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Joyeeta Chatterjee LEGAL ASPECTS OF SPACE DEBRIS REMEDIATION: ACTIVE REMOVAL OF DEBRIS AND ON-ORBIT SATELLITE SERVICING Joyeeta Chatterjee Institute of Air and Space Law, Faculty of Law McGill University Montreal, Canada April 2013 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Laws. ©Chatterjee, 2013 To The sole radiant star in my Universe, The source of my sustenance, The reason for my being, Maa. Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation and On-Orbit Satellite Servicing Page ii ___________________________________________________ Outline of contents ___________________________________________________ 1. Introduction 2. Definition of Space Debris for Active Remediation 3. State Jurisdiction and Control over Space Objects 4. State Responsibility and Liability for Compliance with Principles of International Law 5. Concluding Remarks Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page iii ___________________________________________________ Table of contents ___________________________________________________ Dedication……………………………………………………………….ii Abstract………………………………………………………………….ix Résumé…………………………………………………………………..x Acknowledgements……………………………………………………..xi ___________________________________________________ Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION _____________________________________ 1.1. CONTEXT………………………………………………………………….1 1.2. HYPOTHESIS………………………………………………………………2 1.3. SCOPE……………………………………………………………………..3 1.4. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………..4 1.5. OVERVIEW OF THE PROBLEM…………………………………………….5 1.5.1. CURRENT SPACE DEBRIS ENVIRONMENT……………………….5 1.5.2. INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TOWARDS SPACE DEBRIS MITIGATION……………………………………………………..8 Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page iv 1.5.3. INADEQUACY OF SPACE DEBRIS MITIGATION………………….10 1.6. ECONOMIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL FEASIBILITY OF SPACE DEBRIS REMEDIATION…………………………………………………………...14 1.6.1. BUSINESS CASE………………………………………………….15 1.6.2. TECHNOLOGICAL MATURITY…………………………………..19 1.7. CURRENT SPACE DEBRIS REMEDIATION INITIATIVES……………………………………………………………...21 1.7.1. PHOENIX PROGRAM, DARPA……………………………………22 1.7.2. DEUTSCHE ORBITALE SERVICING MISSION (DEOS)…………...23 1.7.3. ORBITAL EXPRESS SPACE OPERATIONS ARCHITECTURE, DARPA…………………………………………………………..24 1.7.4. NASA ROBOTIC REFUELLING MISSION (RRM)………………….25 1.7.5. SPACE INFRASTRUCTURE SERVICING (SIS), MACDONALD DETWILLER ASSOCIATES………………………………………..26 1.7.6. VIVISAT………………………………………………………….26 1.7.7. CLEANSPACE ONE………………………………………………27 1.8. CONCLUSION……………………………..................................................27 Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page v _____________________________________ Chapter 2 DEFINITION OF SPACE DEBRIS FOR ACTIVE REMEDIATION _____________________________________ 2.1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………........29 2.2. DEFINING ‘SPACE OBJECT’...……………………………………………30 2.3. DEFINING ‘SPACE DEBRIS’……………………………………………...34 2.4. REVIVAL OF ZOMBIE-SAT GALAXY-15…………………………………...39 2.5. DECOMMISSIONING OF ENVISAT………………………………………..41 2.6. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………….43 _____________________________________ Chapter 3 STATE JURISDICTION AND CONTROL OVER SPACE OBJECTS _____________________________________ 3.1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………45 3.2. INTERNATIONAL SPACE LAW………..………………………………….46 3.2.1. JURISDICTION AND CONTROL………………………………….47 3.2.2. TRANSFER OF REGISTRATION………………………………….52 Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page vi 3.2.3. OWNERSHIP…………………………………………………….54 3.3. ANALOGY WITH MARITIME LAW………………………………………..56 3.3.1. MARITIME SALVAGE: DEFINITION……………………………..56 3.3.2. ENVIRONMENTAL SALVAGE……………………………………58 3.3.3. WRECK REMOVAL ………………………………………...........59 3.3.4. ABANDONMENT AND DERELICTION …………………………..60 3.3.5. RIGHTS OF SALVORS…………………………………………….61 3.3.6. APPLICABILITY OF MARITIME LAW OF SALVAGE TO INTERNATIONAL SPACE LAW…………………………………...62 _____________________________________ Chapter 4 STATE RESPONSIBILITY AND LIABILITY FOR COMPLIANCE WITH PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW _____________________________________ 4.1. INTRODUCTION.…………………………………………………………..…65 4.2. CONCEPTUAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN ‘RESPONSIBILITY’ AND ‘LIABILITY IN PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW…………………………………………..…..66 4.3. INTERNATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY: ARTICLE VI, OUTER SPACE TREATY…69 Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page vii 4.4. INTERNATIONAL LIABILITY: ARTICLE VII, OUTER SPACE TREATY AND LIABILITY CONVENTION……………………………………………….…....71 4.4.1. FAULT LIABILITY…………………………………………………..74 4.5. DUE DILIGENCE………………………………………………………...…...77 4.6. NECESSITY AS A CIRCUMSTANCE PRECLUDING WRONGFULNESS OF AN ACT IN INTERNATIONAL LAW…………………………………………………...84 _____________________________________ Chapter 5 CONCLUDING REMARKS _____________________________________ 5.1. CONCLUSION.…………………………………………………………..……96 _____________________________________ Bibliography…………………………………………………………...xiii Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page viii ___________________________________________________ Abstract ___________________________________________________ With the alarming proliferation in the population of orbital debris, scientific analysis has indicated a need to perform space debris remediation through active removal of debris and on-orbit satellite servicing. This thesis aims to study the implications of the existing framework of international space law and public international law on space debris remediation. Following a description of the hypothesis and the research methodology, the introductory chapter explains the current state of the debris environment and the consequent need to perform space debris remediation. With that understanding, the economic and technological feasibility for such an endeavour is also assessed. The second chapter addresses the concerns regarding the current definition of a ‗space object‘ and examines the requirement for the adoption of a separate legal definition of space debris to facilitate space debris remediation activities. The key question of legitimate exercise of jurisdiction and control over space objects, in the realm of space debris remediation, along with contentious issues such as transfer of ownership and/or registry of space objects are discussed in the third chapter. The fourth chapter elaborates on the related responsibility and liability considerations linked to remediation activities in outer space. The final chapter contains a summary of the important conclusions from the earlier chapters and presents some overall observations on the entire analysis. Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page ix ___________________________________________________ Résumé ___________________________________________________ Avec la prolifération alarmante du nombre de débris orbitaux, des études scientifiques ont montré la nécessité d‘effectuer un nettoyage des débris spatiaux, par le biais de la suppression effective de ces débris ainsi que la mise en place d‘un système orbital de « service » aux satellites. Cette thèse vise à étudier les effets du cadre actuel du droit spatial international et du droit international public, sur la gestion du problème des débris spatiaux. Après une description du postulat et de la méthodologie de recherche, le chapitre introductif (chapitre I) explique l'état actuel de l'environnement des débris spatiaux et la nécessité d‘éliminer ces débris. Dans ce contexte, la faisabilité économique et technique d'une telle entreprise est évaluée au chapitre II. Le chapitre III traite des questions liées à la définition actuelle d'«objet spatial» et examine les conditions de l'adoption d'une définition juridique distincte pour les débris spatiaux, afin de faciliter les activités de nettoyage afférentes. La question essentielle de l'exercice légitime de la juridiction et du contrôle des objets spatiaux, s‘agissant de leur nettoyage, ainsi que les sujets controversés tels que le transfert de propriété et/ou l‘enregistrement des objets spatiaux, sont examinés dans le chapitre IV. Le chapitre V entre dans le détail des réflexions sur la responsabilité liée aux activités de dépollution dans l'espace. La section finale (chapitre VI) comprend un résumé des conclusions importantes des chapitres précédents, et présente quelques observations générales sur toute l'analyse. Legal Aspects of Space Debris Remediation Page x ___________________________________________________ Acknowledgements ___________________________________________________ I wish to extend my sincerest gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Ram Jakhu for being a source of immense inspiration. I want to thank the staff at the Nahum Gelber law library for providing world-class research facilities and support services, especially Kathleen Vandernoot for the lovely carrel in the library which served as my snug nest for many months. I would like to thank Maria D‘Amico for her kind help and warmth; she is indeed the heart of the Institute of Air and Space Law. I also want to thank all my colleagues and classmates, including Paul Fitzgerald, Nicole Gonzales, Michelle Ancona, Mah Mousavi, Juliana Scavuzzi, Maxime Puteaux for their friendship and support. Special thanks to Diane Howard for her words of wisdom and encouragement through the way and for her sage advice, when I needed it the most. I want to especially acknowledge Prithviraj Sharma and Isavella Vasilogeorgi for their help and assistance while I was away from Montréal. I am truly grateful to the Arsenault Trust for financially supporting me with the Erin J.C. Arsenault Fellowship in Space Governance, without which this task could not have been completed. Thank you to my friend Hemant Thadhani for being a constant
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