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Home , Abu Bakr, Succession to Muhammad, The Twelve Imams

Article. 2 Social Education, October 1994 : Sunnis. and Shiites

Muhammad Hanif is an associate professor in the Early and Islam is one of the world’s fastest growing religions, and is y Middle Childhood Education Department at the Univer& of the principal faith in large parts of the Third World. There are Louisville, Kentucky. currently over 970 million concentrated mainly in the

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Middle East, North Africa, and South and South-East Asia hammad, (2) the five obligatory prayers, (3) fasting, (4) charity, (World Almanac 1994, 727). Of these, eighty-three percent are and (5) the pilgrimage to . Both groups also believe that Sunnis and sixteen percent Shiites. Shiites constitute the ma- the Koran has a Divine source, and that ’s prophetic mis- jority of the population in , , and , and are the sions concluded with Muhammad. largest Muslim population group in Lebanon. In addition to its religious vitality, Islam is an increasingly The Sunni-Shiite Split important political force on the world scene:In the last twenty years, there has been a surge in the activities of political move- The differences between Sunni and Shiite Islam originated in ments that define themselves as Islamic. A watershed event a historical dispute over the succession to the Muham- was the Islamic revolution in Iran engineered by the now de- mad. On Muhammad’s death in 632 A.D., the “Majlis al- ceased Shiite Khomeini, which ousted the Shah in ’Q (assembly of advisors), comprising the most devoted ‘. 1979. Clerical rule initiated radical changes in different facets and highly knowledgeable Muslims, selected as the of life in Iran, andithe foreign relations of the Middle East. first Caliph, .or leader, of the Muslims. Abu Bakr was one of The war between Iran and Iraq that took place soon after the close, companions of Muhammad, and the father of Mu- and lasted from 1980 to 1988 highlighted some of the differ- hammad’s second wife. This action by the assembly indicated ences between Sunni and Shiite Muslims. Iran is a Persian that leaders were to be selected by Muslims on the basis of Shiite country; while the leadership of Iraq is predominantly their piety and merit, and ruled out the idea of a bloodline ,. Sunm Muslim and Arab.] Most Sunni Muslim governments succession to the Prophet in the religious and political gov- !’ supported Iraq-during the war. ernance of Islam. ,,:. Most Muslims accepted the selection of Abu Bakr as the first y> In many Middle East states, Islamic movements are the main opposition force, and there has been increased activity legitimate Caliph, who would rule according to the practices es- j’: by Islamic revolutionary groups. In Lebanon, militant Shiites sup- tablished by the Prophet. On major worldly issues concerning ‘f :‘. ported by Iran took an active part in the country’s civil war, and which there was no direct reference in the Koran, the Prophet. 1;. engaged in spectacular acts of violence, including taking a num- had taken advice from the assembly of advisors, so it seemed the appropriate body to decide the issue of the succession. it$1 ber of western citizens hostage. Radical Sunni Muslim move- 2. ments in countries such as Egypt and Algeria have also engaged The first Smites were a small group of Muslims who op- .‘;- in violence against government and western targets. posed the selection of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph. They rallied I,~. :; I’ This article will furnish background information on Sunni around the person of Ah, ,the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, p, and Shiite Islam, highlighting their historical, religious, and who had married the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima. They supported ,r?,5; ideological differences, and pointing out what both have in and the concept of a legitimate bloodline succession to the f”!:. common as well as what divides...tbem. It will also outline Prophet Muhammad in both religious and temporal matters. Ah $J .some of the reasons for the recent strength of Islamic political had, in fact, been one of the prominent members of the consulting body which selected Abu Bakr as the first Caliph of Islam. But ‘&!ii;‘ movements. $;,L : given the tribal traditions of the , the selection i p,j Beliefs Shared by Sunnis and Shiites of Abu Bakr was regarded by some Muslims as denying the right of Ali to succeed the Prophet and serve as a leader or in iii. ,,,I’here is a substantial common denominator between Sunni religious and political matters. #+.c ,;, and Shiite Islam. All Muslims believe that Allah chose a man ;A, named Muhammad as the Prophet of Islam, and that, with i;: Allah’s blessings and continuous revelations, Muhammad Who Is a Shiite? T: guided the Muslims to lead life according to the Koran, a col- The led to the creation of two major branches of Islam, $&<,,lection of divine revelations, and the “” (the sayings, the Sunnis and the Shiites The supporters of Ali were called ,?,i,: ”teachings, and practices of the Prophet Muhammad, which Shines. Distinguished authorities on the language define 6:; serve as a supplement to the Koran). In a short period of 22 the word “Shiite” as meaning a group of people that develops ‘.@years,; !:,, from 610 to 632 A.D he. succeeded in leaving a great consensus on an issue. Etymologically, the word’s meaning is $$ political and spiritual legacy that ultimately led to the estab- contined to the helpers, supporters, and partisans of a person but, $?;,!lishment of Islamic civilization. by and large, the word is applied to the followers of Ali and his ,$: All Muslims believe that piety, righteous observance of the eleven male descendants. The word “Surmi,” which means “or: ip $%inciples of the Koran, and striving for goodness in daily life thodox,” is applied to Muslims who arc part of the main branch “‘:-are“, the greatest virtues of human beings. Both Sunm and Shiite of Islam and belong to one of the four schools of jurisprudence, ; 61.; Muslims agree on the need for a strong ethical and ,moral code Ham&, , , and Shaf‘i. Although Ali is highly re- i:?‘to regulate human behavior in all its manifestations. Social garded by Sumri Muslims, they reject the Shiite conception of I:.!?$istice is also believed to be a fundamental right. ‘the . . . ., Sunnis and Smites share the belief that there are five pillars After the selection of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph, the Shi- ‘.’‘,- of Islam: (1) the unity of Allah and the prophethood of Mu- ites grew in number and became a political group supporting 171 i :y. ?q, GLOBAL STUDIES: MIDDLE EAST ‘+-; ;:, ii,’ $’ .: ‘$1 ;;,:. Ali as the successor of the Prophet. They vehemently rejected poral successors but also the inheritors of the prerogatives of the , and instead advocated the concept of the closeness to Allah, and the interpreters of the Koran. “Imamate:‘3 a religious and political ideology based on guid- According. to Shiism, the “Irnam” has three functions: to ‘, ance by Irnams. Etymologically, the word “Imam” means “he rule over the Islamic community, to explain the religious sci- who stands before,” a guide and a leader. It is used to describe ences and law, and to be a spiritual guide to lead human beings men of religion today, as well as to refer to the Twelve hnams to an understanding of the inner meaning of things. Because . who followed Muhammad. The Imaniate concept .reflectS a be- of these functions, he cannot possibly be elected by a public lief that humanity is at all time in need of a divinely ordained assembly. As a spiritual guide he receives his authority only leader, an authoritative teacher in all religious matters, who is from on “high.” Therefore, each Imam is appointed through endowed with full immunity from sin and error. the designation of the previous “Imam” by Divine Command. The predominant trend in Shiism is that described as The Imam is to be concerned with daily matters as well as ‘Vvelver Shiism;‘4 which is centered in Iran and is the prin- the spiritual and unmanifested world. His functions. are at once .‘;,’ cipal form of Shiism in Iraq, Lebanon, and Bahrain. This Shi’ human and cosmic ( 1978,278). The “Twelve ” are ‘:( ism holds that Muhammad was succeeded by twelve divinely mediators for mankind (Donaldson 1933, 343). ordained Imams directly descended from him through Ah and Sunni Muslims. The above beliefs of the “,” which ,. his wife Fatima, and that rejection of and disobedience to any give legitimacy to the verbal and written comments of “The I,’ of constitutes infidelity equal to rejection Rvelve Irnams~’ are categorically rejected by the Sunnis, who $ of the Prophet Muhammad (Donaldson 1933, 344). Shiites do not consider the institution of hereditary “Imarnate” as part .‘i;’ consider Ali and his descendants the rightful successors of the of the Islamic faith. All the of Allah recognized by .,, Prophet, entitled to lead the Muslims by divine and infallible Islam, such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, , Christ, and Mu- :,’ inspiration. This issue is not, of course, simply a genealogical hammad, are seen as having been divinely ordained to guide ‘:,. matter, because it raises the vital issue of knowing from which human beings to worship Allahand seek His mercy. However, ( authority to obtain guidance as to of Allah and its even the progeny of prophets are considered to be denied the ,I,;. exercise on earth. privilege of the closeness and the blessings of Allah if they _.’ In support of this belief, Shiites refer to certain sayings of fail to practice His commandments. A typical expression of “. Muhammad debated by the Sunnis, such as: “I am the city of this belief is the Koranic passage, knowledge and Ah is my gate” (Bayat 1982, 4). And remember that Abraham was tried by his Lord with certain The distinctiveness of Welver Shiism lies in its belief that commands which he fulfilled. Allah said: I will make thee the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad al-, disappeared and will hnam to the Nations. Abraham pleaded: “And also hnams from reappear one day to inaugurate a reign of justice that will pre- my offspring!” Allah said, “But my promise is not within the sage the final judgment. reach of evil doers (Koran 2124). Those Shiites who are not Shiites also believe that The Sumii Muslims do not place any human being, includ- Ali was the rightful Imarn, in succession to Muhammad, but ing the %elve Shiite Imams, on a level equal to or even close differ on, the importance of some of the succeeding Imams. to the prophets. The Sunni view is that nowhere in, the Koran The Isma‘ilis accept the first six Welver Imams, but hold that is it mentioned that the twelve Shiite Imams are divinely or- the son of the sixth Imam, Isma‘il, whose descendants continue dained to lead Muslims after the death of Muhammad. Mus- to the .present day, was the rightful succeeding Imam. The pre- lims should be guided by words such as those in Muhammad’s sent Aga Khan is the Imam of the ‘best-known subsection of last “” sermon, known as the Sermon of the Mount, in the Isma‘ilis. The Zaydis believe that the Imams received di- which he addressed all of humanity: vine guidance, but do not believe in their or share - - - I am leaving behind two things; as long as you cling to the commitment to all twelve Imams, and reject the doctrine them, you will not go astray. One is the “Book of Allah,” and about the hidden Imam. the other is my “tradition” (Zaheer 1985, 10). 2. Intercession between Allah and Human Beings Sunni-Shiite Doctrinal Differences Sunni Muslims. The Sunni Muslims believe that no one can Of the Sunni and Twelver Shiite differences, some of the most intercede between Allah and human beings. important relate to the issue of the Imamate; the question of Say: To God belongs exclusively [the right to grant] interces- sion. To Him belongs the dominion of the heavens and the intercession between Allah and human beings; matters not de- earth. In the End, it is to Him that ye shall be brought back lineated by the Koran; the means of attaining paradise; and (Koran 39:44). the role of present-day Imams, or religious leaders. Shiite Muslims. According to Shiism, the Twelve InnunS 1. The Concept of the Imamate can intercede between mankind and Allah. In the Shiite view, the twelve h-cams inherited their posi- The Apostle of Allah said to Ah: . . . tions as the exclusive leaders of the Muslims through the “- - - You and your descendants are mediators for mamcma as authority of the Prophet Muhammad and divine ordination. they [human beings] will not be able. to know God except They are considered to have been not only Muhammad’s tem- through your introduction” (Donaldson 1933, 343).

172 Middle East Articles

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__ ‘. hCl1Id- “ - - - Shi’i Muslims must know theix Imam & order to be 4. Paradise and Hell on ihe Day of Judgment clc)se saved, and the Imams, as well as the Prophets, of course, can &or‘an and do intercede for believers before God at the hour of judg- Sunni Muslims. Sunni Muslims strongly believe that the re- demption of human beings is dependent on faith in Allah, His [Y (n-- ment - - -” (Nasr 1987, 261). hlIS- 3. Matters not Addressed by the Koran prophets, acceptance of Muhammad as the final prophet, and belief in righteous deeds as explained in the Koran. The mercy nadL’S Sunni Muslims. The four Surmi schools of jurisprudence It, in accept with different degrees of emphasis the use of the con- of Allah will determine the redemption of all human beings. sensus of the Muslim community and analogy (the application Even the prophet Muhammad is at the mercy of Allah. t0 of the principles of the Koran and Hadith) as sources for legal I would, if I disobeyed my Lord, Indeed have fear of the pen- Id decisions where the Koran and the Traditions (“Had&h”) of alty of a Mighty Day (Koran 39:13). the Prophet do not provide direct guidance. There are many other verses in the Koran which enumerate “”5 (consensus) guarantees the authority of the Koran that the basis of paradise is the mercy of Allah and the righteous CiUl and the traditions as records of divine revelation. deeds of human beings according to the Koran and Hadith. Consensus and analogy can be applied by those scholars Shiite Muslims. Shiite Muslims are guaranteed paradise if who are highly knowledgeable in the’ Koran, the traditions of they obey and follow Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Ibn the prophet, and Islamic law, and practice the faith in every Babuwaihi, a Shiite scholar, quoted Ibn-i-Sadiq, the sixth facet of their lives. Imam, in reference to Muhammad’s address to Ah. ms Shiite Muslims. The sources of Muslim law in Shiism are - - - that you present to God those who may enter Paradise, somewhat similar to those in Stmni Islam, namely the Koran, i.e., those who recognize you and those whom you recognize. Muhammad’s practices, consensus, and analogy. However, the - - - that you are the absolute mediator, for those who will go determination of consensus is related to the views of the to Hell will only be those who do not recognize you and whom Imarns, and .more freedom is given to analogy than in Sunni you do not recognize (Donaldson 1933, 343). Islam (Nasr 1978, 278). 5. The Role and Status of Present-Day Imams

173 : ,, :, GLOBAL STUDIES: MIDDLE EAST 2,:i : ,.,, ‘;:?. r_/ ,/.: I’ I$.^, Sunni it4usZims. For Sunnis, the “Twelve Imams” and the Jn the Shiite communities, the most important appointments ., present-day Shiite hnams (e.g., “,” or the “shadows to senior religious positions are made by Shiite religious offi- .I,, of Allah”) are humans without any divine powers. They are cials, not by ,the state. In Sunni countries, in contrast, it is ; considered righteous Muslims, and the Twelve Imams are par- typical for governments to exercise control over the appoint- ,_’ ticularly respected because of their relationship to Ali and his ment of senior religious officials. These governments have also wife Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad. Sunnis believe that assumed the right to allocate large religious endowments Ali and his two sons, Hassan and Hussain, were highly re- through government ministries created for that purpose. This j, spected by the first three Caliphs and the companions of Mu- makes high-ranking Sunni clergy more dependent on the gov- hammad. Any righteous and knowledgeable Sunni Muslim can ernment than their Shiite counterparts. Sunuis ‘&e also more open : serve as an Imam with the prime function of leading the’prayers than Shiites to the idea that the leading of prayers and preaching and interpreting the Koran and Hadith provided he is well versed can be done by lay persons without formal clerical training. in these subjects. Sunuis also consider it heretical to impute to In view of the power of the Shiite clergy, it is not surprising human beings attributes of Divine nature such as infallibility and that they play an important political role. Led by the Ayatollah ,. the knowledge of all temporal and cosmic matters. Khomeini; the clergy organized the revolution that overthrew ~. Shiite Muslims. The highest ranking present-day Imams the Shah of Iran in 1978-79 and turned the country into an (Ayatollahs) are believed to receive their guidance and spiritual Islamic Republic. Shiite clergy have also been prominent in enlightenment directly from the “Twelve Imams,” who stay in opposition movements in Iraq and Lebanon. continuous contact with their followers on earth every day through contemporary spiritual leaders. The Ayatollahs thus Islamic Political Movements play a vital mediatory role. Because of their spiritual role, Aya- Both Shiite and Sunni Muslim political movements have as a tollahs cannot be appointed by’governments, but only by con- primary objective the establishment of Islamic law as the sole sensus of other Ayatollahs. basis of government. They reject secularism as an imported west- em idea, and are opposed to several kinds of social change that Differences in Religious Organization use the west as a model, such as changes in the status of women. Political movements with a religious message have a popu- The differences between Sunni and Shiite Islam are more than lar appeal in many Muslim countries. This is partly because theological and historical They are embedded in the social of the religious outlook of the people. But it is also because and political’ structure of the Middle East. Sunnis and Shiites the leaders of these movements are addressing the political form distinct communities. Conversions from Shiism to Sun- issues of the day. nism and vice versa are rare, and Sunnis and Shiites are ex- . One of the reasons for the fall of the Shah of Iran was that pected to marry members of their own community. The vital his secularizing policies alienated the religious establishment. .‘, moments of life-marriage, birth, and death-are commemo- In contrast, the monarchs of oil-rich Sunni Muslim countries rated within the framework of the rituals of the community. have made a greater effort to keep their policies in line with ,Members of each community learn about Islam within the tra- religious sensitivities. ditions of their own faith, and under the guidance of their Another very important reason for the fall of the Shah was faith’s religious teachers. the widespread discontent with his development policies fa- Despite these traditions, the political loyalties of Sunuis and voring rich and westernized groups. The Shah spent a great Shiites are affected by their country of citizenship and nation- deal of the country’s oil wealth on military and civilian pro- ality. In 1980, ‘Iran, a Shiite country whose language and cul- jects thought by many to be poorly conceived. Iran was a more ture are Farsi (Persian), was invaded by Iraq, an Arab country populous.country than other oil-rich Middle Eastern states, so with a Sunni leadership but a Shiite majority in the population. its oil wealth spread less widely among the people. The effect Despite Iranian appeals, most Iraqi Shiites remained loyal to of the Shah’s westernizing development policies was to pro- Iraq, performing military service when required during the duce a new bourgeois class that was a target of hatred and 1980-88 Iran-Iraq war. resentment for poor people. In addition, like nationalist and Both Sunni and Shiite Islam are organized in ways that leftist Iranian parties, the clergy vehemently attacked the reflect their beliefs. In view of the emphasis of mainstream Shah’s ties to the West. Shiism on the role of the Imamate, it is not surprising that the In spite of their religious orientation, many of the issues Shiites have a more elaborate religious hierarchy than Sunni addressed by the Islamic movements are the same political or Muslims. With the exception of post-revolutionary Iran, the social issues that concern secular politicians. The movements Shiite clergy has been more independent of the government attack government corruption and the gulf between rich and than religious officials have been in Sunm Muslim countries. poor. In Iraq and Lebanon, where Smite communities are Shiite religious officials have had less need to rely on secular poorer than the Sunni and Christian communities, resentment governments for money to finance their activities, since they at perceived discrimination has also allowed Shiite movements control substantial religious endowments. to mobilize grassroots support. Problems of corruption and

174 Middle East Articles

.ts poverty are also invoked by Sunni movements in countries 2. “Majlis” is the Arabic word for assembly, and “Shura” i- such as Egypt and Algeria, though these movements have so means counsel or advice. “Majlis-al-Shura” thus designates the is far not. been able to obtain support from high-level religious body of Muslims selected for consultation on all matters in Islam. it- leaders of a stature comparable to the Ayatollah Khomeini be- io fore the Iranian revolution. 3. “Imamate” is the Arabic noun form of Imam, which ts The opposition to the West is derived from historic resent- means “he who stands before.” is ment in many parts of the at western colonial- 4. “Ithna ‘Ashariyya” is the for the branch of r” ism earlier this century. In addition to problems arising from Shiism that believes in twelve Imams beginning with Ali and :n that period, a number of ‘more recent American and western ending with Muhammad Al-Mahdi. policies are often cited by Muslim movements: western at- Their names are tempts to incorporate Muslim countries in alliances against the a. Ali bin Abi Talib b. Al-Hassan bin Ali Soviet Union during the Cold War; political interventions such c. Al-Hussain bin Ali as the CIA-backed coup d’etat of 1953 that restored the Shah d. Ali bin al-Hussain after a nationalist government led by Mohammed Massadegh e. Muhammad al-Bakir had taken power in Iran; western military and political support f. Jafar-al-Sad& for Israel against the Arab world; and western military and g. Musa al-Kazim political support for unrepresentative governments. h. Ali al-Riza Some of the most dramatic anti-western acts have been car- i. Muhammad Jawad al-Taki ried out by Shiite political groups in Lebanon, where the cen- j. ,Ali al-Naki tral government collapsed following the outbreak of civil war k. Al-Hassan al-Askari in 1975. The fighting led to foreign intervention by Syrian, 1. Muhammad al-Mahdi Israeli, and American forces. Radical Shiite movements such 5. “Ijma” is an Arabic word for the consensus of Muslim as the Hizballah (“Party of God”) flourished in the period fol- opinion, and is applied to matters not covered by the Koran lowing the dramatic western military intervention in Lebanon and Hadith. According to the well-known jurist, Al-Shaf‘i, in 1982, when Israeili troops expelled the PLO from Beirut, Ijma is the third source of Islamic jurisprudence. and American peace-keeping forces were sent to Lebanon (to e be withdrawn in 1984). Militant Shiites taking advantage of References the lack of a central authority in the country attacked western ica; ’ and Israeli targets, and took hostages, some of whom were Bayat, M. Mysticism and Dissent. Syracuse, New York: killed. Sunni opposition movements in Egypt and Algeria have Syracuse University Press, 1982. t also recently been increasingly violent in their anti-govem- Donaldson, M. The Shi‘ite Religion: A in ment, anti-western tactics. Persia and Iraq. London: Luzac & Company, 1933. These tactics have caused a major debate in the Islamic Ismaeel, S. The Dzrerence Between the Shi‘ite and the Ma- world. There is no justification in Islamic scriptures and ju- jority of Muslim Scholars. Carbondale, IL: A Muslim Group, 1983. I riprudence for indiscriminate killings or assassinations of local pa! or foreign citizens by either Sunni or Shiite Muslims. Many Khateeb, M. Broad Aspects of Shi ‘ite Religion. Riyadh: Na- fa. intellectuals, however, cite the shortcomings of governments tional Offset Printing Press, 1986. *eat as a reason for these acts. “These bomb-throwers and wild Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhallah, Islam and Revolution: Writ- ro- men,” writes the well-known Egyptian journalist Muhammad ings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Berkeley, CA: Mi- ore _ Hassanein Haykal, “are the result of almost unimaginably cor- zan Press, 1981. so rupt and mediocre governments” (Nao York l?mes Mag,azine, Kohlberg, E., “Imam and Community in the Pre-Ghayba ‘ect November 21, 1993, 65). Period.” In Authority and Political Culture in Shi‘ism. New ro- Violent anti-civilian acts are not Islamic in origin. In fact, York: New York State University Press, 1988. md radical violence seems to be a worldwide phenomenon. Radi- Nasr, S. H. “Ithna Ashariyya.” In Encyclopedia of Islam, md ‘I cal groups, whether religious or not, often flourish in non- vol. 4, 277-278. 1978. the democratic environments where injustice, repression, and “Ithna Ashariyya.” In Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. inappropriate foreign influence are widely believed to be domi- 13,260-270. 1987. ues nant characteristics of the existing order. Tabatabai, S. H. N. Shi‘ite Islam. Houston: Free Islamic or Literatures, Inc., 1979. nts Notes ind World Almanac, the World Almanac and Book of Facts York: Pharos Books, 1993. are 1. The majority of the Iraqi population consists of Arab 1994. New ent Shiites, but Sunni form a large minority group in the Zaheer, Ehsan E. Shias and the House of Ali. Lahore, Paki- nts country. stan: Javed Riaz Printers, 1985. md - I 1 175