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Caledonia and Its Occupation Under the Flavians J G F Hind*

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Caledonia and Its Occupation Under the Flavians J G F Hind* Proc Soc Antiq Scot, 113 (1983), 373-378 Caledonia and its occupation under the Flavians J G F Hind* Tacitus mentions Caledonia inhabitants it d an s (incolentes populi; civitates), who callme h s Britons, four times in his De Vita Agricolae. Each time it is the area north of the line between Forte th Clydd han e estuaries whic designateo s s hi d (Agricola ; 27) numbe10 A . f separato r e peoples inhabitant e madth p eu s (Agricola take29.4; e b 25 o n,t together with 31.5) picture Th . s ei clea internalld an r y consistent t inconsistenno d an , t wit othee hth r sources, given that thee yar either very general and poetic in tone, or topographical and list-like in form. The writers of the 1st century AD seem to have thought of Caledonia vaguely in connection with forests (Pliny, NH 4.102; Silius Italicus, Punica 3, 597-8); wild seas (Lucan, Pharsalia 6.37), and wild bears (Martial, Sped. 7), and with a very remote people (Martial 10.44.1). s Agricolahi n I Tacitus notoriously offerf topographyo y s e doelittlwa h y t seb ye giv, e three place-names relatin thigo t s area Forte Th . h (Bodotria, correc e thaf i th s ti t form Ptolemr ,fo y gives Boderia, Ravenne th d an a Cosmographer ,Clyde Bdora)th d e (Clotd)an th e saib e ar o dt delimiting estuarie soute th f Caledonia.o ho st Mons Graupius, e r Craupius, o th site f th eo s wa culminating victor f Agricolo y a ove e peopleth r f Caledonia.o s Wherever s preciselythiwa s , it presumably was in the hands of one of the constituent tribes of Caledonia, which, we learn from Tacitus, include Boresti,e th d infen ca and re frow , m Ptolemy, include e Vakomagoi,dth Taizaloi, Venikones and perhaps the Dumnonioi (fig 1). Tacitusn I r mosou , t circumstantial source, Caledonia a regio s i f Britannia,no almost another island, and its peoples, though Britanni, are physically somewhat different from the rest (rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, Agr. 11). They appea havo rt e forme dconfederatioa f no tribes, at least in time of war (civitates trans Bodotriam sitas, Agr. 25; Caledoniam incolentes populi, Agr. 25; legationibus foederibust e omnium civitatium vires exciverant, - Agr.'people ) 29 s situated beyond the Forth'; 'peoples inhabiting Caledonia'; 'they had brought out all the peoples in strength by sending envoys and invoking treaties'. Tacitus estimated their total strength in battl fightin0 t soma e00 0 e3 g men f whico , h they los thira t casualtien di t Monsa s Graupius. There is no way of checking this figure, but it tallies with the view that several tribes were involved. Later, Florus know silvasd saltusa an f . s (i.12o . c c , 45); Cassiu o o speaktw Di s f o s peoples, Maiatai and Kaledonioi (the Greek form), of which the former lived nearer to the Wall (ie Hadrian's Wall), and the latter further to the north (Cassius Dio, 75.5; 76.12; 15). The emperor, Septimius Severus, campaigned against the Kaledonioi, probably in AD 209 and against both peoples the following year. Late in the next century Ammianus Marcellinus knew of two branches of the Picts, one of whom he calls Verturiones and the other Dicaledones (A.M. 27.8.5; Mann 1974, passim). These latter are clearly descendants of the Kaledonioi of the early 3rd century, and the former may be descendants of the Maiatai. A similar prefix, Due-Caledones, had appeared * School of History, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT 25 37 | 4SOCIET Y OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 1983 I VI A N ERTAE X A LI) FI G1 Suggeste d locatio f Caledoniino othed an r tribes in Ptolemy's Geographia, where the northern ocean is called Okeanos Duekaledonios (Ptol. Geog, 2.3.1). Other writers of the later Roman Empire perpetuate the vagueness of the 1st- century poets. Ausonius speak f Caledoniao s n pearls (Mosella 68); Claudia f Caledoniano n faunae cos.V th frost (I d Honoriian s / cos. ; 26 Stilichonis Caledoniane 2.247)th f welo s a ,s a l s generally (Laus Serenae 45). Sidonius Apollinaris likewise d probablan , y anachronistically, speaks of Caledonians (Carm. 1.89). The forest of Caledonia was still a by-word in the 5th and eve centurieh n9t (MartianuD A s s Capella 6.666; Nennius Hist. Britt. e 56)CaledonesTh . e ar mentioned alongside 'other Picts' in the Panegyric of AD 310 (Pan. Lat. Vet. VI (VII) 7.2), and as Calidoni alongside Scoti Verone Pictid th an n i a Lis Af to D 312/14 (Jones 1954, 21-9). Our most useful, because most detailed, information comes from Ptolemy, who mentions a Kaledonios drumos - 'Caledonian Forest' (Geogr. 2.3.8). The evidence for the location and extent of the Caledonian Forest in ancient times and the Dark Age down to medieval times has been HIND: CALEDONIA AN OCCUPATIOS DIT N UNDER THE FLAVIAN5 37 | S studied by B Clark (1963, 191-5). He came to the conclusion that it comprised, above all, the area from Stirling to Menteith, and from Lochaber in the north-west as far as Atholl towards the north-east. Ptolemy regarded the 'Forest' as being 'above' (ie to the north or north-west of) people th calle eh s Kaledonioi. people th f I e took their name fro mountainoue mth forested san d area, then they probably dwelt in the main glens and straths to the south of the massif (Hanson Macinned an s come clos thio et s view (1981, 103)). Ptolem facn i s tyi more specific aboue th t Kaledonioi; their lands stretched from Lemannonios Kolpos, 'The Elm-Tree River Gulf, on the Atlantic coast and Varar Eiskhusis, 'Varar Estuary' (Ptol. Geogr. 2.3.12), on the North Sea coast. certais i t I n that Beaule Vararth s i y River (also know Farrars Morane a th n o )y e Firtth t ha norther f Loco d h nen Nes s (the Grea te identit Glen)th t bu y, of Lemannonios Kolpos bees ha n treated with some ambivalence waywardnessy sa o t t ,no t ough .LocI e b o htt Lon Locr go h Fyne fro positionins mit Ptolemy gb y sout Kintyref ho , spitbutn i ,thisf eo , Richmond place furthet di r north, and Rivet and Smith suggested that the text is in error, so that the Kaledonioi of Ptolemy could be said to stretch from sea to sea along the Great Glen, with their most southerly point being Loch Linnhe (Firt Lomef Atlantihe o th n coasa )o cSe t (Richmon 55n d , ;1944 195840 , , 135-6; Rivet & Smith 1979, 107, 133, 140-1, 189-91). Rivet and Smith posit some error which has cause geographee dth brino t r Caledoniie gth wese dowth r southt o nfa t coas o ,to tnea r Lennox (na Leamnaich), near which they rightly Lemannonios e takb o et Kolpos - presen t day, Loch Fyne or Loch Long (Rivet & Smith 1979,133, 387). All subsequent modern writers see locatmo t e Ptolemy's Kaledonioi, implicationy b d an , maie th n tribe Tacitusf so ' Caledonian confederacy eitheGreae th op f n rRomani t Ma Gle S n(O Britain, ed 4, 1978, North Sheet and p 15; Breeze 1982, 30), or in the Highland massif to its south (Clark 1958,49; Hanson & Maxwell 1983,4). Neither is in the least plausible, since the land could t supporno populatioa t n that woul able d b lea o e t powerfu o ds confederacya l doubtfus i t I . l that any tribe dwelt high up in the Grampians at any time in antiquity in sufficient numbers to become politically dominant ove lowlane th r d tribe f Caledonia,o s e samth probabls ei d an y true also of the Great Glen. What is more, if centred in the Glen, it is certain that the people would have had little direct contact with the Romans during their occupation of Perthshire, Mearnse Anguth d san . The alternative, which seems to me much more likely, is that the Kaledonioi of Ptolemy stretcd di h from Loch Fyn Locr eo h BeaulLone th go t y Firth arount ,bu southere dth easterd nan n edges of the Highland massif, and not the western and northern edges, as modern scholars have assumed. Lik e Caledoniameth incolentes f Tacituso , they embrace wide dth e strath lowed san r glens from Loch Lomond (near Loch Long), and included the upper Forth, Earn, Tay, Isla Mearnse coastae th th d d lan an , plains aroun Farrare Grampiane dth th s a termn I r . fa f s o s a Scottish counties the confederacy would control Stirlingshire, Perthshire, Kincardineshire, Angus, Aberdeenshire, Mora d Nairnan y . This supposes that they controlle e goodth l ,al d well-populated, land of central and north-eastern Scotland, with a probable centre in Perthshire. The fact that Ptolemy assigns to them no populated centres (poleis) could be explained if the Vakomagoi, TaizaJoi, Venikones, d mayban e Dumnonioi,eth were Caledonia l th par al ef o t n grouping of tribes mentioned above. These had poleis, according to Ptolemy, which may have been, in the main, native centres, some with Roman forts quartered among them (Rivet 1977, 45-64). Bannatia, Tamia, Pinnata Castra Tuessis,d an assigne Vakomagoi,e th o dt Devana assigned to the Taizaloi or Taixaloi, Horrea, to the Venikones, were all within the Caledonian area.
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