person. Most of the ail "The jingling of a 'kllukkupetti' is an ments, from long standing Malaria to temporary essential requisite for the recitation of th~ spell. indigestion, are cured by his 'kilukkupetti' and In addition to the formula of words, the spells. It is believed that negligence to perform emotioned setting, the solemn and i~.llg certain magic, religious ceremony or the expression of the mantravadi during tne per influence of malevolent spirits caused disease. formance all combine to produce immense faith It is the mantravadi alone to give command and in his SUbjects". (Gnanambal, 1954, 28-29). 96 · CHAPTER VII LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Malayalam, the Lingua franca of the State, the' 'language as a part of tbeir school is the mother tongue of the Uralies. "The curriculam. Uralies speak a kind of corrupt Malayalam ...... " says Padmanabha Menon. (Menon Majority of the Uralies are illiterate. Accord ing to the 1961 Census returns 410 (15.79%) 1933, II r~ 567). They speak MaJaya1am with persons have been returned as literate with 281 pecuJiar slangs and intonations. THe f6~tO\ving males and 129 females. This when compared are some of the examples: ' to the general literacy of the State which is As spoken by 46.85 is very low. But when compared with the English Malayalam Ur.alies literacy rate for the scheduled tribe as a whole which is 17.26 it is rather encouraging. Though Bride :'Man~vatti' Ammakan living almost under similar conditions. the Bridegroom 'M'anavalan' Pudiya Ponkal Mala Arayans of the area are comparatively Jungle 'Kadu' Adavi better, with 42.48% of literacy. Anger 97 CHAPTER VIII ECONOMIC LIFE VraHes eke Ollt their livelihood, in former their principal sources of income, are no more days, ,from wbat tbey gathered and collected retained by them as their' main occupation. from the forest. A plough or a srade was not Uralies at the present day subsist moore and in their lise: "UraJies occupy themselves in more OR agriculture, practised in their own la~d migratory cultivation in'a rude way, using only or in the tax free reserve fores t land. . 1. UIZ a kathy, a kind of chopping knife, for purposes writes, "a few in Kottayam district have small of plough"', writes Padrnanabha Menon, on tbe Parcels of land which the) cultivate successfully" subsistance pattern of the Ul'alles, (Menon, (Luiz, 1962, 246). 1933, IIJ, 568). According to Iyer the' Uralies are nomadic agriculturists. "They shift annuaUy The statistical information collected during and cuithate land -on a rotation of 6 years" the 1961 Census shows that most of the Uralies Oyer ]939, II, '24J)~ They were described as eke out their living by practising agriculture or "good huntsmen -and watchmen" by the Census depending on agricultural labo,ur. The working of India, Travancore 1901 (C. I. 190-1, Travan": force among them is 1172 (45.13%) out of which core, 168). 735 (62.71%) are males and 437 (37.29%) are -Vralies no more subsist on shifting cultivation females. The subjoining table shows the pattern alone. Collection and gathering, which were of occupation they follow. Percentage distribution Total of workers Industrial category r-----...__---~ of \Vork~rs p M F r------"------,P M ·F Total population 2597 1345 1252 Total workers 1172 735 437 45.13 54.65, 34.90 CuI tiva tors 1115 692 423 42.93 51.45 33.78 Agricultural labourers 18 9 9 0.69 0.67 0.72 Mining and quarrying 22 22 0.~5 1.64 Household' industry 1 1 0.04 008 Maftufacturing 1 1 0.04 0.08 ConstructIon Trade and commerce 2 1 1 0.08 0.08 0.08 Transport, storage and commuuication 1 1 0.04 007 Other services 12 10 2 0.46 0.74 0.16 A perusal of the table reveals that almost 94.15. This signifies that cultivation is the all the workers (95.14%' are engaged in culti important occupation towards which the Uraly vatio]). Only 18 (1.~4%) of them are returned women are attracted or have opportunity to as agricultural labourers. Comparatively the participate. participation of the females is less than the males. However the distribution of workers by They resort to Malamkrishi (hill cultivation) sex under each category of industrial classi in which paddy, tapioca and ragi are raised. fication shows that 96.79 per cent of the female Only a single crop is raised from dry land. ,vorkers are engaged as cultivators while the Occasionally elephant foot-yam, colocasia etc. corresponding percentage for males comes to are simul taneously cultiva ted in the same field. 98 ECONOMIC LIFE Those wh.o have low ·lying wet land and draugh t qu:tntities for refreshment. Next dlY onwards cattle, res.ort, to paddy cultivation using plough. regular sowing take; place. For all agricultural In the absence of own cattle, they hire bullocks o;>erations mutual help is obligatory. To prevent fr.om the neighbouring Malayarayans. Wet large scale erosion, at times, the fields are culti vation is more and more found in the terraced. Thodupuzha range. 1;'ill the harvest, in' the month of August Uralies are permitted by law to cultivate if September, tbey face a period of bardship and tbey do so without damaging the huge trees economic inactivity. During tbat time they standing in the forest. Generally. their fields subsist on dried tapioca slices and various other are situated around the habitat. roots, Those who bave enough dried tapioca in re3erve, may also sell a portion of the same in Agricul tural activities begin wi th the felling the nearby urban centre and, in return, buy of trees and clearing of shrubs in the months of rice and provisions. Majority of them borrow, January and February. Both men and women money in advance from money lenders by pledg join the operation. Large trees are not felled to ing the ensuing crops of cardamom, pepper and avoid soil erosion on the mountain slopes. tapia~a to tide over the lean months. These Felling of large trees is punishable under the maney lenders keep false accounts and extraGt forest rules. During monsoons. much of the the maximum fro n the UraUes -by various fertility is washed away. To recoup fertility of dubious means. Thus the money lenders, even the slopes the felled trees and shrubs are burnt without tbe knowledg~ of the owner, harvest and the ashes spread during the month of March. the crops fron pepper viQes and cardamom Ash is mixed just after the first monsoon showers, pla!1ts. Majority of the Ur3Iies are una\vare late in the month. of thc:..quantorn of yield that their pepper viiles Tapioca. colocacia and elephant foot.yam are and cardamom plants produce. At tim~3, they the crops, first to be cultivated before broad are compelled to sell insufficiently ripe t.apioca casting paddy seeds. These are raised simultan roots in order to tide OVer their difficult days. eously along with paddy in tile same field. Harvest of paddy starts in tile month of Paddy is sown only after performing an August. A'i a. custom, th 3 harvest should stan initiation ceremony. As a rule, sowing of paddy from the fiel<:;1 belonging to the 'Plathy'. This has to start from the field belonging to the is preceded by a tllanks-giving ritu'd, when 'Plathy' or land owned by deities. From the various offerings are made to the sylvan deities third day, prior to sowing, the 'Plathy' observes far giving U ralies a bumper crop. Regular continence. He sleeps in the same field where the harvest starts with those: rituals. The women seeds are sown first. Beako rice and coffee are folk ar[;! generally employed in the task of tbe only food taken by him during these days. harvesting and thresning. Paddy and sliced dry A group of male members who also observe tapioca are preserved in large bamboo baskets, abstinence live with the 'Plathy·. Rice, rice locally known as 'Ahku'. The new rice is flour, cocoanut. betel leaves elc. are contributed consumed only after undergoing the nelli-rice· by each and every household towards the ex eating ceremony, when a num'Jer of diffyrent rice penses of the 'Plathy'. On the day of 'Ettootu' preparations are made and offered ta the deities. (first sowing) the 'Plathy' performs witch-dance. This, he does immediately after a dip in the A large number of jack trees aDd cashew trees nearby ditch and wearing wet clothes. Other have been planted by Uralies on Ule premises of members of his party take cue from him. He, their hut. Very recently, in the Th:>dupuzba now, picks up a handful of paddy seeds and range, they have started growing cocoanut and broadcasts in the already prepared field. after areca-nut palms .. having prayed with f<.llded hands to the sylvan Uralies are very energetic and hardworking. deIties for protectmg the crops from birds. wild Though. there is no strict division of labour animals and evil spirits. He. with the help of a on the basis of sex, there are certain, jO~3 wnlch spade, starts covering the seeds by upturning the are usually attrib\ltei to the wo lnenfolk only. earlh, which is followed by others. The sancti Coll~ctian and gathering of for!st roots a'nd fied off.:rings are distributed to those wbo are frUits, h,lrvesting of paddy and threshing of the present. Besides, toddy is taken in large sam~ are more a task of the women th:tn of the 99 URALY men. Sowing and ploughing are performed only near or inside the reserve forests, there is ample by males. Other items of work connected with scope for hunting, snaring and trapping of birds agriculture are attended to by women also. At and small animals. The weapons generally used any rate a woman in her periods is tabooed by them are 'ThettaIi' or 'Chunduvillu' (a kind _ even to enter the paddy field. The women carry of catch belt) muzzle lode and breach lode their babies on their backs while working in guns. As a custom, during· hunting, the best the field or in the forest. It is proverbial that corner of the game is to be offered to the spiri ls the Uraly women start working just after 3 of the dead. One who has shot the game has to days of child-birth. presIde over the offering ceremony. Gnanambal gives a vivid account of the rituals Iyer reports how, in former days, the Uralies connected with the agricultural operations and helped the forest authorities in catching ele new-rice-eating of the Uralies of VanchivayaI phants. "Elephants are caught in pits which and Thad upuzha . areas. "A series of ri tes are dug by the side of streams or pools. The sorround the agricultural operations by the pits are about 15' deep and 14 to 18' in diameter Uralies are commenced with the clearing and above. The width at the bottom is less. The burning of the shrub called Kaduvettal and mouth of the pits are covered with split bam Tidutal. boo, boughs and earth with dry leaves over it. It is generally the young ones that are caught. Clearing the shrubs is preceded by a specific V. hen the elephants fall in the pit, they cut ceremony, in which the appeasement of the branches of trees and place tb~m across the sylvan deities by suitable offerings, form a mouth of the pit so that the captive may not predominent part. A Manthravadi is the leader escape. Tamed elephants are brought and of aU agricultural operations. He fixes a day strong ropes are passed round the captive's for the ceremony of clearing the shrub, when neck. The pit is gradually filled up till the each member of the settlement contribu tes some fore-legs are SUppOI ted. It is then marched to paddy, nne or two cocoanuts, arrack, cocoanut the elephant cage under the care and vigi. oil, pepper, salt and betel leaves. Paddy is lence of the decoy elephants, where he is pounded and dehusked by the men themselves, gradually tamed by mahouts made ultimately led by the ManthravadL The offerings are then useful as a timber career gradually". (fyef 1939, taken to the site of the forest, proposed to be II, p. 242). cleared, and ceremonial cooking of rice is done only by men. A little flattened rice is also Uraly women are known for their skill in offered along with cocoanut and palmyra jag weaving fine ma ts. The other articles they gery". (Gnanambal, 1954, p. 9-10). prepare are baskets, pUlses to keep chewing In former days the Uralies practised shifting materials, ,.,innowing fans and coarse mats, cultivation. lyer - describes the mode of cul all used by them. These are prepared out of tivation in the following words: "They shift bamboo or reed strips. . annually and cultivate land on rotation of 6 A household without poultry is very rare in years. They begin jungle clearing in December, the Uraly settlemen ts. They very seldom con complete it in Januaryand burn the debris in sume eggs and poultry; not because thev are February. Paddy is then sown broadcast and tabooed but because they serve the immediate they hoe the soil in March and April. Women demand of pledging the &ame to the hawkers do the weeding and harvesting; all the remaining and money lenders for the paltry sum they work is done by men. The men clear the junole need. and burn the debris jointly. The pIa thy cle~rs In spite of their variegated source of income first a bi t and he is followed by the headman Uralies are always oppressed by hardship and and other Uralles. The headman then divides poverty. Even the economic life of those the land to each man who tends his cultivation. Uralies l who ha\e vast expanses of pepper and The men observe continence for three days after cardamom cultivations, is not so bright. The the jungle clearing is started". (lyer 1939, If.- never-ending economic dependence is essentially p. 241-242). due to the exploitation of the money lenders l!unting is a.nother occupation-cum-pastime, and hawkers. Hawkers carry things like alu WhICh the Urahes resort to. The habitat being minium utensils, ornaments of glass; cheap 100 ECONOMIC LIFE metals, plastic and rubber, salted fish, opium, or eVen ensuing crops, to which the hawker chilly, clothes, tobacco etc. to the Uraly settle readily agrees, as it is all the more advantageous ments, They never speak in terms of business to him. Even in case of on-the-spot . payment but show goodwill and intimacy to their in kind, the h!lwker puts a balance in the credit clients. They neVer demand on-the-spot pay of the customer, which swells up in course of ment for the commodities they sell. On the time. In this manner the cream of their hard other ha'nd, they insist on payment in kind. labour is snatched away by the outsiders, lodg Payment in kind being always approximate, they receive more for the commodities sold. Very ing the Uralies in everlasting indebtedness and often the Uralies pledge their standing crops hardship. 101 CJIAPTER . tx . " ;LIFE CYCLE Birt .. womanplathy. ','In, the .form~r days", reports . stoppage 'of 'tQe .ne'nstruation ·Bow, after Krishna Iyer, "the woman' remains in the ·first marrIage, is . considered . a.s . the beginning of tree house for 4 days in seclusion. She spends pregnancy. This is followed, by morning sickness another six days in the shed close to the. h'it (Iyer, 1939, II.) " which at Vancbiv~yal is k~own as 'masakai' and at Thoqupuzba by the Malayalam term 'Vyaku~ .. Certain tabooes are imposed on a woman in A t the 7th month of pregnaJ;lcy. if convenient, or confinement. She cannot eat the flesh of 'Thur sometime before confinement, a rite is perfor appan', wild pig, squirrel and fish. Neither can med, aimed at warding off evil spirits. This is she eat tapioca nor can she use milk produ~ts. known as 'Cheppiyuttu' or 'perr'Ucheppu' in the Thodupuzha range. It is performed as follows: A charm for easy labour' is reported from "There is no auspicious day as such for the VanchivayaI. If the pain is acute and prolonged, perror~ance of the rite. Any 9ay, convenient to the 'mantravadi' chants a spell over a vessel of the parties co~cerned, is Jj.xed by the mantravadis. water, which the woman drinks. A little of it is In the morning Qf that'day; the woman bathes, rubbed on her abdomen. wears washed cloths and·,stands facing the east. The ne"'i~born child is bathed in cold' water The mon(ravudi draws a circle round her with sometimes more than once a (lay. It is' fed, only his right big toe, takes four strings of threads, on mother's milk. The naming' ceremony of. tlie ties them together at the top in a knot and chil.d takes place when the mothef and' child are suspend'S! them; so that the' four strings faU on shifted to the 'kulimadam'. ' On the last day oJ f~~l' sides rifthe woman, the one in front reach the poilu tion period, tbe' new-born ch.ild is ~iven ing' the 'big toe. The mantravadi takes a burning a name by the plathy. "ames are given either torch made of rags tied rogether and dipped in from the mother's side or from the fathet'~s side. oil and goes round the' circle drawn reciting Kelan, Koran, VeIlan, Karuthan and Thevan some spells to the jingling to Kilukkupetli. are some of the names for males while the fe~ At the end of the first round he buros a little males are given names like Thevy, Veluthy, of the thread resting pn the toes and at tbe end Karumby, Karikky etc. Nowadays, however, of each successive round he burns a rart of the names' 'Such as Shaskaran, 'Gopalan etc. are thread at' rhe kne~, waist; elbows respectively. given for males and Sumathy, Kowsalya' etc. At t~ last round a knot resting on the head is are given for females .. This day is also consi taken and burnt off which completes the rites". dered as the day for rice-eating and boring of (Gnambal, 19-54, 23.,.28), ear. Either the pIa thy or the child's grandfather may do this functi~n. ' -- Pregnant woinen a.re lodged in the seclusion shed for confinement, locally known as • pilla Puberty madam'. The 'pillamadl:lm' is constrt.!cted, A girl in her puberty period has to live' in generally at a di6tance from the seU lewen t si te, tree. Tbis is to avoid danger of wild eleph a seclusion shed, built either on tree tops or oh on a hills, for a period, of s.even days when she takes ants" In some areas, however, where the eleph bath everyday. Male -members are 'tabooed from meDace . is not .lUuch, 'piUamadaros' are ant seeing her during this period. One or two women constructed O{l;;t.he' g~Qwnd as ,veIL. may keep company with her. On the 8th day QJ:' 'The delivery is unattended and the confined wheQ ,the ~ep.stTual ; ,discharge ceases I) small woman has to prepare her own food. When a rite ~ perform~d to dispell pollution. Tn: the \V'Om~n is· about to become a . mother, she is blorning, sM is..given a bath but this time sittjng segregated. She may be attended by an. old on a stone. A mixture of a little cow dUll!; woman oc her mother. After delivery. the and some coconut 011 is sl()wly dropped _o,n plac~nta is buried in a remote place by ber, and tbe he{ld of the girl by a woman plathy from tbe child,is given a bath,. The pollution lasts a jacj('..feaf spoon. Tn the absence of a. wOiAan fc>r 16 days. On tbe 17th day it is dispelled by a plathy;this can be done, by her nathoon {broilter'~ 102 LIFE CYCLE wife). She is, now, brought hO'lle and tho~e tjaI. mates (m'lrappennu) for an Draly. The assembled present her with necklaces of bea':is' practice of sorrorate is common, but levirate is (kallumala) or other ornaments. This may, ,or vf!ry rare, As clan exogamy is scrupulously may not be, followed by a fedst. A t the pllice' observed marriages between parallel cousins are where she has taken bath, a colocasia plant never allowed. "Bilateral cross cousin marriages or a plantain is planted symbolising fertility occur along with levi ration of both the types for the 'voman. After the purification rite, the and sororal p()lygyny. Obligatory marriage-in girl returns to her normal' activities. ·"Where hlw of wife' is'an irriportan~ _cqstom",' obServe~ cow dung is both the persons (husbands) must exchange rnd band) of the groom carries a basket contain the girl to be exchanged must come from the clan ing the dress for the bride, consisting of a loin (kuttom) of the husband, failing, from annan cloth or saree, a blouse, a skirt and a bodice. thampi (brother clan). The second one is known The members of the party are treated to a as 'kadamai koduthathu' or 'mothalukoduka', feast before they start for the bride's settlerr,ent. that is, a girl is given on loan (kadam) to a man The feast, generally .consists of boiled tapioca who, for the -present, is not in a position to and uns.weetened black coffee. offer anyone for his wi fe. This loan stands for At the. bride's settlement the procession is years and the man will have to replace a girl greeted by her father the Kanikkaran and other from his o\"'-'n clan to the clan to which his wife relatives, The system of bride-price is not in belongs. The thi rd one is known as 'dharma vogue among the Uralies. However, an amount mai koduthathu' or 'enamai koduthathu' or of Rs 5, a second cloth, some betel leaves and 'lohiam'. A family having more unmarried tobacco are presented to the bride's mother. It females than it requires, disposes them by rna rri is mentioned in the 1931 Census report that the age to some men of the community, who having dowry consists of bill hooks, cloths and no girl to be exchanged destined to remain vessels. unmarried, without demanding any return_ It sometimes also happens that an unmarried man', The bride is ba thed, and dressed up in new as a last resort goes to mother's brothers or cloths brought by the groom. She is assisted by father's sisters, to get a wife through them". the groom's sister. The groom and the bride (Mukherjee, 1961). are seated side by side in a previously errected To sum up, the marriage among the Uraly is marriage booth. A lighted wick-oil:l'lmp not only regulated by the dual organisation. Clan (nilavilakku), one measure (edangazhy) of paddy exogamy is usually the controlling factor for and a nazhL (four nazhis make one edan\!azhi) of arranging marriage. Cross cousins and wife's rice and a kindy (a brass metal vessel with a long sisters are also the potential mates for him. spout) of water are placed on a reed mat in front of the couple. The groom, now holding Proposals for. marriage start from the boy's the right hand of the bride takes three rounds side, as It is believed by them that "a girl never of the auspicious things kept on the reed mat. seeks a husband". Generally it is the father. along Thereafter the groom ties a tali (marriage with the boy's maternal uncle and brother-in badge) round the neck' of the bride. The law, who initiates the proposals. They approach ceremony is presided over by the Kanikkaran. the girl's father and brother and request for the The party is treated to a feast, in which the girl. It is necessary th.at the Kanikkaran (head newly wedded couple partake -in the same leaf man) of the respective settlements is also plate. informed about the proposal. The girl, is given ~ chance to see the boy before the alliance is If time permits the bride is taken to the approved. Par this purpose, the boy along groom's settlement on the same day. There, all with his brother-in-law and the Kanikkaran, the invited are treated to a feast, and the invi visits the girl's house on an appointed day. If tees disperse. both. parties agree to the proposal, the girl's Besides the regular marriage, "Sometimes a father ceremonially-accepts some betel-leaves and man and a woman by mutual consent elope into areca-nuts as a token of good-will, and a day is the jungle. There, they live togeth(;r until dis fixed for betrothal, which takes place at the boy's covered and brough t back by the relations. A house. This is the occasion to fix the date for panchayat is held and they are recognised as marriage. husband and wife. There is no fine or feast" On the marriage day the bridegroom, dressed (Iyer, 1939, IT, 230). Thurston too reports the in new cloths consisting of a loin cloth, a shirt existence of such a marriage, "There exists and an upper cloth, and his party, consisting among the Uralies, a kind of informal union of his father, brother-in-law, maternal uncle, one called 'kuduvali'. A man and woman will by or two old women, groom's sister, kanikkaran mutual agreement, elope into the jungle -and and a few other elderly members of the settle live there together, till they are discovered and ment, go in a procession to the bride's brought back by their relations". (Thurston, settlement. The brother-in-law (sister's hus- 1909, VII, p. 225) LIFE CYCLE As indicated earlier, an Uraly experiences b, some of the relatives present at the spot, as considerable difficulty in acquiring a spouse. he breaths his last. Immediately after death the He, therefore, guards his wife with jealousy, headman of the village is informed who sends leaving little room for illicit relations. Further, people around to inform the dead man's kith it is reported that they have a high standard of and kin. Meanwhile, the corpse is covered morals. lyer reports, "when a woman commits with a cloth and laid on a reed mat, inside the adultery in the High Ranges, the woman's house in the north-south direction, with the husband sends her away to her parent's· home. head at the south. A lighted oil-wick-brass The village council doe:> not interfere. If a man lamp (nilavilakku) is kept at the head. Gene commit3 adultery· in the Neriamangalam Range rally the disposal takes place only after all the a fine is inflicted by (he village council, the near relatives are assembled. fn case they do members of his clan collect the fine from among not reach in time, the corpse may be disposed themselves and pay the amount". (Iyer, 1939, II, of by those who arrived by then. p.232) The body is washed by those whQ do not Divorce among the Uralies is very rare. If at belong to the clan of the deceased. Those who all there is a divorce there should be sufficient are rdatej by marriclg-: are elCpected to render grounds for separation. Loose morality, laziness all services connected with the burial ceremony. and ill-health on the part of the wife 'nay lead to The hair of tile corpse is oiled and combed. divorce, when the husband sends the divorced The corpse is then laiJ on a reed mat in one of woman to her parents. the front roo ns Those relat~d through his wife The 1961 Census returns provide mucj infor (ljandhus) are to spread kodi (nen cloth) on the mation on the marital status of the Uralies. c->rp,e. At times the number of 'kodis' may Out of a total of 2,597 persons co lsisting of go up to 10 or 15, depending on the number of 1,345 males and 1,252 f.::males 1,042 (4J.12;{,) p~rs.)ns attenJing fram the wif~'s side. The are married, out of w;lich 511 (37.9)/'0) are son-in-law or brother-in-law, as the case may males and 531 (42.41%) are females. The ex b~, has to place sone paddy grains on eitber cess in number of the married wO.nen suggests side of the de.id body. The corpse is, now tied the presence of polygamy among tnc UraLies. with the fibre of Helicteres-isora on a bier made 13 persons have be.;!n returned as divorcej or of the branches of 'Unnam' tree anj carrie1 to separated with 5 males and 8 females. The the grave. Tne nephew anJ the sons will be figures also reveal that the incidence of divorce among those carrying the bier. is negligible. 40 males and 57 females have Uralies bury their dead. Th~re is no common been returned as widowed. As mentioned ear burial ground for them. A grave is dug, six lier child marriage has not found fa vo ur wi th feet for males and about breast-deep foc the them. None in the age-group of 0- 14 has been females, some lOu to 20D yards away from the returned as married. In the age-group 15 to 44 settlement, generally at the south of it. At the 210 (37.43%) of males and 60 (11.8[%) females bottom of the grave, dug in the north-south are unmarried. The unmarried males outnum direction, are spread bamboo pieces crosswise, ber the females suggesting the difficulty of thus giving a mat-like appearance. The corpse getting spouses perhaps Without a sister. In is now lowered anj placed on them and covered this age-group 58.6510 of males and 85.43% of again with plaited bamboo over which dry reed temales are married. fhe widowed and divor leaves are spread. The sides may also be ced are comparatively negligible again sugg covered wi th plaited bamboo. The sister's Son estlOg that very feN divorc~s are met with of the deceased throws some earth in the grave among the U ralies. In the age-group of 45 and in the first instance, followed by others and fill above, with 205 male.> and 150 females, only i the grav.::. Stones, one each, are kept above the male and 2 females are never married. while 182 grave at the head, legs and the sides. A long males and 97 females are married, 23 males and knife, a winnowing fan and some betel leaves 48 females have been returned as widowed and are also placed at the grave, sUPP0:ied to be 3 females have been returned as divorced or used by the departed spirit on its way to the separated in this age-group. netherworld. Death The assembled relatives return to the dead A little water is given to the dying person, man's house after a purificatory bath, when if, 105 URALY purse permits, some rice gruel called 'pashni The spirit of the dead is called back in case kanjy' IS selved to them. Death pollution lasts of important persons. This is done on the for 16 days and is observed by all the clansmen first death anniversary. On this day, the ch ief of the deceased. On the 17th day, the plathi, mourner, usually the sister's son of the deceased, ceremoniously removes pollution by dropping a places on an arrow-root leaf things like paddy, mixture, made out of oil, water, cow-dung, fruits, tender cocoanuts, cocoanut oil etc. The toddy, arrack etc., on the head of each individual of the clan. chief mourner, who observes continence for three days, prior to the day of the ritual, salutes The dead body of a woman, who dies during the sacred objects with folded hands and appeals ti,e pollution period of puberty, menstruation or birth is carried by women only, lest the the spirit of the dead person to protect him sylvan deities should be angry. A woman plathi and his clansmen from diseases and calamities. has to a t tend the ceremony, in this case. A small stone, got washed from a mountain The dead body of a person died of smallpox spring, is dedicated to the spirit and thereafter is disposed of by the plathi. kept in the house. lOS CHAPTER X RELIGION The Uralies are known' for their witchdoctor, partly because of the fear of witch-craft and the 'Plathi'. Their religion is limited to the black magic they practise. To become a Plathi worship of Sastha, the sylvan deities and the he, or she, as the case may be, is to be favoured spirits' of the dead. ' by tu!!: sylvan deities \phile on their wanderings Th'e \~orship of Sastha is resort~d to ,at in the forest. They are, then accepted by the Ayyappan Kovil and Arakulam, once a year. in society and thenceforth become the leaders of the month of Dhanu (December-January) when the religious ceremonies. Plathis intimate 'the da tes connected with sowing, harvesting, puber all the Uralies contribute for a common feast ty rights, birth. death etc. He, with his arranged by the Plathi. Kilukkupetty, is capable of doing and undoing The idea of a supreme Go:i or 'andavan', things, Thus he works as a via-media between as they call it, is n>t very much developed in the man and the supernatural. their concept of religion. They are not cap'lble of identifying tile 'an iav1Q' nor understand the Cale!)dar of festivals attributes and manifestations of that power. Ouam is one of the impJrtlnt festival of the Therefore, no special worship is made to the U ralies, which is celebrated as an occasion for 'andavan'. A number of deities like Nedithu the propitiation of the spirits of the ancestors. Bhadrakali, Nedithu Sastha, Kulamma Reverence to Mahabali or Thrikkakara Appan, as Thevar. Kizhakkamala Ilha\lavathy etc. are is don~ by the Hin:iu castes, is not made by worshipped by the U falies. These dei ties pre the Uralies during Ouam. On this day, after an side over various aspects of their life. They are early bath in the morning, they visit the neigh worshipped for a bumb~r crop, to ward off bouring places of worship. The young children contagious diseases, to kee;> the wild elephants m iy be given ne IV dress. A variety of dishes away and also to extend the Uralies a happy invluding rice, meat, vegetables, fish etc. are and prosperous life. The Sastha is esp~cially prepared. B~fore they have the feast, a part invoked for a better climate and also to avoid of the m~als is served anj kept in the courtyard the troubles from evil spirits and wild animals. on a plantain leaf for th~ chavumuthanmmar while the Bhadrakali" protects them from (dead ances tors), [n the evening they engage epidemics like small-pox. themselves in fun and frolic. < Kambukali' and No uniform pattern is followed regarding the vattakali are some of the folkdances they resort worship of the spirits of the ancestors fhe to. The Uralies of Thodupuzh:l range, join the spirits of the dead are invariably invoked both at n~ighb:)Uring M:tla Arayans, to perform 'Kam the time of calamities an:i at the time of social bukaH'. In this, a grJup of people holding ceremonies. sticks in their hand~, stand in a circle, around a lighted lamp in front of whiJh are placed betel The most important of the spirits of ancestors leaves and nuts. Before the co nmencement of is that of Moothan, who is invoked invariably the dance each member of the troop touches before the commencement of sowing and har the feet of tile Asan (teacher) a'! a symbol of vesting season and on festive occa'lions like reverence and respect. The members move ·in Vishu and Ouam. a circle while beating the sticks one another in a Besides, the ruins of local temples are rhythmic manner. Folk songs, from the Hindu venerated by the Uralics. At these te.nples, in epic Ramayana or Bhuatha, are sun~ while they the Thodupuzha range, poojas and prayers are dance. 'Vattakali' is another form of 'Kambu offered by Brahmin priests, and the Uralies kali', with the sole differ~nce of clappin~ the: frequent them. hands inste3d of striking with sticks. 1il this generally, the women take part. As indicdted earlier, the Plathi~s, both male and female, are kept ill reverence by each and Vishu is another festival for the Uralies. every U raly. They are al~o kept in reverenc~ This falls in the month of Melam (April) when by the local trib:li and non-tribal pJpulation, offerings are made to the ancestral spirits. 107 URALY Like the other Hindu castes, the Uralies beiieve Thus, the reI igion of the U ralies is a cong that the fortune for the ensuing year depends lomeration of the belief in the Hindu deities on the nature of things they see first, at day supernatural spirits and spirits of the dead. The break. To ensure this a bronze oil lamp is concept of hell and heaven is understood by lighted early in the morning in front of which them. They believe that the benevolent deities are kept auspicious articles like new pieces of do good to them, and the worship of the same cloth, cocoanut, plantain fruits, betel leaves and is not compUlsory. On the other hand, the malevolent dei ties are capable of creating nuts, and a bunch of 'konna' flowers to be seen trouble to the members of their tribe, and as early in the morning by the inmates of the such, they do everything possibl~ to appease settlement. them. 108 CHAPTER XI INTERCOMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP Uralies live with other tribes like Mala They believe that they have all migrated to the A rayan, Muthuvan, Mannan and Ullatan and present habitat at the same time and therefore Hindu castes like Pulayan, Parayan. and there is no hesitation to intermarry and inter Nairs as well as Christians and ~uslims who dine. Members of these tribes call each other are also found living far and near in the Uraly as 'aliyans' (brother-in-law). The untouchable habitat. castes of Parayans and Pulayans address the Uralies address the Mala Aryan as 'Vaiyanar', Uralies as Thamburan and accept food from and take meals from the latter. The Mala them. The Uralies, on the other hand, treat Arayans, on the other hand, would not take food the Pulayans and the Parayans as untouchables from the Uralies. The Mannans are addressed by and would not partake of meals with them. the Uralies as 'aliyans' (brotber-in-Iaw). How The Christians and Muslims are addressed by ever, the Uralies consider themselves to be name by the Uralie5 anj accept food from the polluted by the touch of the Mannan and thus latter. Nairs, in this region, are addressed take a purificatory bath if touched by them. by the Uralies as 'Pilla mar' or 'Thamburan'. The inter-tribai relationship between the Uralies accept fooj from them but not vice Muthuvan, Uliatan and Uraly is very cordial. versa. 109 CHAPTER xrr STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL CONTROL, PRESTIGE AND LEADERSHIP At the present day, the Uraly tribe is contro ditional headmen. Both the 'Muttukanies' and lled by a loose-struc tured leadership. There the 'Nattukanies' acquire their office~ through are evidences to show that, in the past, there inheritance. After their death their· sons or, was an effective traditional social or!lanisa in their absence, nephews succeed to their posts. tion headed by a karanavan. Even during these days the forest officials guided them in selecting The 'Muttukani' is often called as the chief the head as well as functioning of the council. 'Kanikkaran' and he mediates between the people and the Government. He may be invited The Uraly settlement is known by the term to preside over social functions like marriage, 'kudi'. There may bea few 'kudies' in one forest puberty ceremony etc. The 'Nattukani' plays range. The kudi is controlled by a headman a prominent part in the arrangements and 10caJlv known as 'Kanikkaran·. The 'Kani conduct of all the social functions of the tribe. kkara~' may be of two types. The 'Muttukani' An equally important person in the tradi is the chief 'Kanikkaran' and the 110 CHAPTER XIII SOCIAL REFORM AND WELFARE No instance of social reform is reported from 'Chilangamanimala', 'Thaliku t tam'. 'Kallumala' among the Uraly tribe. The impact of educa etc. are very rapidly being replace1 by cheap tion, ameliorative measures and the direct metal chains. More and more women use contact with the plainsmen have brought to blouses. Bamboo tubes and earthern pots used them a number of cbanges in their social for cooking and serving of food are being re structure, customs and manners. The area was placed by aluminium vessels and enamelled I)ot well connected by the plains till recently. pIa tes. Many of the men wear slacks, shirts. The construction of a motor able road to the baniyans and, at least a few, wear goggles. Idikky projec[, passing thrJugh most of the Uraly habitats, has brought about far-reaching Some of the important social customs are changes in the life and culture of the Uralies. being dispensed with. Formerly an Uraly could Now, hawkers from the plains reach the Uraly not get a wife unless he gave his sister in settlements almost everyday. The communi exchange. Though the incideace has been cation facilities have also helped in establishing reduced, there are many grown-up m:m who a number of welfare centres and institutions in even now are unmarried. Kadutnamanikam, an tae area. There are trib:ll residential schools, influential and wealthy 'Muttukani' of the hospitals etc., at a few centres. One such centre Thodupuzba range is partly responsible for this is 'Naliyani'. This c.;:ntre is supposed to be a change. Some 20 years back Kaduthamanikam tradItional cultural centre of the Uralies belong preached against the practice of marriage by ing to Thodiyanal, Methotty, Uppupara, exchange and severely criticized the custom as Kolamavu, Kuvakandam etc. outmoded and unnecessary. This caught the Changes in material culture are also per fancy of many forward-looking youn~ men who ceptible among them. Traditional ornaments like in their turn became his followers. 111 CHAPTER XIV BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Anonymous Uralis, Sholagas and Trivandrum, 1939, pp. Irulas. Bulletin of the 223-247. Madrs Govt. Museum, 9 Luiz, A. A. D. UraH KUJuman Vol. 4, No.3, 1903. Tribes of Kerala, New 2 Aiyappan, A. Hand made pottery of Delhi Bbartiya Adima Urali Kurumbas of ja ti Sangh, 1962, pp. Wynad, Sou th India,' 236-243. Man, Vol. 47, 1947, UraJy pp. 57-59, " Tribes of Kerala, New 3 Bhattacharya, J. N. UTaH (of Dravida Delhi, Bhartiya Adima country) Hindu Castes Jati Sevak Sangh, )962, ard Sects, Calcutta, pp. 244-248. 1896, pp. 288-290 10 Mateer S. Native life of Travan 4 Chatterjee, B. K. Dermatoglyphics of the core, Trivandrum 1883 .. Chakravartti UraUs of Kerala. Man 11 Mukherjee, Marriage customs and Manish Ranjan and in India, Vol. 40, No.1, Bhabananda kinship organisation of Gupta, Pabitra 1960, pp. 36-51. the Uraliof Travancore 5 Gnanambal, K. The Magical rites of the Bulletin of the Depart UraH (Agriculture, ment of Anthropologv, Puberty, pregnancy and Vol. I, No.2, 1952, curing of diseases) pp 37-54. Bullettin of the Depart Dual 0 r g ani sat ion ment of Anthropology among the Urali of Vol. 3, No.2, 1954, Travancore. The funeral customs of Vanyajati, Vo)' 2, No. " the UraH. Bulletin of 4, 1954, pp. 112-117. the Lepartment of Family structure and Anthropoligy VoL 4, " laws of residence, s c )'TO. 1, 1955. cession and inheritance The Religious bd:efs of among the Uralis of " the UraH, Bulletin of Travancore. the Department of Vanyajati, Vol. 3. No. Anthropology Vol. 4, 3, 1955, pp. 99-104. No.2, 1955. Urali 6 Haimendrof, F. Bette - Kurumbas or " Comparative study of Uralis: Ethnographic the kinship system of notes on some com six matrilIneal tribes. munities of the Wynad. Eastern Anthropologist, The eastern Anthro Vol. 14, No.3, 1961, pologist Vol. 6, No.1, p.216. pp 18-36. 12 Nag, M. K. Family structure of the 7 Hutton, J. H. urali Kanikkar and the Urali Caste in India, Bombay, of Travancore. 1951, p 293 [glossary) Man in lndia, Vol. 36, 108. No.3, 1956, pp. 219- 8 Krishna Iyer, L. A. Urali 223 The Travancore Tribes 13 Nagam Aiya, V. The Travancore State and Castes, Vol. II, Manual, Vol. II 1906 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY 14 Padmanabha History of Kerala, Vol. 16 Sengupta, P. N. Studies on the diet and Menon, K. P. III, Ernaku1am 1933 and Biswas S. K. nutri tional sta tus of the 15 Rivers, W. H. R. Observations of the Kanikar and U rali tri vision of the UraBs and bes of Travancore Sholagas Bulletin of the Depart Bulletin of the Madras ment of Anthropology, Government Museum, Vol, V, No, 1, 1956 Vol. 5, No.1, Anthro 17 Thurston, E. Urali pology, 1903, pp. 3-18 Castes and Tribes of Kinship and marriage Soutllern India, Vol. " in India, Gond, U rali VII, Madras, 1909, pp. 242-257 Man in India, Vol. I, 18 VelupiJIai T. K. The Travancore State 1921, No.1, pp. 6-10 Manual, Vol. I, 1940 CENSUS PUBLICATIONS 1 Stuart, H. A. UraH sus Commissioner for Census of India, 1891, India, 1930·31 Cens1.ls Vol. Xli!, of India, 1931, Vol, I Madras 1893, p. 248 India, Part nT, Simla, , 2 Aiyar, N. S. Urali 1935, P. 11 Census of India, 1901, 6 Iyer, L. A. K. & Urali VoL XXVI; Travancore Pillai, N. K. The primitive tribes of Part I, Report, Trivan Travancorc Census of drum, 1903, pp. 350- India, 1931, Vol. I, 352 India, part III: Ethno 3 Aiyar, N. S. Mala UraIi graphical Simla, 1935; Census of India. 1911, pp. 217-240 Vol. XX 111, Travan 7 Ayyar, S. D. UraH core, Part 1, Report, Census of India, 1931, Trivandrum, 1912, P. Pudukkottai State Re 262 port, Pudukkottai, " UraIi 1933, p 78 Census of India, 1911, 8 Pillai, N. K. Thantan (Urali) Vol. XXIII; Travan Census of India, 1931, core, Part I, Reporf, Vol. xxvur: Travan Trivandrum, 1912, P. core Part I, Report, 268 Trivandrum 1932, pp. 4 Ayyar, S. K. M. UraH 385-386, 416 Census of India, 1921, 9 Narayanan Thamp! Census of India, 1941, Vol. XXV, Travancore, Vol. XXV, Travancore, Part I, Report, Trivan Part I & II drum, 1922, p. 114 10 Devassy M. K. Census of India 1961, 5 Hutton, J. H. Uralis Vol. VII, Kemla, Part Tour notes of the Cen- I A (i) U3 APPENDICES I Percentage of Uraly population to the IV Percentage of workers among total Scheduled tribe population in the State Uraly tribe Total population Number of Uraly of Scheduled Tribe Total population in the State of Uraly Percentage Total workers (S.T) in population the State Stated as % r------"------, ,----'---.---, 212,762 2,597 1.22 Total Persons Males Females Tolal Males Females II Population of the Uraly (S. T) living in 2,597 1,172 735 437 45.13 2830 16.83 the Rural Areas of the State as % of total population of the Uraly (S. T) in the State as a whole V Workers belonging to Uraly (S.T) in Areas Population of Population of Uraly % of the Uraly Uraly In JIving in the living in indicated below, stated as % to the total the State Rural areas rura I areas Uraly (S.T) population of the state Stated as % of the 2,597 2,582 99.42 total Uraly Nnmber of population of III Sex Ratio-Uraly Total population workers same sex ,.-__.A. __ ---, Population of r----"----., r----"------, Ura)y in Male Female Male Female Male Female the State as a Sex Ratio (females whole Males Females per lOCO Males) 1.345 1)252 T 735 437 54.65 34.90 R 733 436 54.50 34.82 2,597 1,345 1,252 931 U 2 0.15 0.08 VI PopUlation of Uraly classified by industrial category of workers and Non-workers Percentage distri- bution of popula- Percentage distri- Distribution of Industrial category of tion by workers bution under each workers under workers Total and Non-workers category each sex ,-___ .A.___ ---, ,-___J.- __-., r----"---'"'"' ,-----"---...... p M F P M F (> M F P M F Total 2,597 1,345 1,252 100.00 )00,00 100,00 Workers 1.172 735 437 45.13 54.65 34.90 100.00 62.71 37.29 100.00 100.00 ]CO.OO I Cultivators 1,115 692 423 42.93 51.45 33'78 100eO 62.06 37.94 95.14 94.15 96.79 II Agricultural labourers 18 9 9 0.69 0.67 0.72 100.00 50.00 :0.00 1.54 1.22 2.06 nr Mining and quarrying 22 22 0.85 ].64 100.00 100.00 1.88 2.99 IV Household Industry 1 0.04 0.08 100.00 100.00 0.08 0.23 V Manufacturing 1 0.04 0.08 100.00 ... 100.00 0.08 0.23 VI Construction VII Trade and Commerce 2 0.08 0.08 0.08 100.00 50.00 50.00 0.17 0.14 0.23 VIII Transport, storage and communication 1 1 0.04 0.07 100.00 100.00 0.09 0.t4 IX Other Services 12 10 2 0.46 0.74 0.16 100.00 83.33 16.67 1.02 1.36 0.46 Non·workers 1,425 610 illS 54.87 45.35 65.10 100.00 42.81 57.19 114 URALY VII Category of persons not at work as % of the total population of U raly, 1961 Population of S. T. accord- As % of the total popula- Number Category ing to category tion of the tribe ,-----_-"'------., r------"------., ,..-----...... --.----, Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 2,597 ] .345 1,252 Full time students 396 216 180 15.2S 8. 32 f.93 Seeking employment 0.04 0.04 Employed but seeking work Others 1,028 394 634 39.58 15.17 24.41 Total 1,425 610 815 54.S7 23.49 31.38 VIII Population of Uraly Classified by Marital status and age-groups,1961 Age group r------___..A.., ____ ------, Marital Status Total 0-14 ] 5-44 45+ ,..-___..A.. __-., ...--__..A.. ___-., ,-___A ___--.. ,..--__.A. ___ -, P M F P M F P M F P M F Total 2,597 1,345 1,252 1,172 578 594 1,069 561 508 356 206 150 Never Married 1,445 789 656 1,172 578 594 270 210 60 3 ] 2 2 Married 1,042 51J 53] 763 329 434 279 182 97 3 Widowed 97 40 57 26 17 9 71 23 48 4 Divo reed or Separated 13 5 8 10 S 5 3 3 5 Unspecitied Status IX Percentage Distribution of Uraly popUlation under each category of marital status by age-groups ,..-______Age-group..A.. _____ -, Total 0-14 15-44 ,-____..A.. ____-., 45+ r----..A..-~ -"'-----, ,..- --.. Marital status P M F P M F P M F P M F Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 45.13 42.97 47.·U 41.16 41.71 40.58 13.71 15-32 11.98 Never married 100.00 JOO.OO 100.00 81.11 73.26 90.55 18.68 26.61 9.15 0.21 0.13 0.30 2 Married 100.00 100.00 100.00 73.22 64.38 81.73 26.78 35.62 18.27 3 Widowed 10000 100.00 100.00 26.80 42.50 '5.79 73.20 57.50 84.2' 4 Divorced or separated 100.00 100.00 100.00 76.92 100.00 62.50 23.08 37.50 5 Unspecified status 115 APPENDICES X Percentag~ distribution of Uraly popUlation according to age-group and marital status Total 0-14 15-44 45+ ~--~----~ ~---~~---~ ,------"---~ r-----~------"\ MarItal status P M F P M F p M F P M F Total 100.00 100.00 ICO.OO 100.00 100.00 100.00 100 00 100.00 100.00 100.00 ,100.00 100;00 Never Married ~5,64 58.66 52.40 100.00 100.00 100.00 25.26 37.43 11.81 0.84 0,49 1.33 2 Married 40.12 37.99 42.41 71.37 58.65 85.43 78.37 88.35 64.67 3 Widowed 3.74 2.98 4.55 2.43 3.03 1.77 19.95 11.16 31.00 4 Divorced or '-separated 0.50· 0.37 0.64 0.94 0.89 0.99 0.84 2.00 5 Unspecified status XI Literacy of Uraly Percentage distribution Number Percentage of population Category of r------.A------, r--'-"--- -~ ---~._, r------A.------., literacy Persons Males Females Persons Males Femalts Persons Males Females Total 2,597 1,345 1,252 100.00 100.00 100.00 Literate 410 281 129 100.00 68.54 31.46 15.79 20.89 10.30 Illiterate 2,187· 1,064 1,123 100.00 48.65 51.35 84.2! 79.11 89.70 XU Religion of Uraly Number Percentage Distribution ~-----. ---"------, r- Religion Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Total 2,597 1,345 1,252 100.00 100.00/ ' 10000 Christians 65 32 33 2.50 2.38 2.64 Hindus 2,532 1,313 1,219 97.50 97.62 97.36 Others !j,' ',II) 1) I THE 'IRAV ANCORE TRIBES AND CASTES, VOLUME II By L. A. Krishna Iyer, Trivandrum. 1939 Pages 223 - 247. URALY Introduction ancestors of the UraIis are said to have accom panied him and were probably left there to rule The Uralis are found in the Periyar, Vandan (ali) that locality (ur). This fits in with another met, Thodupuzha and Neriamangalam Ranges account that is current among them. of Travancore. In the Periyar and Vandanmet Ranges, they live at over 3,000 feet above sea Formerly there was a chief known as Nedittu level, and their geographical conditions have Thampuran ruling over a tract of about four condemned them to such isolation that they are sq uare miles of land called Nedittu in the Ara one of the tribes least modified by civilization. kulam hills of the Thodupuzha Range. The According to Mateer, they were orginally "slaves U ralis were his vassals. They were fond of the employed by their Nair master in cultivating s~eet .~oddy drawn from Azhathenga (Arenga rice on the lower slopes of hills. They after IVlghtJl) and used to tap the trees for it. The wards migrated to highlands, changing their chIef observed the tapping of the palm for some quarters annually and obtaining good crops of days, and desired to drink some .of the juice. rice from forest clearings". They call the He therefore climbed the tree unobserved for a Malayarayans 'Vazhiyanmar', therebyacknow few days and drank the juice. As the Uralis ledging that the latter once ruled over tracts of were not getting the usual quantity of juice land. They numbered at the last Census 916. they grew suspicious, and resolved to keep The subjoined tab1e will show that they had watch over the tree. They found the chief increased in number. climbing the tree and drawing the juice. PraIa Urali discharged an arrow at the chief. It did Year of Census Total Males Females not strike him, but hit the bottom of the bam 1901 220 106 114 boo tube containing th~ juice. He then dis 1911 366 169 197 charged seven arrows against the chief, but they 1921 230 129 101 all missed their aim and struck the bottom of 1931 916 454 462 !he. tube. The chief was much infuriated by the lOcldent. He decended from the tree and said In 1931 they were classified for the first time "May you adiyars (slaves) remain prosperous. under Hindu and tribal religion, 846 being the May those who aimed at my life suffer annihila former and 70 the latter. Gon". Nedittu Thampuran then left for Thodlol Origion and Traditions of the Tribe puzba. The Uralis consider that they were his The Uralis claim that they were the original vassals, and pay homage to him in his temple at inhabitants of the hills. Their habitat is strewn Nedittu. It is said that Nedittu Thampuran came from Madura. To this ddy. the rock with dolmens and alignments which are memen where cardamoms are dried is called Nedittu tos of their remote past. The dolmens were con para. The bridle-path passing by the area is sidered to be treasuretrove, but this idea is called Nedittu thadam. These names are remini. only a figment of the imagination. Alignments, scent of his former existence in the locality, known as ambukallu or idalakallu, are said to The Urali families cursed by the chief are now have been left as a mark to indicate the existence extinct. There are some UraUs to whom the of dolmens. designation of Velar was given by the chief. The The Ural is say that tbey were dependants of title is hereditary in one family and descends the king of Madura. It was their duty to carry from father to son, who are reputed to be adept umbrellas in state processions. In ancient times many of the parts included in the Thodupuzha in magic. It is said that the Uralis migrated taluk belonged to the king of IMadura. Once from Thodupuzha taluk to higher elevations in when the king came to Neriamang:1larn, the the Vandanmet and Periyar Ranges. 117 URALY It is stated that the Mannans formerly held influence than they are in the Thodupuzha sway Over the UraJis, to whom they were a and Neriamangalam Ranges, and the clap system SOUrce of terror in the High Ranges. Any Urali is in its full vigour. who remained in a tree-house on the arrival of The origin of the clans is as follows:- t~e Raja Mannan was caught and severely chas tIsed. The Raja used to be the arbiter of their Those who went tfudging in the Kanam disputes. and inflicted very curious punishments (high forest) belonged to the Kanakuttom. on the delinquents. One of the items of punish Those who went clearing the way belonged to ment was ttat a culprit had a heavy stone placed the Vetti kuttom. Those who made their way on his back for a stipulated time, while his hand filthy with their excreta belonged to the Thuriya rested on the ground on two fingers. It was very kuttom. ThoFe who swept away the refuse expensive to seek justice at the hands of Raja belonged to the Periyila kuttom. Those who Manran, as it cost a UraH over forty paras of numbered the cut stumps on the way belonged paddy. The Raja Mannan visits them even now, to the Enniyari kutt<...m, and. tbose who atten and they supply him with provisions as a mark ded a feast on Onam day belonged to Cna ku of respect. Forrr:erly they used to pay a head ttom. The clans are exogamous, and children money of four chuckrams and one para of paddy belong to the clan of the mother, and are gi ven annuaIJy to the Raja MaLnan. They ceased mak names after those of the memher's of th~ ing this payment after they pas~ed intO. the tutel motber's clan. age of the Government of Travancore. They The solidarity of the clan is eVident in a call the Mannans 'Vazhi pulayar' and observe variety of ways. - Members of the same clan pollution if touched by them. consider themsel\'es to be brothers and sisters. Internal Structure of the Tribe If a man dies, all the clansmen observe pollution for sixteen days in Neriamangalam The Uralis of KaUipara hamlet in the Neria and seven days in Thodupuzha both in the mangalam Range have four clans, the Vayana hamlet and the adjoining ones· All thIJ clansmen var kuttom, Kanakuttom, Thuriya kuttom, and contribute t·lwards the expenses for the funeral Periyila kuttom. They are susceptible to the ceremonies on the fifteenth and sixteenth day. If influence of low-country men. 1 he Vayanavar a fine is inflicted on a man for an offence like kuttakars are numerically stronger than any adultery, the members of the clan collect the other clan; they marry women from any of the fine and pay it for him. If a man has a poor remaining clans. harvest, all the members of a clan help him wi th Among the Uralis of the Thodupuzha Range seed and paddy. there are four clans the K anakuttom, Periyila Habitations kuttom, Kodiyari kuttom, and Ennayari kuttom in the KaIlidamakkal hamlet. These clans are The UraB but is generally one-roomed. It also exogamous; a man can only marry a WOman is 12 feet by 10 feet in dimensions, and is built from any of the remaining clans. HeIe also of reeds and jungJewood posts. It is thatched they are susceptible to the influence of low with leaves of reeds. The floor of the hut is on country men. They cannot remember their a 1evel with the ground, and has a fire-place clans now. ill a corner. The huts are not huddled together in the High Ranges. They are isolated and the The UraUs of Van dan met Range have a system surroundings kept tidy. Each man bas an of eight exogamous clans. They are:- Anamadam (tree house) about fifty feet above 1 ODa kuttom 2 Thuriya kuttom ground in which they spend the nights beyond the 3 Kodiyari kuttom 4 Kana kuttom reach of elephants. Eacb hamlet bas a common 5 Vetti kuttom 6 Enniyari kuttom tree-house some distance from the habitations. 7 PeriyiIa kuttom 8 Vayanavar kuttom This is reserved for women in their menses, who The first four clans constitute brother iIloms, have also to spend two more days, after a bath, and a man of the Onakuttom cannot marry a in a second tree-bouse nearer their habitations. woman from any of the three remaining clans. Another separate tree house serves as their But he is free to marry a woman from the re granary. maimng four clans, which constitute brother In the hamlet of Kallidukanmavu in the in-law illoms. Here they are less under civilised Thodupuzha Range on the northern slope of 118 THE TRAVANCORE TRIBES AND CASTES .the hill, the fear of elephants have vanished. They are given pansupari first, and then served The slope is cut and levelled up and the hut with ligh~ refreshments of beaten rice and coffee is erected on the ground. Each hut is 12 feet decoction. After these formalities, the headman by 12 feet. There is separate cooking and sleep-· aad other relations gather. The boy's father ing accommodation. The floor is raised from then says that he wants the girl for his son, the ground by being buil t over th ree rows of and promises his own daughter in exchange for piles. It Qas a fireplace in one corner. In this the marriage. The two parties agree. If the hamlet some of the Uralis have fine pepper agreemen t is reached before harvest, they say vine cultivations. that the marflage may be celebrated after har Marriage Customs and Ceremonies vest, and they part after fixing the date. Among some uncivilized peoples the simplest On the day previous to the marriage, two way of purchasing a wife is to give a kinslVo.nan orr hree men from the bride's side visi t the in exchange for her. This is prevalent among bridegioom's hut. The next day the bridegroom the Australians. Among the UraUs marriage with his sister and party goes to the bride's is by exchange of sisters. No man can have a hut. The bride is given a cloth to wear round wife unless he has a sister whom he can give her loins, and one to cover her breasts. A feast in exchange. An Urali cannot purchase a wife is given to the assembled guests. There is no with property uf any kind. The age of the girl other ceremony. The girl to be taken in exchange who is to be given in exchange is of no consi is also given a loincloth and a breast cloth deration; she may happen to be even about four anj is taken to her husband's hut the same day. years old. Whatever hee age, the girl is :surren Sometimes a man and woman by mutual dered to the care of her future husband. who consent elope into the jungle. There they live bnngs her up carries her Oll his back in all his together until discovered and brought blCk ,peregrinations, and exercises only connubium by their relations A panchaya t is held and when she attains her age. Occasionally a girl they are recognized as husband and wife. There may be even two years old. Yet the exchange is no fine or feast. is inevi table. An U rali who has no sister to offer in marriage has often to lead an unmarried Polygamy life. Formerly an Urali married as many women Polygamy was widely prevalent formerly. as he had sisters to exchange. Now a man does It is now limited. A man now marries more not marry more than two wives. This plurality than one wife only to assist him in his of wives causes a number of young men to re agricultural operations or for want of progeny main unmarried. The result is an unequal -dis by his first wife. tribution of women as wives between the males of the community, the old men having more than Polyandry . the young ones, some of whom at times had to Polyandry is said to prevail where there is a do without any. Cross-cousin marriage is also in vogue. surplus of men. Mateer observes that the Uralis practised polyandry like the Todas, but it now The marriage ceremonial i.> simple, and takes appears to have died out. The Census of 1931 place both before and after puberty. When a shows there were 454 males and 462 females. man desires to have his son married, he goes along with two or three men to the girl's ,hut. In 1921, the fi~ures disclose th.it there was a shortage of women. Since that time, women If the girl's parents are averse to the marflage, have shown a higher survival rate. According they assume an attituJe. of reticence. The P~Ity to Pitt Rivers, the maintena'.lce of polygynoll~ tires them out by staYlUg there for the nIght in the hope of initiating a talk from the institutions in an aboriginal race is one of the best indications of its preservati0n as a race. olrl'S parents, but the latter remain silent. The Uralis of the presentdaydo not al;nit that the They however provide the p:lrty with fo:)1, and above custom prevailed among th;:m at .lny time. sleeping accommodation. At daybreak, they talk among themselves about being unable to Levirate obtain tne girl, and walk away in chagrin. A man may marry the wife of his deceased In the case of mutual agreement, the boy's elder or younger brother. A man may marry father and others are received with hospitality. t IVO sisters. 119 URAlY The system of marriage by exchange of sisters head by her nathune (husband's sister) or sister is found among the Ullatans and Malavetans in front of the hut. She then enters lhe hut. of Travancore, the Madigas of Mysore, the All the men of the hamlet present her with a Bhotiyas of the United Provinces, the Garos necklace of beads, but there is no feasting. In of Assam, the Australians, and other backward the hamlet of Kallidukanmavu of the Thodu peoples of the world. It seems probable tbat puzha Range, where the trouble of wild ele this practice was at first a simple case of barter phants has vanished, the seclusion-sheds are and that it originated in a low stage of savagery, built on the ground' In Thadiyinal, a gi rl on when women bad a high economic value as attaining puberty remains in the first treehouse labourers, but when private property was at so for four days After bathing on the fiflh day, rudimentary a stage that a man had no equiva she enters the second treehouse and remains there lent to give for a wife except another woman. for three days. On the eighth day she bathes The same economic motive might lead the and returns home Where cowdung is not offspring of such unions to marry each other, available, the gIrl is beaten with darba grass over and thus the:c'ustom of cross~cousin ' marriage .the head; pollution then ceases. ' - , .. . . '. . ~ would arise and 'be perpetuated;' Menstruation' It is said- that the exchange 'of sis ters by theit " Duririg 'menstruation, the separation of the brothers was pro1:)!lbly, -older thaIl the exchange ~exes is prominent among the Dralis. A woman of daughters by t!lei(fathers, since relationship during her "monthly· periods r~roains secluded between broth~rs and sisters, 'yhildren of the same iIi a iree~house 'remote from their habitations mother, must 'h~lVe -been 'veIl-known, and -the uptil discllarge ceases. Norinally, pollution lasts recognition of' that 're'ationship cnnflrred on fOr seven days. Food is-cooked by the woman brotbers a degree of .authority which enabled herself in green bamboo tubes. The husband them to exchange. their sisters or their sister's 'cannot approllch the shed nor talk with her. daughters for other women whom, they .either :When discharge ceases, she bathes· aod goes to married themselves or gave in marriage to their 'Lhe second tree-house nearer to tllei r habitation sister's sons. and remains there for two days. On the' third Adultery day she bathes and goes home. Should a Woman go home before the cessation of discharge, it is The UraUs have a high staQdard of morals. supposed that the c'rops will be blighted and When a woman commits> ad!1ltyry in. the High ,that disease will do great harm to tbe village. Ranges, the, woman's .husband sends her away to It will also provoke the anger of the sylvan her parent's qome. , The village council does not -deities' interfere. If a man commits adulterv'in the Neriamangalam Range and a fine is inflicted by Pr,egnancy and Child-birth the village council, the members of a clan collect No-ceremony is arracbed to pregnancy. When the fine from among themselv~s and, pay the a woman is about to become a mother, she amount_ In some cases, both the offenders are becomes taboo. She goes to the tree-holJse forced to make penitential genuflections from re'mote from the habitat on. She is not assisted ten to a hundred according to the gravity of the by olher \N,)men during her confinement. In the offence. ' ,High"Ranges of Travancore they stand at a dis. Puberty Custom& tance and give her instructions, Pollution lasts for twenty-one days During this period the When a girl attains puberty, she is lodged in husband refrains from work. No medicine is a tree-house about a ,hundred yards away from given to the mother. Chillies are avoided. The the hut. She cannot see a man. Only women woman remains in the first tree-house for ten to keep company with her. Pollution lasts for fifteen days. She then bathes and remains in seven or twelve days, until the menstrual dis the second tree-bouse for four days in seclusion, charge ceases. If it ceases after seVen days, she She spends another six days in a shed close to bathes on the eigh th day and moves to a second the hut. In Thadiyanal a woman is sent to tree-house nearer to the hut Here she remains assist in the delivery, The rest stand at a dis for two days, after which she bathes and re tance. tuJ 120 THE TRAVANCORE TRIBES AND CASTES influences to the conciliation of b~:tefbe[}t pow of performing his obsequies ani offering sacri ers. The dangers feared are insulated during fiCC5 to his spirit". Among the Uralis, it is the process of the function as is th~ natural observed that the nephew is the chief mourner. course; tllen at·the end of the functio:1. tb.:! exp ~l This indicates th~ former prevalence of sion oJ the danger is performej for t!1e hH time, mltriarchy among the Uralis. Now the children and is of a purificatory character. The practice of the deadman inherit his prop~rty. because of performing th~ chief ceremony at the end of they have been previou3ly in joint posses~ion of a functional crisis was more sure of continuance it, for, as lVe krlOW, p03session readily leads to precisely because the danger is then usually ov~r, o wnershi p. and the ceremony cannot be easily discredited". Naming Cerem()ny Kinsbip The naming ceremony falls on the 22nd day, The terms of relationship used among the when ear-boring is also done. The children UraHs are of the type called classificatory. The belong to the clan of the mother and names ter os of relationship are as follows:- are given after persons in tbe mother's c.ian in the High Ranges. There is now a te,ldellcy I Relations through .Father for names to be given from the father's side I Grand father Muthan in the Toodupuzha Range. Males are knOlvn by· 2 Grandmother Muthi Raman, Manikam, Kadutha, Eravi, Thevan and 3 Father . Appan others. Females are called Tnevi, NIla, Pechi, 4 Mother Amma Veluppi. Kariki and Kotha, Ponmala and 5 Father's elder brother .Periappan Ponni are pet names for girls. Oil the day· of 6 Father's elder brother1s wife Peramma the naming ceremony, a ring is tied rouod the 7 Father's elder brother's son Chettan wrist by a thread. A ring of brass is tied round 8 Father's elder brother's P 1 the loins. daughter enga Taboo on Names 9 Father's sister Ammayi 10 Father's sister's husband Aschan A man calls his wife by her name. He does 11. tlather's sister's son Aliyan not talk with his mother in law, nor does she 12 Father's sister's daughter Chettathi, or with him. He does not talk with his sister. Anujathi, if If he me~ts her on rhe way, she avoids him. younger A man does not talk wi th his nie ;e, llor she wlttl him. She aVl)ids him on the way. Lastly, II Relations through Mother uncle, father and mother are not called by. 1 Grandfather Muthan their names. 2 Grandmother Muthi Inheritance 3 Mother's brother Aschan 4 Mother's brother's wife Ammayi Am()ilg some uncivilized people women are 5 Mother's brother's sister Peramma or said to be incapable of holding any property. NUDa, if This is true of the Uralis. They were for,nerly younger Marumakkathayis. inheritance is now in· the male line. If there is no son, the property goes u [ ,Relations through Wife to the nephew. In the absence of a nephew it 1 Wife By name devolves on the daughter. Property consists of 2 Wife's father Aschan paddy, brass vessels, and ornaments. Sons 3 Wife's mother Ammavi succlited to chief[ainship. In the abs~nce of sons, 4 Wife's brother Aliyan the nephew succeeds to the chieftainship. 5 Wife's brother's wife Pengal The oridinary custom of savages is tna t the 6 Wife's sister Chettathi, dead m'lll's property is inheritej by his own or Anujathi, children kinship is reckonel through his father if younger or by his sister's children or other relatives in IV Relations through husband the mother's side, if KinshiP is reckoned through the ft:male. "rhe right to inherit a dead man's L Husband's father Aschan property was certainly coextensive with the duty 2 Husband's mother Ammavi 121 URALY 3 Husband's brother Chettan, or partake of the offerings, and the remaining flesh thampi if is divided equally among the village folk. They younger also worsbip the ancestors during agricultural 4 Husband's brother's wife Cbettathi or ceremonies. Anujathi, if When they have to pass by a shola (forest), younger they give it a wide berth, as there may be some 5 Husband's sister Nathune malevolent spirit in it.. In the event of any Tn connection with the foregoing we observe: sickness, the help of a medicine-man (~lathi) is sought. Paddy, arrack. and cash offerIngs are I The father's father, the mother's father, the father's mother and the mother's mother. made to the gods by him to propitiate them. This gives relief to the malady The medicine Muthan and Muthi are the names given to man is adept at the black art, and derives his grandfather and grandmother on both the pater inspiration- and learning from unseen powers nal and maternal Jines. in the heart of the jungle, where he stays over TI The father's sister's husband, the mother's a week. His dream directs him to d.e jungle brother, the husband's father, and the wife's where he gets into communion with unseen father . powers \1{ho endow him with knowledge in the Aschan is the name given to all the above art. He holds the knowledge on oath that he persons and Ammavi to their wives will not impart it to anyone else. If he breaks III AJjyan is the name given to one's father's the injunction, he fails in his art. His learning sister's son and one's wife's brother. therefore dies with him. It is said that he can keep' wild elephants at a distance by chanting Socia) Organization a mantra and throwing a stone on the boundary The Vralis of Pedyar and Vandanmet have of the hamlet. He cures small-pox very a headman called the Kanikkaran for a group easily. of hamlets. Each hamlet has a Plathi or medicine-man, and he is responsible for the Funeral Ceremony good conduct of the men therein. When a When a man dies, information is sent round. dispu te arises in a village, the medicine-man All assemble. A grave is dug a furlong away informs the Kanikkaran, who goes to the from the hut. 1t is about six feet deep for village and settles the dispute, and sees that males and breast deep for females. The such instances do not recur. There is no fine. chief mourner is the nephew, who washes In the Thodupuzha Range the office of Plathi and dries the corpse. The body is then and Kanikkaran is combined in the same person. rubbed with cocoanut oil. A new cloth is tied round the Joins, and it is covered with another RELIGION new cloth. It is then placed on a reed mat, tied 1. The Worship of Sasta with the fibre of H elicteres isora, and carried to the grave by the nephew and son. Billets of The Uralis worship Sasta at Arakulam and wood are laid cross-wise in the grave over which AiyappancoiI once a year in Dhanu (December plaited bamboo is placed The sides of the grave January). Each man gives li measures of paddy are lined with plaited bamboo. The corpse is and some cash. The head of the hamlet collects then lowered into the grave, and plaited bamboo the contributions, which may come to about is placed above. A complete coffin is thu ~ formed. fifteen rupees. This is paid to the priest, Who The pansupari, imp Ie men ts, and the bill-hook feeds them for the day. They also worship of the deceased are placed in the right arm-pit. Sasta at Sabarimala. Green leaves are then thrown into the grave 2. Worship of Ancestor-spirits and the pit is filled with earth A stone is placed The Uralis offer worship to ancestor-spirits at tbe head, another at the foot, and one on \1{hen they return with the spoils of the chase. each side. Each is about two feet long and one The heart and lungs of the animal are cut into foot broad. The plaited bamboo is used only slices and are placed on a leaf. A gun is also in the case of males. placed by the side of tbe offering made to In the event of a woman's dying in a tree ancestor-spirits with the prayer that they may house after delivery before poIlu tion ceases, be sucessful in their next hunt. They then men dig the grave for the deceased and women 122 THB TRA VANCORE TRIBES AND CASTES carry the corpse to the grave and bury· it. If a common factor in all the ceremonies. On men do the carrying, it is s3.id that they will get each of these occasions the men observe contin ill and provoke the wrath of the hill deities. ence for three days. The men on an average get Pollution lasts for sixteen days. During this 100 to lOO paras of paddy each. They also period, all the clansmen bathe early in the cultivate tapioca, ragi, plantains, and cholam. morning every day wherever the~ are. On the The year's produce does not meet their wants. seventeenth day they are free from pollution At other times, they depend on Arenga Wightii, after bath. Cow-dung and oil are mixed with j:iCk fruit, and other wild roots and fruits. water by the sister or nathune and poured in OCCUPATION small quantities over all. 1. Nomadic Agriculture Agricultural Ceremonies The Uralis arc nomadic agriculturists. They Before jungle-clearing is started in December shift annually and cultivate land on a rotation in Neriamangalam, each Urali contributes one of six years. They begin jungle clearing in chuckram or more to the plathi for God December, complete it in January, and burn the Aiyyappan. Cocoanuts, jaggery, and other debris in February. Paddy is then sown broad articles are purchased. An offering is made by cast and they hoe the soil in March and April. them at the Virippu (area for clearing) to Women do the weeding and harvesting; all the ancestor-spirits with tbe following prayer: remaining work is done by men. The men clear "May we get our crop without undergoing the jungle and burn debris jointly. The plathi any trou ble from birds and wild animals". clears firs t a bi t and he is follo wed by the Before going to the cleared area, cocoanuts are headman and other Uralis. The headman then broken and frankincense is burnt before Mullir divides the land to each man who tends his ingad Ayyappan and offerings of cash are made cultivation. The men observe continence for at Ganapathipara. Next comes Kariyuttu, when three days after the jungle clearing is started. seed is sown broadcast. Each man contributes If a man breaks this injunction harm befalls him fi ve measures of paddy. The flesh of black and his crop. monkey is also offered along with arrack. The plathi then says the following prayer:- "May 2. Elepbant-capturing Operations our cleared area prosper wilhout any difficulty. The Uralis help the Government in elephant May we have a good harvest". All the capturing operations. The elephants are caught assembled men partake of the offering. Seed is sown broadcast first by the plathi, who in pits, which are dug by the side of streams or pools which they frequent during the summer ob~erves abstinence for seven days. months during the night. The pits are about During Mithunam Sankranti day (15th of fifteen feet deep and 14 to 18 feet in diameter June), they collect Arenga Wightii (Kuntapana). above. The width at the bottom is less, the It is cut into ~1ices and put into water. After mouths of the pits are covered with split three days the slices are removed from the wa ter. bamboos, boughs, and earth with dry leaves over The water is boiled and offered to the ancestor it. It is generally the young ones that are spirits with pansupari, tobacco, lime, and bark caught. As soon as an elephant falls into the of Helicter.:s isora (Kyvall) with a prayer that pit, the Uralis inform the local forest authorit there may be no failure of crops. ies. They cut branches of trees and place them Before harvesting another offering is ·made in across the mouth of the pit, so that the captive Kanni (September-October). A pandal (shed) may not escape. Tame elephants (de~oys) are is erected in the cultivated area. All the men brough t. Strong ropes are passed round the remain in it for the night. Next morning an captive's neck, when he lifts his trunk. The pit offering of kanji (gruel) is given to the spi~its is grad ually filled up till his forelegs are of ancestors with the prayer that nothlOg supported. He walks out of the pit between untoward may happen to the men in the hamlet the decoys, who ch:1stise him if he gives as well as their crops. All then partake of trouble. He is then marched to the elephant the offering. After harvesting they hull cage under the care and vigilance of the decoy paddy, and prepare kanji and offer to the elephants, where he is gradually tamed by ancestor-spirits along with arrack, which is mahouts, and made ultimately useful as a 123 URALY timber-carrier generally. The Uralis play an (jacket) to cover thei r bre~sts. Jt is ti~d ~bove important part in the capturing operati.ons f~oI? the right shoulder, and IS 3 x 2 cl!blts. In the the fall of the elephant into the pit untIl It High Ranges. Women are now weanng Jackets comes out of it. also. Diet Ornaments The Uralis are fond of animal food. They The Uralis are fond of jewellery. Men wear ear-rings and brass rings on the fingers Women eat the flesh of sambur, black monkey, porcu wear copious necklaces of ~eads, also. a nos~ pine, wild boar, and jungle squirrel, which they screw of silver on both SIdes. A spht reed IS kill by gun-shot or arrow. They do not eat the tied round the head lonpitudinally, so that the flesh of the cow, bison, or bear. Domestic hair may not toss about. They wear one to animals like the cow are not killed for food. as twel ve bangies on both wrists. They also wear they are held sacred in consequence of their anklets of lead or silver pu rchased from pedlars. utility_ The avoidance of bear's flesh may be due to its disagreeable appearance. Pregnant DaiJy Life women are tabooed from eating the flesh of The Vralis get up early in the morning. The porcupine, wild ooar, jungle squirrels and fish women clean the but. Both men and women and vegetables like tapioca, as they are afraid eat tapioca and drink t.ea. or coffee in the early of abortion. They do not drink milk -nor morning At noon thiS IS repeat~d. They have consume any milk products. As Sir William a full meal of rice and curry at mght. Men go Crooke says, it may be that they regard it as out to [he jungle to work aft~r their f!l0r~ing 'an excrement' like the Dravidian tribes of meal and may be accompamed by theIr WIves Central India. They do not eat gram or chama who 'return home earlier than the men. The as they fear that they would incur the wrath of men return in the evening. Unlike the the Sylvan deities, and get fever. Muthuvans both men and women collect fuel Living as the Uralis do above an elevation of for domestic use. They bathe once in two or 3,000 feet in the High Ranges, they are fond three days. Though ~hey. appe~r cleanly i.n of arrack and toddy, for, as Montesque points their person, they a~e dIrty In theIr dress .. It ]s out, the prevalence of intoxication in different said that a cold clImate leads to uncleanlmess, because it makes garments so necessary. parts of the earth is proportionate to the cold Poverty, laziness, and their occupations are and humidity of the air. It may be that a gloomy temr:erament and cheerless life will other causes of this uncleanness. Women are induce people to resort to artificial pleasures considered inferior to men, as they are con'ider produced by drink. They also make a special ed impure. They ar.e therefore de~arred from attending certain agrIcultural operations. beverage of tea which is obtaiuable in the estates in the vicinity. They boil half a measure Fertility of water and add tea dust to it. They then The fertility of the Uralis varies with the add one measure of cold water to reduce the locality. In the Neriamangalam Range, the heat. They now separate the dust and drink average size of the family is 4.5, the average tbe decoction thrice a day. It is said that this birth-rate is 2.5 and the survival late, 2.0. In beverage is very stimulating. The Vralis of the Thodupuzha Range. where fever is less the Thodupuzha Range fry the outeI coverings rampan t and the clima te healthier, the. average of coffee berries and powder them. They add size of the family is 6.4. The average bIrth-rate the powder to boiLing water and drink the is 4.4 and the average survival rate, 3.5. In 21 decoction. They also use ganja in the morning families, there were 38 males and 36 females. and at night to keep off cold. ] 8 children died after birth. The males pre Dress pondera te over the females. In the periyar and Vandanmet Ranges the average size of the The men wear a loin-cloth of 4 x 2 cubits, family has received a set-back. It is only 4.9. and an upper cloth. They have now taken to The average l5irth-rate is 2.7, and the .survival wearing shirt and coat, owing to contact wi t h ra te 1.9. Th is may be partly due to the lOfluence the planting community. Women wear a cloth of a cold rigorous climate in eliminating all but seven to ten cubits long. They have a marade the most vigorous individuals. 124 THE TRAVANCORE TRIBES AND CASTES Physical Features from the Uralis that inhabit the hilly recesse3 of those districts". The Uralis are dark brown in complexion in the Thodupuzha R'1nge, but blond ness is noti Education ceable in the High Range. On lower elevations, The initiative to educate the Uralis came in Thodupuzha, their average stature is 156 from the missionaries. "The late Rev. Henry ems. (61.4 inches). Their average cephalic Baker, one of the earliest of C. M. S. missionaries index is 73.4 and average nasal index 87.7. The of Kottayam, (1818-1843) devotd his labour in average facial index: is 81.8. The' average ches t the,e untrodden hilly tracts of North Travan girth IS 74.2 cms. and its aveoge in relation to COf'! not without some reward. His attempts stature lOO is 47.5. The average span of arms to open a school were attended with some is 153.5 and the average in relation to stature succ~ss and after his retirement in 1843, the 100 is 101.6. In the High Ranges their average m'lntle fell on his son (Rev. Henry Baker Junior) stature is 157 cm3. i61.8 inche:i). This is due who maintained not unsuccessfully the schOOl to the fact that stature is often greater in higher establishel by his father for a period of five altitudes, a fact which has been ascribed to years. But the unfortunate death of this the influence of a rigorous climate in killing off missionary brought the school to an untimely all but vigorous iniividuals. This may also be close. However, subsequeilt Christian phil due to the greater activity of the pituitary gland anthropists have taken up the work again, and, in cool climate at higb altitude (3,000 feet above as a result of it, there are now two schools at sel:1lev~I) .. They are dolichocephalic, the average Mekkanam under their supervisiJn and attended cephalIc llldex being 70.6. The average nasal by a good number of boys. Many of the Uralis index is 86.3. The vault of the head is low and can now read and write. This represents the the direction of the brain is backwards. The work of missionaries outside the reserve brow-ridges are prominent and the chin is forests. [nside the reserve forests the Govern receding. The eyes are dark. The hair is black ment have established a school at Ayyappancoi! and curly t3 curls). The body is hairy and for the benefit of the Uralis. The school has they have well-grown moustaches They are seldom a rull attendance, as their agricultural robust in appearance, and have great lung pursuits hardly permit the n to send their capacity, massive chests, and large torsos in the children to school. They are not therefore High Ranges. This is due to the rarified air availing themselves of the be,lents of educatbn round at an elevation of 8,000 feet. that are now extended to them. Mr. Tn urston speaks of another class of Conclusion people of the same valley who inhabit the jungles The Uralis excel all the other tribes in point of Dinbhum (Coimbatore district) at an altitude of honesty. They are very exclusive, and do of 1,800 feet. They speak a patois of mix:ed Tamil not eat at the hands of the P::tliyans and the and Canarese, and have a number of exogamous Mannans. It is recorded that "they intermarry septs; but the class of Uralis wllom we me<:t in with the Ullatans, and in some cases with the the hills of Travancore speak a kind of corrupt Muthuvalls''. but this is not admitted by the Malayalam. The true origill of these hillmen Uralis. The Parayans and the Pulayans have seems to b~ lost in obscurity. But judging from to observe a distance p;,llution of twelve feet ethnological data, and co:nparing our Uralis from the Urali!>. If touched by a Paliyan or a with those of CL)imbatore, Madura, and Trichi Mannan, they bathe. They eat only at the hands nopolIy, we may be justified in stating that the of the Malayarayans. They serve as good fore"t Travancore Uralis are not generally different guides. 125 CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA, VOLUME VII By Edgar Thurston, Madras 1909 Page 246 - 257 URALI Of the Uralis who inhabit the hill country of flesh of most anima:s is eaten, hut tIle elephant Travancore, the following account is given in and buffalo are held in such great respect that the Travancore Census report, gOl. "The no UraH even ventures to hurt them. Even UraUs are a class of hill tribes resident in the the approach of the buffalo is religiously Cardamom hills. They are chiefly found in avoided. They begin to fell forest trees in the tracts known as Kunnanat, Velarr.pan, Dhanu (December-January), and seeds are sown Kurakkanat, Mannukat, Kalanat, and Periyar. by the end of Medam (April-May). They have The headman of the Uralis in each of these only a katti, which is a kind of chopping knife, areas is called a Kanikkaran. Tradition tells us for purposes of plouching. After cultivation that they were the dependents of the kings of they change their abodes They put up huts Madura, and that their duty \\as to- hold in the vicinity of the cultivated areas, and use umbrellas in times of State processions. In bamboo and reeds as materials. After leavii g ancient times, many of the parts now included the old, and before putting up the new hut, in the Thodupuzha taluk belonged to the they live for several days in caves or under kingdom of Madura. Once, When the king trees. They are very good watchmen, and take came to Neriyamangalam, the ancestors of great care in putting up fences, weeding. and these Uralis are said to have accompanied him; protecting cultIvation from wild animals. They and .to have been left there to rule (ali) that make excellent mats of reed. They are clever localIty (url. The males dress like the low huntsmen, and are passionately attached to country people, ,,,ilh cloths about four cubits their bunting dogs. They hoard their grains long extending from the hip to the knee. Ano. in wicker baskets called virivallam. They ~her cloth, about one or two cubits in length, possess copper and brass vessels, mortar, chop IS PUt over the back, one end of which passes ping knives, sickles, spades, flint and steel. A under their right arm and the other over the man after marriage lives with his wife, apart shoulder, both meeting in front over the chest, from his parents. Pollution of a very aggra where they are tied together in a peculiar knot vated kind is ob~erved during the menstrual by folding tbe extremities, thus forming a bag and puerderal periods. On these occasions a wherein to contain their wayside necessaries. separate matam (hut) called the pattu-pandal Females wear two pieces of cloth, nine and two is put up at a distance from the dwelling hut. and a half cubits in length respectively, and Here the woman stays for three days. After folded in the middle. The larger is the lower bathing on the fourth day, she shifts to another garment, and the smaller upper garment is matam still nearer, and stays there for one or worn with two ends tied around the neck. two days. On the seventh day she rejoins the Males wear brass finger and toe-rings, some family. In cases of confinement, twelve days times of silver. Some adorn their necks with are spent in the remotest hut, and five days in wreaths of beads, from fifteen to thirty in the nearer one. But for another period of number. Females wear ear· ornaments kno\~1n twenty days the ,,,oman is not permitted to as katumani, which are rings of metal wire, touch anyone in the house, or even the roofing four or five in number. Males generally allmN of the hut. During these days food is prepared their hair to grow. the face along being now by others, and given to her. The water in and then shavr.n. The Uralis eat rice for six which those who are confined, and those who months of the year, and subsist on roots, fruits, are in their menses bathe, is considered to be and other forest prcduce during the remaining defiled beyond remedy. Hence, for bathing half. A large portion of the paddy (rice) that purposes some secluded and out of tbe way tbe Uralis gather by cultivation goes to the low pool, called pattuvellam, is selected. U ralis country in exchange for clothing and salt. The comij)g to the low country hesi tate to drink 126 THE SOUTHERN INDIA TRIBES AND CASTES water, on the score that it might be thus Urali polluted. When the woman delivers herself of her first cltlld, her husband observes three The Uralis who form the subject of the days' pollution, but none for subsequent con present note, dwell at an altitude of 1,.800 feet finements. On all such occasions, the maternal' in the jungles of Di,nbhurn in the <;OImbature relations of the woman have to observe five district where a forest bungalow, situated on days' pollution. On the eigh teen th day after a breezy ride overlo:>king the plains, formed a birth, the eldest member of the family names 'convenient centre from which to study both the child, anJ bores the ear. The head of the Uralis and the more primitive Sholagas. child is shaved as soon as it is able to walk, The Uralis are familiar with the Badagas, and a tuft of hair is left in front. The corpses who have a settlement not many miles distant; of the Uralis are not bUrnt, but buried at a the Todas who occasionally migrate across the sufficient distance from the house. A neW adjacent Nilgiri froutier in search of grazing cloth is put into the grave, by each relative. land for their buffaloes; and the Kurumbas and After filling in the grave, they erect a shed Irulas, who inhabit the 101V<:r slopes of the over it, within which the chopping knife of Nilgir-is, which run down to Coi~batore. With the deceased, a quantity of boiled rice, and the civilised world they are acquaInted, as they some chewing materials (betel and nuts) are carry loads to the plains, and run down to placed. After the lapse of seven )ears, an market at the town of Sathyarnangalam, which offering of food and drink is made to the is only seventeen miles distant from Dimbhu~. departed soul. Oeath pollution lasts for sixteen Like the Nilgi ri Badagas, they are clad.m days. The U ralis address their father as appan, turban and long flo IV 109 body cloth, white and maternal uncle as achchan. .v1arumakka (when ~ew) or striped with red and blUe. The thayam is the prevailing form of inheritance (in hair is worn long and unkempt, or shaved a la the female line). Marriage is settled by the Hindu with kudimi in mimicry of the more parents. There is no tali symbol to indicate civilised classes A man was introduced to us the w<:Jded state, After the marriage is settled. as an expert mimic of the note. of the paro,\uet, th.: girl is mereiy sent to the pandal or hut of peacock. jungle-fowl and otner forest buds; tbe husband. lhe Uralis intermarry with the and a small party improvised, in front {)f the UUadans and in rare cases with Muduvans. bungalow, a bird trap cleverly coostruct~d ou t Remarria'ge is permitted. An U~ali, wishing to of stones, an iron plate from the camp kitchen, get Illarried into a particular famIly, has to wed bamboo and rope made on the spot from the into the family a girl belonging to his own. bark of Ficus Tsiela. The making of fire with The Uralis have a fine ear for music, and sing flint and steel is fast disappearing in favour of many songs in the night before going to bed. safety ma tches. Like the Kanis (Kanikars), they resort to enchantments called cheppuka and chattuka for The Uralis say that they are men of seven the care of disea'es Their would be sorcerers kulams (ie. having seven posts to the marriage have to leave the community, and wander alone booth) and are children of Billayya, while they in the forest for a number of months. They are describe the Sholdgas as men of five kulams and said to then get into a trance, when ~heir fore children of Carayya. They call themselves fathers appear before them as malden~, and Uralis or Irulas, and, whe;). questioned, say teach them the m:-stic arts. The Urahs bear that as Billayya and Ka r ..iyya are brothers, their loads only on the back, and never 0.0 the they'may also be called ShJIJgas. But there is head. They never go to distant places WIthout no intermarriage betwecn Uralis and Sholagas, their cbopping knife. They are good forest though members of the two tribes sometimes guides". The Uralis are stated by the Rev. interdine. According to another legend, the S. Mateer to practise polyandry like the Todas. Uralis and Sholagas are both descended from Urali is further a synonym of the Tandal!s Karayan, and the Sivacharis (Lingayats) from of fravancore, in reference, it is said,. to theIr BiIlayya or Madhesl'laram. They speak a havino been guardians of village (ur) 111 former patois of mixed Tamil and Canarese, and have times~ It is also the title of the headman of a number of exogamous septs, the meaning of the Kurava'l of Travancore and a synonym of the names of which is not clear. They indulge the Kolayans of Malabar. in a large repertoire of nicknames, for the most 127 URALY part of a personal nature, such as donkey In future r shall not quarrel with you, and will legged, big-navelled pot-bellied. hare-lipped, obey you". Even after this ordeal has been hairy like a bear or the tail of a mangoose, gone through, a woman may, on payment of a toothless, lying, brought up on butter-milk. fine, leave her husband in favour of another One man was named Kothe KaHan (kotha, a man of the tribe. stone) because he was born on a rock near Kotagiri. When a girl reaches puberty, she is anointed, decorated with jewelry, and made to occupy a The majority of the tribe earn a modest liveli separate hut for seven days, during which time hood by collecting minor forest produce, such two young girls keep her company. On the as myrabolams, wax and honey, and poles for eighth day, all three bathe in a pond or stream use as primitive breaks for country carts during and return in their wet clothes to the girl's the ascent of the ghat road. These poles are home, where they sit on a pestle placed in front tied to the carts by ropes, and trail behind on of the door. A plantain leaf is then placed in the ground, so that, when the cart stops, the front of them, on which cooked rice and backward course of the wheels is arrested. Some curry are spread. A child, aged about eight or till the soil, and cultivate various kinds of nine months, is set in the girl's lap, and she food-grains. Others are sheep and ca ttle owners. feeds the infant with a small quantity of rice, A few families possess land, which is given free of which she hereself swallows a few mouthfuls. of rent by the Forest Department, on condition Those assembled then sit down to a meal, at that they work for the department whenever the conclusion of which they wash their hands their services are required. As a class they are in a dish, and the girl throws the water away. not inclined to do hard work, and they appear The feast concluded, the spot is sprinkled with to get into the clu tches of money lending Chet tis. cowdung water, and cleaned up by the girl. Their staple food is ragi (Eleuina Coracana). But they eat also sheep, fOWlS, goat, deer, Marriage is either infant or adult, but, as a pigeons and doves, black monkeys, wild boar, rule, the latter. The match-making is carried hare, hedgehogs, paroquets, quails and part out by the boy's parents, who, with his other· ridges, junglefowl, woodcock, WOOdpeckers, and relations, pay two visits, one with and one other denizens of the jungle. A man who was without the- boy. to the parents, of the girl. asked whether they eat beef, cats, toads, bears, At the first visit a present of ragi, and at the or white monkeys, expectorated violently at second of plantains, rice, and millet pudding is the mention of each, and the suggestion of tbe made. The party must be received with due first three prodUCed the most explosive oral respect, which is shown by taking hold of the demonstration. walkingsticks of the guests on arrival, and receiving them on a mat spread inside the house. Tribal dispu tes· are referred to a headman, The customary form of salute is touching the called Yajamana, who must belong to the feet with both hands, and raising them, with exogamous sept called sambe, and whose palms opposed, to the forehead. Before laking appointment is a hereditary one. To assist their seats, the guests salute a vessel of water, him three others, belonging to the Kalkatti, which is placed on the mat, surrounded by betel Kolkara and Kurinanga septs, whose heriditary leaves and nuts. A flower is placed on the top titles are Patlagara, Gouda and Kolkara, are of the stone or figure which represents the appointed. The Kolkara has to invite people tribal goddess, and, after puja (worship) has to the Panchaya t (tribal council) collect the been done to it, it is addressed in the words. fines inflicted, and be present on the occasion of "Oh, Swami! drop the flower to the right if the marriages. A woman who, after marriage, marriage is going to be propitious, and to the refuses to live with her husband, is punished left if otherwise". Should the flower remain thus. She is tied to a tree, and the Kolkaran (1n the image, without falling either way, it is empties the contents of a hornet or wasp's nest greeted as a very happy omen. On the occasion at her feet. After a few minutes the woman of the betrothal ceremony, if the bridegroom's is questioned, and, if she agrees to live with her party, on their way to the bride's viIJage, have husband, she must, in token of assent, lick a to cross a stream, running or dry, the bride mark made on his back by the Kolkara with groom is not allowed to walk across it, but fowl's excrement, saying "you are my husband. must be carried over on the back of his 128 THE SOUTHERN INDIA TRIBES AND CASTES maternal uncle. As they approach ths bride's To celebrate the event, a feast must be given home, they' are met by the Kolkara and two by the man; and, if he shOUld die witnout other men, to whom the Kolkara after receiv h~ving fed the community, and children born to ing the walking-sticks of the guests. hands them hlm are considered as illegitimlte. In such a over. Failure to do so would be an act of case, the widow or her near relatives are asked discourtesy, and regarded as an insult to be ~o give food to at least a few bdore the corpse ~Iped out by a heavy fine. When the plOces IS removed, so as to legitimatise the children. SlOn ar£lves at the house, entrance into tile marriage booth is prevented by a stick held The U ralis bury thei r dead, and the dea th across it by people of the bride's village. A ceremonies are, to a certain extent, copied from mock struggle takes place, during which those of the Badagas, as soon as a member of turmeric water is thrown by both sides, and an the tribe dies, the corpse is anointed washed entrance into the house is finally effected. and dressed in new clothes and tllfba~. On th~ After a lOt:aJ has been partaken of, the bndal face three silver coins are stuck, viz. a rupee on patty proceed tu the village of the bridegroom, the forehead, and a quarter rupee outside each where the bride and bridegroom are lodged in eye. When all have assembled for the funeral separate houses. In front of the bridegroom's the corpse is brought out and placed under ~ house a . booth, supported by twelve posts car (teriI) of six storeys, made of bamboo and sticks, ~overed with coloured cloths and flags, arranged In four rows, has been erected. The and havtng at t.he top of a kalasa (brass vessel) two pillars neares t the en I rance to the house are called murthi kamba. Into the holes made and umbrella. To the accompaniment of a for the reception of these, after a cocoanut has band a dance takes place around the car and been broken, gni (clarified bUlter), milk, and a the procession then moves on to the b~rial few copper coins are placed. The bridal pair ground, where a .cow b~ffalo is brought near after an oil bath, are led to the b;>oth decorat: the car, and a little mllk drawn and poured. ed with jewels a nd wearing new doths and three times into the mouth of the corpse. A made to sit on a pl.mk. A cocoanut IS br~kell, cow and one or two calves are taken round the and they salute a vessel placed on a plate. The car, and the calves presenteJ to the sister of bridal pany then adjourn to a pond or stream the deceased. The car is then broken up after and do puja to their god. On the return the decoration3 nave been stripped off: The thenc~ corpse is buried either on lhe spot, or taken the bridal couple mus t be accompanied by their away to distant l\lirgundi, and buried there. ma~ernal uncles, who should keep on dan,;ing, While cocoanuts are broken in front of them On the eightb day after the funeral or return from Nirgundi, the elde3l son of the deceasej till .the bouse is. reached. The contracting partles then again sit on the phnk with their has his head shaved, and together with. his brother's wife, [a::.ts. If the funeral has be~n little ting~rs I.inked, while the bride money at Nirgundl, the son, accompanied by his rela (theravu) IS paId to the father-inola IV and the milk money (pal kuli) to the mother-in-law. tions. proceeds thither after tying some cooked The tali (a golden disc) is then tied on the rice in a cloth. On arrival, he offers this to all bride's neck bj some fem:lle relation of the tbe melDoridl stones in the burial-ground bridegroom, and the bride and bridegroom (goppammane), and erects stone, which he has afta Sj!u ting those assembled, enter the house: brought with him, in memory of the deceased. wnere the young wife is atonce told to cook He then anoints all the stones with ghi which some rice, of whi..:h she anJ her Illlsband partake is contained in a green bamboo meas~re. He from the same leaf plate. collects the rice, which bas been offered, and one of the party, bec~ming inspired, gives vent There exists, among the Uralis, a kind of to oracular declaratIOns as to the season's informal union called kuduvali. A man and prospects, the futu~e of the bereaved family, woman will, by mutual agreement, elope into etc. The collected nce is regarded as sacred the jungle, and live there together, till they are and is partaken of by all. Each sept has it~ discovered and brought back by their relations. own on gop;lamane, which is a rectangular A Panchayat (council) is held, and they are space with. mud walls on three sides. In cases recognised as man and wife if the bride money in which the corpse has been buried close to the and tine inflicted are paid. Failure to pay up vilhge, the grave is marked by a pile of stones. would render them liable to excommunication. Two or three years afterwardS, the body is 129 VRALY exhumed, and the bones are collected and placed of Achyranthes aspera are tied together, and in front of the house of the deceased. All the placed in front of the house over the roof, or relations weep, and tbe son conveys the bones stuck into the roof overhanging the entrance. to Nirgundi, where he buries them. On the A sumptuous repast is partaken of. This cere eighth day he revisits the spot, and erects a monial takes place in the month Thai (December stone with the ceremonial already described. January). (b) In the month Vyasi (March-April) The Dralis worship a variety of minor deities, a large trough is placed close to a well; and and sacrifice sheep and goats to Palrayan. They filled with a mixture of salt and water. The observe two annual festivals, viz. (a) Thai cattle, decorated with leaves and flowers, are nombu, when the whole house is cleaned, and brought, one by one, to the trough, and made margosa (melic azadirach ta) twjgs and spikes to drink the salt water. 130 THE TRAVANCOaE STATE MANUAL, VOLUME II By Nagam Aiya, B. A., Page 412 - 416 URALIS Origin Uralis. In stature and physique, colour, facial appearance, dress, habits, language, customs, The name indicates the ruler of a country or and manners, the Mala Adiyars or Mountain village (Ur a country or village and ali a ruler). Slaves of the Lower Periyar valley resemble the The records of recent history have nothing to UraUs of Neriamangalam more than any other show as to their origin or the locality they of the eight principal hill tribes inhabiting the occupied This term is not specially confined hill-forests of Travancore. Of middle height, to the class of people inhabiting parts of they are fairly thick set, of dJCk-brown colour, Travancore, but also refers to the people of the with brownish-to·black eyes, curly hair, flat same denomination found chiefly in the districts no~es and of protruding upper lips, receding of Madura and Trichinopoly. Mr. Edgar foreheads and chins, prominen t cheek bones, Thurston speaks of another class of .people of and generally smooth faces. Both men and the same name who inhabi t the jungles of W0men wear the hair lon~, either loose or Dinbhum. (Coimbatore district) at an altitude knotted on the top of the head". Men generally of 1,800 ft. This latter class referred to, call allow th\!ir hair to grow, the face along being themselves Ural is or Irulas. They speak a occasionally shaven They are tolerably cleanly patois of mix~d tamil and Canarese and have a and oJserve regularity in bathing. number of exogamous septs; but the class of Uralis whom we meet with in the hills of Dress and Ornaments Travancore speak a kind of corrupt Malayalam. Men wrap themselves with two pieces of The true origin of these hillmen seems to be cloth, one for the upper and another and a lost in obscurity. But jUdging from ethnological longer piece for the lower part of the body, data and comp:lfing our U ralis IVi th those of reaching from the hip to the knees. Women Coimbatore, Madura, Tinnevelly and Trichino too adopt bifurcation in dress. They are toler poly we may be justified in stating tbat tbe ably trim in their appearance. Travancore Uralis are not generically different from the Uralis that inhabit the hilly recesses Males wear rings of brass, sometimes of of those districts. Traditional accounts state silver, on fingers and toes. Wreaths of beads that "they were the dependents of the kings of from fifteen to thirty in number, are worn on Madura and that their duty was to hold the neck as an ornament. Women wear what umbrellas in times of State processions. In is known as Katumani composed of rings of ancient times many of the parts now included brass or lead. in the Thodupuzha Taluq belonged to the Food and Drink kingdom of Madura. Once when the king came to Neriyamangalam. the ancestors of these Rice and meat form the chief articles of food. Uralis are said to have accompanied him and The paddy they raise by cultivation barely sust were probably left there to rule that locality. ains them for six months in the year, a large They are, at present, found in the cardamom portion of it having to be exchanged for clothing Hills, in Aladi, Ponpara Moongathara. Koch salt and other commodities from the low ezhapperappu, Valia Ezhapperappu, Thodu country. For the remaining half of the year, puzha Velarnpam, Kurakkanat, Kunnuanat, the U ralis are forced to live upon what they Moonnukat, Kalanat and Periyar. can get from the forest, whether in the form of flesh or in the form of roots and fruits. The Personal Appearance buffalo and the elephant are held in great The following description of the Mala respect, even the very approach of the former Adiyars of the Lower Periyar valley by Mr. being most religiously avoided. They some A. M. S:lwyer is equally applicable to the times, but very rarely keep cows for their milk. 131 URALI , They rear fowls which also serve them a good phic form of a maiden and teach the secret deal in the absence of corn. The morning drink doctrine as a panacea for all ills. or kadi is essential, but tea supplemented by The natal rites are rather tedious. During roots and fruits Seems to have displaced it. confinement the Woman is segregated to a Marriage secluded corner in a hut. built for the purpose. Here she is lodged for a period of twelve days. The choice of the bride and bridegroom is left Then for another shorter term of five days she to the parents. No tali is used as the marriage is brought nearer home and located in a similar tie. The elders of the bridegroom's family, hut. She is considered impure for twen ty days with cloth and necklace, reach to the bride's after childbirth, so much so, tha t she is not house, signify their intention, give the bride a allowed to touch eVen the roof of the house .. cloth and ornaments and take her horne with The tank in which she bathes is considered them. The bride thenceforward becomes a irremediably polluted A special pool of water wife. For every· girl given away in marriage is designed for this purpose called Pattu-vellam. one has to be taken in return. According to The Uralis were afraid of its po,sible pollution this customary usage families suffering from a in the past also. They also consider the proxi plethora of girls have to take back as many mityof a Pulaya polluting. daugh ters-in-law as they have girls. to dispose of, with the result, that an Urali has sometimes The husband observes pollution for three to take in six or seven wives, in which case, he days on the birth of the first child. The wife's is expected to live away from hIS parental home relatives, however, have to observe five days' and work for himself and is numerous wives. pollution. On the eighteenth day after birth, Another evil resulting from this custom is the the eldest member of the family is accorded the undesirable increase of lifelong bachelors. The privilege of naming the child and boring its ear_ UraUs contract alliance with the Ullatans and The child, when able to walk safely on the in rare instances with the Muthuvans. Widow ground has the crown of its head converted into remarriage is not prohibited. a kudumi (a tuft of hair). . Funeral rites Religion and worship The Uralis bury their dead at a distance from The sylvan dei ties are worshipped and pro their dwelling places. This is one of the chief pitiated by offerings and sacrifices. Special distinctions between them and their namesakes prayers are also offered to the manes of departed ancestors. of Madura and Trichinopoly, who burn their dead. Every relative is expected, as a last Customs aDd ceremonies tribute to the dead, to throw a new cloth on the corpse. A shed is erected as a mark of respect The new-crop or the puttari day is religiously to the deceased, within which are placed an observed by puja and feast. During the open offering of boiled rice, betel, nuts, and his chop ing harvest they conduct puja, a hollow dry ping knife.· After the lapse of seven years an reed with pebbles in it serving as a bell. This offering of food and drink is served to the soul puja is accompanied by a sumptuous feast of the departed ancestor. The death pollution amidst great rejoicing and revelry. The Urali lasts for sixteen days. is most punctilious in the performance of these ceremonies and would rather starve fvr Some In.beritance aDd occupation days than relinquish his cherished ceremonies. The Uralis are Marurnakkathayis, Agriculture When one falls ill no doctor or medicine is and hunting chiefly occupy their attention. resorted to, except charms and incant a tions. Men Agriculture is of a migratory nature and their are sometimes supposed to be under the huts, which they take from place to place in influence of ghosts in certain diseases (mental quest of fresh fields for cult iva tion, are called and nervous), and the supposed devil is exercised Pantals. The intervals of agricultural labour by these man trams and charms. The sorcerers are spent in catching birds for their food. They are supposed to derive the divine afflatus bv a are adepts in catching elephants in which period of apprenticeship under their forefathers Government generally employ them. They are who are believed to aSSUme the anthropomor- clever huntsmen and are deeply attached to 132 THE TRAVANCORE STATE MANUAL their dogs. They are, like the Kanikkars, the mantle fell upon his son (Rev. Henry Baker exempt from taxation, but in return they render Junior) who mai ntained, not unsuccessfully, some assistaQce to Government in keeping the school established by his father, for a period watch over the Government plantations. car of five years. But the unfortunate death of this damom gardens, etc. They make excellent mats missionary brought the school to an untimely of reed. close. However, subsequent Christian philan thropists have taken up the work again and, as Language and education the result of it, there are nolV two schools at They speak a kind of corrupt Malayalam, but Mekkanam under their supervision anl atterlded those who have had the chance of moving in by a good number of boys. Many of the Ural is higher circles or of receiving education, speak a can now read and write. purer form of it. The names most common Chuacter among women is Kinnuki, and those among men are Kolampln, Maniakken. The initiative to The Uralis are charecterisej by honesty, educate these hill trib~s seems to have originally sim:Jlicity and straigatforllVarJne,s il) their fallen to the lot of missionaries. The late Rev. deali1lgs. They serve as good forest guides to Henry Baker, one of the earliest of the C M. S. strang~rs. They resp~~t parental authority. Missionaries, of Kottayam (1818-1843) devoted his labours in these untrodden hilly tracts of Populati (to North Travancore not without some reward. His attempts to open a school were attended with Tne late:st return of the Cen~us gives their some success, and after his retirement in 1843, nLirnber as 220. 133 NATIVE LIFE OF TRAVANCQRE By S. Mateer, 1883, Page 80 URA L I A small number of Uralis wander over the migrated to the high lands, changing their Todupuley hills, building their huts on trees like quarters annually, and obtaining good crops or t11e Arayans. They entertain a singular aversion rice from forest clearings. They are first-rate to buffaloes, whose approach they anxiously guides, and some of them particularly useful avoid; and are expert in the use of the bow. in carrying heavy loads. From the practice of Uralis and 1IIladans are said to intermarry. The polyandry, they are, like the Tudas on the former, originally slaves, were employed by Neilgherries, fast dIminishing in numbers. their Nair masters in cultivating rice on the These tribes generally consider themselves lower slopes of the hills; they afterwards superior to the Palayars and Pariahs. 134 KADAR 16. ". KERALA D OF THE SCHEDULED ISTRIBUT10N KADAR 1961 TRIBE- • I I' I ! ,I r f I I I I 1 ARABIAN SEA i ! -I 1 i I -j J ~ •. I 70· ". KADAR INTRODUCTION Kadan, notified in the Sched uled Castes and are also bow men and are e){p~rts in archery. Scheduled Tribes modification order, 1956 as They follow 'marunak:kathayam' and observe Kadar, is still considered as one of the most some of the customs of the Niirs" (Gopalan primitive tribes of fOud gatherers and trackers Nair, 1911 Page 80). [A sh:>rt note on the Wynad of the Indian sub-continent. They were consid Kajar basd on the illvestigations conducted at ered as the autoch thons of the Indian peninsula. South Wynad is given in the appendix]. Dog was their only domesticated animal and As both the sections of Kad H are returned tree climbing their second nature. Fire was together in the 1951 Census, the statistics relat produced by the friction of wood and boles of ing to both the co,n nUilities hlVe been included bamboo were used as cooking vessels. The while discussing the economy, literacy etc. Kadar lived in leaf huts. Elements of matri archy permeated in the fabric of their social The C.)chin Kadar, by and large, continue to structure. Racially it is " a tribe which shows depend primarily on the forest resources for more negrito ancestry than any other tribe". their livelihood, indicating an undeveloped pre Within a period of half a century, constunt and agricultural economy. The Wynad Kadar, on continuous contact with the outside world has the other hand, are very good agriculturis ts brought in progressive and alien influences in and make use of the plough and cattle for the Kadar culture. With the completion of the cultivation. Cochin Kadar are not dividd Chalakudy River Valley project, in,the nineteen into clans whereas the Wyn'ld Kadar have a forties, a number of plains-men have immi well-demarcated e){ogamous clan system. grated to the 'Kadar country'. The recent These go to show that, thou~h called by the impact of the 'M;lchine Civilization' created by same name, the Wynad Kadar are distinct and the construction of the multi-purpose Parambi different from the Kadar of Cochin. culam Reservoir has, however, posed added Nothing is known about the origin and history problems such as the uprooting of the tribe of the Kadar. Oral traditions regarding their from their original moorings and interaction origin are also lac:king. Ananthakrishna Iyer with the labour fOlce from the plains. throws some light on the relations of the Kadar The Kadars of Cochin, however, is different with the erstwhile Cochin rulers. "The Kadar from a Community known by the same name are supposed to be the vassals of the rulers of the living in the Wynad area. The Wynad Kadar State. To him they are attached by the strong are concentra ted in the Tondar Desam, Terriote est ties of personal affection and regard. and Mangalasseri of Wynad taluks. In appear Whenever His Highness the Raja tours in ance, physical characteristics, customs and' the forest they follow him, carry him from place traditional occupations, both the sections have to plac; in '.Manjals· _ or palanquins carry nothing in common. 'samans and III fact do everything for him. His Highness in return is much attached to The Wynad Kadar are believed to be the them, feeds them, gives them clothes, ornaments descendants of "Nayars who accompanied the combs and looking glasses. Above all he treat~ Kottayam Raja along with the Kurichiyans and them wi th grea t affection using always kind assumed the name of Kadar (forest men) as words to them.' (lyer, 1909, I, P. 21). they settled in forests". (Gopalan Nair, 19l1 The present report is mainly based on fleld Page 80). As against the "Proto·austroloid or investIgations c,)nducted at s~(t1emeilts of the Negri to" characters of the Cocbin Kadar, the Cnalak:udy range where th~y are found in large Wynad Kadar possess the physical features numbers. V lzhachal. Pu'<:alappara, Kolla similar to those Kurichchans. The male members thirumedu, Sholayar, PothupHa and Kuriyar keep long hair m:lde into a lock and keep at the kutty are so:n~ of their Settle:nents or Pathy right temple. "Like the Kurichiyans, they around Perungalkuthu dam. 135 CHAPTER I NAME, ORIGIN AND HISTORY Kadar is listed as a Scheduled Tribe accord Keane, is migrated into the Indian Peninsula ing to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled from Malaysia and through the Bay of Bengal Tribes Usts Modification Order 1956 in the to the Himalayan foot-hills and thence spread whole of Kerala and Madras State and also in over the peninsula ,.."ithout ever reaching Cey the South Kanara district and Kollegal taluk of lon (Iyer, 1909, I. pp 1-2). Mysore district in Mysore St.ate. It was consider ed in the (Scheduled, Castes, and Scheduled The. remark,of Professor Huttan that perhaps Tribes) ',Order 1950 as a: Scheduled Tribe tb.e most primitive of the South Indian forest throughout the Stat'e and as a Scheduled Caste tribes 'is that of the Kadars of the Cochin State, in the Malabar district.. In the eailier. censuses the;tribe which shows more traces of Negrito they were returned under, 'Forest tribe' in ancestry than any other,' though that is not a T richllf' dis,trict', (1931),' depressed cl,ass in great deal, the proto-austroloid element predo Malabar J1931 r and as aboriginal forest arid minate'.'; reveals ,the' ancestry of tbe tribe. Gipsy Tfibe (1921). In Kerala State, they ',are : Regarding, their primitive' 'customs it is knO\vn .as Kadan or K,adar, the former being reported that they: genetally gathered food in singtiliu, ,and the' latter, the plural form of the the forests and Jhuming was the only form of term:' The. term Kadar bas, derived froin the agdcll!ture they practised; they lived in leaf Malayalam '"vord, 'Kadti' meaning forest. Oile h,uts following nomadic customs (Thurston who'Jivesi'p the 'Kadu' is, t'herefcre, a 'Kadan. 1909, III, P.29); they made fit:e by tht; friction of In general' parlance "the hill tril:es of eochin wQod; the ,method ,of tr~e,climbing,as charact State'rtiay be divided inJo 'Kadar' ahd 'Malayar', ¢ristics of the Kadar and the Dayak of Bourn eo signif,:jng Jungle dwellers and hill, men respect (Thurston P. 15); similar to the jungle tribes of ively" (Menon, 1933, tn, 538-539). The male the Malacca and Indonesia the Kadar did not individual of the. tribe is referred to as'Kadan know any other t'orm of home-l1Jade vessels than and, the female as Kadathy.,' :rhe elderly the bole of bamboo; (Ehre'nfeJs, 195~ P. 8); the members, ho'\.vever, are referred to as 'Mooppan' digging stick of bamboo poles, were the chief and -'Mooppathy' ,for the male and, female implement of the Kadar; the' bamboo boles, resp~tively; , which were greatly valued as w,edding presents Tne earliet published l1terature on the Kadar for the' ,vornen, similar to those found among shows that they 'Were considered as the autoch the' Semang , and Senoi of Malacca and the Aeta thons of the InMan Peninsula. AnanthakFishna ()f the ,Phjlipines' which were of Ii protection Iyer considers that Kadars, Malayans,- Ullatans, agains t blaek magic; and the dog was the only Eravallans, : Paniyan:s, etc, repres.ent a: Negrito domesfic ariimal accompanying the Kadar on blend of race., The Negiito elem(m~s, 'says their paths of jungle (Ehrenfels, 195~ P. 8). 136 Page 138 PI. 68 A KADAR GROUP PI. 69 GOVERNMENT-BUILT HOUSES FOR K ..t\DARS-PARAMBIKULAM Page 140 • Pl. 70 A KADATHY WITH HER CHILD Page ]41 Pl. 71 SPLICING THE REED-BASKET MAKING Page'" 148 CHAPTER II DISTRIBUTION AN D POPULATION TREND Cochin forests have been considered as the Cochi!l number 627 and the Kadar of Wynad original home of the Kadar. "The Kadar are number 330. now chiefly found in the Nelliampathy a~d In 1911, 447 Kadar were returned from Kodassery hills of the Coehin State, as also In Cochin while in 1921 and 1931 the figures for the Anamalai bllls of the Coimbatore district" the same a rea were 274 and 267 respecti vely. reports Ananthakrishna Iyer (Iyer, 1909, I, P. 1). This indicates a decline in the population of Thurston reports that the Kadirs or Kadans Cochin Kadar from 1921 onwards. (Figures inhabit the Anamalai or elephant hills and t~e for 1941 and 1951 are not available). In 1961, great mountain. range \yhich': extends then~· however, thee nUfuber has risen :to 627: southward. into TravancQre. (Tl;lUrston 1909" The pop~lation figur~s' of ,the- Wy~ad .Kadar IlI, P. 29.). show that there is a decliqe from t.92i on\vards. In. 192.1 , 722 Kadar were 'returned fTom Malabar In the 1961· Census Kadar have. been' .re,t~rned: while in' 1931 ih~ figure fell to 491. In;. 1961, from the 4ijltricts of Cannano~r~ ,(69)~' Kozhikode' :BO Kada,: have been retu"rned -(ro'in th~ same (261), Trjchur (136) and Palghat (391). rTbey ~rea' are most concentrated in tp6 ChlUoor (345.) Out of the ~otal of 957 Kadar returned in taluk of Paighat district, Ml~kundaptiiilin (236)' 1961, which include both the s.ectioQs, 5J2 are taluk of Trichu( district and South Wy'nad (185): males and 445' are females. The: Kaqat ,', form ta1uk of Kozhikode district. In Madras' State OA5 per cent of the total poplllation 'of the they have been 'r~turned from Coimbatore (287),~ Sch~uled Tribes in the State.' Om of. the 957 Tirunelvelf (4)and Salem (2). The Kadar of, Kadar .924 (96.. 55%) Jive in.the rural.at~~fs.; The Cochin and the Kadar Qf Wynad have nothing' s~x·ratio works out to be 859 females p£r:J ,000 in common, but the:;·~ame. Tbe Kada:r of males ... <", ) 137 CHAPTER III PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS Du ring th is survey, data regarding the physi Regarding the racial affinity of the tribe con cal characteIistics of the Kadar have not been flicting views have been put forward. Though collected. 1 hey are descri red by Iyer as follows. contradicted later on, Lapicque, on the basis of "The colour of the Kadar skin is generally dark, his survey during 1903-04, had sugges ted the varying from it to higher shades of complexion according to locality. Tbe members of tbe existence of Negrito element among the Kadars tribe re~iding in localities frequented by the low (Lapicque, 1905) "In 1906, however, he modified caSle men of the plains arpear to be t he descend his views and stated that he did Dot find a ants of cross breeding, while those in tbe very Negrito group similar to the Andamanese but interior where the men of the plains have very only a bastard population". ~Sarkar, 1954, 71). lit.~le access possess the genuine feature of the Guha on the basis of his anthropometric data trIbe. The average height of the rr.en and collected during the 1931 Census has attributed women being 167 cms. and 147 ems. respectively, the presence of Negrito Strain among the Their r;'0ses are flat and wmewbat depressed, the Kadars, (Census of India, 1931), HO'wels (1937), nasal mdex of the males and females is 89.8 Haddo (1924), Eickstedt (19:39), Sarkar (1954) and 88 respectively. Both men and women etc, contradict the view put forward by Guha. have long dark wavy hair well-parted 'on the According to Thurston the Kadars· are of, crown of the head and smoothed with cocc anut "Short stature dark skinned and platyrrhine. oil and tied into a knot behind. The parting Men and women have the teeth chipped". of the hair and fashion of tying the knot coupled with their shyness give the former and effiminate (Thurston, 1909, ill, P. 8). Hutton reports, appearance. Some have long curly hair also. "Perhaps the most primitive of the most South They are of strong build robust in shoulder Indian Tribes is that of the Kadars _of the and thigh, Their arms are very long and like the Cochin State, a tribe which shows something Paniyans, they are deep chested, which is more like a stress of Negrito ancestry than in adopted to mountaineering. They have great other, though that is not a great deal, the powers of endurance and carry heavy loads on proto-australoid. elemen t predomina ting ". their backs", (Iyer, ]909, I, 23) (Hutton, 1961, 8). 138 CHAPTER IV FAMILY, CLAN, KrNSHIP AND OTHER ANALOGOUS DIVISIONS Family is the basic unit of social organisation The following are som:: of the kinship terms among the Kadars of Cochin. A person with co1I;:cted during the _investigations. his wife and childr~n live in a hut of his own. The parents rear the children till they are grown Father Appan up. After marriage the daughters with their M:)ther Amma spouses stay on in the same hut. All the .Father'S Father Peran members work together and contribute their Mother's father share of maintenance. When a person is capable Chandi of putting up a s;:parate hut, he along with his Mother's mother } Patty wife and children may shift to the newly built Father's mother one. Father's brother Maman Father's brother's wife Mamy Inheritance is through the father's line. In Mother's brother } former days, it is reported that the eldest Father's sister's husband Maman nephew used to inherit the property of a person, Elder brother Aschan generally consisting of a few billhooks, and Younger brother Thovi other mat~ri.al objects. Elder brother's wife (Woman calling) There is no clan sys tern among the Kadars. Nathoon For the purposes of marriage, village or settle Sister's husband Aliyan ment is taken as a unit and village or settlement HUiband's father exogamy as the case may be, is strictly followed, Wife's father } Appan All the members of a settlement are therefore Wlfe's mother ) Amma brot.hers and sisters, save those who have settled Husband's mother there through marriage and those Kadar who have ~ome from other settlements in connection Daughter's husband Marumakan with plant:ltion labour. Son's wife MarumakaI 139 CHAPTER V -DWELLING, DRESS, FOOD, ORNAMENTS AND OTHER MATERIAL OBJECTS A Kadar settlement is known as 'Pathy' and known, by the Kadar. The ground usually generaIJy consists of 10 to 40 huts. The choice looks neat and clean". of a settlement site depends on many factors. "Four wooden poles of about 4~ to 5! feet It should be near a watersource, generally a will firmly support the walls of split bamboos stream or rivulet. It should be near the forest and the main wooden or bamboo rafters of the to provide facilities for gathering and collec roof. Between the four corner poles, there tion. In recent days nearness to a Mattakada (Bartershop) is another consideration for the are usually three or ten thinner poles, meant to selection of a !'eUlement. Most of the Kadar support the walls." settlements are located on the sides of the "The roof is usually double sided with a ridge Chalakudy river and its tributaries. pole some 5 to 6~ feet above the ground, but may sometimes be only a single slanting plane, The Kadars were once eking out their living, the highest part of which will then be sorr.ewhat by collection of forest produce and as- such they lower than in the case of gabbled roofs. The bad no permanent settlements. Today almost roof is covered with codalies (reed-leaves)." all of them live in well-settled villages. During (Ehrenfels, 1952, P .. 18). Even now. the Kadar collection and gathering seasons, a few may hut is after the fashion described above. temporarily stay in the forest itself, returning to their permanent settlement after the Sometimes partitions may be made with the collections are over. help of split bamboo screens, In that case, one portion of the hut may be utilised as a kitchen Kadars construct two different types of huts. while the other is meant for sleeping and other One, a rectangular type with plaited bamboo purposes. The fireplace may be on -a raised wal1s and thatched roofs, in the permanent platform with three or four stones planted to settlement and the other a wind screen type support the cooking vessels_ Reed mats are resting on two bamboo poles, with a screen used for sleeping. tha tched with leaves and twigs, in the forest where, they go for gathering and collection. There may be one or two entrances to the The huts are constructed using local materials house protected by bamboo sliding screens. The like bamboo poles, rough hewn wood and reed rooms are without windows or ventilators. leaves. No regular pal tern of settlement is observed Every settlement will have a small seclusion by the Kadars. At Vazhachal they have made shed (Theendapura) meant for the menstruating long rows of rectangular butments each with women of the village, which is normal1y away partitions and each occupied by a singl e family. from the settlement site. This is invariably In case a new hut is to be constructed, the pre constructed by the womenfolk. vious structure is extended and the sides covered with plaited bamboo. New huts may also be Ehrenfels describes the construction of a constructed facing the old one or in any con Kadar house thus "Each house in itself is a venient space. roughly rectangular structure of about three to five paces, built on a mud platform raised a Temporary wind-screen-hut made in the forest, hands breadth or more above the surrounding where they go for collection and gathering, is a ground. The platform is beaten level while simple structure with a thatched side screen wet and kept so by occasional repairs, especially supported by a couple of bamboo pieces. For after heavy rains. 'W here cows are kept, cow this purpose a rectangular screen is made out. dung will now-a-days be mixed with the mud, tying together a few reed poles on which a in the way practised in the plains, but this is covering is made, using teak and reed leaves. of course, an innovation in Kadan construction This screen is placed in a slanting position since cows are formerly not kept, or even supported by the two bamboo poles. 140 DWELLING, DRESS, FOOD, ORNAMENTS The hutments are constructed by the Kadars welr on ceremonial occasions. Boys are found themselves without taking help from wage wearing short loin cloths, shirts and shorts and labourers. Usually the other members of the girls skirts and blouses, settlement may also extend helping hands in the It appears that the Kadar are not very construction of a new house. Both men and particular in keeping their dress neat and, clean; women join in the construction of the huts. The they very seldom wash their dress. It may be theendapuca (Muttusalai) according to Thurston, that they do not find It necessary to have a is constructed solely by the women. In former neat and tidy dress in the wilderness of the days it is reported that the huts are erected by forest. the women, who seem very proud of their work. (Ehrenfels, 1952, 8). In recent years, under Ornaments the housing scheme for the tribal folk, the Unlike many other forest tribes, the Kadar Government of Kerala have constructed a few are not very fond of ornaments, but for th~ houses in the different Kadar settlements. Such decorative bamboo comb known as 'Chagara'. houses are tiled and brick-walled with two The Kadar women wear only very few or11a rooms, occupied generally by two families. mellts. They use thoda (ear pin) on their ears. By and Ia rge the Kadar settlements are mukkuthi (nose screws) 00 their nose, strings of beads (Manimala or Kallumala) and chains of exclusively inhabited by them. Other tribes cheap metals on their neck and rubber, glass or residing in the neighbourhood include Malayans. plas tic bangles on their hands. All tbes~ are of It is reponed from Vazhachal that Kadar che.p make and are procured either from the consume most of the available types of flesh local 'mattakada' or from the hawkers who from the forest and even that of dead animals, frequent tbeir settlements with a variety of whereas Malayans have restriction on meat of wares. Very few of them have ornaments of dead animals. Even then both of them claim gold. Another ornamen t which a few women superion ty over each otber. With tbe result, wear on the upper portion of the earlobe is the Kadar do not take meals at the hands of 'kappu'. This is joined to a hairpin with the Malclyans or vise versa and avoid chances of help of a chain known as 'Kaduthukolutby'. mingling with eaCD other. Thus Kadar maintain a sort of tradi tional enmity f witll Malayans. The Kadar men wear no ornaments worth the plainsmen belonging to various castc:s, .whom name. They pierce their earlobes but only a the Kadar refer as Kongans have come 10 the few were found wearing Kadukkan (ear ring). forest aredS in search of Ii velihood; A few elderly men have been however, found using 'Kadukkans'. Dress Description of the Kadar ornaments will be In former days the Kadar men and WOmen incomplete without the Kadan-comb. The were dressed very scantily. They made use of Kadan-comb is a typical product of his bamboo leaves and fibres to cover their nakedness. industry. Two types of combs are made, one Today they use mill-made clothes to cover with four prongs and the other with a number their body_ A lot of regional variations are of (hem. Ehrenfels describes the Kadan-comb seen in their dr,,",ss, especially of the women thus, "These combs, cut from thin pieces of the folk. Those women who live in the intaior Kadars' most favoured raw material, bamboo forests wear loin cloth, wraoped round the loin, are beautifully ornamented in geometric and bodice, while those Ii ving near the roads pattern. There are two main types; the chipu wear loin clothes and blouses. A few women of or nine pronged. The latter being bigger and Pararnbikulam have been found wearing saries usually more elaborately ornamented on the and blouses while going out of their settlement projected top part. The five pronged seems to to attend ceremonial functions. When compared be the more commonly used. Both types are to women, tile men dre~s scantily. Those stuck in the bair sidewise and emerge slander residing in the interior wear a loin cloth only, ingly from the back part of the ground". while those who stay in proximity with the (Ehrenfels, 1952. P. 23). The Kadan comb is road may wear a b:mian in addition to the four something more than an object of decoration. cubit loin-cloth. Many of the Kadar men These are given as marriage presents, as among residing in Parambikulam have shirts which they the Mudugas, a neighbouring tribe. A similar 141 KADAR custom has been reported from among the and a few digging sticks and choppers used for Marias of Bastar district. economic pursuits. Tattooing as a personal decoration is not in Earthen pots purchased either from the the traditional culture of tbe Kadars. As a barter shops or from neighbouring markets are result of their contacts with the plainsmen, used for the purpose of cooking. Water may be however, many of them have got their upper stored either in earthen pots or in empty limbs tattooed. The designs thus made are kerosene tins. Food is generally served on leaves mostly those of Hindu deities like Lord Krisbna of wild plantain, save liquid food, which may and Sastha. be ~erved in earthen or enamelled plates. The Food and Drink: sophisticated aluminium and enamelled plates are found but rarely, The staple food of the Kadar is rice. This In former days the Kadar used bamboo vessels may be supplemented with jungle roots and for cooking and preserving food. (Ehrenfels, fruits. "Formerly", reports Ebrenfels, "the 1952, P. 52). Even to this day many of them staple food consisted of jungle roots, and· even make use of bamboo vessels for preserving oil, now at certain times, when owing to lack of honey etc. Food, for their domesticated dogs, income or for other reasons, rice is not available, the daily food will again be- collected is served in turtle shells. in the Jungle". (Ebrenfels, 1952, P.26). Rice Every Kadar hut will have a few' kora~grass in former days was just a luxury for them. mats to sleep. These are prepared by themselves by knitting grass blades ~ogether with the help Rice, cooked in the form of gruel or solid, of cotton thread. A special type of needle is may be consumed once, or at times more than utilised for the purpose. once, roots like Kanik;zhangu (a whitish root), Narukizhangu (Atalantia, monophylla), Thali The equipment connected witb economic kizhangu (Corypba umbraculiphera), Channana pursuits include digging stick like 'parakolu' kizhangu (Pterocarpus sautalinus), Noola and ' koorankolu', ' chopper' (Vettukathi), kizhangu (Diocoria tonneutosa) and Kuvanuru 'pichathi' or kitchen knife and a small axe (Curcumma anguetifolia). Some of the fruits known as 'kaikodali'. they use are cava and vettila. The digging sticks were, once universally used. A common word used for all the roots collect Ehrenfels reports tbat a few of his informants ed from the jungle is 'thettam', literally means remembered vividly, tbe use of stone edged those which are sought from the forest. These digging sticks. are either used after boiling or roasting them in 'Koorankolu' as a long digging stick with a ember. Among the animal food they use, turtle pointed end. The 'parakkolu' is a long digging meat is the most important. They also eat pigs, stick with a piece of iron fitted at one end. For varan us, mangoose, ra ts, sambar, blackmonkey etc. digging roots, it is held vertically with both Fish is a delicacy for them. Adjoining water hands and brought heavily on the spot where sources provide ample opportunity for fishing. edible roots are to be dug indicated by leaves or Birds like forest cocks, cranes etc. are also certain creepers. While digging, the person eaten by them. The consumption of the meat concerned kneels to effect more force in the of tiger, buffalo, cow and bullock are tabooed process, for the Kadar. For cutting purposes ' vettukathi' and Kadar are very much addicted to toddy and 'pichathi' are used. 'Vettukatt.i' is a chopper arrack. No information is available to show with a long and curved iron blade fitted on to a that they prepare liquor. Their requirements wooden handle, An iron ring fastens and of arrack and toddy are met from the barter connects the - blade with the handle. Tlle shop. 'vettukathi', to a Kadan, is more a weapon than an implement. 'Vettukathi' is his constant Housebold and Other Equipments companion, for, while he is either at home or in The material possessions of the Kadar are the forest invariably, he carries it. The import limited to a few earthen pots used for cooking ance of 'Vettukathi' to the Kadar is known from and serving food, Kora grass mats for sleeping the fact tbat after the death of a person, it is 142 DWELLING, DRESS, FOOD, ORNAMENTS placed on his grave. This, they believe, is to used flint and steel to make fire. A piece of protect the spirit of the dead on his journey to steel is st.ruc.k against a sharp-edged fiin t, as. a the other world. result of WhICh sparks are produced. A small 'Pichathi' is a kitchen knife with a long blade ball of cotton kept along with the fiint, works and short wooden handle. This is used more as the tinder. The sparks thus formed lit the for house bold purposes. cotton tinder whi.cb is then blown and fire is Ii t. 'Kaikodali' is an ordinary axe with an iron blade of about six inches, fitted to a long Unlike in olden days, when fire was to be wooden handle. This is of immense USe for prepared with great difficulty, today it is not cutting dQwn shrubs, and for honey collection. preserved. Safety matches are abundantly used to make fire. Most :of the men, who are also Fire making: smokers, carry the matches along with them. With the advent of safety matches the signi Musical Instrument ficance of fire making is almost forgotten. In former days, "fire which i3 very seldom lighted T~e K~dar use 'Kar~mbu', a blow pipe, as is tended by women". (Ehrenfels, 1952. P. 8). musIcal lDstru;nent dUrIng their folk dances. Fire was produced then, with the help of a :Karimbu' is. a funnel shaped long wooden bamboo 'Saw'. "'The Kadan 'fire· saw' consists lD~trument With a broad mouth and tapering of a vaulted half bamboo into which a sm~1I tall. A few holes are mlde on the sides at the slit has been cut horizontally, along which a tail end, for controlling the wind blowo' by tbe sbarp edged piece of dry wood i'3 being moved mouth, thus producing different notes. The rapidly in sawing fashion. The tinden under pipe is made up of three pieces. A mouth the half inclined piece of bamboo begins to which is funnel-shaped and conical, is made out smoulder. Soon after the firs t glowing sparks of scooped wood. The central piece is hollow fall through the slit from the rapidly moved with six holes on one side. The tail portion is dry wood 'saw' and fire is then quickly produced tapering all is join~l WiCl ttl;! middle one by gently glowing on tbe smoulder tinder". which, in its turn, is joined with the mouth (Ehrenfels, 1952, P. 54). Later on, the Kadars portion. 143 CHAPTER VI ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION, HYGIENIC HABITS, DISEASE AND TREATMENTS The Kadar settlement, being in the interior cum-medicine man) is pressed into action. He, of the forest, is always damp. Courtyard and with the help of his magical powers and a few surroundings are found strewn with rubbish. hill-herbs, cures the patient. Back pain, The huts are not kept clean. Very seldom they swelling and snake bites are trea ted with indi daub the floor with cow dung paste. genous herbal medicines. Tubers like 'mala The personal hygiene of an average Kadan is manjalu' and bark of 'arali' tree are effective not quite encouraging. Though living near for snake bite. 'Kannadithalli' is supposed to forest-streams or other \Vater SOurces they be a good medicine for swelling. Fever is seldom take a bath. They are aJ.so not very treated with the fumes of Kunthirukkam much keen about keeping their dress neat and (frank incense). The Kadar 'manthravadi' is clean. kept in veneration even by the plainsmen owing to his skill in treating snake bites. Skin diseases like scabies, and ordinary fever are the main ailments reported from among The belief of the Kadar, in the efficacy of the Kadar. They sincerely believe that physical their tribal magic and medicine, is dwindling ailments are due to the wrath of evil spirits. day by day. They now approach modern medical In case of an ailment a 'manthravadi' (Magician- practitioners in case of serious ailments. 144 CHAPTER VII LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE The language of the Kadar appears to be a speaking Tamil. The ml1e an:i female Malayalam mixture of Malayalam and Tamil. "Kadars of speakers work out to 50.16 110 and 44.20% Cochin forests", says Iyer. "speak a mixture of respectively. Tamil-speaking males form 3.84% Tamil and Malayalam while those of the Ana and females 2.30%. Th~ figure for the Mala malai hills speak a kind of Tamil called Malasir". yalam speakers is inflated due to the fact that (Iyer, 1909, I, p. 1) those living in predomin this includes purely Malayalam speakiog Kadar antly Malayalam speaking areas use more of Wynad. One per cent has been returned as Malayalam words in their language as in the speaking English as a subsidiary language, Vazhachal. while those living in the predomin obviously those who have studied this language antly Tamil speaking areas of Parambikulam use as part of their school curriculam. Out of the more Tamil words in their language. The 957 persons, only 85 have been returned as peculiar intonations and slang make the language literate during the 1961 Census. In other words difficult to understand by the outsiders. When 8.9% of Kadar are literate. The female literacy they speak to the plainsmen they use a more rate works out to only 4% which when compared chaste dialect. When they speak among them with many other tribes is far from satisfactory. selves they use the so called 'Kadan dialect'. The 85 literates include 74 persons without any In the 1961 Census 94.36 per cent are returned ed uca tional level with 57 males and 17 females. ~s speaking Malayalam as their mother tongue Ten males and one female have studied up to while 5.64 per cent have been returned as primary while none has studied beyond that. 145 CHAPTER VIII ECONOMIC LIFE From time immemorial, Kadar inhabit the disapproved and may sometimes be violently wild forests exploiting its resources. Their retorted. prima ry cccupa tion was collection and gathering Even in the sa~e group, there are certain of forest produce. The Government get the conventions to be observed. A root _or tuber forest produce collected by the Kadar through spotted by a person cannot be exploitec;I by any the contractors who provide the former. their one else. The person spotting a beehIve leaves bare necessities of life, like r:ice, salt, chillies, a sign of identification in the tree or. pla~e tobacco, cloth etc. in exchange of the various where the beehive ha<; been detected and It wIll forest produce collected by them. "It has been not be exploi ted by another person. said. that, but for the Kadars and the elephants, the Cochin fl rests would have been useless. But With the beginning of the season for collecting Jor the elephants none could lift a log. and if it !'Ind gathering, offerings are made to the Syl,:an were not for the Kadars none dare move an deities, praying that the members of the t!l~e inch in _the forests" (Iyer 1909, P. 15), So may be protected from wild animals and spmts useful was the Kadar to the Government and and also that the forest produces may be mace the forest to the Kadar. plentiful. This is known as 'Vilakku~aikal'. In this connection Kada r offer arrack 10 bamboo The position is not very different even today, tubes, cocoanuts, sandalwood, parched rice etc. Their economy is a mixed one based on symbiotic to the Sylvan deities and place th_em u,:d_e~ a relationship of forest economy and modern tree where they are to begin their. activities market. Bulk of their income is derived from connected with collection <-nd gatherIng. The forest produce, a portion of which is used for eldest male member lights a wick and prays consumption and the rest is bartered for other "We have brought these things for you. primary necessities of life. Besides collection _Throughout the season you may protect us from of minor forest produce they are also engaged, starva tion." in hunting, trapping, turtle catching and fishing. A very insignificant number of them have taken If their stay in the forest, in conr,ection w!th up cultivatIOn or agricultural labour as their the collection and gathering, lasts long, COOklD.g main occupation. utensils, rice, provisions, chewing pan, bee?J, boxes of matches, etc. are taken along ~vlth The Kadar generally live in the state-owned them. Vettukathi as mentioned elsewhere IS an reserve fores1s or on the fringes of the same. inseparable weapon of the Kadar. Using the Utilisation of forest produce or in some cases Vettukathi the shrubs and thickets are cleared land utilisation is done on a community basis. to provide access to the jungle. The members Indidividual ownership, save in a few cases is of the group generally belong to the same not in vogue. family. While engaged in collection, they observe the conventional norms of not over· Collection and Gathering taking a party or collecting the roots and frui ts Collection and gathering is known in the local spotted by another group. parlance as 'thettam'. It is a very well organis ed affair and is subject to certain understanding The minor fores t prod uce collected can be and conventions. Every Kadar settlement has categorised into two' one meant for consumption a well-defined conventional jurisdiction for and the other me~nt for barter. Consumable 146 ECONOMIC LIFE etc., are honey, cane, ginger, pepper, cardamom, tree bees do not attack in combined swarms as turmeric.' wax, mustard, muttipal (Alianthus do the rock-bees, and therefore the stings Malabanca),. TheUy (Frankincense), Chinikka, received are not numerous, neither is the pain (a fruit of mimosa saponifera) which is used caused so very severe as to affect the thick skin as soap, inchapatta, arrow root, wax, Nellikka of the natives. The only trouble in collecting (fruit of Phillanthus Emblica), flowers of Pathiri this is the enlargIng of the hole by which the plant, lemon grass, Kanjirakuru (seeds of nux bees enter their nests. The rock-bee, the honey vomica), Kakkankaya etc. (Malanthen) of which is of a superior quality is a large bee that builds its nest in the cavities The following is the list of articles collected of rocks and on the edges of appalling preci during the different seasons:- pices. It is a most fearful advers,ary, so much December to April so that the native bee collectors dare not attack it in the day time. If they are attacked by an Kakkankaya, Chinikka, Path iripoo Mala intruder they .begin a united persisten t attack Manjal, Marottikuru, Pepper, Wax, 'Honey, and, as their stings are severe, it is almost im Pulinjikka. possible to escape from the attack, and it is Monsoon May-September most dangerous to go near them. The natives take the combs at night and the·mode of pro Ginger, Cardamom, Arrow-root. cedure evinces a cool daring which one would Tbrougl;lout tbe Year never expect in such a cowardly race. He makes a chain of rings of rattan or bamboo and Thelly. cane. Matty, Aralitholi. this chain over 100 feet in length is lowered Collection of Honey. from the top of the precipice until it reaches a point where the bees' nests are. This being The s~ill of t~e Kadar in ~ol1ectjng honey is done, a dark windy night is chosen and the proverbial. Ram helps the honey-hunters as it honey-hunter either alone or accompanied by makes the bees drowsy. The season for collect his wife, brother or son, when it is pitch-dark ing honey is March to May. Dark nights are descends this loosely hanging ladder with a preferred to daylight. firebrand, and keeping away the bees by means Kadar collect honey from tall trees and pre of his torch, he collects the honey and thus cipitous mountain rocks without much difficulty. secures the prize. To look at one of these Kurumthen, Karimthen, Kolthen. Perimthen ladders as it hangs over the face of some fearful arId C_heruthen are the various names given to cliff and to imagine the scene is to make one's the dlffelent types of honey collected during dif flesh creep. For the feat of daring he feels amply ferent months and from the hives of distinct rewarded if a rupee is given. The bees appear species of be~s .. Ananthakrishna Iyer gives an to be sluggishly stupid on dark nights and hence excellent descnptlOn of Kadar honey collection. the rationale of this method of procedure. There "Honey gathering is a favourite occupation is another honey producing bee found in the hill with them, which they invariably do after night which makes its nest on the bare (runk of the fall with a torch, under the cover of darkness bush; the comb is generally in the shape of, and to a void the sting of bees. When the trees ar~ abou t the size of, a goose's egg, and so pure and quite straight and without branches, the ascent delicate clean is the wax that the whole comb is facilitated by means of small wooden pegs may be eaten, just as it is found, wax and all: driven into the trees, which serve as so many There is also a fourth kind of bee which bullds foot rests. The quantity of honey collected by i Is nest on the branches of tree.s, some of which the jungle tribes is very great and is the product are of great height." (Iyer, 1909, 1. pp. 15-17) of four distinct species of bees. The larger Other Occupations portion is collected by a middle sized bee which makes its nest in the hollow stems of old trees. Ot~er oc~upations, they are engaged in, are The nest is attacked fearlessly by the honey huntHl~, fishmg, elephant catching, rope making, hunters, who profess to be proof against the plantatIOn. wo_rk and to a very insignificant stings by means of secret charms, but we can extent cultIvatIOn and agricultural labour. vouch for the fact that the charm necessary for Though the Kadar are not very good hunters. it is a moderate amount of fortitude, for, the they are good fowlers and trappers. They hunt 147 KADAR small animals like rabbits, mongoose and wild to the barter shop or Mattakkada which sell pigs with the help of their dogs. Birds are shot them to the mahouts (elephant drivers) for with their small guns. Turtle catching is a pulling logs of wood. very exciting affair for the Kadar. In the months Cultivation and agricultural labour are new of January to April they go hunting in groups avocations for a few Kadar. They have started on the banks of the river when the turtles cultivating tapioca in recent years. Traditionally migrate to the banks. The bushes and shrubs they are very bad agriculturists who are not on the .banks of the river are burn t down, when the turtles hiding beneath them, try to escape capable of even using a spade. to the river. These are now caught skilfully A recent addition to their economic resources with the help of dogs. is their participation as coolies to the contra ctors and to the planters on daily wages. Fishing is a pastime-cum-economic activity for the Kadar ','WIDen. They fish with the help Some very useful data have been collected of angles or a t times by poisoning. A seed during the 1961 Census on the economic life of known as M alamk urukkai is used to poison the Kadar. According to this 40'65% compris fish in stagnant water. ing 58'40% males and 20'22% females are workers. The most important category of occu In former days the Kadar used to help the pation in which they are employed is in category Government in ca tching elephan ts. "The Ele III of the Industrial classification. (which in pbants arc: caught sometimes in pits; a large cludes forest produce collection which accounts number of which (about 15' in depth and from for 13'79%. 3'14% have been returned under 14' to 18 I in diameter at the mouth) are dug the category of construction. In transport, by the side of a stream or other water reservoir storage and communication 2'30%. are engaged. which they frequent during the summer months, As low as 1'99% are engaged in cultivation and especially during nights. Those pits do not 1'67% are returned as agricultural labourers. have the same width at the bottom. The mouths Negligible numbers are returned as working in of the pits are covered with pieces of split household industry and manufacturing. None bamboo, boughs and earth, with dry leaves has been returned as working in trade and over them and they are never placed on a track commerce. Comparatively larger percentage where the huge beast may suspect a trap (17.03%) is returned under other services. These As soon as it is known that an elephant has include casual labour, wage labour and other fallen into a pit, the forest authorities are unspecified services. It is reported that during informed. The Kadars or Malayans in the the Census period many of the Kadar were neigbbourhood cut huge branches of trees and engaged as daily labourers in the construction place them across the mouth, so that he may of Parambiculam Multipurpose dam. not escape. Tame elephants are brought up, who speak to him, and try to make him feel In the category of persons not at work, at home in this uncomfortable situation, and according to the Census returns, no Kadaa has gradually tne pit is filled up till his fore-legs been returned either as seeking employment are supported, the leaves and tender branches or as employed but seeking work. 7.42% of the being held up to him as food. Strong ropes total population are returned as full-time ar.: passed round his neck, when he holds up students. bis trunk. He comeS out of the pit and walks out between his tame companions who chastise Mattakkada him if he gives trouble". ()yer 1909, I, 19). Mattakkada or barter shop is a very important Nowadays, the Kadar seldom engage them institution for the Kadar. The Government selves in catching elephants. They are, however, auctions the right of collection of minor forest in duty bound to collect elephant tusks from produce to the contractors The contractors the dead beasts. in their turn, get the minor forest produce collected through the Kadars. The collected Rope-making is an important pastime-cum forest produces are to be given to the contra economic activity for them during the rainy ctors for which they are supposed to pay to the season. Very thick ropes are made from a Kadar at Government rates. For the 'conveni creeper known as Bakkavally which they give ence' of the Kadar, the contractors have 148 ECONOMIC LIFE organised barter shops in the Kadar settlements. 4. a) Cane (Vallichooral) 100 numbers The Kadar of Vazhachal and nearby settle of 12 I length Rs. 3 ments get· the required articles from Kolla b) Cane (Chooral) 100 numbers thirumedu Mattakkada. of 9' length Rs. 5 When the Kadar have collected and gathered 5. Frankincense (Thelly) 18t litre Tin Rs. 4 enough headloads of forest produce they get 6. Pepper _(Mulaku) 18t litre Tin Rs. 4 back to tbe Mattakkada. The Mattakkadak karan, la person ,"vho runs the Mattakkada) at 7. Jathikka 18!litreTinRs. 8 tbe outset, provijes the Kadan with some tea 8. Cardamom (Elakka) 18t litre Tin Rs. 5 powder and jaggery with which he makes a Though this is the rate the Contractor or his decoction and consume. The price for these agent exchanges different articles of requirement articles is not realised from the Kadan to the Kadar, the cost of which is very low when as 'it is a small prey for a big game'. Some compared to the price of the total hill produce more i terns like salt and Kerosene oil are also given to him. They are not entitled to sell the given 'free' to the Kadar. produce to other persons than the Mattak kadakkaran and they are not aware of the The following is the price fixed for some of prevailing market price of the different com the items by the barter sbop for the best modities that they give and take from the varieties of the forest produce supplied by the Mattakkada and also tbey are not famliar with Kadar. simple arithmetic. Hence they are at the The normal mercy of the Mat takkadakaran. The price price for quoted above fluctuates more or less according Items given which the to the market rates and is not tradition bound. to Ma ttakkad a Quantity contractor exchanges Invariably articles like rice. cocoanu toil •. articles to bidi, provisions, betel-leaves and nuts, dried Kadar fish, cloth etc. are bartered against minor forest produce. As cash payment is not made by the 1. Honey (Vanthene) 18t litre Tin Rs. 35 contractors, the Kadar resort to unfair methods 2. Ginger (Mala Inji) 32 Pounds Rs. 3 by selling honey, cane etc. to the outsiders for 3. Marot tikkuru 32 Pounds Rs. 7 some cash. 149 CHAPTER lX LIFE CYCLE Birth Range. Occasionally a feast is also resorted to on this occasion. . Traditionally names of In former days, "pregnancy was indicated paternal grandfather or grandmother, ·as the by a change in costume. The main cloth worn case may be, were given to the first born baby. round the loins is removed and tied above the Some of the usual names of elderly people are breast, and the second cloth is, as usual, thrown given below. diagonally above the left shoulder and below the right arm-pit" (Tyer 1909, 1, 7). This Males Females ceremony connec ted with pregnancy is however, Kompi Vellechy not followed in the present day. Varattukodha Koorka A pregnant woman confines herself in the Nalla Pillai Chempu ~eclusion shed known as the 'Thindapura', No Velutbulla Kirumkaly special ceremony is performed before child birth; however in case of difficult labour it is Kariyan Nadami considered that the evil spirit is haunting the Karimpilla Kuttuka enceinte and a mantravadi is brought to exorcise Karjmpayan Kanny the evil spirit. Professional midwives are not In recent years, adopting from the plainsmen, found in the Kadan society; any old and ex the Kadar have started giving modern names perienced woman of the tribe would serve the to their children. A few names given to the purpose. males and females are as follows :- Just after the labour pain starts, the belly Males Females is fomented bv the woman who attends on ber. Parameswaran Nanchamma Soon after child-birth, the child is bathed in Lonappan Thankamma warm water. Mother remains in the seclusion shed for 10 days and on all these days she takes Krishnan Kumari bath in hot water after baving turmeric and Raman Savira oil smeared on the body_ On the 10th day she Prabhakaran Mary etc. is shifted to another but nearer seclusion shed and remains there for another 8 days. During Initiation this period she is allowed to move freely, Initiation ceremony, both for boys and girls, During the pre-natal period forest roots and were prevalent in former days. A person is preparations made out of them are not given initiated into the society after having celebrated to the pregnant woman, whereas, in the post. the' PalIukettu Kalyanam' or the tooth cutting natal period only solid food is consumed for a festival. During this tIme an operation is carried period of 90 days. out by an elderly person who is experienced in chipping off the teeth with the help of a chisel Child-naming ceremony is performed on the or billhook. In the case of girls, this ceremony day the mother is free from pollution. The is conducted during the occasion of their first father calls out tt.e name, a few times, loudly menstruation (Ehrenfels 1952, 146). This cere to be audible to the relatives present on the mony has not been reported now-a-days. A few occasion. The name i~ selected from those of elderly persons with chipped incisor leeth are the ancestors of the child's father or mother. seen even today, indicating the prevalence of But preference is given to the DDme of that this custom in former days. person who died during the pregnancy period of the mother of the baby; the names of Hindu Puberty Gods are also accepted. Sometimes no such The puberty rite is known as 'Thirandu- principles are adopted in selectin~ names. Thus kalyanam'. When a Kadar girl attains puberty recently a Hindu Kadar by name ISMAIL she is conducted to the 'Thindapura' (seclusion (Muslim name) was noticed in Chalakkudy shed), where she spends 7 days assisted by a few 150 LIFE CYCLE girls of her settlement who have not yet attain 'Koodithamasikal', literally means join ed puberty. Every day, she is given bath after the female's family, is a form of marriage smearing a paste of turmeric and cocoanut oil by service which is very commonly practised by on the body. On the 7th day she is given the Kadar. Regular marriages are also reported, bath and thus she becomes devoid of pollution. besides' Koodi thamasikal'. In Kooditbamasikal A polluted girl cannot even take her bath in the a man of the marriageable age, during his stream, as It is believed that her touch would wanderings, comes across a suitable spome and even pollute the water. with the permission of the father of the girl lives After the purificatory bath on the 7th day, the in their bouse and work for the family. After girl is dressed up in new clothes and brought to having won the confidence of the Mooppan the courtyard of her hut. All the members of (Headman) and the parents of the girl, by the settlement assemble and give presents to her assisting them for collecting and gathering, the in the form of money. Those who can afford youngman puts forward his real intentions. In may arrange a feast to the members of the the meantime, he keeps company with the girl. settlement. During night the youngsters indulge 'without the knowledge of the parents', and if in entertainments, merryments and folk dances the courtship is strengthened by frequent till late hours. contacts they unitedly approach the parents of the girl. If agreed to, on an appointed day, the Women in their periods are sec1uded in the boy approaches the parents of the girl with a 'Thindapura' for 4 to 5 days, when they prepare pair of loin cloths as a present to the parents. their olVn meals in the utensils kept in the :r-.Tormally the proposal is accepted. 1\ow on seclusion shed to be used during such occasions. wards the boy and the girl stay in the same hut Marriage in a separate apartment as man and wife. Some time afterwards, they may conveniently prepare Traditionally Kadar men and women marry a separate hut and shift to the same. The quite late in their life. The contact with the husband thus becomes a member of the girl's plainsmen has, however, reduced the age at settlement and he will be formally allowed to marriage. According to the 1961 Census returns joiu in the gathering and collection. one female in tbe age-group of 0-14 has been On marriage by service, Iyer reports tbat, returned as married, indicating that child "anyone who wished to marry goes out of his marriages are also resorted to. own village and lives there for a whole year All the members, save those who are married during which he chooses a suitable girl as his in, in a settlement are agnates and as such wife. At the end of the year he returns to his cannot marry from the same settlement. In village and obtains permission from the villagers other words, village exogamy is the norm. As to effect the contemplated union. He then a rule consanguineous marriages are not allow comes to the village of the bride-elect and gives ed, though marrying one's own cross-cousin is her as dowry the amount he has saved, and also not prOhibited. Ehrenfels reports, "for the gives presents of clothes to her parents, purpose of marriage, preference seems to be brothers, sis ters and maternal uncle. On the given to the paternal, rather than to the day chosen for the wedding, a tali of gold or a maternal rela tives which migb t be taken as ring attached to a thread is tied round the expressing a feeling of closer family ties between neck of the bride. After the usual marriage ilia ternal rela t i ves as compared to pa ternal ones, ft:ast, the married couple go to the groom's hut, since close relatives are often avoided in where his friends and relations are treated to marriage" (Ehrenfels, 1952, P. 136). He has a dinner· After few weeks, a new hut is also with the help of case studies indicated erected where they reside and maintain them existing marriage relationship between patri selves by the wages of their own labour". lineal cousins and matrilineal cousins. Levirate (Iyer 1909, 1, P. 6) It is reported that the boy ana sororate marriages, though not conven earns his hvilihood by collection and gathering tionally allowed, are reported. The most usual from the forest with his relatives while he is in form of marriage found among the Kadar is the settlement of the girl. The major portion of monogamy_ Instances of both polyandry and the earnings IS given to the girl's parents. who polygamy are however reported from Parambi act as his hos t. The father of a girl of marriage kulam though they are not very frequent. able age among Kadar enjoys a privileged 151 KADAR position, as his would be son in law tries to Census of India 1961 provides some interesting please hIm by fulfilling his tastes. Simultaneously data on the marital status of the Kadar. the boy strives hard to save whatever .is According to this, out of the 957 persons possible by cutting down his personal expenses including 512 males and 445 females, 473 persons for meeting the marriage expenditure. The witb 279 males and 194 females are never boy gives an amount not less than Rs. 10 as married. Under the married category are bride price, which is only a recent innovation in returned 424 persons with 214 males and 210 addition 10 tobacco, betel leaves, clothes, females. 46 persons are widowed out of which bangles and necklace. Among Kadar marrbges 14 are males and 32 females. 14 pe rsons are are celebrated after sun set as all can come censused under divorced or separated with 5 from the forest by that time. According to males and 9 females. Ehrenfels, "the marrIage ceremony is celebrated Excepting one female, all the others in the with the usual meal or 'feast' given to relatives age-group of 0-14 are returned as never married. and neighbours, accompanied by the Kadars' In the 15-44 age-group, out of the total of 458 music and dance, but now-a-days also by arrack persons, including 242 males and 216 females, drinking, which was obviously not so in pre 89 persons are never married with 75 males and acculturation days because unlike many other 14 females. The large number of unmarried hill people of India Kadar do not drink liquor males in this age-group may be because of themselves but consume exclush'ely drink lack of enough females of marriageable age. processed by plainspeople. The· bridegroom 337 persons with ]52 males and ]85 females are ties a tali of brass or occasionally silver to the returned as married. Widowed under this age girl's neck; obviously a ceremony. also adopted group comes to 18 with 10 males and 8 females. from the plains though most Kadar say, and 14 of them with 5 males and 9 females are honestly believe that this has 'alwaYb' been returned as divorced or separated. so...... Bride and bridegroom then put a little food in each others mouth with tbeir own In the age-group of 45 and above out of the hands, similarly as Ezhavar do with sweet total of 114 persons none has been returned as meats at the occasion in various rural parts of never married. In this group 86 persons with the plains" (Ehrenfels. 1952, P. 141). 62 males and 24 females are married. A good number in this age-group with 4 males and 24 Among Kadar the practice of giving dowry is females are returned as widowed. None has not in vogue. Bride-price is given in the form been returned as divorced or separated. of cheap ornaments and dress for the bride and To sum uP. 54'49% of the total males and loin cloths for her parents. 43-60% of the females are never married. 41'80% of the males and 47·19% females are Both premarital and extra marital sex relation married. Widowed men comes to 2-73% while ship are not the norm of the society though females under this category is 7'19%. Divorced ins tances are reported. In the Kadar society, or separated accounts for 0'98% males and women enjoy a high status. Survival of their 2'02% females. high status can be adduced from the fact that Death once it was the exclusive right of the women to construct houses and tend fire." The dead among the Kadar is buried. A sinking person is gIven a little water by those Marriage among the Kadar does not appear who are assembJed there. As soon as the person to be a permanent and divine bondage. Marriage breaths his last the corpse is draped in a cloth. tie is very loose and divorces are very frequent. The dead body is neither washed nor anointed A divorce is effected on flimsy grounds and before disposal. for trifling reasons. As divroce is frequent, A pit is dug in the western side of their marriages after divorce or widowhood are very settlement in an east-west direction. The dead common. A divorced woman may be married body, placed on a bier made of bamboo, draped not after a long time. Adultery always results in cloths and fastened to the frame, is carried in divorc~. But ~adar custom does not prescribe by the close relatives like sons, brothers, sons any speclfic pUlllshment, for the violation of in-law etc. on their shoulders. It is placed this rule. over twigs and leaves which are already placed 152 LIFE CYCLE in the pit. The head of the corpse is directed settlement is allowed to shave his face or head towards the west. Over the dead body are besides no one dares to go near the grave. ' placed or spread some more leaves and branches and then covered with earth. Covering the pit In connection with the 'Adiyanthiram' the is the privilege of the eldest son, who puts a chief mourner, usually the eldest son, cook~ two little earth at first and the pit is then filled by measures of rice in a new earthen pot, small others. In the rainy season a low roofed hut is portions of which are placed on seven leaf cups. erected over the grave which is supposed to A few drops of arrack and a few small pieces of 'protect' the dead man from the rains. AU ember are also mixed with the cooked rice. These tllose implements and things usually used by offerings are later distrii)uted to all the members the dead man, when he 'lias alive, are placed at of the settlement A feast may also be arranged his grave. These include knife. earthen pot, during 'adiyanthiram·. The headman of the digging stick, safety matches, betel leaves etc, settlement usually presides over this ceremony_ No monument is constructed on the grave. After having finished the purificatory rite the members of the settlement may shave their face On the seventh day. after death, the pollution and head. caused by death is dispelled by performing an 'adiyanthiram' when tea, betel leaves, beedi etc. The hut, in which the death occurs, is are placed on the grave. If the death occurs in destroyed. In the case of those who live in the rainy season 'adiyanthiram' is deferred and the houses constructed by the Government, the performed when their savings permit. Until the sinking person is removed to a shed -in order to 'adiyanthiram' is performed, no one in the avoid desertion. 153 CHAPTER X RELIGION The idea of supreme deity 'Eswaran' or capable of doing black magic, diagnosing 'Andavar' is very much dormant in them. diseases and prescribing medici_nes .. Thu~ the Besides propitiating the sylvan deities and po{)jari and mantravadi are combIned ID a smgle Ayyappan they also worship the spiri ts of the person. Before becoming a poojdd a person dead. possessed with the power of Maladaivam has The Kadar of Vazhachal propitiate 'Mala to observe continence for a long time. He takes daiv8ms' (Sylvan deities) and 'Ayyappan'. These meals, prepared only in bB;mboo tubes. He are considered to be benevolent deities and retires into forests occasIonally to have occasionally offerings are made to them. Even communion with the 'Maladaivams'. In order those who are staying away from Vazhachal pay to test the efficacy of bis spiri tual power a tbeir respect to these deities by occasional few Kadar approach him to find out the remedy offerings. In the Parambikulam area Kadar for a sudden illness of a child or the like. He give offerings to the sylvan deities on the 28th of suggests, after performing certain ora~Jes, the causes for the disease and the remedIes to be Makaram (Sankramam). On this da~, Kadar of the various settlements assemble either at performed. If th~ patient is relieved o~ ~is Karumthalappara or A thirappally and pay tl eir ailment, the magIcal power of the medIcme homage to the 'Maladaivams' (Sylvan deities), man is confirmed. Thereafter, he becomes the Those who cannot reach this place, owing to socially accepted poojari-cum-mantravadi. some reason or the other may send offerings In the 1961 Census, the Kadar are returned through someone else. The offerings include as professing Hinduism. arrack, cocoanut, betel leaves, tobacco, frank Festivals incense, fruits, raw rice, jaggery etc. Women Onam and Vishu are the two most important are not allowed to go nearer to the place of festivals celebrated by the Kadar. Vi.!.hu is worship as it is believed that the 'Maladaivams' celebrated on the first day of the Malayalam do not like the presence of women. month of Medam. Like other Hindus, perhaps Offerings for the 'Maladaivams' are placed on due to culture contact, the Kadar believe that pieces of wild plantain leaves and ten lighted the fortune of the ensuing year depends on the candles are kept around them. Devi dancers things they see on tbat day. Tbe sight of golden possessed by the 'Maladaivams' dance and tell or yellow colour is believed to be auspicious. oracles. They would declare the shape of things For this purpose they keep a few bunr,bes of to come; whether there would be trouble from 'Konna' flowers, the colour of which is yellow, wild animals; whether plenty of honey would be in front of every hut to be seen early in the available; whether the collection and gathering morning on the Vishu day. would be abundant; whether contageous diseases A communal feast is arranged OD this day, are to spread in the settlements etc. The for which all the members of the settlement propitiation of 'Maladaivams' is followed by contribute their share either in kind or cash. that of 'Ayyappan'. He is invoked always in The Mooppan collects the SUbscription and the same manner as in the case of 'Maladaivams' supervises the performance of the festival. That except for fifteen lighted candles, kept around night is spent in dancing and making merri the offerings. ments. Drinking of arrack is a part and parcel In case the devil dancers, who are believed to of the celebrations. have assumed the spirits of the Maladaivams, Traditionally, Onam is considered by the express dissatisfaction at the offerings made to Kadar as a day of receiving presents from the them they are again propitiated in the individual Maharaja of Cochin. Before the formation of settlements. The expenditure for the same is the Travancore-Cochin State, the Maharajas of shared equally by all the members. Cochin used to send new cloths as present to Regular pries ts or pOD jar ies are not present the Kadar Chief. Today, however, Onam day in the Kadar so.;iety. On the occasion of is celebrated as a festival occasion when they Makara Sankramam, two elderly Kadar 'Nho all indulge in a sumptuous feast. If pocket know the art of '~'itch-dance perfom the same. permits, children are given new dress. In the These devil dancers are supposed to have been evening, all as&emble in front of the mool'pan's blessed by the Maladaivams in their dreams and hut, where they perform folk dance under the possessed of some magical powers. They are influence of arrack. 154 CHAPTER XI LEISURE, RECREATION AND CHILD PLAY By nature, the Kadar men are pleasure loving The artists, all men, colIeet at the appointed and crave to enjoy life through their aesthetic place, generally ;n front of the MO:Jppan's skills. Folk songs and folk dances are a part house, at night. A couple of them beat a coun of their life. A ceremonious occasion, like the try drum (often an empty kerosene tin) and Puberty ceremony or marriage and a festive play on a blow pipe. Others stand in a row one occasion like Onam or Makara Sankramam, after the other and move in a circle around provide added opportunities to exhibjt their an already lit camp fire. The movement is aes the tic talen ts. synchronised by miming a turtle hunt, honey Through their folk dances, they enact the collee tion or the boar dance. Consumption of wild Ii fe of the jungles and their economic arraek provides an added inspiration to the par activi lies. The themes include bear danc~, ticipants. collection of honey, catching of turtles, crabs and rat-pigs. 155 CHAPTER XII INTER-COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP The other tribal communities living in the concern ed is outcasted. Some of the Kadar neigbbourhood of the Kadar of Cochin are women who ran away with the Malayan men Malayans and Muduvans. There exists a recently have been outcasted, traditional rivalry between the Kadar and the Malayans, Kadar consider themselves to be the Until recently the Kadar of Cochin got but 'lords of the hills' and as such maintain a high little opportunity to come in contact with the self image and look down upon others. Malayans . plainsmen as the former lived in the interior of are referred as 'Kani' and Muduvans as the forests. The plainsmen are generally 'ChayikuranIJ1ar' and would not accept food or referred as 'Konganmar' by the Kadar. They water from them, The apathy of the Kadar are, however, addressed as 'Sar' (Sir) or towards the Malayans and Muduvans has been 'Chettan'. Wi th the arrival of the plainsmen, demonstrated by a recent incident. In the in the 'Kadar country' as workers in the Para Vazhachal residential school, students belonging mbikulam Multi-Purpose Project, more and to the Kadar tribe refused to dine or sleep with more illicit relations with the Kadar women the chiJdren belonging to the other two tribes. are reported. There are instances of Kadar Kadar would not intermarry with the Malayans women running away with plainsmen belong or Muduvans. In case of marriage the person ing to various castes. 156 CHAPTER XIII STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL CONTROL AND LEADERSHIP From time immemorial Kadar who live in "in case of Muppans the nephew succeeds them" 3rnall groups in the different forest regions have (Iyer 1909, I, 10). \ery little· or loose social organisation both at Ibe village and regional level. The clan sys tern, The' Mooppan' presides over the formal so common in many castes and tribes of Kerala gatherings of the Kadar, si ts in judgement over is not prevalent in the Kadar society. The the social delinquencies committed by the mechanism for social control among the Kadar members of the tribe and also on informal is the 'pathy' (settlement) organisation. There occasions. He scrupulously follows the tradi· is a 'Mooppan' (Headman) in every pathy. tions aud conventions of the society. He has to His wife is addressed as Patty. He is addressed arrange for the annual mass offerings on the with a suffix 'chandy' added to his name by occasion of 'Makara Sankramam' and has to the members (If the tribe. He wields consi· see that all the spirits and sylvan deities are derable influence over the Kadar living in the properly propitiated. settlement as he is a representative of the Kadar of the Pathy as far as the forest officials On the death of a Mooppan, on his 'Adiyan. are concerned and continues to maintain thiram' day, a new Mooppan is appointed contacts wi th the forest contractors. by the forest guards. Age and efficiency are the only qualifications considered for the In Vazhachal settlement Raman was selected appointment of the Mooppan. The Mooppan to the office of Mooppan on the death of Karutha is responsible for sen~ing the required number Raman. Here the principle adapted in the of labourers, 'When called fOT by the forest selection was that a Mooppan should be an authorities. He has to report to the forest elderly respected, knowledgeable Kadan, with authorities the violation of forest rules by qualities of leadership acceptable to the forest the mem bers of the settlement. On festive officials and to the Pathy. According to the occasions he gets, a dhoti and some arrack Kadar ot Chalakudy Range, inheritance is not free of cost, from, the 'Mattakkada'. During the rule of filling up the pos t of Mooppan. But the honey collecting season, Mooppan gets a it is reported in Cochin Tribes and Castes that bottle of honey from each household. 157 CHAPTER XlV SOCJAL REFORMS AND WELFARE No social reform movement has been reported provisions for protected water supply. The from among the Kada. As a part of the importance of educa tion is being realised by welfare activities, the Government of Kerala them in recent times and hence attendance in have constructed a few houses, opened some the: schools is on the increase. new residential schools in the area, and made BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Anonymous A physical survey of the 11 Jnnes C. A. Madras District Gazet Kadal of Kerala, Mem teers, Malabar and Anj- oir No 6, 1959. Depart engo, 1915. ment of Anthropology, 12 Iyer, L. K. A. Kadar. The Cochin TribeS Government of India. and Castes Madras, 1909, 2 Ehrenfels, U. R. Kadar of Cochin, Madras, Vol. I, pp. 1-27. 1952. 13 A short note on the phy 3 Ehrenfe]s, umar Kadan clothes and culture " sical Anthropology of the Roli Von. change. Man in India, VoL Kadars of the (ochin 28, 1948, pp. 209-22]. hills and their present social and economic con 4 Kadar Combs, Silpi, " dition. Man 10 lndia, Madras, 1948, p. 10. Vol. 3. Nos. 1-2, March 5 " Kadars of Cochin, Tribes June 1923 p. 0-29. of India, Part II, Bhar- Kadar (Wynad). tiya Adimjati Sevak 14 .. Sangh, New Delhi-1951, 15 Lapicque, Louis, Note Sommaire Sur une p. 109. 1905. mission ethnologique datu 6 lhe Kadar of Cochin, Ie Sud de L'lnde, Bullo " Madras, University of tin Mus. Bigt. Nat. 11. Madras, ]952, Reviewed 16 L uiz, A. A. D. Kadar, Tribes of Kerala, by N. K. Bose in Man in Adimjati Bhartiya Sevak India, Vol. 33, No.1. Sangh, New Delhi, 1962. 1953. pp. 59·64. 7 GopaJan Nair,C. Malabar series, Wynad, J7 Kadar (Wynad , Tribes of Madras, 1911. " Kerala Sevak Sangh, 8 Gopal Panikkar, Malabar and its folk, Bbartiya Adimjati, New T. K. Madras, 1900. Delhi 1962, pp. 65-67. 9 Haddon, A. C. The Races of Man, Cam 18 Mammen, K. Kerala Culture, Trivand bridge, 1924. rum, 1942. 10 Hutton J. H. Kadar, Caste In India, 19 Mazumdar. Kadar Folklore Bombay 1951 p. 281 Satyendra Folklore Vol. nr, No.6, (Glossary). Narayan June 1962, pp. 273-275. 158 BIBLIOGRAPHY 20 Padmanabha History of Kerala Vol. III, 1909, Vol. n, p. 43,Vol. Menon, K. p. Ernakulam, 1933. III, pp. 6-29. 21 Sarkar, Sasanka A preliminary note on the 28 Sankara Census of India, 1901, Sekhar Roy, Kadars of Kerala, Science Menon, M. Vol. XX, Cocbin, Part I. Gautam Sankar and Culture, Vol. 23, 29 Menon, C. A. Kadar, Census, of India, and Shattachar 1958. 1911, Vol. XVII Cochin yee, Papla Part I, Report, Erna 22 Sarkar, S. s. & A physical survey of the kulam. 1912, P. 75. olhers. Kadar of Kerala, Anthro 30 Menon, P. G. Kadar, Census of India, pological survey of India. 1921 Vol. XIX, Cochin 1961. Part I, Report, Erna kulam, 1922, p. 65. 23 Sarkar, S. S. & The Kadar of Kerala, Others Man in India Vol. 39, No. 31 Menon, K. The Kadar of Cochin 3, Ju1y-September 1959, Govinda Census of India. 1931. p. 235. Vol. I, Part III Ethno graphical Simla, 1935, 24 Smith, Kadar, Some Primitive pp. 213-215. A. Morvyan tribes in India. The Quar terly Journal of the My 32 Menon, T. K. S. Kadar, Census of India, thic Society, Bangalore 1931 Vol. XXI, Cochin, 1914-15, Vol. V, No.4. Part I, Report, Erna 25 Tampy, K. P. Religion and Worship of kulam 1933, p. 269. Padroanabhan Kadar Folklore, Vol. 2, 33 Yeatts, M. W.M. Kadars, Census of India, No.1, 1959. pp 48-50. 1931, Vol. XIV, Madras, Part J, Report, Madras., 26 Thurston, E. Kadars of Animalas Etc. 1932, p. 364. Bulletin of the Madras. Government Museum, 34 Mitra, A. Census of India, 1961, Vol. 2, No.3, Anthro Vol. I, India, Part VB (i). pology, 1899. 35 Devassy, M. K. Census of India, 1961, 27 Kadar, Castes and Tribes Vol. VlJ, Kerala Part I " of Southern India, Madras A (i). 159 APPENDIX I KADARS OF WYNAD The following note is based on an investi a separate identity of their own, different from gation conducted in Thariode in South Wynad the habitats of other tribes residing in the area. _ Taluk. In the event of a marriage of a member another hut is made for the couple. All work connected The members of the community call them with the construction of their huts, including selves as Kadar. Nairs, Muslims, Christians, carpentry, is done by them. In former days Ezhuvas, Chetties etc. of the region call an when they practised shifting cultivation they elderly Kadan male as 'Peerian' and female used to shift their habitats every year. Kadar as 'Peeriaty'. (This is corresponding to the have settlements in places llke Tbariode, Vella title Paton and Pet:tor hy by \\' hich the male munda Peria Achuranam, Kuthirootam, Keeni and female members respectively of the etc. Approach to the Kadar settlement is often Kurichcban tribe who live in the neIghbour tortureous and tormenting. hood, are called). Other merr.bers of this tribe are called by their respective names. Dress Kurichchans address the Kadar by their res The Kadar male wears a loin-clotb reaching pective names and vice versa. Paniyan and up to the knee and a shirt or a second cloth on Kattunayakan. the other neighbouring tribes, the shoulders. The dress of Kadan female according to Kadar, call them only as Tham consists of a ,.. bite loin-cloth reaching up to the purans (Lords). knee and another small one to cover the upper Kadar claim that they are the earliest known part of the body. One end of the latter is inhabitants of the region. According to their thrown across the left shoulder while the other claim, they have been in the Wynad plateau end is taken under the right arm and both ends even before the Kurichchans came from the are tied together at the back so as to cover the plains. Kadar have their own stories arout bosom. However the dress of Kadar women the migration of Kurichchans into the region. is not peculiar, to them alone, as female However, these stories and those told by Kuri members of Kurichchan, Mullokuruman, Thach chchans themselves on their origin are more or nadan Mooppan, KUnduvadian, Kalanadi etc. less the same. They claim that their forefathers wear the same dress. But with regard to the were the soldiers of the Raja of Kottayam female dress while Kurichchan and Mullo whose name is famous in history due to his kuruman meticulously adhere to their traditional heroic fight with the Duke of Wellington. pattern, many of the Kadar women now wear blouses and dhotis. The pattern of dress of The traditional language of the Kadar is Kadar, however, is different from that of the Malavalam. Kadar live in isolated huts callEd Paniyan, Kattunayakans and Uralykurumans of 'lllams', the distance from one lllam to ano the region. ther being not less than a furlong. These illams are built on slopes of hills beside their paddy Kadar males grow hair and tie in a knot on fields. The lllams are single roomed, with a the left side of the head. But now-a-days only varandah stretching all "round, and are built a few of them do like this Tile traditional on a rectangular basement about 1 foot high. hair style of Kadar, Kurichchan, Mullo The slanting roof which IS thatched with kururnan, Kunduvadian and Kalanady is almost straw, stands just 2' above the varandah alike. which afford protection to the inmates agailJst The ph)sical apprearance of the Kadar is not the chill climate and wind. The walls which much different from their neighbours like are made of clayey earth have no windows. Kurichchan and Kuruman. Curly hair as is A corner of the hut is used as kitchen. In the found commonly among the Cochin Kadar has premises of each bouse there is a seclusion shed not been noticed here. called 'Orakkudu', used as a lodge for mens truated women Clnd also as a dehuskirrg shed. Rice is the staple food of the Kadar. Forest However, the living huts of Kadar disclose roots like Nara, Noora, Kavala, Movali, Kattu J 60 KADARS OF WYNAD kizhangu are their favourite items of food. 6 days in the same shed, if her marriage has Among non-vegetarian items, beef is strictly not taken place on the same day. tabooed. Kadar take meals at the hands of According to the Kadar custom a girl is to be Namboodiris, Nayars and Kurichchans but not given in marriage on the 7th day after the from Muslims, Christians, Paniyans, Mullo attainment of puberty. Cross cousins are the kurumans, Uralikurumans, Ezhuv~s and Pulayas. preferential mates. A preferential mate is called Agriculture is their traditional occupation as 'Machnathy Pennu' in the case of a girl. and the main source of livelihood. From time Though consanguineous marriages are prefer. immemorial they knew how to use plough. 1n red, spouses are also taken from other families. former days, they were completely depending on Members of the same clan do not marry each shifting cultivation. Even now, some of them other. Sororate and levirate are not practised practice it which is called, 'Karivalakrishi'. In by Kadar. But widow remarriage and poly wet land they raise paddy. whereas, Ragi is gyny ~re allowed. Dowry is not in vogue. cultivated on the dry land. Their age-old The brtdegroom pays the bride-price 'Mootha digging stick is called 'Kokka'. Apart from chi panam', to the mother or the' wife of the paddy and Ragi, Tapioca, Colocasia, elephant maternal uncle of the bride. The amount of foot-yam, plantain, ginger, jack, mango etc. bride-price comes to about one rupee. In connec are also cultivated. Not long ago they seldom tion with the marriage, the bridegroom ties went to work for wages. But now they work a chain or a garland on the neck of the bride for others on daily wages. Women folk do not before a lighted lamp. New dresses are also lag behind in this respect. However, Kadar do given to her by the bridegroom. Marriage not go for plantation labour as they abhor to mix takes place in the house of the bride. Marriage up with paniyans, Kattunaykans, Pulayans and rites are jointly officiated by the elder members others, who are employed in the estates. of both parties. Like Kurichchan and Mullokuruman, Kadar Those who committed adultery and fornica are expert archers. Their arrow is called as tion are sprinkled with sanctified water at the 'Ambu'. The arrows that they use are of two near-by temple and thus absolved from the types. One is called 'Uliyambu' with pointed sin. However, the victims are not excomm head and the other is 'Mottambu' with a unicated; divorce is allowed and it is also very common. wooden arrow head. The former is used for big game and the latter for striking birds and small First delivery of a woman takes place at rabbits. Kadar and Kurkhchan jointly engage her father's house. Pollution connected with in hunting called 'Nayattu'. Large number of delivery lasts for 15 days. During confinement dogs are also employed for hunting. the mother is lodged -in the seclusion shed (Orakkooddu). Preparations of horsegram, The bow and arrow, and the plough that they papaya and goat or turtle and veranus are use for cultivation are all made by themselves. tabooed during the postnatal period. They possess chisel and mallet. The bow and arrow and the plough of Kadar do not differ Kadar bury th~ dead in the (Chudukadu) from those used by Kurichchan. Mullokuruman, grave yard of thelT own. The dead body is Thachanadan and others 'of the region. Some washed by the members of those clans of which of them also possess guns. the deceased is not a member. The washing is Though some of them own land, many of done by persons of the same sex as the deceased. Male members who are not the members of them are tenants who cultivate land taken on the clan of the de..:eased carry the dead on, lease. Kadar rear cattle and breed chicken. shoulders by tying it with the bier. The dead In each household many dogs can be seen. body of a wom~n i.s ~arrie~ to the graveyard Life Cycle only after dressmg It III theIr traditional way. A girl attaining puberty observes pollution Only new cloths are used to drape the dead_ for 7 days, during which period she stays in . After lowering the dead body with heaj 'Orakkudi' (seclusion shed). She is not seen by ~owards the. sou th in to the pit, the dead body male members on those days. After the puri IS pushed Into a cellar made on one side fication bath on the 7th day, she spends another of the bottom of the pit. This prevents loose 161 KADAR earth from falling on the face of the dead. called as 'Peereyan Muthappans'. Cocks are The eldest son throw a little loose earth in tbe sacrificed for the Goddess Kali. When they pit and others present follow and fill the are engaged in hunting the best corner of the grave. In former days it was done by the son spoils, like Ii ver and heart, are offered for the of the dead person's sister.. A stone each on deities and ancestors. Kodungallur(Cranganore) the side of head, stomach and foot is placed as where there is a Kali temple is a pilgrim centre a sepulchral monument. Death pollution lasts for Kadars. for 13 days if the deceased is an aged person and for 10 days for others. FollowIng are the clans of Kadars: 1. Chem bra. 2 Elatti. 3. Kaluaamar. 4. Kaniyan On the last day of pollution a member from maru. 5. Pookkaranmaru. 6. Thelodanmaru. 'Moonnuttanmar' community is called for giving oil, to those who have pollution. This Members of a single clan live together in a marks the end of pollution. compact region. These clans are exogamous and the members assume the name of their Kadar do not believe in the life after dea tho mother's clan. The clan head is called Vishu, Onam, Makam, 10th of Thulam etc 'Karanavar'. As the members of a clan live are the important festivals celebrated by together he is also the territorial head. Kadar. Among these festivals, the 10th day of Thulam is important as the day marks the In former days property descended only commencement of hunting season. On that day through the line of females. But now-a-days an elderly Kadan with his gun, bow and arrow the major share of one's property goes to his goes to the hill top and ceremoniously calls children. A cow or a pair of bulls may be others for 18 times and fires a shot. On hearing given to the sister'S children just to please them. this call for 'Nayattu', (hunting) other members According to Kadar, the approach of a Kadan rush with their bows and arrows and join him does not pollute Nambudiris and Nairs. Among The Kadar do respond to the call of the Kuricbchan, Kadar, Mullokuruman, and Kurichchan also on this occasion. Kunduvadian unapproachability is not observed. Kadar worship the deities like Kodungallur But members of Paniyan or Kattunayakan tribe Kali, Malankkali, Kariyathan, Kulian etc The and Pulayas keep at a distance of about 18 feet spirit of the ancestors worshipped by them are from Kadar. 162 APPENDIX II TABLES FROM. 1961 CENSUS DATA Population of Kadar Sched4led Tribe IV Workers belonging to Kadar as percentage of total popUlation as percentage of total popUlation in the State of Kadar in the State 'J otal population Number of Kadar of Scheduled Total Tribes in the Total population popula- workers'in Stated as State of Kadar Percentage tion tbe State percentage 212,762 957 0.45 Total Persons Males Females Total Males Females 957 389 299 90 40.65 31.24 9.41 IT Population of the Kadar living in the Rural Areas of the State as percentage of total population of the Kadar V Workers belonging to Kadar Stated as in the State as a whole percentage to the total Kadar popUlation of the same sex Population of Population of Percentage of tbe Kadar in Kadar Kadar living in in the State the State living in Rural the rural areas Areas Stated as percentage 957 924 96,55 Number of wor- of the total Kadar Total population kers in populution of same sex III Sex Ratio (Females per 1000 males) Male Female T/R/U Male Female Male Female Population of 512 445 Total 299 90 58.40 20.22 Kadar in the State as a whole Males Females Sex Ratio Rural 282 77 55.08 17.30 957 512 445 869· Urban 17 13 3.32 2.92 163 KADAR VI Population of Kadar classified by Industrial category of workers and Non-workers Percentage dlstribu Percentage distribu- Distribution of wor· IndustriaJ category tion of population tion under each kers under each of workers by workers and category sex Total Non-workers ~--.A._---__ r-----....___--- r-----"------. r----"------, p M F P M F P M F P M F Total 957 512 445 100.00 100.00 100.00 Workers 389 299 90 40.65 58.40 20.22 100.00 76.86 23.14 100.00 100.00 100.00 I Cultivators 19 15 4 ].99 2.93 0.90 100.00 78.95 21.05 4.89 5.02 4.44 JI Agricultural Lab- ourers )6 10 6 1.67 1.95 1.35 100.00 62.50 37.50 4.11 3.34 6.67 III MIning and Quarr}ing 132 104 28 13.79 20.31 6.29 100.00 78.79 21.21 33.93 34.78 31.1 IV Household Industry 2 0.21 0.20 0.22 )00.00 50-00 50.00 0.51 0-33 1.11 V Manufacturing 5 5 0.52 0.98 100.eO 100.00 1.29 1.67 VI Construction 30 26 4 3.14 5.08 0.90 100.eO 86.67 13.33 7.71 8.70 4.44 VII Trade and Commerce 100.00 VIII Transport. storage and communication 22 17 5 2.30 3.32 1.12 } 00.00 77.27 22.73 5.66 5.69 5.56 IX Other Services )63 121 42 )7.03 23.63 9.44 100.00 74.23 25.77 41.90 40.47 46.67 Non-workers 568 23 355 59.35 41.60 79.78 ]00.00 37.50 62.50 VII Each category of persons not at work as percentage of the total population of Kadar Population of S. T. aCCOf- As % of the total popula~ Number Category ding to category tion of the tribe r----- ...... ------. r------..A.-----...., ,..-__ ___,A... _____-., Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 957 512 4.J5 full time students 71 40 31 7.42 4.18 3.24 Seeking employment Employed but seeking work Others 497 173 324 51.93 18.08 33.85 Total 568 213 3SS 59.35 22.26 3709 164 TABLES VIII Population of Kadar classified by Marital status and age-groups, 1961 Age-group ,..------,-,,- Marital status Total 0-14 15-44 45+ ,..----"----... ,..-__..A. __ -. ,--__,J-- __-. P M F P M F P M F p M F Total 957 512 445 385 204 181 458 242 216 114 66 4~ Never Married 473 279 194 384 204 180 89 75 14 2 Married 424 214 210 337 152 l85 86 62 24 3 Widowed 46 14 32 18 10 8 28 4 24 4 Divorced or Separated 14 5 9 14 5 9 5 Unspecified status IX Percentage Distribution of population of Kadar under each category of marital status by age-groups. Age-group ,;) ,..- ______J-- Total 0-14 15-44 ,..-----"-----, ,-- . --... ,..- 1 P M F P M F P M F 'fotal 100.00 100.00 100.00 40.23 39.84 40.67 47.86 47.27 48.54 1 Never married 100.00 100.00 100.00 81.18 73.12 92.78 18.82 26.88 7.22 2 Married 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.24 048 79.48 71.03 88.09 20.28 28.97 11.43 3 Widowed ]00.00 100.00 100.00 39.13 71.43 25.00 60.87 28.57 75.00 4 Divorced or sep- arated 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 5 Unspecified status X Percentage distribution of Kadar under each age-group classified by marital status Marital Status Total 0-14 15·44 r--_____..__----... ,..------"----, ,..--A.__ --... r-----"-----. P M F P M F p M F P M F Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 I (lO.GO 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00100.00100.00 100.00 1 Never Married 49.43 54.49 43.60 99.74 100.00 99.45 19.43 30.99 6.48 2 Married 44.30 41.80 47.19 0.26 0.55 73.58 62.81 85.65 75.44 93.94 50.00 3 Widowed 4.81 2.73 7.19 3.93 4.13 3.70 24.56 6.06 50.00 4 Divorced Or separated ].46 0.98 2.02 3.06 2.07 4.17 5 Unspecified status 165 KADAR XI Literacy of Kadar Percentage distribution Category of Number Percentage of population ,.-----...... __-----., ,- A---___.., ,..--- .A...--_--., Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Total 957 512 445 IOO.CO 100.00 100.00 Lilerate 85 67 18 100.00 73.82 21.18 8.88 13.09 4.04 Illiterate 872 445 427 100.00 51.03 48.97 91.12 86.91 95.% Xll Religion of Kadar Religion Number ,.______Percentage ofA __Distribution- __ .., r------"---'----, Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Total 957 512 445 100.00 100.00 100.00 Christians Hindus 957 512 445 100.00 100,00 100.00 Others • XIII Mother tongue of Kadar-Persons returned as speaking a mother tongue and % of the total speakers of the language in the State Number of persons Percentage to the tota I Population of tribe Mother tongue speaking speakers ,.___ .A- ___---, ,.--__...... _ ------,--___.A- _____-, P M F P M F P M pi 957 512 445 Malayalatn 903 480 423 94.36 50.16 44.20 Tamil 54 32 22 5.64 3.34 2.30 XIV Speakers of each subsidiary language as % of the speakers of the language of the Tribe Kadar Population of S. T. in As % of the total spea Name of the sub the State who speak kers of the Number sidiary language subsidiary languages Tribe r-----...... ---.., r--___...A ') ,.------"'------, Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female 957 512 445 English 0.10 0.10 166 APPENDIX III CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA By Edgar Thurston Volume rn, Madras, 1909 Kadar p. 6- 29 years ago, \vhen, a medical student, [took part in the autopsy of an elephant, which died The Kadirs or Kadans inhabit the Anaimalai in convulsions at the London Zoological or el.ephant hills. and the great mountain range Gardens. It transpired later in the day which extends thence southward into Travan that a young and grown-up cow elephant had core. A night journey by rail to Coimbatore, tumbled, not in a fit, but into pit made t and forty miles by road a the mercy of a with hands for the express purpose of catch~ typically obstinate jutka pony, which landed ing elephants. T~e story has ~ phiIologi~al me in a dense patch of prickly-pear (Opulltia significance, and IlI~strates. the dl~cult~ which DilIenii), brought me to the foot of the hills. at the Tamilian expenences 10 dealmg WI th the Sethumadai.. where I came und~r the kmd letter F. An incident is still cherished at hospitality of Mr. H. A Gass, Conservator of Mount Stuart in connection with a sporting Forests, to whom I am indebted for much globe~trotter, who was accredited to the information on forest and tribal matters gather Conservator of Forests for he purpose of ed during our camp life at MOl!nt StU~Ht. putting him on to 'bison' (the gaur, - Bos situated 2,35() feet above sea level, lD the mIdst Gaurus) and other big game. On arrival at of a dense bamboo jungle, and playfully named the depot he was informed that his host had after Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff, who visited gone to see the 'ellipen?e'. Incapable. of trans the spot during his quinquennium as Governor lating the pIgeon-EnglIsh of ~he natlve .butler, of Madras. and. concluding that a financIal reckonmg was At Sethumadai I made the acquaintance of being sugges ted, he ordered the servan t to pay mv first Kadir. not dressed, as I hoped, in a the baQgage coolies their elli-pence, and send piimitive garba of leaves, but wearing a colour them a'vay. To a crusted AnglO-Indian it is clear ed turban and the cast-off red coat of 'a British that the ellipence could only mean elephants. soldier, who had come down the hill to carry Sir M. E. Grant Duff tells the following story up my camp bath, which acted as an exceJI~nt of a man, who was shooting on the Anaimalais. umbrella, to protect him from the dnvl~g In his camp was an elephant, who, in the monsoon showers. Very glad was I of hiS middle of the nigh t. began to ea t the tha teh services in helping to convey my clothed, and of 'the hut, in which he was sleeping. His consequen tlv helpless self, across the mountain servant in alarm rushed in and awoke him, torrents, swollen by a recent burst of monsoon saying "Elephant, Sahib, must, must (mad)". rain. .. The sleeper, half-waking and rolling over, replied "Oh, bother the elephant. Tell him The Kadir forest guards, of whom there are he mustn't". several in Government service, looked, except for their noses, very unjungle-like by contrast The salient characteristics of the Kadirs may wi.th their fellowtribesmen, being smartly dress be briefly summed up as follows: short stature, ed in regulation Norfolk jacket, knickerbockers, dark skin, platyrhine. Men and women have pattis (leggings), buttons, and accoutrements. the teeth chipped. \Vomen wear a bamboo comb On arrival at the forest depot, with its com in the back-bair. Those whom ] met spoke a fortable bungalows and Kadir settlement, I was Tamil patois, running up the scale in talking, told by a native servant that his master was and fishing, like a Sutl'olker, on a higher nOle away as an "elephant done tumble in a fit". than they commenced on. But I am told that some My ~emory went back to the occasion many of them speak a mixture of debased Tamil 167 KADAR and Malayalam. I am informed by Mr. Vincent and show you the branch which, ifcut, will that the Kadirs have a peculiar word Ali, give you drink. He will set traps for teasts and denoting apparently a fe]Jow or thing, which bjrds, whkh are more effective than some of they apply as a suffix to names, e g. Karaman the most elaborate products of machinery". Ali. black fellow; Mudi Ali, hairy fellow, Kutti A European, over-taken by night in the jungle Ali, man with a knife; Puv Ali, man with a unable to light fire by friction or to cHm b trees flower. Among nicknames, the following occur; to gather fruits, i~norant of the edible roots white mother, white flower, beauty tiger milk and berries and afraid of wild beasts, would, virgin, love breasts. The Kadirs are excellent in the abs~nce of comforts, be quite as un mimies, and give a clever immitation of the bappy and ill at ease as a Kadir surrounded mode of speech of the Muduvans, Malasars, by plenty at an official dinner party. and other hill tribes. At the forest depot the Kadir settlement The .Kadirs afford a typical example of happi cJnsists of neatly constructed huts, made of ness wlthou t culture. Unspoiled by educa tion, bamboo deftly split with a bill· hook in their the advancing wave of which has not yet engul long axis, thatched with Jewes of the teak tree fed them, they still retain many of their simple (Teclona grandis) and bamboo (Ochalandra "manners and customs". Quite refreshing was travancorica), and divided off into verandah jt to hear the hearty shTicks of laughter of the and compartments by means of bamboo parti rude curly-haired children, wholly illiteraTe, tions. But the Kadirs are essentially nomad and happy in their ignorance, as tbey played at in habit, living in small communities, and shif funerals, or indulged in the amusement of mak ting froOl place to place in the jungle, whence' ing mud pies, and scampered off to their huts they suddenly re-appear as casually as if they on my appearance. The uncultured Kadir, living had only returned from a morning ~troll instead a hardy out-door life, and capable of apprecia of a long camping expedition. When wandering ting to the full the enjoyment of an "apathetic in the jungle, the Kadirs make a rough lean rest" as perfect bliss, has, I am convinced, in to shed covered Over wi th leaves, and keep a small many ways, the advantage over the poor under fire burning through the night, to keep off bears, fed student with a small-paid appointment elephants, tigers, and leopards. They are, I am under Government as the n~rrow goal to which told, fond of dogs, which they keep chiefly as the laborious passing of examination tests leads. a protection agair,st "ild beasts at night. The camp fire is ligh ted by means of a £lin t and the Living an isolated existence, confined within floss of the silli,-cotlon tree (Bombax malabari the thinly-populated jungle, where Nature cum), over which powdered charcoal has been furnishes the means of obtaining all the neces rubbed. 1 ike Kurumbas, the Kadirs are not, saries of life, the Kadir posses~es little, if in a general way, afraid of elephants, but are an~, knowledge of cultivation, and objects to careful '0 get out of the way of a cow with domg work with mamuti, the instrument which young. or a solitary rover, which may mean serves the gardener in the triple capaciiy of mischief. On the day following my descent from spade, rake·, and hoe. But armed with a Mount Stuart, an Odde coaly woman was killed keen-edged bill-hook he is immense. As on the ghat road by a solitary tusker. Fami Mr. O. H. Bensley says". The axiom that the liarity with wild beasts, and comparatiVe imm less civilised men are, the Irore they are able unity from accident, have bred contempt for to do everything for themselves is well them, and the ·Kadirs will go where the Euro illustrated by the hill-man, who 'is full of pean, fresh to elephant land, fears to tread, resource. Give bim a sin pIe bill-hook, and wba t or conjures every creak of a bamboo mto the wonders be will perform. He will build houses approch of a charging tusker. As an example out of elah, so neat and comfortable as to of pluck worthy of a place in kipling's 'Jungle be posi tively luxurious. He will bridge a book', I may cite the case of a hill-man and stream with canes and branches. He will make his wife, \vho, overtaken by night in the jungle a raft out of bamboo, a carving knife out of decided to pass it on a rock. As they slept a etah, a comb out of bamboo, a .fishing line out tiger carried off the woman. Hearing her sari of fibre, and fire from dry wood. He will find eks, the sleeping man awoke, and followed in food for you where you think you must starve, pursuit in the vain hope of saving his wife. Com- 168 CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA ing on the beast in possession of the mangled all seasons, and cardamoms from September corpse, he killed it at close quarters with a spear. to November. The total value of the minor pro Yet he was wholly unconscious that he had duce collectej in 1897-98, in the South Coim performed an act of heroism worthy of the bro batore division (which includes the Anaimalais) nze cross for valour. was Rs.7,886. This sum was exceptionally high owing to a good cardamom crop. An average The Kadirs carry loads strapped on the back year would yield a revenue of Rs. 4,000 to over the shoulders by means of fibre, instead 5,000 of which the Kadirs receive approximately of on the head in the manner CllS tomary among 50 per cent. They work for the Forest Depart coolies in the plains; and women on the march ment on a system of short advances for a daily may be seen carrying the cooking utensils on wage of 4 annas. And, at the present day, the their backs, and often have a child strapped on interests of the Forest Department and plan the top of their h.)usehold goods. The dorsal ters, who have acquired land on the Anaimalais, position of the babies, huddled up in a dirty both anxious to secure hill men for labour, cillth, with the ends slung over the shoulders have come into mild collision, and held in the hands over the chest, at once caught my eye, as it is contrary to the usual Some Kadirs are good trackers, and a few are native habit of straddling the infants across the good shikaris. A zoological frieI).d, who had loins as a saddle. nicknamed his small child his 'little shikari' (-little sportsman) was quite upset because I. Mr. Vincent informs me that "when the hailing from India, did not recognise the word planters first came to the hills, the Kadirs w~re with his misplaced accent. One Kadir, named found practically without clothes of any deSCrIp Viapoori Muppan, is still held in the memory tion, with very few ornaments, and looking of Europeans, who made a good living, in days very lean and emaciated. All this, however, gone by, by shooting tuskers, and had one ar~ changed with the advent of the European, as blown off by the bursting of a gun. He IS the Kadirs then got advances in hard cash, reputed to have been a much married man, clothes, and grain, to induce them to work. greatly addicted to strong drinks, and to have For a few years tbey tried to work hard, but flourished on the proceeds of his tusks. At the were failures, and now I do not suppose that present day, if a Kadir finds tusks, he must a dozen men are employed on the estates on the declare the find as treasure-trove, and hand it hills. They would not touch manure owing to over to Government, who rewards him at the caste scruples; they could not learn to prune; rate of Rs. 15 to Rs. 25 per maund of 25 lb. and with a mamoti (spade) they always p.romptl.y according to the quality, Government makes proceeded to chop their feet about 10 theIr a good profit on the transaction, as exceptional efforts to dig pits". The Kadirs have never ly good tusks have been known to sell for claimed, like the Todas. and do not possess any Rs. 5/- per Ib If the find is not de~lared,. and land on the hills But the Government has discovered, the possessor thereof IS pUDlshe.d declared the absolute right of the hill tribes to for theft according to the Act. By an elastiC collect all the minor forest produce, and to sell use of the word cattle, it is, for the purposes it to the Government through tile m~dium of a of the Madras Forest Act, make to include contractor, whose tender has been previously such a heterogeneous zoological collection of accepted. The contractor pays for the produce animals as elephants, sheep, pigs, goats, camels, in coin at a fair market rate, and the Kadirs buffaloes horses and asses. This classification barter the money so obtained for article., of food recalls t~ mind the occasion on which the with contractors appointed by Government to Flying-fox or Fox-bat was included in an official supply them with their requirements at a ~xed list of the insectivorous birds of the Presidency; rate which will leave a fair but not exorbitant and, further, a report on the wild animals of a macglll of profit to the v~ndor. The princip~l certain district, which was triumphantly headed articles of minor forest produce of the Anal with the "wild tatto", the long-suffering, but malai hills are wax, honey, cardamoms, myra pig-headed country pony. bolams, ginger, dammer, turmeric, deer horns, elephant tusks, and rattans. And of these, car I gather, from an accouut of the process by damoms wax honev and rattans are the most one who had considerable knowledge of the importa~t. Honey ·a~d wax are collected at Kadirs, that "they will only remove the hives 169 KADAR of bees during dark nights, and never in the low trees, notches are made with a bill-hook. daytime or on moonlight nights. In removing alternately right and left, at intervals of about them from cliffs, they use a chain made of thirty inches. To this method the Kadir will bamboo or rattan, fixed to a stake or a tree all not have recOUrse in wet weather, as the notches the top. The man, going down this fragile are damp and slippery and there i!,> the danger ladder, will only do so while his wife, or son of an insecure foot-hold~ watches above to prevent any foul play. Thev have a superstition that they should alway-s An important ethnographic fact, and one return by the way they go down, and decline which is sign!fican t. is that the detailed descrip t? get to the bottom of the cliff, although the tion of tree- climbing by the Dyaks of Borneo, dIstance may be less, and the work of re-climb as given by Wallace, might have been written ing avoided. For hives on trees, they tie one on the Anaimalai hills, and would apply equally or more lon.g bamboos to reach up to the well in every detail to the Kadir. "They drove branch reqUIred, and then climb up. They in", Wallace Writes, a "peg very firmly at about then crawl along the branch until the hive is three feet from the ground, and, bringing one reached. They devour the bee-bread and the of the long bamboos, stood it upright close to bee-maggots or larvae, swallmving the wax as the tree, and bound it firmly to the two first wei!". In a note on a shooting expedition in pegs by means of a bark cord and small notches Travancore, Mr. J. D. Rees, describing the near the head of each peg. One of the Dyaks collection of honey by the Kadirs of the south now stood on the firs t peg and d rive in a third ern hills, says tbat they "descend giddy preci about level with his face, to which te tied the pices at night, torch in hand, to smoke out the bamboo in the same way, and then mounted bees, and take away their honey. A stout another step, standing on one foot, and holding creepe_r is suspended over the abyss, and it is by the bamboo at the peg immediately above estabhshed law of the jungle that no brother him, while he drove in the next one. In this shall assist in holjiDg it. But it is more manner he ascended about twenty feet, when the interesting to see them run a ladder a hundred upright bamboo became thin; another was han feet up the perpendicular stem of a tree, than ded up by bis companion, and this way joinetl to watch them disappearing over a precipice. on by tying both bamboos to three or four of Axe in hand, the honeypicker makes a hole in the pegs. When this was also nearly ended a third the bark for a little peg, standing on which was added, and shortly after the lowest branch he inserts a second peg higher up, ties a long of the tree was reached, along which the young cane from one to tbe other, and by night for Dyak scrambled. The ladder was perfectly safe, the darkness gi\es confidence he will ascend since, if anyone peg were loose or faulty, the the tallest trees, and bring down honey without strain would be thrown On several others any accident." I have been told, with bow above and below it. I now understood the use much of truth I know not, that, when a Kadir of tbe line of bamboo pegs stickil.g in trees, goes down the face of a rock or precipice in which I had often seen". search of honey, he wmetimes take with him, as a precautionary measure, and guarantee of In their search for produce in the evergreen his safety, the wife of the man who is holding forests of the higher ranges, with their heavy the ladder above. rainfall, the Kadirs became unpleasantly fami liar with leeches and blue bottle flies which Often, wben out on the tramp with the late flourish in the moist climate. And it is recorded Government Botanist, Mr. M. A. Lawson, J that a Kadir, who had been gored and wounded bave heard him lament that it is impossible to by a bull 'bison', was placed in a position of train arboreal rrorkeys to collect specimens of safety while a friend ran to the village to the fruit and flowers of lofty forest trees summon help. He was not away for more than which are inaccessible to the ordinary man. Fa; an hour but, in tbat short time, flies had depo superior to any trained Simian is the Kadir, si ted thousands of maggots in the wounds, and, Who by means of pegs or notches, climbs even when the man was brought into camp they had the tallest masts of trees with an agility wbich already begun burrowing in to tbe f1esb, and recalls to merrory the celebrated picture in were with difficulty extracted. On another "punch", representing Darwin's Habit of clim occasion, the eyewitness of the previous una bing plants', For the ascent of comparatively ppetising inciden twas Ot! t alone in the forest, 170 CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDJA and shot a tiger two miles or so from his camp. there for a year. On the wedding day a feast of Thither he went to collect coolies to carry in rice. sheep, fowls, and other luxuries is given the carcase, and was away for about two hours, by the parents of the bridegroom, to which the during which the flies, had, like the child in the Kadir community is invited. The bride and story, not been idle, the skin being a mass of bridegroom stand beneath a pandal (arch) maggots and totally ruined. I have it on autho decora ted with flowers, which is erected out rity that, like the Kotas of the Nilgiris, the side the horne of the bridegroom, while men and Kadirs will eat the putrid and fJy-blo";n flesh women dance separately to the music of drum of carcases of wild beasts, whicb they come and fife. The bridegroom's mother or sister dcroSS in their wanderings. To distary which ties the tali (marriage badge) of gold or silver includes succulent roots, which they upturn round the bride's neck, and her father puts a with a diggin of stick, bamboo seed. sheep, fowls, turban on the head of the bridegroom. The rock snakes (py thon), deer, porcupines, rats contracting parties link together the little fin (field, not house), wild pigs, monkeys, etc. gers of their righ t hands as a token of their they do credit by displaying a hard, wdlnouri union, and walk in procession Iound the pandal. shed body. The mealy portion of the seeds of Then, sitting on a reed mat of Kadir manufact the Cycus tree, which flourishes on the lower ure. they exchange betel. The marriage tie can slopes of the Anaimalais, forms a considerable be dissolved for incompatibility of temper, addition to the menu. In its raw state the fruit disobedience on the part of the wife, adultery, is said to be poisonous, but it is evidently whole etc. without appeal to any higher authority than some when cut into slices, thorougly soaked a council of elders, who pronounce judgement in running water, dried, and ground into flour on the evidence. As an illustration of the manner for making cakes, or baked in hot ashes. Mr. in which such a council of hill-men disposes of Vincent writes that, "during March, April, cases, Mr. Bensley cites the case of a man who and May, the Kadirs have a glorious time. was made to carry forty basket loads of sand to They usually manage to find some wild sago the house of the person against whom he had palms, called by them koondtha panai, of the offended. He points out bow ab:>olute is the proper age, which they cut down close to the control exercised by the council. Disobedience ground. They are then cut into lengths of about would be followed by excommunication, and l-~ feet, and split lengthways. The sections are this would mean being turned out into the then beaten very hard and for a long time with jungle, to obtain a living in the best way one mallets, and become separated into fibre and COUld. pOWder. The powder is thoroughly wetred, tied in cloths and well beaten with sticks. Every By one Kadir informant I was assured, as he now and then, between the beatings, the bag of squatted on the floor of my bungalow at "ques. powder is dipped in water, and well strained. tion time", tha tit is essen lial that a wife should It is then all put into water, when the powder, be a good cook, in accordance with a maxim sinks, and the water is poured off. The residue that the way to the heart is through the moulh. is well boiled, with constant sorring, and, when How many men in civilised western society, who it is of the cOflsistency of rubber, and a reddish ~lIffer from marrying a wife wholly incompetent, brown colour, it is allowed to cool, and thea like the firsl Mrs. David Copperfield, to conduct cut in pieces to be distributed. This food stuff the housekeeping might well be envious of the IS palatable enough, but very tough". The K 171 KADAR result to be an insufficient contribution to the the names of the gods and demons. The gods as tribe, he married a fourth, who, more prolific enumerated and described to me, were as than her colleagues, gave birth to three girls and follows:- a boy, with which he remained content. In the code of polygynous etiquette, the first wife takes 1. Paikutlatha, a projecting rock overhanging precedence over the others, and each wife has a slab of rock, on ,-which are two stones set up her own cooking utensils. on end. Two miles east of Mount Stuart. 2. Athuvisariamma, a stone enclosure, ten to Special huts are maintained for women during fifteen feet square, alrrost level with the ground. menstruation and parturition. Mr. Vincent in It is believed that the walls were originally ten forms me that, when a girl reaches puberty, the feet high, and that the mountain has .grown up friends of the family gather together, and agreat round it. Wi thin the enclos ure there I s a repre feast is prepared. All her friends and relations sentation of the god. Eight miles north of Mount give her a small present of money, according to Stuart. their means. The girl is decora ted wi th the fam ily jewellery, and made to look as smart as 3. Vanathavathi has no shrine, but is worship possible. For the first menstrual period, a special ped anywhere as an invisi ble god. hut, called muthusaIai or ripe house, is constru 4. IyappaslVami, a stonesetupbeneatha teak cted for the girl to live in during the period of tree, and worsHipped as a protector against pollution; but at subsequent period, the ordi various forms of sickness and dis'ease. In the act nary menstruation hut, or unclean house, is of worshipping, a mark is made on the stone used. All girls are said to change their names with ashes. Two miles and a half from Mount when they reach puberty. For three months after Stuart, on the ghat road to Setbumadai. the birth of a child, the woman is considered 5. Masanyatha, a female recumbent figure in unclean. When the infant is a month old, it is stone on a masonry wall in an open plain near named without any elaborate ceremonial, thou~ h the female friends of the family collect together. the village of Anaimalai, before which trial by ordeal is carried out. T he goddess has a high Sexual intercourse ceases on the establishm.cnt repute for her powder of detecting thieves or of pregnancy, and the husband indulges in pro miscuity, Widows are not allowed to re-marry rogues. Chillies are thrown into a fire in her but may live in a state of concubinage. Women name, and the guilty person suffers from vomi are said to suckle their children till they are two ting and diarrhoea, or three years old, and a mother has been seen According to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna [yer, putting a lighted cigarette to the lips of a year the Kadirs are "worshippers of Kali. On the old baby immediately after su-::kling it. If this occasion of the offering to Kali, a number of is done with the intention of [:dministering a virgins are asked to bathe as a pi eliminary to sedative, it is less baneful than the pellet of the preparation of the offering, which consists opium administered by ayahs (nurses) to Anglo of rice and some vegetables cooked in honey, lndian babies rendered fractions by troubles and made into sweet pUdding. The rice for this c1imatic, dental and other. The Kadir men are prepara lion is unhusked by these girls. The said to consume large quantities of opium, which offering is considered to be sacred, and is pd rt is sold to them illicitly. They will not allow the aken of by all men, women, and children women or children to eat it, and have a belief assembled" • that the consumption thereof by women renders them barren. The women chew tobacco The When Kadirs fall sick, they worship the gods men smoke the coarse tobacco as sold in the by saluting them with their hands to the face, bazaars, and showed a marked appreciation of burning camphor, and offering up fruits, Spencer's Torpedo cheroots, which J distributed cocoanuts, and betel. Mr. Vincent tells me among them for the purposes of bribery and that they have a horror of cal tIe, and will n Jt conciliation. touch the ordure, or other products of the cow. Yet they believe that their gods occasion The religion of the Kadirs is a crude polythe ally reside in the boy of a "bison", and have ism, and vague worship of stone images or been known to do puja (worship) when a bull invisible gods. It is, as Mr. Bensley expresses it, has been shot by a sportsman. It is noted by an ejaculatory religion, finding vent in uttering Mr. Anantha Krishna Iyer, that wild elephants 172 ,CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA are held in veneration by them, but tame ones method of disposing of the dead, and the story, are believed to have lost the divine element. which was started as a joke, became more or less believed. Mr. Vincent tells me that a well The Kadirs are said, during the Hindu Vishu to-do Kadir family will perform the final death festival, to visit the plains and on their way, pray ceremonies eight days after death, but poorer to any image which they chance to Gome across. folk have to wait a year or more, till they have They are believer, in witchcraft, and attri oute all collected sufficient money for the expenses there diseases to the miraculous workings thereof. of. At cock-crow on the morning of the cere They are good exorcists, and trade in mantra monies, rice, called polli chor, is cooked and vadam or magic. Mr. Logan mentions that "the piled up on leaves in the centre of the hut of family of famous trackers, whose services in the.. the deceased. Cooked rice, called tullagu chor, jungles were retained for H. R. H. the Prince is then pl.lced in each of the four corners of the of Wales' (now Kmg Edward) projected sporting hut to propitiate the gods, and to serve as food tour in the Anamalai mountains, dropped off for them and the spiri t of th 173 KADAR Sir F. A.) Nicholson writes, "are, as a rule, whether it is relic of a custom resorted to by rather short in stature, and deep-chested. like their ancestors (l f long ago, which remains as a most mountaiLeers; and, like many true mount stray survival of a custom once more widely pra· aineers, they rarely walk with a straight leg. cticed by the remote inhabitants of SO~lth~rn Hence their thigh muscles are often abnormally Tndia, cannot be definitely asserted, bu t I InclIne developed at the expense of those of the calf. to the latter view. Hence, too, in part, their dislike to walking A friendly old woman, with huge discs in the long distances on level ground though their widely dilated lobes of the ears, and a bamboo objection, mentioned by Colonel Douflas five-pronged comb in her back-hair, who. acted Hamilton, to carrying loads on the plains, is as spokesman on the occasion of a visit to a deeper-rooted than that arisir'g from mere charmingly situated settlement in a jungle of physical disability. This objection is mainly magnificent bamboos by the side of a mountain because they are ratber a timid race, and never stream, pointed out to me, with conscious pride, feel safe out of the forests. They bave also that the hut were largely constructed by the affirmed that the low-country air is very trying females while the men worked for the sircar to them." As a matter of fact, they very rarely , , go down to the plains, even as far as the village (Government). The females also carry water from the streams, collect firewood, dig up edible of Anaimalai, only fifteen miles distant from roots, and carry out the sundry household duties Mount Stuart. One woman, whom J .saw, had been as far as Palghat by railway from Coirn of a housewife. Both men and women are clever batore, and had returned very much up-to-date at plaiting bamboo baskets, necklace, etc. I was in the matter of jewellery and the latest barbarity told one morning by a Kadir man, whom I met in imported piece-good body·cloth. on the road, as an important item ofnelVs, that the woman in his settlement were very busy dres With the chest-girth of the Kadirs, as well as sing to come and see me-an event as important their general muscular development, I was very to them as the dIessing of a debutante for pre much impressed. Their hardiness, Mr. Conner sentation at the Court ofSt James'. Theyeven writes, has given rise to the observation among tually turned up without their husbands, and their neighbours that the Kadir and Kad Anai evidently regarded my methods as a huge joke (wild elephant) are much the sarr.e sort of organised for the amusement of themselves and animal. their children. The hair was neatly parted, ano inted with a liberal application of cocoanut oil, Perhaps the most interesting cus tom of the and decked with wild flower. Beauty spots and Kadirs is that of chipping all or some of the lines had been painted with coal-tar dyes on the incisor teeth, both upper and lower into the forehead, and turmeric powder freely sprinkled form of a sharp-pointed, but not serrated cone. over the top of the heads of the married ',,"omen. The operation, which is performed with a chisel Some had even discarded the ragged and dirty or biU-hook and file by members cf the tribe cotton cloth of every-day ·Iife in favour of a skilled therein, on boys and girls, has been thus colour-printed imported sari. One bright, good- ' described The girl to be operated 0n lies down, looking young woman, who had already been and places her head against a female friend, who through the measuring ordeal, acted as an effici holds her head firmly A woman takes a shar ent ladY-help in coaching the novices in the pened bill-hook, and chips away the teeth till assumption of the correct positions. She very they are shaded to a point, the girl operated <,n readily grasped the situation, and was manifestly wrilhing and groaning with the pain. After the proud of her temporary elevation to the rank operation she appears dazed, and in a very few of standard· bearer to Government. hours the face begins to swell. S,,,elling and rain last for a day or two, accompained by severe Dr. K. T. Preuss has drawn my attention to headache. The Kadirs say that chipped teeth an article in Globus, 1899, entitled 'Die Zauber make an ugly man or woman handsome, and bilder Schriften der Negrito in Malaka,' wherein that a person, whose teeth have fat been thus he described in detail the designs on the bamboo operated on, has teeth and eats like a cow. combs worn by the Negritos of Malacca, and Wbether this practice is one which the K adir, compares them with the strikingly similar design and Mala Vedar of Travancore, have bit (\n on the combs worn by the Kadir women. Dr. spontaneously in comparatively recent times, or Preuss works out in detail the theory that the 174 CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDJA design is not, as I have elsewhere called it, a the to::>th of a crocoiile mhlickin~ a pnall:Js, geometrical p:lttern, but consists of a series of and supposed to ward of attacks fron a hieroglyphics. The collection of Kadir comb3 in mythical water elephant which lives in the the Madras Museum shows very clearly that the m:)uatain streams; or wooden imitations of patterns thereon are conventional designs. The tiger's claws. One baby wore a necklet mli! bamboo combs W0rn by the S"mang women are of the seeds of Coix Lachryml-Jobi (Job's tear~). stated to serve as talismlns, to protect them Males have the lobes of the ears adora;,d with against diseases which are prevalent, or m:)st brass ornaments, and the nostril pierced, an i dreaded by them. Mr. Vincent informs me that, plu~ged with wood. The earlobes of the females so fdr as he know~, the Kajir co:nbs are not are widely dilated with plam-Ieaf rolls or huge boked on as charms, and the markings thereon wooden discs, and they wear ear-rings, bra~s or have no mystic significance. A Kadir man should steel bangles and finger-rings, and bead necklets. always make a comb, and present it to his intended wife just before marriage, or at the It is recorded by Mr. Anantha Krishna lyer conclusion of the marriage ceremony, and the that the Kadirs are att:lChed to the Raja of young men vie with each other as to who can Cochin "by the strongest ties of personna I affec make the nicest co.nb. Sometimes they represent tion and regard. Whenever His Highness tours strange articles on the combs. Mr. Vincent has, in the f0rests, they follow hin, carry him from for example, seen a comb with a very good place to place in manjals or palanquins, carry imitation of tae face of a clock scratched on it. saman (luggage), and in fact do everything for him. His Highness in return is much attached It is sometimes difficult to distinguish adoles to them, feeds them, gins them cloths, orn:! cent Kadir youths with curly fringe, chests ments, co.nbs, and looking-glasses." covered by a cotton cloth, and wearing neck lets The Kadirs will not eat with Malasars, who made of plaited grass or glass and brass beads, are beef-eaters, and will not carry boots made from girls. And 1 was myself several times of cow-hide, except unjer protest. caught in an erroneous diagnosis of sex:. Many of the infants have a charm tied round the neck, Average stature (57.7 cm; cephllic index which takes the form of a dried tortoise foot; 72.9; nasal in :lex 89. 175 THE COCH1N TRIBES AND CASTES, Vol. I, 1909 By L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer KADARS Page 1-27 Wild inoffensive hill tribes share among them tions to the Indian Ethnology in the sumptuous selves the whole of the hilly parts and jungles work, "The Living Races of Mankind"; says, of the Cochin State. Influenced by all the pre "There is good evidence to show tbat the first judices of caste, they are divided into t\\O arrivals in India were a black people, most pro classes, viz.· Kadars and Malayans, who ha\e bably Negritos, who made their way (rom little intercourse with one another. Tl:ey are Malayasia round the Bay of Bengal to the HIma almost similar in character, and this partakes layan foot hills, and thence spread over the of the rude wildness of their 11J1Is, with no savage Peninsula without ever reaching Ceylon. At pre cruelty of disposition. The Kc:dars are now sent there are no distinctly Negrito communities chiefly found in the Nelliampa thi and Kodasseri in the land, nor bas any clear trace of a disti hills of the C0chin State, as also 1n the Anama nctly Negrito language yet been discovered. But lai hills of the Coimbatore district. The Kadars distinctly Negrito features crop up continually of the Cochin Forests speak a mixture of Tamil in all the uplands from the Bimalayan slopes to and Malayalam, while those of the Anamalai Cape Comorin over against Ceylon. The Negritos hills speak a kind of Tamil called M ala sir . They in fact, have been absorbed or largely assimilated numbered only 310 at the last census, 161 being by tbe later intruders, and, as of these there are males and 149 females. four separate stocks, we can these Negritos the 'submerged fifth'. There is ample evidence for In describing the Hindu type Dr. Toinard in the submergence since they arrjved if not in the his well known Anthropology divides the popu early, certainly in the Tertiary period many lation of the Indian peninsula into three strata, thousands of years ago". He also adds that many viz. the Black, the Mongolian and the Aryan. primitive tribes are found in the plateau of the The remnants of the first are found in the hills Dekkan and in the uplands of the Southern of the Dekkan and Southern India, and their India, and are in close contact with the Koleri primitive characters. apart from black colour ans, while others passed into Ceylon in remote and stature, are difficult to discover. Denlker times where they are probably true aborigines. in the 'Races of Man' mentions the hill tribes To the primitive groups above referred to brlong of the Anamalai hills (the Malayans, the Kadars Malayans, Kadars, Ulladans, EravalJer.s, Pani and the Muduvans) and those inhabiting the yans and many other tribes, who though speak Cochin and Travancore hills, as belonging to the ing tbe Dravidian dialects, are not fUll-blooded uncivilized Dravidians. The Anamalai hills of Dravidas; but represent different Negrito, the Coimbatore district, of the Madras Presi Kolerian, Dravidian and A ryan blends. Tbey dency form the refuge of a whole series of broken have kept themselves aloof from contact with tribes, namely, the wild looking pulayans, the the Aryan intruders, and ha'·e therefore preser Muduvans, and the thick-lipped small-bodied ved the Negroid strain and other primitive non Kadars, the lords of the hil1s. "Thrust back by A ryan characters. They were never conquered the Aryans from the plains that once were theirs, and hence belonged to no caste. They are on that the aborigines hid themselves in the recesses of account even to thi, day animists in religions. the hills like the fossil remains found by geolo Abo' e all, says Ratzel in his History of Mankind gists in the mountain caves, only these specimens crossing in all directions and variety in degrees are not dry bones, but a living race c f mankind. of decadence is responsible for the multiplicity These hills, almost uninhabited, abOl nd in great of r rimitive races. monuments (kistavens and dolmens) which the primitive race erected over the graves of the The idea of defence seems to have been the dead. Dr. A. H. Keane, in his recent contribu- first motive for the grouping of huts into villages 176 THE COHIN TRIBES AND CASTES called pathies, which are situated either on the pots for cooking and the rest are all made of skirts of hills or on the way up them. The bamboo. They keep water in a large hollow choice of a yjJJage site is much influenced by the b3mboo block, Kumbhom, a yard or two in vicinity of a water supply. Generally their length, the nodes and internodes of which are village" which are seldom permanent, are to be bored an inch or two in diameter to hold a large found on the banks of a stream or on an open quantity of water in the space betwee3 them. glade in a dense fares t, Each village or pathy Whenever they go to a distant part of the forest, consists of from ten to fifteen or twenty huts where they may have to stay for a day or two. which are usually built of bamboo, and rarely they take this vessel full of water. It is wonderful of timber. The walls and roofs are of the same to see the ingenuity of these people whose wants material The doors form sliding panels of are few and whose life is very simple. They take bamboo work thazhuthal or split bamboo). advantage of every resource open to them in the The roo -s are skilfully thatched with leaves of neighb:mrho')d of their pathies. Wi th the bam Teak, Punna, Calophyllum Inophyllum, or boos of the forest, the leaves of trees, and tbe grass, whichever of these is easily available to bark of certain creepers used as ropes, they build them in the neighbourhood of their pat hies. A in a very short time, comfortable huts with their pilft of the floor inside the hut is slightly raised, bill hooks. Their requirements are, in fact, satis and on thIS they sleep. A kind of coarse grass fied with the materials available in the vicinity mats which they themselves weave of kora of their abodes. (cyperus juncifolius) serves as bed. If the floor be damp, the mat is spread of thazhuthal. Marriages among the Kadars are arranged by These sleeping places are in some localities the contracting parties themselves, for girls are constructed somewhat at an elevation from the married only after they are grown up. The rule ground to keep off dampness, leeches, and blue of exogamy holds to a certain extent, for a man bottle flies, which flourish in moist climates may not marry a girl related to him on the male during the rainy months and to ward off the side. Thus he may not marry a paternal uncle's attacks of wild beasts. Sometimes stages are daughter, or paternal grand-unele's daughter and so on. Further, as a rule, marriage between cons t ructed for the same purpose. A fire place occupies a corner of the huts. persons descended in a direct line from the same parents is forbidden, if the relationship can be With habitations are naturally connected traced, but to some extent the custom prevails furniture, and methods of heating and lighting. among them of a man's marrying the daughter Their furniture consists of a few coarse mats, of his maternal uncle- When a girl comes of some thazhuthal and a few pieces of wooden ag~ she is lodged in a separate hu t for seven planks For heating purposes, fire is always days. On the morning of the seventh day sue preserved in a portion of the hut. The long bathes, and becomes free from pollution. The and difficult method of producing it compels day is one of fes tiv i ty to the tribesmen of the them to preserve it as one of their precious neighbourhood. Their belief in pollution is so things Almost everywl'ere women are in charge stronger that if a polluted woman bathes in a of it. Deniker says that among the Australians stream, none will touch or take water down the women who let the fire go out are punished from the stream for fear of being tainted by it. very severely, and that the Papuans of New A Kadar who enters into conjugal relations with Guin~a prefer to go several leagues in search of a y.:lung woman of the tribe gives no bride's tire to a neighbouring tribe than to light another. price, but gives presents of cloths to her parents. The preparatioll of new fire among a great uncles, brothers and sisters. The betrothal is number of tribes, especially in America and ce nented by an exchange of betel-leaves and Oceania, is celebrated with festivals and religious arecanuts between the parents of the engaged ceremonies. The Malayans and the Kadars couple; and during the perio::l of enga~ement, produce fire by striking a piece of flint with a the young man's parents gIve meals of flce and piece of steel. The sparks of fire produced by other things to the wedding. On the day appoint percussion are made to full on a kind of pi th ed the bridegroom goes to the hut of the bride which is like cotton and which is placed near it. elect escorted by friends and relations who are This method, says Denikar, is practised by few given cordial welcome and seated on ~ats. Th~ backward Fugeans, Eskimo and Aleuts. The bride and bridegroom stand face to face on a vessels in domestic use consist of a few earthern decorated p:lndal which is erected in front Of 177 KADAR the bride's hut, while men and women dance exchanging a word, and to such an extent do separately to the music of drum and pipe. The they carry their bashfulness that they avoid bridegroom's mother ties the tali (the marriage looking at each other. I.n fact their behaviour badge) of gold or silver round the bride's neck would lead one to beheve that some seriOUS and her father puts a turban on the head of the quarrel had arisen. bridegroom. 1 he little fingers of the righ t hands of the contracting parties are linked together as Pregnancy is indicated by a change in costume. & token of their union and they walk in proces The main cloth worn round the loins is removed sion round the pandal. Then sitting on a mat and tied above the breast, and the sc;cond doth of Kadar manufacture, they exchange betel. IS, as usual, thrown diagonally above ihe left Soon after, the bride accompanies the bride shoulder and below the righ t arm-pit. No cere groom to his hut, where a similar feast is indulg mony is performed for a Kadar woman before ed in for two days by the relations and friends the birth of a child; bu t if she is believed to be on both sides. under demoniacal influences. the headman of tbe tribe, Valia Muppan, is inforn,ed. He then In some places the following marriage custom sends for a devil driver, who. by his magic sets is also in vogue. Anyone who wishes to marry her free from it. During childbirth, the woman goes out of his own village and lives there for a assumes a sitting posture leaning on a support. whole year during which he chooses a suitable Professional midwives are unknown, and she is girl for his wife. At the end of the year he attended by an old woman, generally her returns to his own village, and obtains permis mother. Soon after a child is born, both the sion from the villagers to effect the contemplated mother and the baby is ba thed in warm water. union. He then comes to the village of the and, for two or three weeks, she takes a medicine hride elect and gives her as dowry the amount which is a decoction of anise, ginger, he has saved, and also gives presents of cloths pepper, mustard, calamus and asafcetida, which to her parents, hrothers, sisters and maternal are all well fried and boiled in water. a uncle. On the day chosen for the wedding, a small portion of which is taken both in the tali of gold or a ring attached to a thread is morning and evening, boiled rice and meat tied round the neck of the bride. After the fried in cocoanut oil being her usual diet. She usual marriage feast, the married wuple go to returns to the main hut after she becomes free the groom's hut, where his friends and relations from pollution. which lasts for ten days, and are treated to a dinner. After a few weeks, a mingles with the rest of her fam'ly. Childlen new hut is erected where they reside and are nourished by their mothers for six or seVen maintain themselves by the wages of their own months and are afterwards put on a diet of labour. The marriage customs above described boiled rice and kanji. For three rr onfhs after are precisely similar to those prevailing among the birth of tbe child the woman is said to be the African Bushmen. Among them a young unclean. man, when of age, looks out for a wife, not by way of pure-hase, but by sending presents It is generally performed on the day when the through kinsfolk. Acceptance means consent. mother is free from pollution, but may some Marriage is ratified by a carouse and by times be postponed to any date either previous presents to the relations of the bride. Marriage to the termination of confinement or during the once contracted, women in all civilized countries sixth month, When the father, who sprinkles a are no longer free. From this moment, either little water On the cbild three times, calls the husband. the family on the fatber's side, out the name as many times loudly as to be the mother's or the clan see strictly to the audible to those present. A small feast is observance of the marriage rules which are in indulged in on the occasion by the members vogue, and punish every slip on the part of the of the family and the Muppan (headman), who woman who was free before marriage As a is also invited. Among some people the name rule Kadar girls are modest and childlike in given is not borne through life, and owing to their behaviour, and when married they make the fear of spirits the Dyaks change their names good wives and become models of constancy. It to deceive them, but the custom of changing is said that a young couple will sometimes pass names is not found to prevail among these hlll several nights after their nuptials without men. Though the naming of the child is often 178 THE CCCHIN TRIBES AND CASTES associated with the ceremonial cleaning, there pleasure and labour may be obtained. A some is no real connection between tlie two rites what similar view is held by these hill-men beyond their coming at tbe same early time of among whom polyandry is unknown. In this life. The names In common use among men are connection it is interesting to note, that the Velandi, Kunji, Kittu Pilla, Malli, Chelamban. chastity of the Kadar women is highly com Cbownden, Alakku Pilla and Moyali Muppan, mendable, and that tbe regard shown to the while the common names for women are J(aru marital tie is so grt:at, that one wonders how ppayi, Ramayi, Vellayammal, Ponnayi, Nelli this happens among a people among Whom and Karumbi. Some of these names are borrow ceremonial marriage is more or less unknown. ed from the low castemen of the plains with Widows are never allowed to marry, but may whom they associate in the forests during the live in a state of concubinage. working season. rt is said that in many of the aboriginal tribes The ear-boring and a nose-boring for a girl in India, the family is hardly yet formed, and are usually done on the occasion of naming, that it is yet in the process of formation, but but may sometimes be postponed to any among the Cochin hill tribes this state has long convenient date. Tnvariably the Muppan performs passed. The evolution of the family is in a the boring, but if he cannot do it, the father of sufficiently advanced stage, and it is always the the child or any other male member of the paternal personality that predominates. The village undertakes it. A lamp is lighted and father dictates to his children the rules which placed before tile child. and the blessing of the govern their conduct and establish the moral ancestors is invoked before the operation is precepts which have be.::n handed down to them commenced. by their forefathers. The mothers warn their It varies from a short period to throughout daughters to be obedient to their husbands their whole life. Frequently the hUiband dis and endeavour to pledse them. The father cards his wife, when she ce3.sed to please him, lives with his wife and children in a but of his and she then returns to her parents. Sometimes OWn construction, supporting them until they divorce is bedged round with certain formal are grown up. He also gets them married when itit:s of established custom. Marriage can be they are of age. The sons, when married, live dissolved for incompatibility of temper, and with their wives along with their parents, con dIsobedience on the part of tne wife without tributing their share of maintenance, or in appeal to any higher authority than a council of separate huts of their own making. In certam elders, who hear arguments on both sides and months of the year the males are busy in the pronounce judgement upon the evidence. The collection of the forest produce, When they council has absolute control over them. In the have enough to eat by their male proceeds; event of any disobedience or immoral conduct while in other months they have to live on the on their part, they would be expelled from their edible frui t5 and roots of the fores ts in their community which would m~an being turned ou t neighbourhood. Sometimes when they roam of the jungle to obtain a living in the best way over the fMests in search of them and when he or she could. In a case like this she finds they cannot return home. they erect flimsy sheds her refuge among the very low caste-men of the thatched with plantain leaves wherein they stay plains. L>r the night, protecting themselves against Polygamy is indulged in with a view to wild beasts by keeping fire around them. Their increase the numerical strength of their tribe. women also coll-!ct with their digging spud, the In the code of polygamous etiquette, the first roots of m.lDy plants which serve as food. They wife taken precedence over the others and each cook the family meals, tend the children, bring has her cooking utensils. The more wives a m3.n water from the s tre 1m close by, keep the huts has, Ihe richer and more esteemed is he. I t is in order; and accompany their husbands for said that polygamy is diffused all over the world some outdoor work. They are treated with either in the form in which it is found among affection and allowed a certain amount of Mohamadans, Australians and American rndians freedom. Children are brought up without any or in irs modified form lawful concubinage, all education whatever. At the age of six or over the east, and that women among th~m are seven they are taken to the jungles in the daily considered very much as slaves from whom peregrination of their parents, and are shown 179 KADAR the different methods of conecting the minor rigidly observe all kinds of pollution, the negli forest produce. Any deviation from the beaten gence of which will rouse his indignation when track traced out by their ancestors whom they they may be exposed to all kinds of danger from adore is repugnant to them. A philanthropic the wild beasts of the forests. missionary of the State. who wished to educate these people and their children and to prose The following account of animism professed lytise them opened a school, but had to give it by the Kadars is taken from the Imperial up for want of proper attendance. Census Report. Special interest attaches to the religion of the Kadars as representing a com Among the Kadars the son succeeds to the paratively early stage in the process of cOO\'er~ property of bis father, but in the case of sion to Brahmanism which the aboriginal races Muppans the eldest nephew succeeds them. As of Bengal are undergoing. The real working has been said, twenty or thirty huts form a religion of the tribe is pure animism of the type pathy. The members of the pathy are under which still survives comparatively untouched by the control of a headman, called muppan, who Hindu influences among the Santals, Mundas is, with their consent, appointed by His and Oraons of Chota Nagapu r. Like these, Kadars Highness the Raja. The muppan is given a believe themselves to be encompassed about by stick with a silver head at one end. It is the a host of invisible powers, some of whom are symbol of his authority. He presides at the thought to be their ancestors, while others marriage, funeral and other ceremonies, and seem to embody nothi.lg more definite than decides all tribal disputes, and visits all delin the vague sense of the mysterious, uncanny with quents with corporal punishment, whenever which the hills, streams and the lonely forests necessary_ They are averse to all kinds of inspire the savage imagination. Of these shadowy innovations, and no innovations can be adopted forms, no images are ·made, nor are they without the consent of the muppans. The conceived of as wearing any bodily shape. A muppan's wives go by the name of muppathies and their position among the Kadar women roughly moulded lump of clay in an open glade, corresponds to that of their husbands among a queer shaped stone bedaubed with vermilion them. this is all the visible presentiment that does duty for all. Their names are legion and their The religion of the Kadars is a rude animism. attributes are barely known. But so much is All kinds of sickness and other calamities are certain that to neglect their worship brings believed to be the work of the demons whom disaster to the offender, death or disorder to it is necessary to propitiate. They are a god the bousehold, murrain among the cattle and fearing set of people, and are the particular blight on his crops. In order to avert these worshippers of Kali. On the occasion of the ills, but so far as J can gather without the bope offering to Kali a number of virgin girls are of any benefit from gods, "ho are &ctive only asked to bathe preliminary to the preparation to do evil, the Kadar sacrifices pigs, fowb, of the offering, which consists of rice and some goats, and pigeons, and offers ghee, molasses, vegetables cooked in honey and made into a and heads of Indian corn in the sacred groves sweet pudding. The rice for tbis preparation in which his deities are SuppOSed to dwell. is unhusked by these girls. The offering is The priest is a man of the tribe who combines considered to be sacred and is partaken by all the sacred functions with those of the barber men, women, and children assembled there and to the Kadars of the villages of the neighbo then. Ayyappan is another deity wbom they urhood. The offerlngs are eaten by the wor worship, and whose aid they beseech in all their shippers. For all this, the Kadars, if questioned enterprises. They also worship their dead about their religion, will reply that they are ancestors, whose blessings and aid are invoked Hindus and will talk vaguely about tbeir Hindu in times of illness and other calami ties in their gods (Parameswar, Vishnu) as if they live in families, and also before the commencement of the very odour of orthodox y> ins tead of being all auspicious undertakings. Malavazhi (ruler in fact wholly outside the sphere of the of hills) is another vague sylvan deity whom Brahmanical system. To talk about the Hindu they ,,,orship. They believe that it is this deity gods is usually the first step towards that who protects them against the attacks of wild insensible adoption of the externals of Hinduism beasts in the forests. It is for him that they which takes the place of formal and open 180 THE COHIN TRIBES AND CASTES conversion which sterner and less adoptive circle" says Ratzel, "are found in the Khassia creeds demand. The next step is to set up hill" and in those of Coimbatore. Similar ones Brahm'lns, whose influence, furthered by a are also found in the hills of the Cochin State. variety of sooial forces, gradually disposes of The burning of bodies never takes place in the the tribal gods and transforms them into neighbourhood of them. The dolmens may orthodox shapes, and gives them places in the perhaps serve as sacrificial tables, while the regular pantheon, as local manifestations of numerous single stone pillars may make one this or that well known principle, and relegates think of stone worship Stone circles and stone them to a decent and iuoffensive obscurity pillars are here associated with graves. Most as household or village deities. Last of all, if of the dolmen-lIke stone structures contain the tribe is an influential one, it gives itsel f earthenware vessels of fine workrnanship and brevet rank like the Rajaputs. remains of iron" . The Kadar have their dead buried. As soon as . The primary occupation of the Kadar and a mao dies, his bojy is washed by his son, if other jungle tribes is the collection of forest he bas one, and in the case of woman, tile produce. The following are the chief minor duty is performed by her daughter. The women products of the hills. begin to cry in loud chorus, and then the men 1. Kaduga, mustard (Sinapis nigra) speedily join in, when they all ,veep together, 2. Makani kizhangu: the root of Cynanchum eulogising his gl)od deeds till, through she~r is a fa vouri te pickle with the people though exhaustion, they are compelled to desist. If the it smells exactly like bugs parties stop weeping, they soon get up a 3. Inji, wild ginger (Amomum zingiber) funeral dance, in which the members of the 4. Manchal, wild turmeric (curcuma longa) family take part. A band of music, drum and pipe, plays wild tunes outside the hut, wi thout 5, Mattipal. (Aliyanthus malabari~a) the accompanying the funeral party to the grave. juice of a tree which concretes into gum Covered over with a piece of new cloth, the used generally as an incense body is placed over a bamboo bier, which is 6. Kunkilium, the resin of a tree (Chloroxy carried to the graveyard far away from the Ion dupada) which is a kind of frankincense village with rice thrown over it as it leaves 7. Shikkay, (the fruit of Mimosa saponifera), the hut. The grave is dug from fOllr to five used as soap by the natives to wash the oil feet deep and after the corpse is laid in it out of the hair on a mlt with the head towards the south it 8, Lavanga patta, the bark of Laurus cassia is filled in with earth. No stone nor any mo 9. Cardamoms nument is erected to indicate the spot. Some to. Myrobalans and wild pepper times a big stone is placed near the head of the corpse, and tile water, as being the last 11. Thanikka, the fruit of Terminalia bellerica portion that the deceased to given to drink, is 12. Poovakuru, the fruit of Cacalia rotundi- poured on the stone. Any ornaments or folia trinkets that the deceased had at the time of 13. Thena, Panicum italicum death are buried with the body and removed 14. Mezhuku, Beeswax on the date of expiry of pollUtion. The place 15. Nellikka, the fruit of Phyllanthus emblica of interment is after that never visited. The burial grounds are, as a rule, never visited 16. Paruthi, Gossypium herbaceum by them for fear of ghosts which may haunt 17 Thippili, Long pepper their houses and torment their children. They 18. Pathiri, Bignonia suaveolens observe the pollution for ten days and on the 19. Vella Elengi, Mimusops elengi morning of the tenth day they become free 20. Kanj!rakuru the fruit of Nux Vomica from it by a plunge bath. That day is one of festivity to their friends and relations. At 21. Lemon grass. the end of the year, they hold a memorial The minor forest produce is the property of festival in which their relations and neigh the Government. the col !ection of which is l~t bours are invited to a feast with drinks and on contract for a certain sum of money to dances. "Menhir, cromlech, dolmen and stone contractors who with the aid of Kadars and 181 KADAR Malayans have it coJIected and sold in the of a superior quality is a large bee that builds markets. The contractors supply them with its nest in the cavities of rocks and on the edges rice, salt, sometimes chillies, tobacco, and of appalling precipices. It is a most fearful opium and give them money to purchase other adversary, so much so that the native bee necessary articles such as cloth, etc. The hill collectors dare not attack it in the day time. men are quite il.dependent during the summer If they are attacked by an intruder, they begin months, when they are solely engaged in the a united persistent attack and, as their stings collection of the forest produce. They have are severe. it is almost impossible to escape now plenty to eat. The total income derived from the attack, and it is most dangerous to go from minor produce is about Rs. 3,000 a year. near them. The natives take the combs (It night and the mode of procedure envices a cool daring It has been said that, but for the Kadars and which one would never expect in such a cow the elephants, the Cochin forests would have ardly race. He makes a chain of rings of rattan been useless. Both are the denizens of the hills or bamboo and this chain over 100 feet in length and forests, and, when properly utilized, they is lowered from the top of the precipice until are invaluable help to those who wish to extract it reaches a point where the bees' nests are. the priceless treasures of the forests. But This being done. a dark windy night is chosen and for the elephants none could lift a log, and if it the honey-hunter either alone or accompanied by were not for the Kadars, none dare move an his wife, brother or son, when it is pitch-dark, inch in the forests. During the forest working descends this loosely hanging ladder with a fire season these men are employed by the brand and keeping away the bees by means of forest contractors for collecting minor forest his torch, he collects the honey and thus secures produce. They are peculiarly expert in tree the prize. To look at one of these ladders as climbing, which is .. Imost an instinct with them; it hangs over the face of of some fearful cliff and whatever the height or girth of a tree, in and to imagine the scene is to make one's flesh some cases trees grow to a height of 100 or 150 creep. For the feat of daring he feels amply feet and a girth over twenty feet they climb to rewarded if a rupee is given. The bees appear the top, like black monkeys. Honey gathering to be sluggishly stupid on dark nights and is a favourite occupation with them, which they bence the ra tionale of this method of proced ure. invariably do after nightfall with a torch under There is another honey producing bee found in the cover of darkness, to avoid the sting of the hills which makes its nest on the bare bees. When the trees are quite straight and trunk of the bush; the comb is generally in the without branches, the ascent is facilitated by shape of, llnd about the size of, a goose's egg, means of small '''ooden pegs driven in to the and so pure and delicate and clean is the wax trees, which serve as so many foot rests. The that the whole comb may be eaten, just as it quarJtity of honey collected by the jungle tribes is found, wax and all. There is also a fourth is very great and is the product of four distinct kind of bee which builds its nest on the branches species of bees. The larger portion is collected of trees, some of which are of great height. by a middle sized bee which makes its nest in Acuteness of the senses, bodily toughness, the hollow stems of old trees. The nest is defiant audacity to the point of contempt of attacked fearlessly by the honey-hunters, who death together wi th an insinuating cunning and profess to be proof against the stings by means a great knowledge of Nature are the charact of secret charms, bu t We can vouch for the fact eristics of the wild tribes, to which the Kadars that the charm necessary for it is a moderate are no exceptions. They do the ordinary coaly amount of fortitude, for the tree-bees do not Jabour of cutting timber and of constructing attack in combined swarms as do the rock-bees, rest houses and get wages of from five to and therefore the stings received are not nume seven fnnas per day. The wages they receive rous, neither is the pain caused to very seVere for the extraction of forest produce depend as to affect the thick skin of the natives The upon the quantity and quality of the produce only trouble in collecting this is the enlarging they bring. Qnam presents in the shape of of the hole by which the bees enter their nests. rice, cloths, coats, turbans, caps, ear-rings, The rock-bee, the honey lMalaten) of which is rings, tobacco, opium, salt, oil and cocoanuts 182 THE CORIN TRIBES AND CASTES are freely distributed by the Forest Department and poison the water when they die and float. every year. They are very busy in the collection They are famous snake charmers, and assert that of wax and honey in the months of March and they possess the knowledge of some tree, the April and cardamoms in July and August. green leaf of which taken internally a.nd applied externally to any part affected WIth The Kadars presume to know everything venom is an infallible cure. about tbe forest. The people of each locality They help the Government and private land or village are well acquainted with the tract lords in tbe elephant catching operations. The conside red particularly their own and resen t elephants are very destructive, and they attack encroachments on their precinc;ts. They trace the lonely traveller often with fatal results. as if by ins tinct the devious paths of the forests They are often a dreadful nuisance to the farmers and decide almost with unerring certainty on who live near forests, and who have by their the number and variety of animals that may OIV,l industry, prevented large areas of land have traversed them. They know the animals by from being thrown out of cultivation. On their foot-prints and find out their where abouts strong and high trees stages are constructed, to probably by the peculiar and wonderful develop- which the guards and trackers fly to take refuge ment of their olfactory nerves. It is wonderful to when attacked by a solitary tusker who takes see them track a wounded animal and nothing vengeance upon them for helping sportsmen to escapes tbeir eyes. They hurry along very destroy them. The elephants are sometimes quickly, hold a brief board of speechless enquiry caught in pits, a large number of which (about on a fugitive foam flake, investigate a down fifteen feet in depth and from fourteen to trodden blade of grass and wax silently eloquent eighteen feet in diameter at the mouth) are dug over a single bair. When a Kadar or a Malayan by the side ofa stream or other water reservoir has gone to a forest a long way off from his which they frequent during the summer months, pathy, he goes on cutting twigs and leaves, so especially during nights. These pits do not have that hi~ wife or son may trace the way to bring the same widtb at the bottom. The mouths him food. Their services are availed of by of the pits are covered with pieces of split shikaries in tracking and beating game. Sir bamboos, boughs and earth, with dry leaves William Crookes, the great Indian Ethnologist, over them and they are never placed on a track says" One thing the jungle dweller does acquire wheIe the huge beast may suspect a trap. A by this course of life is a marvellous insight tree may be found by the side of a path, against in to Natu re and her secrets. His eyesigh t or which an elephant will probably stop to rub his power of hearing is wonderful. He sees or hears body. and there, in the ecstasy of friction, he a tiger creeping down a ravine long befor~ may for a moment, be off his guards, when the sportsmen will. Everything in the forest has a destructive pit yawns before him. Generally the meaning for him, the grant of the monkey as young ones {hat are caugbt As sooo as it is the tiger comes beneath his tree, the hoarse known that an elephant has fallen into a pit, alaram bark of the stag. From the way the the forest authorities are informed. The Kadars vultures hover in the air, he will tell whether or Malayans in the neighbourhood cut huge the tiger has finished his meal or is still tearing branches of trees and place them across the the carcase. Every displaced pebble denotes to mouth, so that he may not escape. Tame ele him a foot-mark, a broken grass stalk will tell phants are brJught up, who speak to him, and him something". They are better trackers and try to make him feel at home in tRis uncomfort drivers of game than hunters, and often accom able situation, and gradually the pit is filled up pany European and other shikaries in their till hiS fore-legs are supported, the leaves and hunting expeditions. They sometimes hunt tender branches being held up to him as food. tigers, bisons anj bears, by shooting them from Strong ropes are p.lssed round his neck, when a safe position at a distance. Deer and wild he holds up his trunk. He comes ou t of the pit bogs are caught in snares and beaten to death. and walks out between his tame companions They divide themselVes into two parties one of who chastise him if he gives trouble. His hind which is engaged in driving the game, while the legs are hobbled and to the hobbles are tied other -either aims at them or catches the smaller ropes (vakka) which again are fastened round animals in snares. To catch fish during the trees, so that at every rush he makc:s, he is summer months, they darn the mountain streams pulled up with a painful jerk. He is also pulled 183 KADAR in front with a rope held by a tame elephant. Puliambally Namburi Achan, who is believed Finally he is, with the aid of a large number of by them to have been the greatest of magicians. Kadars or Malayans and his tame companions, led off te a strong shed built of the teak of his The Kadar women weave a kind of coarse native forest where he is pestered, punished and grass mat and a strong rattan basket.- beaten by tame elephants and elephant keepers, The Kadars are provided with only two rude till at last he becomes fit for use as a tim ber weapons, namely, a bill hook and a 4igging carrier, roadmaker and beast of burden, and if spud, and they work wonders with them. With docile and well favoured, he may live to carry the former they build comfortable houses, make the sacred idol and swell and adorn the religious bridges with canes and branches, rafts out of processions in the temple festivals of the State. bamboos, a carving knife out of etah, a comb Sometimes the elephant dies in the pit or in out of bamboo and a match from dry wood, and captivity. rt is said that an elephant which had wi th the latter they dig the ground in search of once been caught and had escaped, would never wild roots. The former is also a weapon of move in the fores t wi thou t testing the ground defence, and after all they are not, in the least before it with a large branch of a tree held in costly. though they are used for so many his trunk. pUfposes_ The jungle tribes are everywhere pre.s_umed to The Kadars are supposed to be the vassals of serve the Forest Department, within \Nhose the ruler of the State. To him they are attached jurisdiction they live. They are given certain by the strongest ties of personal affection and presents and concessions which are denied to the regard. Whenever His Highness the Raja tours inhabitan's of the plains. This has been in vogue in the forests they follow him, carry him from in the State for a long time. Frequent contact place to place in manjals o~ palanqui~s, carr.y of these forest people with the merchants of the samans and in fact do everythlllg for hIm. HIS plains and the high wages which they receive Highness in return is much attached to them, from the coffee planiers who employ them on feeds them gives them cloths, ornaments, combs their estate have tended a great deal to estrange and looking glasses. Above all he treats them them froro their relationship with the Govern with great affection, using always kind words to ment. Their relation with the Government is them. It is said that these peculiar people could that of servants. They have to le"d the way to never be frightened into doing anything, and Government officials to the different tracts of that when any harsh words are used they simply the forests, to attend to the elephant-capturing move away from one place to another. One operations, namely, the covering of pi ts, to forest to them is as good as another, and they watch whether elephants have fallen, and if so, get their few wants supplied either here or there. to announce the fall to the Forest officials, to They are quite simple, unsophisticated, and water and feed the elephants in pits till they are utter aliens to vice and trickery. They are plain kralled, and also to construct madoms for the and straigh I-forward in their dealings, never tell Government, whenever necessary. They get an a lie and never deceive one another. Work edangazhi (t of a Madras measure) of rice for they' never shirk. and being sturdy and s~rong, covering and watching the pits; while for track~ they are fit for any kind of physical exertIOn or ing and constructing madoms, they are given endurance. In the carrying of loads and weights three annas worth of rice and six pies per day. they are very enduring and have a great capacity The number of Malayans to watch the pits is for rapidly recruiting. Altogether they are a determined by the number of pits within a Quiet and submissive race, obeying the slightes t certain area of the village. For feeding the expression of a wish and very grateful for any elephants in pits a Kadar or Malayan gets three assistance or attention. annas worth of rice and three pies per day. On the kralling day there is a general distribution These hill-men are called the chandalas of the of rice among the young and old members both forests (Kattu Neechammar). The touch of the male and female. The Malayans of the village Malayans pollutes tbe Kadars anj vice versa. at the time offer, at the cost of Government, When asked as to their social position each sacrifices which consists of boiled rice, cocoanut affirms his superiority to the other. The Kadars and toddy to propitiate their family deities (the consider the bison as an unclean beast and never spirits of the departed), Chathan (Sastha) and touch its body. In the same way they consider 184 THE COCHIN TRIBES AND CASTES the elephant's dung also. Wild elephants are long dark wavy b'lir well p:utd on the crown held in veneration, but the tamed ones are of the head and smoothed with cocoanut oil and believed to have lost tlie divine elemen t in them. tied into a knot behind. The pUling of the hair Short tailed black monkeys are hunted and put and the fashion of tying the knot coupleJ with to death, because they are considered to be a their shyness, give the former an effiminate sort of curse to the forests. They eat at the appearance. SJme have long curling hair also. hands of all castes except Parayans, Pulayan and . They are of strong build and robust in shoulder Ulladan. and thigh, their arms very long, and like the The foHowing roots of plants form the chief Paniyans they are deep chested, which is well articles of food for the Kadars. They are adapted to mountaineering. They have great generally eaten in the form of curry. powers of end llrance and carry heavy loads on their backs. The frequently nomadic habits of 1. Nootta kizbangu (root) dioscora pentapbylla these people in search of edible fruits and roots 2. ThaIi do Crypba umbraculifera for food, and water, cause their women also to 3. Nara do Atalantia monophylla carry their utensils on tnetr back often with a 4. Chandana do Pterocarpus santalinus child on the top of their housetlOld goods. The 5. Chel do Seirpus articulatus babies, 011 the b.lcks of their m:>tbers, are often huddled up in a dirty cloth with the ends slung 6. Kannira do Strychnos colubrina over the shoulders and held in the hands over 7. Chaval do The fruit-like sprout of the chest. It is said that they afford a typical Artocarpus exampb of happiness without culture. "Un 8. Vettila do Piper betel spoiled by duedtion the advancing wave of which has not engulfed them, they still retain They rarely go in for animal fOld. On occas many of their primitive cU5tons an::l manners". ions they indulge in animal food chiefly fish bu t Thus they do not believe their ancestry. For the on no account would they touch bison, though most part. t1:tey are light hearted and easy it is to be had in abundance. The abhorrence tempered. Tney prove very communicative of bison's fiesh on the part of these people is when once their shyness is overcome. While similar to that of pork on the part of tbe naturally frank and far more truthful than the Mahomadans. It is purely sentimental, but people of the plains, they have been, of late, there is not a single Kadar man or wo man who contracting so:ne pilfering propen3ities which would tou~h bison's flesh. Rice is lux.ury with are manifested in the simplest and most them and the occasions on which they eat it are maladroit manner. Few people in fact, in tbe very rare. It is noteworthy that these people plains enjoy a happier life, than the residents on are not unacquainted with intoxicants, opium these hills, who are accustomed to a hardyout and toddy being their chief favourites. They taste door life and are ciipable of appreciating to the opium in small quantities and like it very much, full the enjoym;!nt of an 'apathetic rest' as per but toddy is liked eVen more, and both men and fect bli3s. Isolated from the outer world, they women freely indulge in it. depend upon their labour for all their necessaries and most of the luxuries of life. They are, in The colour of the Kadar skin is generally fact, blissfully contented with their life as it is, dark, varying from it to lighter shades of completely absorbed with tbeir devotion to the complexion according to locality. The members hill life and their sylvan deities who are believed of the tribe residing in localities frequented ~ by ever to watch over their welfare. Al together the lolV caste-men of the plains appear to be they appear to be a quiet and submissive tribe, the descendants of cross breeding, While those obeying the sligh test expression of a wish and in the very interior whereto the men of the grateful for any assistance or attention. plains have very little ac::ess, possess the genuine features of the tribe. They are short in stature, The m::des like other classes of bill-men are· the average height of the men and women being scantily clad, wearing plain cloths and some 157.7 and 143 centimetres respectively. Their what similar on~5 rounl the necks. Some of the noses are fiat and somewhat depressed and the N~lliampathi Kadars, who were brought to me nasal index of tbe males and females is 89.8 and for examinatio:1 appeared so neJtly dressed in 88 respectively. Both men and women have vaisties of English mlaufacture round the loins. 185 KADAR with similar small ones tied as turbans, that iog lines are taken from the Madras Journal of they looked like Tamil Chetties on the plains. Literature and Science. "These little dwarfish Seme of them "ear ear-rings }Lade of brass. people file their fIont teeth in points to facilitate Worr:en wear a podava, eight yards long, half their eating the harcest roots. There is some of ,~, bich is tied round the loir;s, while the ot her nen e sho" n in this and we may look with won half senes to cover the upper part of the body. der and respect upo"n the exiled lords of the Some pUt on a red rr:ark of vermilion on tte ancient land ,.. hen we see that, rather than serve forehead, and ha\e cadjan rolls in the dilated tho£e "ho usurped the coun try, they chose to lobe of each ear, "hich on impC'rlant occasions, live, ",:t:ere the food was beyond their natural are substituted by gilt thodas. A few of them powers and could be eaten only by such a pre are seen ,~earing brass nose-rings, while some paration of their teeth. It is possible, that in the wear also necklets of glass and bangles on the absence of better arms, they reckoned upon these right upper arm and forearm and met ties (brass poin ted teeth as weapons, in case their conqu rings round the second lOe of the right foot). erors should follow them to their mountain On the whole they appear to be so well dressed home". that they look like chetti women, though short and dark. 'fhe Kadars are fond of music and singing. Sometime tbey form a ring by joining bands and The n:ost interesting custcm prevailing among advance in step towards tbe centre and again the Kadars, and never found in any otber caste retire while circling round and round. When men, is that of chipping all or seme of the inci \-\earied with dancing they sing. Some eight of sor teeth, roth upper and lower into the form them formed a party at my desire and danced, of sharp pointed, but not serrated cone. The singing some Tamil tunes. They frequently come operation is performed with a chisel or bilI hook to the plains, take part in the village festivals, attend dramas, at which low caste-men are and file by the rr embers of the trite skilled there at, on boys at the age of eighleen and girls at the actors afid return to their wild abodes quite age of ten or the reabou ts. The girl to be opera drunk. It is delightful to hear the hearty shrieks ted on lies down and places her head against a of laughter of the rude curly haired children female friend \\ ho holds her bead firmly. A 'Nbolly illiterate and happy in their ignorance third woman takes a sharpened bill hook and as they are found dancing in the evening, and chips away the teeth till they are shaded to a indulging in their primitive amusements. point, the girl operated on, writhing and groan "It has been said that tbe more remote and ing with the pain. After the ()peraticn she looks unknown the caste, race or tribe, the more valu daned and in a few hours the face begins to able is the evidence afforded by the study of its swell. Swelllng and pain last for a day or two institutions from the probability of their being accompained by severe headache. The custom less mixed with those of European origin, Tribes of deforming the teeth is not confined to Sou them which only a few years ago were living in a wild India, but is found prevailing among differen t state, clad in a cool and simple garb of forest tribes in Africa and Australia, "here the practice leaves and buried away in the depths of jungles, is, in general, confined to the chipping of the have now corr.e under the domesticating and some incisor teeth. WesterILark in his History of times detrimer tal influence of con tact with Human Marriage, says, that when the age of Europeans, with a resulting modification of puberty is drawing near, in several parts of Africa their conditions of life, mortality and even lan and Australia, they knock out some teeth know guage." The Paniyans of Wynad, the Jrulans ing that they would otbervtise run the risk cf en the slopes cf the Nilgiris, the hill tribes being rejected on account of ugliness. In the of the Cochin Forests now work regularly for Malaya PeninSUla, the practice of filing the teeth daily wages on the planters' estates. The rapid and blackening is a necessary prelude to marriage. disappearance of the savages at the present time, Further, Dan' in, in his Descent of Man, writes, and the rapidity with wbich they are heing that the natives of the "Opper Nile knock out reduced to the standard of European manners the four front teeth, saying that tbey do not wish and those of high caste-men, render if necessary to resemble brutes. Some tribes, says Dr. Livings to conect the sources of error as soon as possible. tone, knock cut the two incisors, became they "The employment of tiles and kerosine tins in give the face a hideous appearance. The follow- lieu of primitive thatch, the import of cotton 186 'fHE COCHIN fRIBES AND CAS rES piece goods and umbrellas instead of country manners of the higher castes, the spread of made goods and umbrellas covered with leaves, western education, religious teaching and con the decline of national costume, the substitu tion version to Christianity by European mission of caps of gaudy bue and pith turbans for aries-these and many other factors are tb.e causes national turbans, the replacement of peasant of a radical change in the ethnographic jewellery made by indigenous manufacture by conditions of the country". In the words of beads and imitation jewellery made in Europe, Professor A. C. Haddon of Cambridge, "Now the use of lucifer matches by aboriginal tribes is the time to record. An infinitude has been who formerly made fire by friction, the supply lost to us and a vr;:ry great deal is now rapidly of new forms of food and of beer and spirits in disappearing. The most interesting materials the bazars, the administration of justice instead are becoming lost to us, not only by their dis of that distributed by the old village panchayats, appearance, but by the apathy of those who the attempts of the low castes to elevate them should delight in recording them before they sel ves by the adoption of the customs and have become lost to sight and memory". . 187 MALABAR AND ITS FOLK T. K. Gopala Panicker, Madras, 1900 The Kaders are a socially inferior race to the covering and twisted together. This is then Malayars and are found in the higher ranges of hung down the rock or precipice, and by means the ghauts. Their most famous divisions occupy of it the men climb down. It is in ways such as ing the summits of the Anamalai and Kollengode these that both the Malayars and Kaders collect ranges. They are a short, muscular race of honey and wax. deep black colour, with thick lips like Negroes but without the detestable smell of the latter: Strict monogamy is enforced among them. No The Kader language is Tamil; and their various relation on the male side is allowed to be· taken dialects are so curious and difficult tha t even to wife. Their marriage customs are some Tamil-speaking people cannot correctly under what peculiar. The man who intends to marry stand them. They are all under the control of goes out of his own village and lives in another a headman who is also an authoritative referee for a whole year, during which period he makes in all their disputes. He also performs all their his choice of a wife. At the end of the year he priestly functions, and receives in return a fixed returns to his own village and obtains permis;ion pOltion of the proceeds from certain large trees fr~m the villagers to effectuate the con templated and a certain percentage of the honey and wax umon. Then he goes away again to the village collected by them. Their women wear dark of his bride-elect and gives her a dowry by coloured clothes, or clothes rendered dark by working there for another whole year. Then their unclean life and habits' as wellas beads he makes presents of clothes and iron tools to charms, rings and bangles. 'They are a lazy the girl's mother; after which follows a feas t race, much averse to manual labour; but they which completes the ceremony. Finally, the are excellent at tracking game in jungles and in couple return to the husband's Village. Amongst collecting wild produce therefrom; and they are the Kaders, re-marriage of widows is freely also experts in finding good timber for purpose allm,:ed. In this important respect, they may of felling. Their houses are collections of small be saId to be ahead of the conservative Hindus hovels made of branches of trees covered over whose orthodoxy is an insuperable barrier i~ the way of their national advancement. For w~th leaves. They live upon trapped animals, wIld yams, bamboo seed and other wild produc conjugal infidelity, the wife has to pay a fine to the tion of the jungles. They also eat rice, which husband. This ~rac:tically converts adultery on they obtain as remuneration for collecting wax the part of the WIfe mto a source of income to and honey. They first remove all poisonous the husband. If, in any case, the girl happens particles from wild yams by cutting them into to make a fugitive connexion with any man small pieces and leaving them to soak in a run then the t.ribesmen assemble together, and, o~ the c~se bemg proved to their satisfaction, they ning stream of water. Dur~ng the winter season, unammously compel the guilty man to take the they consume arrowroot 10 abundance. They mix honey with arrowroot meal, place the girl as his wife. mixture in the hollow of a piece of wild Their temples consist of small huts inside bamboo, and sink the same inside the floor of which are placed rude stones which represent their houses where it gets hard, forming a kind th.eir deitie.s who. protect them from the depred of sweetmeat. atIOns of wlid ammals, as also from misfortunes Their methods of collecting honey and wax of a_ny kind befalling them. During the Vishu are worthy of detail. They carryon this fes tIval, they come down and visit the plains wi th business only at night time. One of them goes the Malayars, and on their way, they worship out with a basket hanging loose from his neck and pray to any image they chance to come by means of a string and a glaring torch held in across. They are believers in the supernatural his hand, and ascends the tree on which the hive efficacy of witchcraft and attribute all diseases has been discovered, on pegs driven in one to the miraculous workings of that art. The above another up to the point where the hive Kaders are good exorcists themselves and trade has be~n found. On seeing the torch, the bees in Maotravadams or magic. Like the Malayars get fnghtened and flyaway, leaving the hive they bury their dead. ' behind. Then the hive is taken out and is Being acclimatized to the jungle-poisoned brought away in the basket carried on the neck atmo~phe~e of t~eir native abodes, they enjoy But if the honey or wax be found on a rock 0; practlcallmmumty from attacks of fever but a precipice, the process is different. A ladder when they chang.e their dwellings to the p'lains. is made of long canes stripped of the outer they become subject to such diseases. 188 ANNEXURE I LIST OF SCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TRIBES IN KERALA STATE As per the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification) Order, 1956 issued by the President of India under the Constitution I SCHEDULED CASTES (I) Throughout the State (5) In Malabar district 1 Adi Andhra Chakkiliyan 2 Adi Dravida 2 Kuravan, Sidhanar 3 Adi Karnataka 3 Nayadi 4 Ajila 4 Pallan 5 Arunthathiyar 6 Baira 5 Paraiyan, Parayan (Sambava r) 7 Bakuda 6 Valluvan 8 Baodi 9 Bellara 10 Chamar or Muchi (2) Throughout the Sta Ie except Kasaragod tal uk of 11 CharJdala Malabar district 12 Cherllman 13 GodagaJi 1 Kanakkan or Padanna 14 Godda 2 Panan 15 Gosangi 16 Holeya ( 3) Throughout the State except Malabar district 17 Kadaiyan excluding Kasaragod taluk 18 Kalladi 19 KarimpaJan Paravan 20 Koosa 21 Kudumban 22 Maila (4) Throughout the State excepl Malabar district 23 Mavilan I Ayyanavar 24 Mog~r 2 Bharatar 25 MundaJa 3 Boyan 26 Nalakeyava 4 Domban 27 !>ambada 5 Kakkalan 28 Panchama 6 Kavara 29 Puthirai Vannan 7 Kootan (Koodan) 30 Rane)ar 31 Samagara 8 Mannan (lIlffiPcm) 32 Samban 9 Padannan 33 Semman 10 Palluvan 31 Thoti 11 Pathiyan 12 PeIumannan (6) In Malabar district excluding Kasaragod taiuk 13 Pulayan or Cneramar 1 Gavara ]4 Thaodan 2 Malayan 15 Ulladan 3 Pulaya Vettuvan 16 UraJy 17 Vallon (7) In Kasaragod taluk of Malabar district U' Vannan 19 Velan 1 BathacJa 20 Vetan 2 Hasla 21 Vettuvan 3 Nalkadaya 189, II SCHEDULEO TRIBES ( I) Throughout the State (3) In Malabar district 1 Kadar 1 Adiyan 2 Irular or Irulan 2 Arandan 3 Muthuwao, Mudugar or Muduvao 3 Kammara. 4 Kattunayakan (~) Throughout the State except Malabar district 5 Konda Kapus I Eravallan 6 Kondareddis 2 Hill Pulaya 7 Koraga 3 Kaoikarao or Kanikkar g Kota 4 Kochu Velan 9 Kudiya or Melakudi 5 Malakkuravan 10 Kurichchan 6 Malai Arayan J 1 Kurumans 7 Malai Pandaram 12 Maha Malasar 13 Malasar 8 Malai Vedan 14 Malayekandi 9 Malayan 15 Palliyan 10 M alayarayar 16 Paniyan 11 ManDan (l1l(1l1ocro) 17 PulaYan 12 Palleyao J3 Palliyar (4) In Malabar district excluding Kasaragod taluk Kurumbas 14 Unadao (Hill dwellers) 15 Uraly (5) In Kasaragod taluk of Malabar district 16 Vishavan Marati 190 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS. KERALA, 1961 Kerala State ,-______..A..., ______~ Total Rural Urban ..A. _____...... 51. Name of Scheduled ,.------"------, r--.-...... ---~ No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M P P M F 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Tohl 212,762 106,076 106,686 203,599 101,718 101,881 9,163 4,358 4,805 I Adiyan 5,691 2,164 2,927 5,671 2,761 2,910 20 3 17 2 Arandan 43 22 21 40 20 20 3 2 I 3 Eravallan 518 286 232 484 265 219 34 21 13 4 Hill Pulaya 2,982 1,484 1,498 2,823 1,406 1,417 159 78 81 5 Irular or lrulan 11,454 5,80~ 5,652 11,454 5.802 5,652 6 Kadar 957 512 445 924 494 430 33 . 18 15 7 Kammara 270 123 147 255 114 141 15 9 6 8 Kanikaran or Kanil 191 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, ) 961-(contd.) Cannanore District ______.A.______,---, ,------Total Rural Urban ,-___..A-- __ ~ SI. Names of Scheduled r------.A-----~ r-----...A...------""I, No. Tribes Person Males Females P M F P M F 2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total 70,905 34,543 36,362 64,402 3J,515 32,887 6,503 3,028 3,475 1 Adiyan 5,399 2,618 2,781 5,379 2,615 2,764 20 3 17 2 Arandan 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 Eravallan 04 Hill Pulaya 5 lrular or lrulan 6 Kadar 69 42 27 69 42 27 7 Kammara 154 63 91 154 63 91 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 206 102 104 206 102 104 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 4 3 1 4 3 I 12 Koraga 548 296 252 528 287 241 20 9 11 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 194 103 91 194 103 91 15 Kurichchan 8,811 4,448 4,363 8,810 4,417 4,363 16 Kurumans 2,307 1,063 1,244 2,307 1,063 1,244 17 Kurumbas 112 100 12 lIZ 100 12 18 Malai Arayan 19 Malai Pandaram 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 22 Malasar 18 6 12 18 6 12 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 25 Mannan 26 Marati 14,829 7,543 7,286 14,806 7,529 7,277 23 14 9 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 2 1 2 1 28 Palleyan 29 Palliyan 6 2 4 6 2 4 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 14,309 7,061 7,248 14.30~ 7,060 7,24& 1 1 32 Pulayan 23,934 11,090 17,844 17,499 8,092 9,407 6,435 2,998 3,437 33 Ulladan 34 Uraly 192 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, 1961 -contd. Kozhikode District ,-- ...... _------.. Total Rural Urban Sl, N ames of Scheduled ,----_...... _---...... , r------...... _---. ,..-----"- -. No. Tribes Person Males Females P M F P M F 2 21 22 23 24 2S 26 27 28 29 Total 69,958 35,173 34,785 68,838 34,619 34,219 1,120 554 566 1 Adiyan 289 146 143 289 146 143 2 Arandan 40 20 20 40 20 20 3 Eravallan 4 Hill Pulaya 5 Irular or Irulan 6 Kadar 276 141 135 261 134 127 15 7 8 7 Kammara 30 19 11 15 10 5 15 9 6 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 3,701 1,874 1,827 3,688 1,869 1,819 13 5 8 10 Knchuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 8 5 3 8 5 3 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 3,038 1,570 1,468 3,037 1,570 1,461 1 1 16 Kurumans 11,068 5,723 5,345 11,025 5,699 5,326 43 24 19 17 Kurumbas 212 98 lit 211 97 114 1 1 18 Malai Arayan 19 Malai Panda ram 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 22 Malasar 47 28 19 47 28 19 ... 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar .. , 25 Mannan 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 42 14 28 42 14 28 28 Palleyan 29 PalIiyan !O 4 6 10 4 6 30 Palliyar 31 Paniy:m 22,703 11,451 11,252 22,695 11,445 11.250 8 6 2 32 Pulayan 28,494 14,080 14,414 27,470 13,)78 13,892 1,024 502 522 33 Ulladan 34 Uraly 193 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAl'i" AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, 1961-contd. ,-______Palgbat.A.. District ___ ------. Total Rural Urban ,--_____....A.... _____-, ,---__.A.. ____--, .,-__--A.. _____-. S1. Names of Scheduled No. Tribes Persons Males Females p M P P M F 2 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Total 20,433 10,323 10,110 20,269 10,225 10,044 164 98 66 1 Adiyan 3 3 3 3 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 465 259 206 445 246 199 20 13 7 4 Hill Pulaya 35 19 ]6 35 19 16 5 Irular or Irulan 11,454 5,802 5,652 11,454 5,802 5,652 6 Kadar 353 191 162 353 191 162 7 Kammara 86 41 45 86 41 45 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 5 5 5 5 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 KUTumans 2 2 2 2 17 Kurumbas 675 353 322 675 353 322 18 Malai Arayan 19 Malai Pandaram 28 21 7 14 9 5 14 12 2 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 22 Malasar 24 14 10 24 14 10 23 Malayan 1,8 7 931 896 1,800 916 884 27 15 12 24 Malayarayar 2S Mannan 41 22 19 22 14 8 19 8 11 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 1,338 684 654 1,338 684 654 28 PaUeyan 29 Palliyan 3 2 3 2 30 Palliyar 31 Pani),an 40 24 16 40 24 16 32 Pulayan 4,045 1,955 2,090 3,966 1,905 2,061 79 50 29 33 Ulladan 9 6 3 9 6 3 34 uraly 194 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED 'IRIBES BY DlSTRICrS, KERALA, 1961-contd. ,,-______Trichur.A. ______District ~ Total Rural Urhan ,-____.A. ____ -. SI. Names of Scheduled r------"'------.... r-----.A.----..... No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M F P M F 2 39 40 41 42 43 44 4S 46 47 Total 5,878 2,914 2,964 5,646 2,807 2,839 232 107 125 1 Adiyan 2 Araodao 3 Eravallao 4 Hill Pulaya 27 13 14 27 13 14 5 Iralar or Jrulan 6 Kadar 236 123 113 236 123 113 7 Kammara 8 Kanikarao Or Kanikkar 5 5 S 5 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 8 7 1 6 6 2 t 1 19 Malai Pandaram 4 2 2 4 2 2 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 14 10 4 14 10 4 22 Malasar 23 Malayan l,t43 583 560 1,143 583 560 24 Malayarayar 7 3 4 5 1 4 2 2 25 Mannan 71 34 37 58 30 28 13 4 9 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 1 I I 28 Palleyan 1 1 29 Palliyao 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 14 9 5 14 9 5 32 Pulayan 4,203 2,052 2,151 3,988 1,952 2,036 215 100 115 33 Ulladan 14:J 76 68 144 76 68 34 Uraly 195 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, 1961-cQnta. ______Ernakulam..A.. ______District ~ ,.------Total Rural Urban ....-_____ A ____--. 81. Names of Scheduled r----..A..------. r-----"'------.. No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M F P M F 1 2 48 49 SO 51 52 53 54 55 56 Total 10,030 5,104 4,926 9,~51 4,882 4,669 479 222 257 1 Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Bravallan 18 10 8 13 7 6 5 3 2 4 Hill Pulaya 4 2 2 4 2 2 5 Irular or lrulan 6 Kadar 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 4 4 1 1 3 3 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan t1 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi IS Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 43 21 22 42 21 21 I 1 j9 M alai Pandaram 50 17 33 29 10 19 21 7 14 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 3 2 3 1 2 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 3 2 1 3 2 1 24 Malayarayar 6,474 3,294 3,180 6,468 3,288 3,180 6 6 25 MannlJn 469 225 244 469 225 244 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 1 1 28 Palleyan 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 2 2 2 2 32 Pulayan 421 192 229 421 192 229 33 UJladan 427 220 207 408 209 199 19 II 8 34 Uraly 2,11J 1,116 995 2,110 1,116 994 1 1 196 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, 1961-contd. Kottayam District r------'---- ______~ Total Rural Urban Sl. Names of Scheduled ,-_____.A.. ______...... ,. ,------"------. ,-_--A.__ • __""'" No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M P P M F 2 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 6S Total 21,391 10,804 10,587 21,185 10,701 10,484 206 103 103 ] Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 19 9 10 ]0 4 6 9 5 4 4 Hill Pu)aya 2,659 1,318 1,341 2,502 1,240 1,262 157 78 79 5 Irular or Irulan 6 Kadar 4 3 4 3 1 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkal1 1 1 1 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 22 to 12 22 10 12 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 'Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichcban 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 1,643 763 880 1,643 763 880 19 Malai Pandaram 48 26 22 45 25 20 3 1 2 20 Malai Vedan 23 12 11 23 12 11 21 Malakkuravan 2 2 2 2 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 194 110 84 194 110 84 24 Malayarayar 7,046 3,653 3,393 7,042 3,651 3,391 4 2 2 25 Mannan 2,801 1,410 1,391 2,790 1,404 1,386 11 6 5 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 3,685 1,8H 1,814 3,685 1,841 1,844 28 PaUeyan 1,021 517 504 1,021 517 504 29 PalIiyan 30 Palliyar 84 44 40 84 44 40 31 Paniyan 32 Pulayan 33 Ulladan 1,921 985 9.16 1,899 974 925 22 11 11 34 Uraly 218 101 117 218 101 117 197 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA. 1961-conld. AUeppey District r------.A.------~ Total Rural Urban ,--_____.A. _____ --, ,..-____.A. ____ -. ,--___-A.. ____ ..... SI. Names of Scheduled No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M F P M F 1 2 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 Total 584 300 284 387 196 191 197 104 93 1 Adiyan 2 Arandao 3 Eravallan 11 6 5 11 6 5 4 Hill Pulaya 25 11 14 2S II 14 5 rrular or Irulan 6 Kadar 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kocbuvelan 17 7 10 17 7 10 it Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 124 68 S6 124 68 56 19 Malai Panda ram 17 10 7 17 10 7 20 Malai Vedan 30 12 18 30 12 18 21 Malakkuravan 4 I 3 4 1 3 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 232 12l III 50 27 23 182 94 88 25 Mannan 91 47 44 91 47 44 26 Marati 27 Muthuwao, Mudugar or Muduvan 28 Palleyan 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 32 Pulayao 33 Ulladan 27 15 12 12 5 7 15 10 5 34 Draly 6 2 4 6 2 4 \ 198 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, 1961-contct. Quilon District .A. r------~ Total Rural Urban SI. Names of Scheduled r------A.------. r-----.A. ____-. r----.A.----. No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M F P M F 1 2 75 75 77 n 79 80 81 82 83 Total 3,799 1,909 1,890 3,781 1,899 1,882 18 10 8 1 Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 5 2 3 5 2 3 4 Hill Pulaya 224 liS 106 222 118 104 2 2 5 lrular or Irulan 6 Kadar 1 7 Kammara 8 Kauikaran or Kanikkar 687 326 361 687 326 361 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 8 3 5 8 3 5 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Meiakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans J7 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 295 141 154 295 141 154 19 Malai Pandaram 426 233 193 412 225 187 14 8 6 20 Malai Vedan 443 226 217 443 226 217 21 Malakkuravan 213 109 104 212 108 104 1 1 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 1 1 24 Malayarayar 254 119 135 254 119 135 25 Mann3-n 60 36 24 60 36 24 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan. Mudugar or Muduvan 28 Pal1eyan 29 Pailiyan 30 Pailiyar 122 58 64 122 58 64 31 Paniyao 32 Pulayan 33 UJladan 837 435 402 837 435 402 34 Uraiy 223 101 122 223 101 122 199 ANNEXURE II RURAL, URBAN AND SEX WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS, KERALA, 1961 -concld. Trivandrum District r------""""'------~ Total Rural Urban ,-_._J...__ • __...... SI. Names of Scheduled r------..A....------~ ,-----...... _----, No. Tribes Persons Males Females P M F P M F 1 2 8~ 85 86 87 88 89 90 . 91 92 Tota] 9,784 5,006 4,778 9,540 4,874 4,666 244 132 112 1 Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 4 Hill Pulaya 8 3 5 8 3 5 5 lrular or Irulan 6 Kadar 18 ) 1 7 18 11 7 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 8,760 4,493 4,267 8,743 4.480 4,263 17 13 4 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 KUFumbas 18 Malai Arayan 2 2 2 2 19 M alai Pandaram 240 112 128 94 41 53 ]'16 71 75 20 Malai Vedan 224 102 122 224 102 122 21 Malakkuravan 10 4 6 10 4 6 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 69 33 36 35 16 19 34 17 17 25 Mannan 77 54 23 6S 45 20 12 9 3 26 Marati 27 MUlhuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 28 PalJeyao 332 164 J68 332 164 168 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 4 4 4 4 31 Paniyan 32 Pulayan 33 Ulladan 1 1 1 1 34 Uraly 39 25 14 25 15 10 14 10 4 200 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTtUCrS AND TALUKS, KERALA, 1961 District Taluk ,----______.A. ______..... r--.A.-..... Sl. Names of Schduled Canna- Kasara- Hos- Tali- Canna- Telli- North No. Tribes nore god drug parambil nore cherry Wynad 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 All Scheduled Tribes 62,402 14,063 5,359 8,0 \)8 6,286 9,250 21,346 1 Adiyan 5,379 781 164 59 2 136 4,237 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 4 Hill Pulaya 5 lrular or lrulan 6 Kadar 69 69 7 Kammara 154 135 4 15 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 206 95 111 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 4 4 12 Koraga 528 521 7 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 194 180 14 15 Kurichchan 8,810 22 3,122 5,666 16 Kurumans 2,307 62 4 5 2,235 17 Kurumbas 112 112 }8 Malai Arayan 19 Malai Pandaram 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravao 22 Malasar 18 18 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 25 Mann9-n 26 Marati 14,806 12,116 2,690 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 2 2 28 Palleyan 29 Palliyan 6 6 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 14,308 819 4,925 8.564 32 Pulayan 17,499 133 2,480 7,210 6,233 1,043 350 33 Ulladan 34 Uraly 201 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED 'IRIBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS, KERALA, 1961-contd. District Taluk ,.---A..---,\ ,..------_-"'-- .. ------:--...... SI. Name~ of Scheduled Kozhi- Bada- Qui- Kozhi- South No. Tribes kode gara tandy kode, Tirur Ernad Wynad 2 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 All Scheduled Tribes 68,838 3,165 20,578 1,748 253 fi,488 37,6()6 1 Adiyan 289 15 274 2 Arandao 40 32 8 3 Eravallan 4 Hill Pulaya 5 Iru)ar or Jrulan 6 Kadar 261 62 14 185 7 Kammara 15 :2 13 8 Kanikarao or Kanikkar 9 Kattuoayakan 3,688 22 9 100 3,557 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota ~ 7 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 3,037 507 2,530 16 Kurumaos 11,025 24 17 137 10.847 17 Kurumbas 211 3 61 147 18 Malai Arayan ... 19 Malai Pandararo 20 MaJai Vedao 21 Malakkuravao ·21 Malasar 47 47 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 25 Mannan 26 Marati 27 Mathuwan. Mudugar or Muduvan 42 42 28 Palleyan 29 Palliyan 10 10 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 22,695 273 75 658 3,488 18,201 32 Pu)ayan 27,470 2,363 20,445 998 241 1,658 1,765 33 Ulladan 34 Ura)y 202 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS. KEIlALA, 1961-contd. District Taluk ,------_...... _------., SJ. Names of Scheduled r--...... -~ Perinthal- Ottap- No. Tribes Palghat manna Poonani palam Palghat Alathur Chittur 2 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 All Scheduled Tribes 20,269 13,026 2,059 148 692 752 3,592 1 Adiyan 3 3 2 Arandan 3 EravaUan 445 445 4 Hill Pulaya 35 35 5 Irular or Irulsa 11,454 11,005 315 134 6 Kadar 353 8 345 7 Kammara 86 86 8 Kanikarao or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kuricbcban 16 Kurumaas 2 2 17 Kurumbas 675 675 18 Malai Arayao 19 Malai Pandaram 14 14 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 22 Malasar 24 3 21 23 Malayan 1,800 1,800 24 MaJayarayar 22 25 Mannan 22 26 Marati 27 Muthuwao, Mudugar or Muduvan 1,338 J,315 23 28 Palleyan 29 Palliyan 3 3 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyao 40 4 17 19 32 Pulayan 3,966 14 2,042 148 291 749 722 33 Ulladan 9 9 34 Uraly 203 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS, KERALA, 1961 -contd. District Taluk r- _-"------~ SI. Names of Scheduled r--.A._-, Talap- Chavak- Cranga- Mukunda- No. Tribes Tricbur pilly Trichur kad nore puram 2 24 25 26 27 28 29 All Scheduled Tribes 5,646 124 628 4,002 5 887 1 Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 EravalJan 4 Hill Pulaya 27 2 25 5 lrular or lrulan 6 Kadar 236 236 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 5 5 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi IS Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 6 3 3 19 Malai Pandar 4 4 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 14 9 22 Malasar S 21 Malayan 1,143 101 529 513 24 Malayarayar 5 25 Mannan 5 58 14 18 26 26 Marati 27 Mathuwan. Mudugar or Muduvan 28 Palleyan 1 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 3L Paniyan 14 14 32 Pulayan 3,988 3,988 33 Ulladan 144 71 34 Uraly 5 68 204 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TtUBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS, KERALA. 1961 -contd. District Taluk ,------______A.. ______"""\ Sl. Names of Scheduled ,-_.A.._.""""\ Kunnathu· Kana}a· Muvattu- Thodu· No. Tribes Eroakulam Pamr Dad nour Cochio puzha puzha Alwaye 2 30 31 32 33 34 3S 36 37 All Scheduled Tribes 9,551 16 7 51 19 154 9,296 8 ] Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 13 13 4 Hill Pu)aya 4 4 5 Irular or Irulan 6 Kadar 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkal' 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga ]3 Kota 14 Kudiya or MeJakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 42 40 1 19 Malai Pandaram 29 17 4 3 5 20 Malai Vedan 21 Malakkuravan 3 3 .. -. 22 MaJasar 23 Malayan 3 2 1 24 Maiayarayar 6,468 6,467 25 Mannan 46) 469 26 Marati T••• 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 1 28 PalJeyan 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 32 Puiayan 33 Ulladan 408 IS 6 21 19 146 199 34 LJraly 2,110 2,110 205 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS, KERALA, 1961-contd. District ,....--,-______--A- Taluk ------...... , SI. Names of Scheduled r----"----. Devi- Udumban- Meena- Val- Kotta- Changa- Kanjira- Peer- No. Tribes Kottayam colam chola chil kom yam nacherry ppally made I 2 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 All Scheduled Tribes 21,185 5,628 3,(12 6,147 143 29 780 3,464 1,882 1 Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan )0 10 4 Hill Pulaya 2,502 1,105 135 238 140 1 695 168 20 5 Irular or lrulan 6 Kadar 4 4 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 1 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 22 6 16 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 1,643 7 81 4 1,424 127 19 Malai Pandaram 45 2S 7 3 1 8 20 Malai Vedan 23 1 22 2) Malakkuravan 2 1 22 Malasar 2] Malayan 194 194 24 Malayarayar 7,042 20 22 5,484 6 557 953 25 Mannan 2,790 882 1,559 9 8 4 328 26 Marati 21 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 3,685 3,040 645 28 Pallevan 1,021 298 499 224 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 84 60 5 19 31 Paniyan 32 Pulayan 33 Ulladan 1,899 194 298 4 45 1,309 49 34 Uraly 218 32 29 3 154 206 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS. KERALA. 1961 -contd. District Taluk ,.------___A ______•• __ ~ SI. Names of Scheduled ,-_.A._...... Sher· Ambala· K:.utta· Thiru. Chenga· Karthi· MaveU· No. Tribes Alleppey talai puzha nad valla oour gapally kkara 1 2 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 All Scheduled Tribes 387 177 19 110 21 31 29 1 Adiyao 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 11 11 4 Hill Pulaya 25 25 5 Irular or lIulan 6 Kadar 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 17 17 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas 18 Malai Arayan 124 124 19 M alai Pandaram 17 17 20 Malai Vedan 30 30 21 Malakkuravan 4 1 3 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 50 16 13 21 25 Mannan 91 37 8 14 26 6 26 Marati 27 Muthuwao. Mudugar or Muduvan 28 Palleyao 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 31 Paniyan 32 Pulayan 33 Ulladan 12 10 2 34 uraly 6 6 207 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF scitimuLlm TRIBES BY DISTRICTS AND TALUKS. KERALA, 1961-contd. District Taluk ,--"':'--"------'------.. -SI; Names of 'Scheduled ,....---"--~ Pathilnam- Kunoa- Karunaga- Kolla- Pathana- No. Tribes Quilon 'hitta thunad pally Quiloa rakara puram 1 2 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 All Scheduled Tribes 3,781 2,372 8 12 67 239 1,083 1 Adiyan 2 Arandan 3 Eravallan 5 5 4 Hill Pulaya 222 222 5 Irular or lrulan 6 Kadar 1 1 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 687 4 218 465 9 Kauunayakao 1t) Kochuvelan 8 8 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kola 14 Kudiya or Melakudi )5 Kurichcban 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas )8 Malai Arayan 295 295 19 Malai Pandaram 412 74 6 331 20 Malai Vedan 443 353 )3 19 58 21 Malakkuravan 212 212 22 Malasar .. ~ 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 254 28 225 2S Mann9-n 60 1 12 44 .3 26 Marati 27 Muthuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 28 ·Palleyan 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 122 122 31 Panlyan 32 Pu1ayan 33 UJIadan 837 836 1 34 Uraly 223 221 2 208 ANNEXURE III RURAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDUL~D nuDES BY OISr~{crs A""lD TALUKS, KERALA, 1961-concld. District Taluk _~ __ ...A... __ ..--A-~ r-- SI. Names of Scheduled Trivandrum Chirayinkil Tri vaodru:n Neyyattinkara Nedumaogad No~ Tribes 2 62 63 64 65 66 All Sclleduled Tribes 9,540 99 174 1,749 7,518 1 Adiyan 2 Araodan 3 Bravallan 4 Hill Pulaya 8 S 5 Irular or frulan 6 Kadar 7 Kammara 8 Kanikaran or Kanikkar 8,743 80 119 1,558 6,986 9 Kattunayakan 10 Kochuvelan 11 Kondareddis 12 Koraga 13 Kota 14 Kudiya or Melakudi 15 Kurichchan 16 Kurumans 17 Kurumbas IS Malai Arayan 19 Malai Pandaram 94 17 61 10 20 Malai Vedan 224 64 160 21 Malakkuril van 10 1 9 22 Malasar 23 Malayan 24 Malayarayar 35 3S 25 Mannan 65 4 3 51 7 26 Marati 27 Matbuwan, Mudugar or Muduvan 28 Palleyan 332 331 29 Palliyan 30 Palliyar 4 4 31 Paniyan 32 Pulayan -. 33 Ulladan 34 Uraly 25 IS II) 209