Canadian Military History
Volume 21 Issue 1 Article 4
2015
Not So Black and White Black Canadians and the RCAF’s recruiting policy during the Second World War
Simon Theobald
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Recommended Citation Simon Theobald "Not So Black and White Black Canadians and the RCAF’s recruiting policy during the Second World War." Canadian Military History 21, 1 (2015)
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has been accepted for inclusion in Canadian Military History by an authorized editor of Scholars Commons @ Laurier. For more information, please contact [email protected]. : Not So Black and White Black Canadians and the RCAF’s recruiting policy during the Second World War Not So Black and White Black Canadians and the RCAF’s recruiting policy during the Second World War
Simon Theobald
lan Bundy of Dartmouth, Nova because of their small population, AScotia, first tried to enlist with Abstract: This article examines the black experience was not the air force in nearby Halifax in the recruitment policy of the Royal representative or relevant.6 This Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and the 1939. While his best friend, who had perspectives of black volunteers during conclusion suggests that the valiant similar credentials but happened the Second World War. The author wartime efforts and significant to be white, was accepted, Bundy discusses the colour line employed by struggles of blacks to serve do not was not. His rejection on racial the RCAF, the discriminatory beliefs contribute to our understanding of grounds was a bitter experience, of some recruiting officers, and the either the conflict or of Canadian motivations behind the acceptance of but he remained determined to join black recruits. The author argues the society. the air force. In fact, over the next fear that “racial differences” would This lack of attention to the two years he ignored the National cause animosity within the ranks Second World War exists even Resources Mobilization Act notices was a large barrier for black recruits within the realm of black Canadian to train with the army, a decision and a central reason why groundcrew historiography. If the wartime duty was encouraged. However, the that prompted an RCMP officer to growing demand for manpower forced experience is acknowledged at all, visit his home. Bundy’s explanation the RCAF to relax its policy and enlist it is brief. The few existing accounts for refusing to respect his notice was all qualified applicants, regardless of conclude that the war helped blacks that “I had gone to join the air force skin colour. integrate into society but provide few in 1939 and if the bullet that kills me specifics to support this contention. is not good enough for the air force fly only solo fighter missions, Edward Robin Winks’ seminal work, The then it’s not good enough for the “Lefty” Wright, a white sergeant Blacks in Canada, first published in army, either.” Shortly after the visit from Midland, Ontario, agreed to fly 1971, simply noted that “on both to his home, Bundy went back to the with him. On their first sortie together the war and the home fronts, the Halifax recruiting station in 1942 to on 15 October 1944, they helped sink Negro’s position improved.”7 In a try his luck with a new commanding the 1202-ton Norwegian tanker Inger comprehensive review of academic officer. He subsequently became one Johanne and the 426-ton German and popular histories of black of the few blacks to be accepted for Auxiliary Trawler VP.1605 Mosel off Canadians in Atlantic Canada, aircrew training.1 Bundy was sent the coast of Norway.2 Bundy flew a historian Harvey A. Whitfield argued to Ontario to train as part of the Bristol Beaufighter on more than 40 that historians have narrowly focused British Commonwealth Air Training operational missions.3 on the black Canadian experience and Plan (BCATP) and arrived overseas While there have been critical that there is especially “a gap between where he joined No.404 (Buffalo) studies of the Aboriginal, Chinese, the early years of the 20th century Squadron in September 1944. While Mennonite, and Ukrainian Canadian and the Africville saga of the 1960s.” he proved his ability as a multi- experiences, the black4 experience Tellingly, Whitfield makes almost engine pilot during operational during the Second World War no mention of military history in his training in Canada and Britain, white remains largely uncharted territory.5 review.8 When discrimination and navigators refused to fly with him. The principal assumption behind the use of restrictive policies against With the prospect that Bundy would this relative lack of attention is that, blacks are acknowledged in sources,
Published© by Canadian Scholars MilitaryCommons History @ Laurier,, Volume 2015 21, Number 1, Winter 2012, pp.35-43. 35 1 Canadian Military History, Vol. 21 [2015], Iss. 1, Art. 4 404 Squadron archives 404 Squadron archives 404 Squadron
Above left: Flying Officer Alan Bundy (left) sits on the wing of a No.404 Squadron Beaufighter in 1945. He flew 42 operational missions with the squadron. Above right: This photo of Bundy was carried by Bundy during the war in case he was shot down over enemy territory and needed to create a escape and evasion documents. Below: A German naval vessel sits dead in the water and on fire following an attack by No.404 Squadron Beaufighters. Royal Canadian Air Force photo PL 61346 photo Canadian Air Force Royal
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“progress” is still considered to be animosity from whites, the RCAF denied that a discriminatory policy have been made because the formal rejected a qualified black applicant was being employed and insisted that segregation seen in the military who wished to serve. The official there was “no legal bar” preventing during the First World War was not reply to Dunn’s correspondence, blacks from serving in the military. implemented in the Second World signed by Hollies for the chief of the Likewise, he argued that, despite War.9 While official segregation may air staff, reiterated that applicants the fact that the air force regulations have come to an end, discriminatory “must be of pure European descent stated that only people of “Pure and recruitment policies still profoundly with the exception of the North European descent” were acceptable, affected black volunteers. American Indians.” Dunn was also this regulation was not actually This study seeks to partially fill informed that the applicant was to enforced because he was aware that that gap by examining the recruitment be advised of this ruling and that it one particular black applicant had policy of the Royal Canadian Air “would apply to all Asiatics as well been permitted to enlist. Finally, Force (RCAF) and the perspectives of as to coloured applicants.”13 While he claimed that “there are coloured black volunteers in order to analyze this ruling was clear, the RCAF’s people in all branches of the service.”16 the experience of black Canadians recruiting policy was much more A week after Isnor’s comments during the Second World War. ambiguous in 1940. in the House of Commons, Air From 1939 to 1942, the In May 1940, the recruitment Force Manning Order 10/22 was recruitment policy regarding black office in Vancouver was told that released which stressed to all the applicants was inconsistent and there was no “restriction in K.R. (Air) commanding officers (COs) and obscure. The RCAF ‘s “Colour Line” [King’s Regulations and Orders for staff at Recruiting Centres not to let policy in 1939 was that all volunteers the Royal Canadian Air Force] in Canadian-born applicants of foreign- had to be “British subjects and of regard to enlistment on the grounds origin feel discriminated against pure European descent.”10 Black that the applicant is not of pure “because of their racial descent.” Canadians, regardless of how long European descent.” The criteria for Furthermore, it emphasized that any they had lived in Canada or of how enlistment were supposed to be Canadian-born applicant “must not recently they had emigrated from the the successful completion of trade be refused the privilege of submitting British West Indies or elsewhere in tests and a satisfactory medical an application.”17 The manning the Empire, were not viewed as being examination.14 order caused some confusion among “of Pure European Descent.” A prime Two months later, Gordon B. recruiters about whether non-white example of how the policy functioned Isnor, Liberal Member of Parliament volunteers should be accepted. in practice comes from November for Halifax, brought the issue of In November 1940, Flight 1939. The officer in charge (OIC) black recruitment to the attention Lieutenant A.A. Harcourt-Vernon, at the RCAF’s Hamilton recruiting of Parliament. He questioned then the commanding officer of the centre, Flying Officer O.S. Dunn, whether the Department of National Halifax RCAF Recruiting Centre, wrote to the secretary of National Defence assumed that all blacks were wrote to headquarters to clarify the Defence regarding the recruitment of “illiterate, flat-footed and barbarian details of the enlistment policy since a “coloured” volunteer to work as a people who cannot be disciplined, “there are Airmen now serving who steward. The unnamed 6-foot, 1-inch who will run at the first sound of a are not of pure European descent.”18 and 185-pound black volunteer, who rifle or the first sight of the enemy’s He was informed by Group Captain had worked as a steward on ships bayonet.” Furthermore, he wondered J.L.E.A. de Niverville that the as well as a railway porter, was “an whether it was “because gentlemen requirement for pure European exceptionally clean cut and honest in positions of high authority in the descent remained unchanged.19 Eight appearing young man, 29 years old, Department of National Defence months later, Harcourt-Vernon again with excellent references.”11 Dunn felt have not come in contact with them, inquired about the K.R. (Air) policy. that based upon his qualifications, and and do not appreciate that they are He made reference to an unnamed the fact that there was “no particular just as anxious to serve as their white black grade 12 student from Halifax quota for this type,” an opening brethren?” He implored Parliament who had been told by Ottawa that should be made for him. However, to reject such false impressions there was “no regulation against at headquarters Flying Officer J.H. of blacks and to give “serious the enlistment of coloured persons.” Hollies ruled that it was best that thought” to recruiting them into Nevertheless, although no reference “the ‘colour-line’ be drawn in the service battalions.15 In response to race was made to the applicant, it applicant’s own interest.”12 In other to Isnor, the minister of national was suggested to him that he apply words, to avoid any possible racial defence for air, Charles Power, to the Army instead.20 Despite de
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was Sam Estwick from Sydney, Nova Scotia. Estwick, who was born in Barbados, sought to join the RCAF in Halifax in 1940. The recruiting officer informed him that he could not “trust a man of colour.” Despite his background as a radio mechanic and electrical engineer, Estwick was told that he would never become a pilot.22 In February 1941, he received an official response from the RCAF
Library and Archives Canada C 13252 Library and Archives that claimed that “there does not appear to be any trade or category for which you would be suited.” Estwick wrote to his Member of Parliament, Clarence Gillis of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation party, who queried the air minister, Charles Power. Power replied, as he had to Isnor, the Halifax MP, a year before that there were “no regulations existing at the present time which will debar any coloured person from service in the RCAF.”23 Months after the first refusal, the RCAF said it would accept Estwick but only as a waiter or for other unskilled “general duty” trades. Estwick was determined to be treated fairly. The air force finally recognized something of his potential in December 1941 Charles Power, the minister of national defence for air, was a Canadian nationalist when he was offered a place in the who denied the existence of racism in RCAF recruiting and presided over the removal RCAF’s radar school. He excelled in of restrictive regulations and policies. training and went on to serve in India, Libya, Egypt, and Britain. Indeed, he Niverville’s ruling, it was evident into the RCAF. Shortly after his was offered the opportunity to apply that the policy was not clear and that acceptance, the medical officer in for aircrew, but turned it down recruiting officers were using their Hamilton informed Duncan that because he had become enthralled own discretion. he could not serve because he had with radar work. After the war, he For example, Alvin Duncan from a health condition – his heart was continued to serve in the RCAF’s Oakville, Ontario, was turned down on the wrong side. Understandably telecommunications branch and was on two separate occasions. With suspicious of the diagnosis, Duncan, commissioned in 1955, retiring as a knowledge of radio technology, as along with his commanding officer, flight lieutenant in 1963.24 well as experience in the militia as a went back to see the medical officer. This inconsistency in the RCAF’s member of The Lorne Scots, Duncan After this meeting, he was reinstated recruiting policy was challenged by went to the RCAF recruiting centre into the RCAF because, as Duncan the black community. The Reverend in Toronto in 1940. After taking the wryly recalled, “my heart was in the Dr. Charles H. Este, pastor of the aptitude test, the recruiting officers right spot, I guess.” Finally accepted Montreal-based Union Church, told him that he had failed. When as a member of the air force, he went the only all-black United Church he took the same aptitude test at on to serve throughout the war as a in Canada, was determined to find a recruiting office in Hamilton the radar mechanic.21 out whether there was a barrier to next day, Duncan gave the same While 5,000 Canadians served in the enlistment of black recruits as answers. This time he was told that the same capacity as Duncan, only Air Force pilots.25 In May 1941, in he had passed and was welcomed two others were black. One of them an unsigned letter written on behalf https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/438 4 : Not So Black and White Black Canadians and the RCAF’s recruiting policy during the Second World War
of defence minister J.L. Ralston, Reverend Este was informed that there had been “no barrier to the enlistment of a Negro in certain categories in the Air Force.” The department stated that every case had to be considered carefully to be sure that blacks could handle the inequality that they would face. Nevertheless, the RCAF was pondering “a certain
latitude with regard to the enlistment courtesy Mathias Joost Photo of the coloured race which should prove mutually beneficial.” The letter acknowledged the patriotism and enthusiasm of Reverend Este’s “people” and maintained that “many opportunities will be given to them to serve in our united cause.”26 It was evident that the Department of National Defence was trying to avoid any charges of racial discrimination. When the story of R.T. de la Rosa reached the desk of the air officer commanding, No.1 Training Command, Toronto, military officials frantically tried to quell controversy. In the summer of 1941 de la Rosa applied to the Department of Labour for entry into the Galt Aircraft School. The school provided qualifications for enlistment in the RCAF, and had become so popular that schedules had to be extended that summer to accommodate additional classes.27 Once de la Rosa presented himself Sergeant Reginald Taylor de la Rosa’s official RCAF photograph. Sergeant de la Rosa at the recruiting centre in Hamilton enlisted on 18 August 1941 in Toronto as an aero engine mechanic. He was one of the and the staff realized he was black, few Black-Canadians who were able to enlist prior to the lifting of the colour barrier. they told him to report back to He later retrained as a flight engineer. the Department of Labour and Mr. Simmons who had managed his original application. Simmons In October 1941 Wing and black applicants were British tried to dissuade de la Rosa from Commander H.P. Crabb, deputy subjects, they could not be barred continuing, but the latter’s father director of manning in the personnel from enlistment for any ground intervened to ask if a colour line branch at headquarters, issued a letter duties positions. Recruiting officers existed. Fearing that the “father to all recruiting offices regarding and staff were instructed to be frank [was] determined to make an issue “Orientals and Negro applicants” about this general policy. Crabb also of this matter” and thus to provide in order to clarify policy, which stressed that any recommendation harmful publicity, Squadron Leader had evidently been ignored or of a black or Asian applicant should O.S. Dunn recommended that the misunderstood. This circular clearly be made with the recognition matter be dealt with urgently. In stated that “[n]otwithstanding the that the applicant “will be greatly Dunn’s opinion, de la Rosa should regulations in K.R. (Air), only those outnumbered by white personnel.” bypass the Galt Aircraft School and of European descent will be accepted Ultimately, they should be of a high be accepted directly into the RCAF as for appointment or enlistment in standard because “[a]ctually the an aero-engine mechanic.28 Aircrew.” However, so long as Asian Air Force does not want coloured
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personnel because of the difficulties of that a “coloured applicant will be racial differences.” Recruiting officers the sole representative of his race were not granted the authority in the Unit.” He also hypothesized to accept the applicants. Instead, that a university graduate applying all applications were to be sent to for aircrew would be more likely to headquarters, and if an applicant was “orient himself to Service conditions” refused, recruiters were ordered to rather than be “embarrassed” at not mention race but to state that they training school. If an applicant was lacked “the qualifications required not successful, he was to be told by for this category.”29 the commanding officer who in turn In order to enforce this decision, could suggest to the applicant that it was decided in November 1941 they apply to the Army or Navy. that all aircrew applicants were No inference of race as a factor in
to appear before a selection board Heritage Museum Archives Canadian Warplane selection was to be made under prior to enlistment. This board any circumstances. Lastly, the new was composed of three officers; policy still asserted that coloured interviewing, educational, and female applicants were “not to be medical. The interviewing officer encouraged” to apply to the RCAF was to be the first contact for the Women’s Division, the newly-formed applicant and to check, among other female air force service.35 things, his personal history, general Two weeks after Crabb sent this suitability, and racial origin. The letter to all recruiting stations, he subsequent forms which were to be prepared a press release stating that used by the board and attached to there were no restrictions against enlistment documents included the blacks in the RCAF. In a memorandum field “racial origin.”30 The Record of to the air member for personnel, Service Airmen form also included however, Crabb asserted that his the field “racial origin.”31 Although directorate was “firmly opposed to there are no official statistics on any publicity on the subject of the how many blacks served in the enlistment of coloured applicants.” Canadian military during the Second In the directorate’s opinion, publicity World War, according to the national Heritage Museum Archives Canadian Warplane would not serve any purpose and census of 1941, there were 22,174 it could potentially create “a flood blacks in Canada, approximately 0.2 of undesirable applications.”36 percent of the total population. Based Crabb’s advice seems to have been Gerry Bell was one of two Black- upon the breakdown of the “Negro” Canadians to serve in the RCAF prior to accepted, for the press release was population by age, there were 4,691 the Second World War. He enlisted as a never used. The draft copy stated black males between the ages of sergeant-pilot in 1931 and served as a that all applicants, whether for the 15 and 44, roughly the population flight instructor for No.6 RCAF Bomber RCAF, Army or Navy, were given Group in England during the war. eligible for military service.32 the same opportunity as anyone The restriction on black aircrew else and that only an individual’s lasted until March 1942,33 when applicants from being appointed or health and educational qualifications the service was beginning a major enlisted to aircrew. Furthermore, determined acceptability. The draft expansion of both the home and applications from blacks were no press release also stated that, while overseas forces that had been recently longer to be sent to headquarters. a number of black applicants had approved by the Cabinet. 34 On 31 Instead, applications were to go claimed they were rejected because of March 1942, Crabb, now director before a selection board and the racial discrimination, it was actually of manning at headquarters and final authority rested with the CO because they, along with many promoted to the rank of group at the particular recruiting office. white applicants, did not meet these captain, sent a letter to all recruiting While the restriction was relaxed, essential educational or medical officers on behalf of the chief of Crabb stipulated that members of the requirements.37 the air staff which cancelled the selection board should take the utmost In the space of a few months, orders issued on 7 October 1941 that care in determining an applicant’s the RCAF moved from discouraging prevented “Oriental and Negro” suitability. Crabb once again stressed to encouraging black recruits. The https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh/vol21/iss1/440 6 : Not So Black and White Black Canadians and the RCAF’s recruiting policy during the Second World War
The Carty family of Saint John, New Brunswick contributed five sons to the war effort. The four eldest sons served in various capacities in Canada, while the youngest son, Gerald, flew 35 missions over Europe as a wireless air gunner with Bomber Command.
Directorate of Public Relations for the Canadians interested in joining in 1931 as an airman pilot.40 After RCAF requested to be informed of the air force. One centred on Lloyd leaving the air force to pursue athletic any incidents against “dark-skinned Perry of Chatham, Ontario, who careers in both sprinting and boxing, airmen” during their training in was scheduled to enter the air force he returned to the RCAF in 1936. Canada. Plans were underway to on 5 November 1942. A law student Prior to the war, he served with No. start a press campaign to “prepare and track star at Wayne University 19 (Bomber) Squadron (Auxiliary), the public of Canada for the advent in Detroit, Perry was reported to be a reserve unit, in Hamilton and was of larger numbers of dark-skinned the “first Canadian negro scheduled a flying instructor at the Hamilton trainees.” After an incident at No.1 for training as a pilot in the RCAF.”39 Aero Club. During the Second World Training Command, Toronto, where Gerry Bell of Hamilton, however, War, he served four years as a pilot a “Sergeant Pilot from Malaya was was credited as being the first black instructor with No.6 Bomber Group subjected to humiliation because of Canadian to earn a pilot’s licence. in Yorkshire, England. Bell continued the colour of his skin,” the directorate Bell, who was born in Hamilton to serve in the military until 1961 wanted to offset any negative in 1909 and studied medicine at when he retired at age 52 with the stories.38 Stories were planted by the University of Western Ontario, rank of warrant officer.41 the military via the Canadian Press completed his flying lessons at the Another story concerned the wire service that focused on the Mount Hope Airport in Hamilton in Carty family from New Brunswick. opportunities available to black 1929. He initially enlisted in the RCAF Albert Carty of Saint John was a
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veteran of the First World War, in Joe Clark’s government and then as The growing demand for manpower having served with the No.2 lieutenant-governor of Ontario from forced the RCAF to relax its policy Construction Battalion. Although he 1985 to 1991.46 and consider all qualified applicants, was too old to serve again in 1939, The policy changes made in regardless of skin colour. In the end, his family was more than willing March 1942 remained throughout the experiences of black veterans, to represent him. By the end of the the rest of the war. In fact, it was such as Sam Estwick and Alan Second World War, all seven of not until early 1946 that the RCAF Bundy, reveal that black Canadians Albert Carty’s sons had joined the reinstated the requirement that all overcame both official and unofficial military. Five saw active service with applications from blacks, “Orientals” discrimination in the RCAF during the air force. The first Carty to enlist and “former enemy aliens” had to the Second World War. was Adolphous, who was accepted be forwarded to headquarters for by the RCAF on 10 September 1939 approval, thus removing discretion and rose to become a master aero from local recruiters.47 According Notes engine mechanic with the rank of to the chief of the air staff, there flight sergeant. His brother William were still no restrictions placed 1. The Toronto Star, 20 January 1989, p.A16. served as an aeronautical inspector. upon the eligibility of “coloured 2. The 404 Squadron, RCAF, October 1944,
. 8 See Harvey A. Whitfield, “Reviewing (Montreal: Véhicule Press, 1997), pp.54, Journal of African Canadian Studies 2 no. 3 Blackness in Atlantic Canada and the 84; Clifton Ruggles and Olivia Rovinescu, (November 1994), pp. 1 and 3; Alessandro African Canadian Diaspora,” Acadiensis 37 Outsider Blues: A Voice from the Shadows Erasmi, “Canada’s First Black Airman: no.2 (Summer/Autumn 2008), pp.130-9. (Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, 1996), Gerry Bell,” Peace and War in the 20th 9. See Ruck, The Black Battalion, pp.70-73; p.73. Century (McMaster University),
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