Pre- industrial revolution days  Farming was the first main occupation of majority of the people  People lived closed to their food sources  All commodities were local.  Production of goods was for use rather than profit.  Weapons which kill few people at once.  Life expectancy – 35 years.  Travel and communication between far off places extremely slow. The industrial revolution begins in Britain In 17th century Britain, the beginnings of an agricultural revolution would eventually lead to an industrial revolution, changing the country – and the world – forever. Agricultural Revolution  The Agricultural Revolution was a period of technological improvement and increased crop productivity that occurred during the 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe.  Historians have often labelled the first Agricultural Revolution (which took place around 10,000 B.C.) as the period of transition from a hunting-and-gathering society to one based on stationary farming.  During the 18th century, another Agricultural Revolution took place when European agriculture shifted from the techniques of the past.  New patterns of crop rotation and livestock utilization paved the way for better crop yields, a greater diversity of wheat and vegetables and the ability to support more livestock. These changes impacted society as the population became better nourished and healthier.  The Enclosure Acts, passed in Great Britain, allowed wealthy lords to purchase public fields and push out small-scale farmers, causing a migration of men looking for wage labour in cities.  The Agricultural Revolution began in Great Britain around the turn of the 18th century. Several major events, which will be discussed in more detail later, include: 1. The perfection of the horse-drawn seed press, which would make farming less labour intensive and more productive. 2. The large-scale growth of new crops, such as potato and maize, by 1750. 3. The passing of the Enclosure Laws, limiting the common land available to small farmers in 1760. One solution to this situation was to continue to move crops to different land. This was not feasible in Great Britain because the country lacked a large percentage of available land.  Instead, farmers began to utilize barren soil by planting different crops, such as clover(tiptiya grass) or turnips(Saljam). These plants have roots rich in nitrogen, a necessity for replenishing soil. The cultivation of turnips was important because they could be left in the ground through the winter. This ultimately led to an increase in livestock (Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce labor and commodities such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool) First Industrial Revolution  The Industrial Revolution, now also known as the First Industrial Revolution, was the transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840.

 This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.

 Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.

 It witnesses the general application of mechanical power to manufacture, transport and mining.

 The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological innovations were of British origin. By the mid-18th century Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent, particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.

 Some economists say that the major effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries

 Great Britain was responsible for the successful development of steam power during the 18th century, while the France contributed the ideas of personal liberty to transform Europe and the economy of the rest of the world.

 Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.

 Although the structural change from agriculture to industry is widely associated with the Industrial Revolution, in the United Kingdom it was already almost complete by 1760.

 Rapid industrialization first began in Britain, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800.  Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.

 An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the original innovations of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, hot blast iron smelting and new technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth.

 Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50. Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.  Steam power – The efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation. Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.  Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production. Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The steam engine began being used to pump water and to power blast air in the mid-1750s, enabling a large increase in iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge. The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.  Invention of machine tools – The first machine tools were invented. These included the screw cutting lathe, cylinder boring machine and the milling machine. Machine tools made the economical manufacture of precision metal parts possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques. Second Industrial Revolution

 Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid standardization and industrialization from the late 19th century into the early 20th century.

 The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the middle of 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a machine tool industry, the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts and the invention of the to produce steel, the Second Industrial Revolution is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the beginning of World War I)

 Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks, gas and water supply, and sewage systems, which had earlier been concentrated to a few select cities.

 The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of globalization. In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced such as most significantly electrical power and telephones.

 The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line, and ended at the beginning of World War I.

(1) Iron:

The hot blast technique, in which the hot flue gas from a blast furnace is used to preheat combustion air blown into a blast furnace, was invented and patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 at Wilsontown in Scotland. Hot blast was the single most important advance in fuel efficiency of the blast furnace as it greatly reduced the fuel consumption for making pig iron, and was one of the most important technologies developed during the Industrial Revolution. Falling costs for producing wrought iron coincided with the emergence of the railway in the 1830s.

(2) Steel

Air blown through holes in the converter bottom creates a violent reaction in the molten pig iron that oxidizes the excess , converting the pig iron to pure iron or steel, depending on the residual carbon..

The Bessemer process, invented by Sir , allowed the mass-production of steel, increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital material, and decreasing the labour requirements.

(3) Rail

The increase in steel production from the 1860s meant that railroads could finally be made from steel at a competitive cost. Being a much more durable material, steel steadily replaced iron as the standard for railway rail, and due to its greater strength, longer lengths of rails could now be rolled. The first to make durable rails of steel rather than wrought iron was at the , in 1857. The first of his steel rails was sent to Derby Midland railway station.

(4) Electrification

Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices were the foundation of the practical use of electricity in technology.

In 1881, Sir Joseph Swan, inventor of the first feasible incandescent light bulb.

The first modern power station in the world was built by the English electrical engineer Sebastian de Ferranti at Deptford.

Machine tools A graphic representation of formulas for the pitches of threads of screw bolts.

The use of machine tools began with the onset of the First Industrial Revolution. The increase in mechanization required more metal parts, which were usually made of cast iron or wrought iron—and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process.

One of the first machine tools was John Wilkinson's boring machine, that bored a precise hole in James Watt's first steam engine in 1774.

Advances in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to Henry Maudslay and refined by Joseph Whitworth. Standardization of screw threads began with Henry Maudslay around 1800, when the modern screw-cutting lathe made interchangeable V-thread machine screws a practical commodity.

(5) Paper making

The first paper making machine was the Fourdrinier machine, built by Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers in London. In 1800, Matthias Koops, working in London, investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and began his printing business a year later. However, his enterprise was unsuccessful due to the prohibitive cost at the time.

It was in the 1840s, that Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia and Friedrich Gottlob Keller in Saxony both invented a successful machine which extracted the fibres from wood (as with rags) and from it, made paper. (6) Petroleum The petroleum industry, both production and refining, began in 1848 with the first oil works in Scotland.

The chemist James Young set up a tiny business refining the crude oil in 1848. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.

In 1850 Young built the first truly commercial oil-works and oil refinery in the world at , using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and to manufacture naphtha and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856.

(7) Chemical

Synthetic dye was discovered by English chemist William Henry Perkin in 1856. At the time, chemistry was still in a quite primitive state; it was still a difficult proposition to determine the arrangement of the elements in compounds and chemical industry was still in its infancy. Perkin's accidental discovery was that aniline could be partly transformed into a crude mixture which when extracted with alcohol produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He scaled up production of the new "mauveine", and commercialized it as the world's first synthetic dye.

(8) Maritime technology

This era saw the birth of the modern ship as disparate technological advances came together.

The screw propeller was introduced in 1835 by Francis Pettit Smith who discovered a new way of building propellers by accident.

The first seagoing iron steamboat was built by Horseley Ironworks and named the Aaron Manby.

Brunel followed this up with the Great Britain, launched in 1843 and considered the first modern ship built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel

(9) Rubber

The vulcanization of rubber, by American Charles Goodyear and Englishman Thomas Hancock in the 1840s paved the way for a growing rubber industry, especially the manufacture of rubber tyres

John Boyd Dunlop developed the first practical pneumatic tyre in 1887 in South Belfast. (10) Bicycles

 The modern bicycle was designed by the English engineer Harry John Lawson in 1876, although it was John Kemp Starley who produced the first commercially successful safety bicycle a few years later. Its popularity soon grew, causing the bike boom of the 1890s. (11) Automobile

 German inventor Karl Benz patented the world's first automobile in 1886. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones) with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator. Power was transmitted by means of two roller chains to the rear axle. It was the first automobile entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized- stage coach or horse carriage.

 Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen) in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history.

 Henry Ford built his first car in 1896 and worked as a pioneer in the industry, with others who would eventually form their own companies, until the founding of Ford Motor Company in 1903.

(12) Applied science

 Applied science opened many opportunities. By the middle of the 19th century there was a scientific understanding of chemistry and a fundamental understanding of thermodynamics and by the last quarter of the century both of these sciences were near their present-day basic form.

 Thermodynamic principles were used in the development of physical chemistry. Understanding chemistry greatly aided the development of basic inorganic chemical manufacturing and the aniline dye industries.

(13) Fertilizer

 Justus von Liebig was the first to understand the importance of ammonia as fertilizer, and promoted the importance of inorganic minerals to plant nutrition.

(14) Engines and turbines

 The steam turbine was developed by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884. His first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity. The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare.

 The first widely used internal combustion engine was the Otto type of 1876.

 The diesel engine was independently designed by Rudolf Diesel and Herbert Akroyd Stuart in the 1890s using thermodynamic principles with the specific intention of being highly efficient.

(15) Telecommunications

 The first commercial telegraph system was installed by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in May 1837 between Euston railway station and Camden Town in London. IT REVOLUTION

 IT stands for ―INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Information Technology (IT), as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), is ―the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer hardware‖.  IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and securely retrieve information.  Information Technology Revolution or simply I.T. Revolution is the remarkable changes brought about by information technology in various fields like Education, Entertainment, Business, Medical & Lifestyle etc.  Information technology has impacted on most aspect of our lives : . Education . Work . Medicine . Culture . Environment . Communication  History of IT: There are four main ages of that divide up the history of information technology. Four main ages(Periods) are :- Premechanical Age Mechanical Age Electromechanical Age Electronics Age  Premechanical Age (3000 B.C. – 1450A.D.) Petroglyphs-Pictures carved on rocks Writing and Alphabets- communication. Paper and Pens - Input technologies. Books and Libraries: Permanent Storage Devices. The First Numbering Systems. The First Calculators: The Abacus.  Mechanical Age (1450 A.D. – 1840 A.D.) The First Information Explosion. The first general purpose ―computers‖ Technologies like Slide rule was discovered. Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline. Charles Babbage develops difference engine.  Electromechanical Age (1840 A.D. -1940 A.D.) The Beginnings of Telecommunication. Voltaic Battery Telegraph was created in early 1800s. Morse Code was created by Samuel Morse. Telephone was created by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876. The first radio was developed by Guglielmo Marconi in 1894. First large-scale digital computer in the United State was the Mark 1  Electronic Age (1940 A.D.- Present) The ENIAC was developed. Era of vacuum tube and punch card like ENIAC and Mark 1. Rotating magnetic drums used for internal storage. High level programming languages like FORTRAN,COBOL. Personal Computer was developed. GUI(Graphical User Interface) was developed. Recent Major Breakthrough & Innovation

With the introduction of smart roads and more energy-efficient housing, the need is there for construction to get smarter and more efficient too. With more innovative tools and techniques appearing all the time, here are ten industry-changing examples of the new technology used in civil engineering today.

1. Self-healing concrete

Cement is one of the most widely used materials in construction, but also one of the largest contributors to harmful carbon emissions, said to be responsible for around 7 per cent of annual global emissions. Cracking is a major problem in construction, usually caused by exposure to water and chemicals. Researchers at Bath University are looking to develop a self-healing concrete, using a mix containing bacteria within microcapsules, which will aid building innovation by germinating when water enters a crack in the concrete to produce limestone, plugging the crack before water and oxygen has a chance to corrode the steel reinforcement.

2. Thermal bridging

Efficient insulation material is becoming increasingly important throughout the construction industry. Heat transmission through walls tends to be passed directly through the building envelope, be it masonry, block or stud frame, to the internal fascia such as drywall. This process is known as ―thermal bridging‖. Aerogel, a technology developed by Nasa for cryogenic insulation, is considered one of the most effective thermal insulation materials and US spin-off Thermablok has adapted it using a proprietary aerogel in a fibreglass matrix. This can be used to insulate studs, which can reportedly increase overall wall R-value (an industry measure of thermal resistance) by more than 40 per cent.

3. Photovoltaic glaze

One of the most exciting new technologies used in civil engineering is building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) glazing, which can help buildings generate their own electricity, by turning the whole building envelope into a solar panel. Companies such as Polysolar provide transparent photovoltaic glass as a structural building material, forming windows, façades and roofs. Polysolar’s technology is efficient at producing energy even on north-facing, vertical walls and its high performance at raised temperatures means it can be double glazed or insulated directly. As well as saving on energy bills and earning feed- in tariff revenues, its cost is only marginal over traditional glass, since construction and framework costs remain, while cladding and shading system costs are replaced.

4. Kinetic Footfall

One of the latest civil engineering technologies under development is kinetic energy. Pavegen provides a technology that enables flooring to harness the energy of footsteps. It can be used indoors or outdoors in high traffic areas, and generates electricity from pedestrian footfall using an electromagnetic induction process and flywheel energy storage. The technology is best suited to transport hubs where a large flow of people will pass over it. The largest deployment the company has done so far is in a football pitch in Rio de Janeiro to help power the floodlights around the pitch. It also currently has a temporary installation outside London’s Canary Wharf station powering street lights. 5. Kinetic Roads Italian startup Underground Power is exploring the potential of kinetic energy in roadways. It has developed a technology called Lybra, a tyre-like rubber paving that converts the kinetic energy produced by moving vehicles into electrical energy. Developed in co-operation with the Polytechnic University of Milan, Lybra operates on the principle that a braking car dissipates kinetic energy. The cutting-edge technology is able to collect and convert this energy into electricity before passing it on to the electricity grid. In addition to improving road safety, the device upgrades and promotes sustainability of road traffic.

6. Predictive Software

The structural integrity of any building is only as good as its individual parts. The way those parts fit together, along with the choice of materials and its specific site, all contribute to how the building will perform under normal, or extreme, conditions. Civil engineers need to integrate a vast number of pieces into building designs, while complying with increasingly demanding safety and government regulations. Predictive software can help ensure even the most innovative structures in civil engineering are safe and efficient, by simulating how they will behave. An example of this was work on the structural integrity of the arch rotation brackets at Wembley Stadium, undertaken by Bennett Associates, using ANSYS software, which simulated the stresses on the brackets that hold and move the distinctive arches above the stadium.

7. 3D Modelling

Planning and building innovation has been driven by the growth of smart cities. CyberCity3D (CC3D) is a geospatial-modelling innovator specialising in the production of smart 3D building models. It creates smart digital 3D buildings to help the architectural, engineering and construction sector visualise and communicate design and data with CC3D proprietary software. The models integrate with 3D geographic information system platforms, such as Autodesk and ESRI, and can stream 3D urban building data to Cesium’s open architecture virtual 3D globe. It provides data for urban, energy, sustainability and design planning, and works in conjunction with many smart city SaaS platforms such as Cityzenith.

8. Modular Construction

Modular construction is one of the most popular developments in civil engineering where a building is constructed off-site using the same materials and designed to the same standards as conventional on- site construction. This innovative building technique limits environmental disruption, delivering components as and when needed, and turning construction into a logistics exercise. It also has strong sustainability benefits, from fewer vehicle movements to less waste. With up to 70 per cent of a building produced as components, it allows a move towards ―just in time‖ manufacturing and delivery. In use in the United States and UK, Chinese developer Broad Sustainable Building recently completed a 57-storey skyscraper in 19 working days using this method.

9. Cloud Collaboration

Another new technology used in civil engineering is a cloud collaboration tool called basestone. basestone is a system allowing the remote sharing of data on a construction site in real time. It is predominantly a review tool for civil engineers and architects which digitises the drawing review process on construction projects, and allows for better collaboration. The cloud-based collaboration tool is focused on the installation of everything from steel beams to light fittings. The system is used to add ―snags‖, issues that happen during construction, on to pdfs, then users can mark or add notes through basestone. Trials have revealed possible cost-savings of around 60 per cent compared with traditional paper-based review methods.

10. Asset mapping

Not all of the latest civil engineering developments are new construction materials or flashy technological tools. Asset mapping focuses on operational equipment, including heating and air conditioning, lighting and security systems. The process includes collecting data from serial numbers, firmware, engineering notes of when it was installed and by whom, and combines all the data in one place. This system can show engineers in real time where the equipment needs to be installed on a map and, once the assets are connected to the real-time system using the internet of things, these can be monitored via the web, app, and other remote devices and systems. It helps customers build databases of asset performance, which can assist in proactive building maintenance, and also reduce building procurement and insurance costs.

Plastic Roads

As a response to massive local waste and plastic pollution within their country, India’s government began experimenting with plastic roads during the early 2000s, with waste plastic being used as a construction material. An early report by India’s Central Pollution Control Board discovered that even after four years of use, Jambulingam Street in Chennai—one of the first plastic roads—had not sustained much damage. The board cited that no potholes, rutting, raveling, or edge flaws were discovered during the evaluation. This level of performance attracted the interests of local governments, who were looking to rid the Tamil Nadu region’s urban environments of the discarded shopping bags, foam packaging, and other unrecyclable plastic products that litter the streets. As of 2015, any Indian city with a population of at least 500,000 is required to construct their roads using waste plastic as a core material, in efforts to promote greater pollution control and environmental sustainability for Indian communities.

Although the concept of using waste plastic in roads is still in its early stages, with very few plastic roads currently existing in the Western world, civil engineering researchers in countries like the United Kingdom and the United States are working to design new technologies to support the safe implementation of waste plastic in road construction. One such development involves converting waste plastics into small balls that, when combined with asphalt or other common road components, create a strong, permeable surface that features hollow spaces that allow stormwater to seep through the road and more effectively recharge groundwater.

Transitioning to the use of plastic roads will lead to more manageable plastic waste and potentially, safer roads, but there are still some concerns regarding hazards that accompany plastic roads as they age. As these roads gradually deteriorate due to heat and light, they may dissolve into micro-plastics that give off harmful pollutants, affecting the functionality and biodiversity of soil and water resources. Creative civil engineers play a significant role in ensuring that the science behind using waste plastic for roads is accurate, and that future iterations of this concept are carried out with consideration for environmental health and safety.

Green Roof Systems

The Environmental Protection Agency defines a green roof as a ―vegetative layer grown on a rooftop.‖ Today, green roof systems have become popular all over the world, not only for their beauty, but also for the benefits they provide toward environmental sustainability. Germany is currently leading the world in green roof technologies, and they have implemented green roofing systems on approximately 10% of German homes since the technology emerged in the early 1970s. Civil engineers are responsible for ensuring that the green roof’s supportive infrastructure—for instance, a comprehensive watering system—is engineered to consistently deliver an appropriate amount of resources, and the roof itself must be designed to effectively provide working improvements to environmental sustainability. However, civil engineers still face some obstacles when planning the installation and maintenance of green roof systems, like high costs and harsh climates, but innovations in modern engineering techniques for green roofing systems have allowed the industry to consistently offer the following environmental benefits to urban communities:

 Enhanced Urban Biodiversity: Green roofs accommodate new flora, which may act as new habitats for different species of plants and animals.  Cooling of Buildings: The vegetation on the roof acts as thermal insulation, storing excess heat and decreasing peak temperatures within the building. This means less energy must be consumed to heat the building, resulting in decreased energy costs and lower pollutant emissions.  Reduced Runoff Quantity: On average, green roofs retain 40-60% of total rainfall. Storing this rainwater as it falls has been shown to result in runoff reduction of 34% between September and February, and 67% between March and August. By reducing runoff, civil engineers that design green roof systems can limit strain on sewage systems and mitigate the costs of roof damage.  Pollution Control: Green roofs are composed of plants that absorb nitrogen, lead, zinc, and airborne pollutants like carbon dioxide. This absorption also reduces the negative effects of acid rain by raising the pH values of acid rainwater before it becomes runoff water.

Eco Floating Homes

Affordable housing and overcrowding in cities are putting pressure on urban populations to make changes. To combat these issues, civil engineers are designing floating homes—practical living spaces that sit upon the water. The homes are designed to resist floods by floating on top of water using a foundation of concrete and Styrofoam, which makes them virtually unsinkable. This approach means that homes can be built in spaces that were previously off-limits, like rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. Civil engineers predict that modern floating home technology will lower the costs of flood damage in urban cities, while also providing compact inner-city populations with more diverse housing options.

The concept of floating buildings is not new, as they can be found all over the world, especially in traditional Asian villages. Although with modern civil engineering knowledge, these structures—and the infrastructure needed to make them sustainable—are gradually becoming more reliable and easier to maintain. However, introducing this concept in urban environments with large populations will prove to be somewhat tricky, as structures being built within or on above-ground water sources could impact environments negatively by disturbing the natural state of the land beneath bodies of water (e.g. lake bottoms or the ocean floor). The effect of humans on the environment should not be underestimated either, so civil engineers will need to remain focused on creating systems that inhibit floating houses and their residents from disrupting local water ecosystems, while improving the viability of this technology for use in low-income areas.

Vertical Farming

Using multistory high-rises to grow food is known as ―vertical farming,‖ and The Association for Vertical Farming has found that, when compared with traditional agricultural methods, growing food indoors uses 98 percent less water and 70 percent less fertilizer on average. To generate the amount of light and water necessary to keep plants healthy, while remaining as cost-effective as possible, vertical farmers use a combination of energy efficient LED lights and hydroponic technology (plumbing, irrigation, filtration). By implementing modern automation techniques to regulate these systems, civil engineers can also limit the cost of labor required to maintain these farms. The costs associated with vertical farming are still quite high, but as science in this field advances, civil engineers will be able to provide the populations of un-farmable regions with opportunities to grow their own natural produce.

Many entrepreneurs and scientists are currently evaluating how growing food inside of buildings coincides with improving social and environmental sustainability. Vertical farms also have higher yields than traditional farms, allowing the production of more food, using far less urban space. Significant progress in the study of vertical farming could lead to improved food diversity, especially for residents of population-dense urban areas and in places that are normally unable to grow produce using traditional methods.

Rainwater Harvesting

Harvesting rainwater is a climate adaptation strategy that has been used in many ancient and modern societies. The antiquated rainwater harvesting techniques of the past were attempts to cope with severe climate conditions by storing the water as it fell, allowing populations to drink the water or prevent oversaturation of the land during extreme precipitation. Modern rainwater harvesting is fundamentally the same in theory, but advancements in science and engineering have introduced sophisticated filtration and rain-capturing technologies that boost the efficiency of the process.

Dutch engineers and researchers have observed that effective large-scale implementation of rainwater harvesting infrastructure can reduce stormwater runoff by 20 to 50 percent, mitigating the strain that excess storm precipitation usually places on sewers and drainage systems. This is made possible by mounting rainwater catchment devices on the roofs of buildings, then routing the rainwater that is collected by the catchment through a treatment system and into a storage tank. To ensure the effectiveness of these rainwater-harvesting systems, the contents of each storage tank must be depleted before significant rainfall events occur. Therefore, civil engineers must obtain the knowledge and experience necessary to analyze the precipitation patterns and water usage rates of a region before installing any rainwater harvesting systems. With cost-effective approaches to the catchment, storage, and filtration technology used in rainwater harvesting currently being implemented and improved, large-scale rainwater collection is poised to become a widely used, economically viable solution to urban potable water shortages and stormwater management.

Large cities often come with many social benefits, but there will always be disadvantages to having large populations that are constricted to a finite amount of space. Ensuring that humans can live sustainably in highly populated urban environments requires creative solutions to infrastructural issues like road safety, housing crises, and food and water shortages. An advanced degree in civil engineering will provide an individual with an in-depth understanding of the environmental, structural, and infrastructural engineering knowledge required to work with the civil engineering innovations listed above

Global Warming

 Global Warming is defined as the increase of the average temperature on Earth. As the Earth is getting hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and floods are getting more frequent.  Over the last 100 years, the average air temperature near the Earth’s surface has risen by a little less than 1 degree Celsius or 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit.  Global warming is the cause, climate change is the effect. Scientists often prefer to speak about climate change instead of global warming, because higher global temperatures don’t necessarily mean that it will be warmer at any given time at every location on Earth.  Warming is strongest at the Earth's Poles, the Arctic and the Antarctic, and will continue to be so.  In recent years, fall air temperatures have been at a record 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius) above normal in the Arctic, according to the U.S.

Effects of global warming:  Increasing global temperatures are causing a broad range of changes.

 Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion of the ocean, in addition to melting of land ice.

 Amounts and patterns of precipitation are changing. The total annual power of hurricanes has already increased markedly since 1975 because their average intensity and average duration have increased (in addition, there has been a high correlation of hurricane power with tropical sea-surface temperature).

 Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns increase the frequency, duration, and intensity of other extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat waves, and tornadoes.

 Other effects of global warming include higher or lower agricultural yields, further glacial retreat, reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions.

 As a further effect of global warming, diseases like malaria are returning into areas where they have been extinguished earlier. Although global warming is affecting the number and magnitude of these events, it is difficult to connect specific events to global warming. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming is expected to continue past

then because carbon dioxide (chemical symbol CO2) has an estimated atmospheric lifetime of 50 to 200 years.

Measures to reduce global warming

 Fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, oil and gasoline raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect and global warming. You can help to reduce the demand for fossil fuels, which in turn reduces global warming, by using energy more wisely.

 Here are 10 simple actions you can take to help reduce global warming.

Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle:

 Reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables.

 Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste.

 Whenever you can, recycle paper, plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminium cans. If there isn't a recycling programme at your workplace, school, or in your community, ask about starting one.

 By recycling half of your household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning:  Adding insulation to your walls and attic, and installing weather stripping or caulking around doors and windows can lower your heating costs more than 25 percent, by reducing the amount of energy you need to heat and cool your home.

 Turn down the heat while you're sleeping at night or away during the day, and keep temperatures moderate at all times. Setting your thermostat just 2 degrees lower in winter and higher in summer could save about 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.

Change a light bulb:

 Wherever practical, replace regular light bulbs with compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs.

 Replacing just one 60-watt incandescent light bulb with a CFL will save you $30 over the life of the bulb. CFLs also last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, use two-thirds less energy, and give off 70 percent less heat.

 If every U.S. family replaced one regular light bulb with a CFL, it would eliminate 90 billion pounds of greenhouse gases, the same as taking 7.5 million cars off the road.

Drive less and drive smart:

 Less driving means fewer emissions.

 Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are great forms of exercise.

 Explore your community mass transit system, and check out options for carpooling to work or school. When you do drive, make sure your car is running efficiently.

 For example, keeping your tries properly inflated can improve your gas mileage by more than 3 percent.

 Every gallon of gas you save not only helps your budget; it also keeps 20 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

Buy Energy-Efficient Products:

 When it's time to buy a new car, choose one that offers good gas mileage.

 Home appliances now come in a range of energy efficient models, and compact florescent bulbs are designed to provide more natural-looking light while using far less energy than standard light bulbs. Avoid products that come with excess packaging, especially molded plastic and other packaging that can't be recycled.

 If you reduce your household garbage by 10 percent, you can save 1,200 pounds of carbon dioxide annually. Use less Hot Water:

 Set your water heater at 120 degrees to save energy, and wrap it in an insulating blanket if it is more than 5 years old.

 Buy low-flow showerheads to save hot water and about 350 pounds of carbon dioxide yearly.

 Wash your clothes in warm or cold water to reduce your use of hot water and the energy required to produce it. That change alone can save at least 500 pounds of carbon dioxide annually in most households. Use the energy-saving settings on your dishwasher and let the dishes air-dry.

Use the "Off" Switch:

 Save electricity and reduce global warming by turning off lights when you leave a room, and using only as much light as you need.

 And remember to turn off your television, video player, stereo and computer when you're not using them.

 It's also a good idea to turn off the water when you're not using it.

 While brushing your teeth, shampooing the dog or washing your car, turn off the water until you actually need it for rinsing. You'll reduce your water bill and help to conserve a vital resource.

Plant a tree:

 During photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.

 They are an integral part of the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by automobile traffic, manufacturing and other human activities

 . A single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

Get a report card from your utility company:

 Many utility companies provide free home energy audits to help consumers identify areas in their homes that may not be energy efficient.

 In addition, many utility companies offer rebate programs to help pay for the cost of energy- efficient upgrades.

Encourage Others to Conserve:  Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbours and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment.

Human Development Index  The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index combines four major indicators: life expectancy for health, expected years of schooling, mean of years of schooling for education and Gross National Income per capita for standard of living, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.  Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq created HDI in 1990 which was further used to measure the country's development by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).  Every year UNDP ranks countries based on the HDI report released in their annual report. HDI is one of the best tools to keep track of the level of development of a country, as it combines all major social and economic indicators that are responsible for economic development.  The index is based on the human development approach, often framed in terms of whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in life. Examples include—being: well fed, sheltered, healthy; Doings: work, education, voting, participating in community life. The freedom of choice is central—someone choosing to be hungry (as during a religious fast) is quite different from someone who is hungry because they cannot afford to buy food, or because the country is in a famine.

Ecological footprint

 The ecological footprint measures human demand on nature, i.e., the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy.  It tracks this demand through an ecological accounting system. The accounts contrast the biologically productive area people use for their consumption to the biologically productive area available within a region or the world (biocapacity, the productive area that can regenerate what people demand from nature).  In short, it is a measure of human impact on Earth's ecosystem and reveals the dependence of the human economy on natural capital.  A country that consumes more than 1.73 gha (global hectare) per person has a resource demand that is not sustainable world-wide. Countries with a footprint below 1.73 gha per person might not be sustainable. The quality of the footprint may still lead to ecological destruction. If a country does not have enough ecological resources within its own territory to cover its population's footprint, then it runs an ecological deficit and the country is termed an ecological debtor. Otherwise, it has an ecological reserve and it is called a creditor.  Ecological footprint of India (2016) Built- Carbon Crop Fishing Forest Grazing Total Data Quality up Grounds Products Land Score Land land

0.03 0.39 0.21 0.01 0.08 0.01 0.71 3A

 After China and USA, India has the third largest ecological footprint in the world, according to a report.  China's share of ecological footprint, which is measure humanity's demand on the planet, is a massive 19 per cent, followed by USA's 13.7 per cent and India at 7.1 per cent, The Living Planet Report 2014 said.  The top five countries, which include Brazil and Russia, make up about half the global total.  China is ranked 76th in its per capita footprint but has the world's biggest national population and hence has the planet's largest national footprint.  India shifts from having the 136th largest footprint per capita to the third largest in total after multiplying population with per capita demand.  As per the report the population of fish, birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles have declined by 52 per cent in the 40-year period. It also highlights the dire situation of local populations due to increasing water scarcity and the alarming situation of depleting ground water resources and aquifers in countries like India, Australia and the United States.  India, Australia and the United States, these three countries with the highest water footprint also contain eight of the top ten most populous river basins experiencing almost year-round scarcity, a problem that is likely only to get compounded by climate change, population growth and developmental imperative.