Appendix: Classification of Occupations Used in Tables 3.1–3.7, from the 1851 Census

Employment Classifications: Males

Agriculture, animals and fisheries Land proprietor; farmer; grazier; farmer’s, grazier’s, son, grandson, etc.; farm bailiff; agricultural labourer (outdoor); shepherd; farm servant (indoor); others connected with agriculture; woodman; others connected with arboriculture; gardener; nurseryman; others connected with horticulture; horse-dealer; groom, horsekeeper, jockey; farrier, veteri- nary surgeon; cattle, sheep, dealer, salesman; drover; gamekeeper; vermin destroyer; fisherman; others engaged about animals; cork cutter; others dealing in bark.

Workshops and handicraft Hairdresser; hatter; tailor; hosier, haberdasher; hose, stocking, manu- facture; glover (material not stated); patten, clog maker; umbrella, parasol, stick maker; other providing dress; bookbinder; printer; musical instru- ment maker; engraver; others employed about pictures and engraving; employed about carving and figures; connected with shows, games, sports; medallists, die sinkers; watchmaker; philosophical instrument makers and dealers; gunsmith; others engaged in manufacture of arms; engine and machine maker; tool-maker; others connected with tools and machines;

135 136 APPENDIX saddler; whip-maker; other harness makers; wheelwright; millwright; other implement makers; soap-boiler; tallow-chandler; comb-maker; others dealing in grease, bones, etc.; fellmonger; skinner; currier; tanner; other workers in leather; dealers in feathers, quills; hair manu- facture; brush and broom maker; other workers, dealers in hair; woolstapler; stuff manufacture; carpet and rug manufacture; other workers, dealers in wool; silk manufacture; ribbon manufacture; fancy goods manufacture; other workers, dealers in silk; miller; maltster; brewer; oil and colourman; french polisher; other workers, dealers in oils, gums, etc.; sawyer; lath-maker; other wood-workers; cabinet- maker, upholsterer; turner; chair-maker; box-maker; others dealing in wood furniture; cooper; other makers of wood utensils; frame- maker; block and print cutter; other wood tool makers; basket-maker; other workers in cane, rush, straw; ropemaker; sailcloth manufacture; other workers, dealers in hemp; lace manufacture; fustian manufacture; calico, cotton, printer; calico, cotton, dyer; other workers, dealers in flax, cotton; paper-stainer; paper-hanger; other paper workers, dealers; chimney sweeper; marble mason; tobacco-pipe makers and others; other workers in glass; salt makers, dealers; water providers, dealers; workers, dealers in precious stones; goldsmith, silversmith; plater; carver, gilder; other workers in gold and silver; copper manufacture; coppersmith; other workers, dealers in copper; tinman; other workers, dealers in tin; zinc manufacture; other workers, dealers in zinc; other workers, dealers in lead; brassfounder; locksmith, bellhanger; brazier; button-maker; wire, worker, weaver; other workers, dealers in mixed metals; whitesmith; blacksmith; nail manufacture; anchor-smith; boiler- maker; ironmonger; file-maker; cutler; needle manufacture; grinder (branch undefined); other workers, dealers in iron, steel.

Factory Dyer, scourer, calenderer; engaged in manufacture of chemicals; woollen cloth manufacture; fuller; worsted manufacture; flax, linen manufacture; sugar refiner; cotton manufacture; packer and presser (cotton); paper manufacture; gasworks service; earthenware manufacture; glass manu- facture; lead manufacture; white-metal manufacture; wire-maker; iron manufacture.

Transport and communications Railway engine driver, stoker; others engaged in railway traffic; toll collector; coach, cab owner; livery-stable keeper; coachman (not domestic APPENDIX 137 servant) guard, postboy; carman, carrier, carter, drayman; omnibus owner, conductor, driver; others engaged in road conveyance; canal service; boat and bargemen; others connected with inland navigation; seaman; pilot; others connected with sea navigation; engaged in warehousing; others connected with storage; messenger, porter (not govt); others employed about messages; coachmaker; others connected with carriage- making; shipwright, shipbuilder; boat, barge builder; others engaged in fitting ships; road labourer; railway labourer;

Mines and quarries Coal-miner; coal heaver, coal labourer; other workers in coal; stone quarrier; slate quarrier; limestone quarrier, burner; other workers in stone, clay; copper-miner; tin-miner; lead-miner; iron-miner.

‘Indefinite occupations’ Labourer (branch undefined); mechanic, manufacturer, shopman (branch undefined); others of indefinite occupations.

Building Builder; carpenter, joiner; bricklayer; mason, paviour; slater; plasterer; painter, plumber, glazier; others engaged in house construction; timber merchant; other dealers, workers in timber; thatcher; brickmaker.

Retail, foodstuffs and hostelries Innkeeper; lodging-house keeper; officer of charitable institution; others – boarding and lodging; house proprietor; salesman; auctioneer; commercial traveller; pawnbroker; shopkeeper; hawker, pedlar; other general merchants, dealers; cowkeeper, milkseller; cheesemonger; butcher; provision-curer; poulterer; fishmonger; others dealing in animal food; clothier; woollen draper; silkmercer; greengrocer; corn merchant; flour dealer; baker; confectioner; others dealing in vegetable food; licensed victualler, beershop keeper; wine and spirit merchant; grocer; tobacconist; others dealing in drinks, stimulants; draper; stationer; coal merchant or dealer; earthenware and glass dealer.

Domestic service Domestic servant (general); domestic servant (coachman); domestic servant (groom); domestic servant (gardener); domestic servant (inn servant). 138 APPENDIX

Professional, clerical and local government Post office; inland revenue; customs; other government officers; police; union relieving officer; officer of local board; other local officers; East India Service; clergyman; Protestant minister; priests and other religious teachers; barrister; solicitor; other lawyers; physician; surgeon; other medical men; parish clerk; other church officers; law clerk; law court officers and law stationers; druggist; others dealing in drugs etc.; author; editor, writer; others engaged in literature; painter (artist); architect; others engaged in the fine arts; scientific person; music-master; school- master; other teachers; merchant; banker; ship-agent; broker; agent, factor; accountant; commercial clerk; shipowner; publisher, bookseller; others engaged about publications; actor; others engaged about theatres; musician (not teacher); others connected with music; civil engineer; pattern designer; other designers and draughtsmen; surveyor.

Armed forces Army officer; army half-pay officer; soldier; Chelsea Pensioner; navy officer; navy half-pay officer; seaman, RN; Greenwich pensioner; marine; others engaged in defence.

Employment classifications: Females

Agriculture, animals and fisheries Farmer; farmer’s, grazier’s ‘wife’; farmer’s, grazier’s daughter, grand- daughter, etc.; farm servant (indoor); agricultural labourer (outdoor); land proprietor; gardener; others connected with horticulture; engaged about animals; workers, dealers in bark; others connected with agriculture; connected with arboriculture.

Workshops and handicraft Hatter; straw hat and bonnet maker; furrier; tailor; bonnet-maker; cap-maker; seamstress; shawl manufacture; staymaker; hose, stocking, manufacture; rag gatherer, cutter, dealer; glover (material not stated); shoemaker; shoemaker’s wife; umbrella, parasol, stick maker; others providing dress; employed about pictures and engravings; artificial flower- maker; others employed about carving and figures; toy maker, dealer; others connected with shows, games; medallists, die sinkers; philosophical instru- ment makers, dealers; engaged in manufacture of arms; machine makers, dealers; harness makers, dealers; implement makers, dealers; dealers in APPENDIX 139 grease, bones, etc.; dealers, workers in leather; dealers in feathers, quills; brush, broom maker; other workers, dealers in hair; knitter; stuff manu- facture; other workers, dealers in wool; silk manufacture; ribbon manufac- ture; fancy goods manufacture; embroiderer; other workers, dealers in silk; miller; dealers in oils, gums; workers in wood; cabinet-maker, upholsterer; others dealing in wood furniture; dealers in wood utensils; wood tool makers; straw plait manufacture; others working in cane, rush, straw; hemp manufacture; rope, cordmaker; other workers in hemp; thread manufacture; weaver (material not stated); lace manufacture; fustian manufacture; muslin embroiderer; calico, cotton printer; other workers in flax, cotton; other paper workers, dealers; tobacco-pipe makers and others; glass makers, workers; salt makers, dealers; water providers, dealers; workers, dealers in precious stones; workers, dealers in gold and silver; other workers, dealers in copper; workers, dealers in tin; workers, dealers in zinc; workers, dealers in lead; pin manufacture; button maker; other workers, dealers in brass & mixed metals; nail manufacture; black- smith; needle manufacture; other workers, dealers in iron, steel.

Factory Dyer, scourer, calenderer; engaged in manufacture of chemicals; woollen cloth manufacture; worsted manufacture; cotton manufacture; flax, linen manufacture; lint manufacture; paper manufacture; earthenware manufacture.

Transport and communications Railway attendants; toll collector; carrier, carter; others engaged in road conveyance; in and connected with barges; owners and others connected with ships; engaged in warehousing; employed about messages; carriage makers, dealers; ship, boat, barge builders.

Mines and quarries Coal-miner; coal labourer; other dealers, workers in coal; workers, dealers in stone, lime, clay; copper-miner.

‘Indefinite occupations’ Labourer (branch undefined); shopwoman (branch undefined); other persons of indefinite occupations.

Building Builders, house decorators; timber dealers, workers. 140 APPENDIX

Retail, foodstuffs and hostelries Innkeeper; innkeeper’s wife; lodging-house keeper; officer of charitable institution; others – boarding and lodging; milliner; hosier, haberdasher; house proprietor; shopkeeper; shopkeeper’s wife; hawker, pedlar; other general dealers and agents; cowkeeper, milkseller; butcher; butcher’s wife; fishmonger; others dealing in animal food; clothier; greengrocer; baker; confectioner; others dealing in vegetable food; licensed victualler, beershop keeper; licensed victualler; beershop keeper’s wife; wine and spirit merchant; grocer; tobacconist; others dealing in drinks, stimulants; draper; stationer; earthenware and glass dealer.

Domestic service Domestic servant (general); domestic servant (housekeeper); domestic servant (cook); domestic servant (housemaid); domestic servant (nurse); domestic servant (inn servant).

Professional, clerical and local government Post office; other employed by government; employed by local govern- ment; church officers; law court officers; druggist; others dealing in drugs; engaged in literature; engaged in fine arts; scientific persons; music-mistress; schoolmistress; governess; other teachers; nurse (not domestic servant); midwife; merchant; capitalist; bookseller; others engaged about publications; actors and others about theatres; musicians, musical instrument makers; designers. Further Reading

Much of the literature on child labour in Britain remains dominated by the experiences of children in large industries. The most detailed studies in this respect include B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison, A History of Factory Legislation (1903), A. H. Robson, The Education of Children Engaged in Industry in England, 1833–1876 (1931) and M. W. Thomas, The Early Factory Legislation: A Study in Legislative and Administrative Evolution (1948). The stress on industrial employment is continued in more recent works, including C. Nardinelli, Child Labor and the Industrial Revolution (1990), which offers a neo-classical economics approach to the problem of working children, C. Tuttle, Hard at Work in Factories and Mines: The Economics of Child Labor During the British Industrial Revolution (1999) and P. Bolin-Hort, Work, Family and the State: Child Labour and the Organisation of Production in the British Cotton Industry, 1780–1920 (1989). Each of these books contains a great amount of detailed analysis but provides only limited coverage of the broader context of child labour. F. Keeling, Child Labour in the United Kingdom: A Study of the Development and Administration of the Law Relating to the Employment of Children (1914) is a pioneering attempt to deal with children in occupations other than those covered by factory and mines legislation and is especially valuable for its discussion of the operation of by-laws relating to children in public entertainments and street trading. I. Pinchbeck, Women Workers and the Industrial Revolution, 1750–1850 (1930) and E. Hopkins, Childhood Transformed: Working-Class Children in Nineteenth-Century England (1994) are invaluable for their discussions of workshop production. P. Horn, Children’s Work and Welfare, 1780–1880s (1994) provides a valuable but brief synthesis of the child labour market whilst M. Lavalette (ed.) A Thing of the Past? Child Labour in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1999) offers an interesting

141 142 FURTHER READING and ambitious project to combine sociological and historical approaches to children’s employment. Works on specific sectors and regions include P. Horn, ‘Pillow Lace- Making in Victorian England: The Experience of Oxfordshire’, Textile History, 3 (1972) and ‘Child Workers in the Pillow Lace and Straw Plait Trades of Victorian Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire’, Historical Jour- nal, 17 (1974), which demonstrate the enormous importance of child and female labour in domestic industries. The ages and employment condi- tions of domestic servants are examined in E. Higgs, Domestic Servants and Households in Rochdale 1851–1871 (1986) and in B. Hill, Servants: English Domestics in the Eighteenth Century (1996) whilst the employment of young farm servants is discussed in A. Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (1981). For agriculture more generally, W. Hasbach’s A History of the English Agricultural Labourer (1920) contains sections on the economics of child employment whilst P. Horn, The Changing Countryside in Victorian and Edwardian England and Wales (1984) provides an excellent social context to agrarian child labour. Other valuable contributions to the agrarian literature include J. Kitteringham, ‘Country Work Girls in Nineteenth-Century England’ in R. Samuel (ed.) Village Life and Labour (1975), H. V. Speechley, ‘Female and Child Agricultural Day Labourers in Somerset, c.1685–1870’ (PhD thesis, Exeter 1999) and N. Verdon, ‘The Employment of Women and Children in Agriculture: A Reassess- ment of Agricultural Gangs in Nineteenth-Century Norfolk’, Agricul- tural History Review, 49 (2001). The important, but often-neglected, subject of family labour in farming is examined in M. Winstanley, ‘Industrialization and the Small Farm: Family and Household Economy in Nineteenth-Century Lancashire’, Past and Present, 152 (1996). Historians of the factory and mines sectors are well represented and include W. H. Hutt, ‘The Factory System of the Early Nineteenth Century’ in F. A. Hayek (ed.) Capitalism and the Historians (1954), C. Nardinelli, ‘Child Labor and the Factory Acts’, Journal of Economic History, 40 (1980) and ‘Corporal Punishment and Children’s Wages in Nineteenth-Century Britain’, Explorations in Economic History, 19 (1982), J. Pressley, ‘Childhood, Education and Labour: Moral Pressure and the End of the Half-Time System’ (PhD. thesis, Lancaster 2000) and P. Kirby, ‘The Historic Viability of Child Labour and the Mines Act of 1842’ in M. Lavalette (ed.) A Thing of the Past? Child Labour in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1999). The institution of apprenticeship is examined in detail in J. Lane, Apprenticeship in England, 1600–1914 (1996), O. J. Dunlop and R. D. Denman, English Apprenticeship and Child FURTHER READING 143

Labour (1912) and D. Simonton, ‘Apprenticeship: Training and Gender in Eighteenth-Century England’ in M. Berg (ed.) Markets and Manufacture in Early Industrial Europe (1991). K. D. M. Snell, Annals of the Labouring Poor: Social Change and Agrarian England, 1660–1900 (1985) contains chapters on ‘The Decline of Apprenticeship’ and ‘The Apprenticeship of Women’. Snell’s article ‘The Apprenticeship System in British History: The Fragmentation of a Cultural Institution’, History of Education, 25 (1996) provides an excellent insight to the relationship between demo- graphic change and the decline of traditional apprenticeship contracts. The apprenticeship of pauper children is discussed in M. D. George, London Life in the Eighteenth Century (1925) and in M. B. Rose, ‘Social Policy and Business: Parish Apprenticeship and the Early Factory System, 1750–1834’, Business History, 31 (1989). Few regional studies of child labour exist but by far the most useful is M. Winstanley (ed.) Working Children in Nineteenth-Century Lancashire (1995). Urban child labour is discussed at length in a series of works by A. Davin, ‘Child Labour, the Working-Class Family, and Domestic Ideology in Nineteenth-Century Britain’, Development and Change, 13 (1982), ‘Working or Helping? London Working-Class Children in the Domestic Economy’ in J. Smith, I. Wallerstein and H. Evers (eds) Households in the World Economy (1984) and Growing up Poor: Home, School and Street in London, 1870–1914 (1996). The influence of household structure upon children’s employment has been discussed in research dealing with the household economy such as F. Collier, The Family Economy of the Working Classes in the Cotton Industry, 1784–1833 ed. R. S. Fitton (1964), M. Anderson, Family Structure in Nineteenth-Century Lancashire (1971) and J. S. Lyons, ‘Family Response to Economic Decline: Handloom Weavers in Early Nineteenth-Century Lancashire’, Research in Economic History, 12 (1989), each of which deals with a different aspect of family labour in north-west textiles. Studies of family structure in other sectors include M. W. Dupree, Family Structure in the Staffordshire Potteries, 1840–1880 (1995) and the range of publications by K. D. M. Snell on the agrarian economy. Theoretical approaches to child and family labour are discussed from an economics point of view in G. S. Becker, ‘A Theory of the Allocation of Time’, Economic Journal, 75 (1965) and from a proto-industrial standpoint in N. McKendrick, ‘Home Demand and Economic Growth: A New View of the Role of Women and Children in the Industrial Revolution’ in idem (ed.) Historical Perspectives: Studies in English Thought and Society (1974), J. de Vries, ‘The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution’, Journal of Economic History, 54 (1994), D. Levine, ‘The Demographic Implications 144 FURTHER READING of Rural Industrialisation: A Family Reconstitution Study of Shepshed, Leicestershire, 1600–1851’, Social History, 2 (1976) and ‘Industrialisation and the Proletarian Family in England’, Past and Present, 107 (1985). Other valuable works on children and the household economy include R. Wall, ‘The Age at Leaving Home’, Journal of Family History, 3 (1978) and ‘Leaving Home and the Process of Household Formation in Pre- Industrial England’, Continuity and Change, 2 (1987). S. Horrell and J. Humphries, ‘“The Exploitation of Little Children”: Child Labor and the Family Economy in the Industrial Revolution’, Explorations in Economic History, 32 (1995) discusses the extent to which child labour might be understood through the analysis of contemporary household accounts. The wider demographic context of childhood can be understood using histories of population and social structure such as E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871 (1989). Useful guides to the major demographic sources include the collection of essays in E. A. Wrigley (ed.) Nineteenth-Century Society (1972) and E. Higgs, A Clearer Sense of the Census (1996). The latter offers a very clear explana- tion of what can be achieved using the household schedules of the nineteenth-century censuses. The Irish University Press has published an Index to British Parliamentary Papers on Children’s Employment which, though not exhaustive in its coverage, provides a very detailed searching aid to the major nineteenth-century state inquiries into child employment. Comprehensive coverage of nineteenth-century parliamentary papers can be found in P. Cockton, Subject Catalogue of the House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, 1801–1900, 5 vols (1988). A wide range of working- class testimony is catalogued in J. Burnett, D. Vincent and D. Mayall, The Autobiography of the Working Class: An Annotated Critical Bibliography, 1790–1945, 3 vols (Brighton 1986–89). The autobiographers frequently included details of their early lives and labour and this is discussed at greater length in J. Burnett, Destiny Obscure: Autobiographies of Childhood, Education and Family from the 1820s–1920s (1982) and in D. Vincent, Bread, Knowledge and Freedom: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Autobiography (1981). The popularity of ‘childhood’ studies has given rise to a number of works which, though not dealing specifically with child labour, provide useful contextual material. H. Cunningham, Children of the Poor: Repre- sentations of Childhood Since the Seventeenth Century (1991) and Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500 (1995) are useful texts but tend to focus upon middle-class perceptions of childhood. One of the most valuable short introductions to the subject remains P. E. H. Hair, ‘Children in FURTHER READING 145

Society, 1850–1980’ in T. Barker and M. Drake (eds) Population and Society in Britain: 1850–1980 (1982) whilst I. Pinchbeck and M. Hewitt, Children in English Society, 2 vols (1969; 1973) provides a comprehensive survey of English childhood from Tudor times to the mid-twentieth century. The most recent and well-informed treatment of western childhood may be found in C. Heywood, A History of Childhood (2001). Select Bibliography

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Acts of Parliament (see also Factory Act (1867), 108 legislation) Gangs Act (1867), 60, 84 Statute of Artificers (1563), 17, Workshops Regulation Act 65, 95, 96, 120 (1867), 108–9 Settlement Act (1662), 87 Education Act (1870), 111 Chimney Sweepers Act Mines Act (1872), 105 (1788), 104 Agricultural Children’s Act Health and Morals of (1873), 60 Apprentices Act (1802), Chimney Sweepers Act 104, 124 (1875), 104 Apprentices Act (1814), 95, 96 Factory and Workshop Act Parish Apprentices Act (1816), (1878), 109 40, 104 Education Act (1880), 111 Factory Act (1819), 104 Local Government Act Merchant Vessels (1888), 48 Apprenticeship Act Education Act (1891), 112 (1823), 121 Employment of Children Act Factory Act (1833), 74, 94, 102, (1903), 20 104, 106, 108, 117, 123 agricultural gangs, 45, 59–60, 82, Poor Law Amendment Act 83, 84, 101, 122, 128 (1834), 29, 84, 94–5 gang masters, 59, 60, 122 Custody of Infants Act prostitution, 122 (1839), 45 sexual activity, 101 Mines Act (1842), 14, 49, 94, agricultural labour, 3, 5, 30, 42, 105, 106, 109–10 57, 58, 81, 82, 131 Factory Act (1844), 105, at early ages, 55–6 107, 108 earnings, 40, 42 Factory Act (1847), 107 gender, 33–4 Bleach and Dye Works Act regional variations in, 33 (1860), 108 stature of workers, 47 Mines Act (1861), 105 under-enumeration in Factory Act (1864), 108 census, 21

160 INDEX 161 agriculture, 2, 4, 9, 12, 32, 35, apprentices, 4, 10, 17–18, 35, 38, 52, 55–60, 71, 75, 81, 37–40, 62, 63–8, 69, 70, 82, 94, 110, 111, 118, 86, 120–1, 131 119, 128, 132 accommodation of, 67, 131 arable, 33–4, 56 binding, 18, 38, 39, 40, 49, 65, crofting, 60 67, 82, 83, 123 dairying, 56 competition for places, 38 enclosure, 56, 58 girls, 56–7, 63–5, 85, 86 family labour in, 32, 57, 59, 83 ‘half-pay’, in silk factories, 62 farm service, 3, 10, 12, 16, non-indentured, 66 17–18, 30, 32–3, 35, 41, prohibition on marriage, 41 53, 54, 55, 57–8, 70, 83, social origins of, 65, 67 87, 101, 121, 131 apprenticeship accommodation of servants, craft guilds, 96 57–8 duration of, 65 decline of, 33, 58, 60, evidence of 67–8, 83 in census, 25, 65 duration of, 58 court proceedings, 18 female servants, 21 indentures, 18 gender differences, 53 registers, 18, 24 geographical mobility of formal, 37–8, 65–8, 95–7, 118 farm servants, 17, 58, decline of, 18, 38, 66–8, 65, 120–1 95–7, 132 living conditions, 58, 101 numbers of, 65, 91 wages, 16 indentures, 18, 37, 40, 65, farmers, 35, 58, 101, 119, 120–1 66, 67 farmers’ children and relatives, ‘indoor’, 67 11, 12, 33, 35, 52, 53, 54, life-cycle stage, 65, 96 55, 57, 58–9, 80, 83 in middle ages, 46 farms ‘outdoor’, 67 scale of production, 30, 57, pauper and parish 58, 59, 60, 82, 131 apprenticeship, 18, 37, regional variation in size, 38–40, 48, 49, 65, 66, 71, 56, 82 82, 88, 101, 104, 123, 124 manure spreading, 59 abuse of system, 39–40, 71, 88 numbers of children employed, decline of, 40 52, 53–5, 55–60, 82, 91 living standards and health pastoral, 33, 56 of, 40, 101, 104 pig-keeping, 56 premiums, 38 plough boys, 56 regulation of, 65–8, 95–7 seasonal nature of labour in, sea service, 121 12, 21, 35, 56, 59, 63, 82, stamp duty, 67 113–14, 132 Arch, J., 56, 119 small holdings, 83 Armstrong, W. A., 24, 83 strip farming, 56 Ashton, T. S., 76 thinning crops, 59 weeding, 35, 56, 59 Bailey, M., 121 Anderson, M., 3, 12, 28, 73 Barnardo, T. J., 70 162 INDEX

Barnardo’s, 14 concentrations of, 53–5, 61, 62, Bartrip, P. W. J., 105, 107 131, 132 basket-weaving, 96 decline of, 4, 11, 34, 93–4, 103, Becker, G., 3, 80 109–11, 119, 132, 133 Bedfordshire, 31, 33, 61, diversity of, 81 62, 112 ethics of, 2, 5, 133 Berg, M., 41, 72 and fluctuations in trade cycle, Berkshire, 33, 56 31, 79 bird-scaring, 18, 35, 56 and industrialisation, 43, 81, blacksmiths, 35, 63, 64 119 female, 85 as life-cycle stage, 131 Blaug, M., 124 in modern developing bleaching and dyeing, 108 economies, 42, 111 Blincoe, R., 49, 101, 123 numbers employed, 52–92 ‘blind-alley labour’, 70 proportions of children ‘blue books’ see government employed, 11–12, 21 reports and schooling, 111–20 bobbin-net manufacture, 23 as a social problem, 1, 9, 19 Bolin-Hort, P., 74, 89, 110 and systemic poverty, 43 book-binders, 63 traditional views of, 1–2, 132 Booth, C., 45 under-recording of, in Bradford, Yorkshire, 102 census, 83 breeches makers, 35 very young children, 46, 53, 59, bricklayers, 35, 66 111–12, 131, 133 ‘bridging occupations’, 64, 85 numbers employed, 4, 11–12, brush and broom makers, 63 53, 112 Buckinghamshire, 31, 61, 112 ‘childhood’ building, 52, 66–7 definitions of, 10, 20 by-employment see labour: duration of, in eighteenth and multiple employment nineteenth centuries, 10 child-minding, 4, 18, 68, 68–9, 80, cabinet-makers, 63 118, 119, 132 calico printing, 55 child-protection charities, 70–1 Cambridgeshire, 59 Children’s Friend Society, 70 Canada, 70 chimney-sweeps, 5, 19–20, 94, capitalism, critique of, 1, 36, 98 103–4, 120 carpenters, 66 numbers of, 20 carpet and rug making, 84, 99 China, 62 Chadwick, E., 15 Clapham, J. H., 24, 86, 88 chain manufacture, 64, 85 classical economists see political Chaloner, W. H., 2 economy Chapman, S. D., 123 clog-makers, 63 cheap repository tracts, 48 coalmining, 4, 11, 71, 103, 120, Checkland, S. G., 41 126, 128 Cheshire, 51, 117 accidents, 14, 106, 109–10 child labour apprentices, 49 ancillary nature of, 10, 68, 72, bond, in north-east England, 74, 105, 132 83, 128–9 INDEX 163 child labour in, 31–2, 35–6, 46, 48, Cooper, A. A. see Shaftesbury, 53, 54, 55, 71, 76–8, 93, 94, seventh earl of, 100, 103, 105, 109–10, 132 coopers, 35, 63 drivers, 77 copper miners, 54 ‘Lancashire Collier Girl’, 48 cordwainers, 38 numbers employed, 76, 78 Corfe Castle, Dorset, 29 putters, 77 Corn Laws, 97, 98 trappers, 77–8, 109–10 cottage industry see domestic ‘choke-damp’, 77 production coalminers, 76, 83 cotton manufacture, 54, 55, 61, age-structure of, 77–8 73, 74–6, 75, 80, 88, 89, fertility, 42 95, 104, 123 immorality, 99–100 croppers, 66 literacy, 116, 128–9 crossing-sweepers, 68 stature, 77, 107, 125 Crowther, M. A., 115 strike (1844), 114 Cunningham, H., 8, 21, 74, 79, coalmines inspection, 105–6, 80, 89, 90, 119 109–10, 125, 126, 128 mines inspector, 14, 109 Daunton, M. J., 70 opposition to by miners, 109 Davin, A., 5–6, 35, 70 prosecutions, 106, 125 de Vries, J., 4 resources available for, 14, ‘dead-end’ jobs, 69–70 105, 125 delivery boys, 68 coalowners, 32, 99–100, Derbyshire, 51 109–10, 114–15, 126 Derry, T. K., 66 geology, 77, 78, 110, 126 Devon, 33 land-sale coal, 76 Dodd, W., 15 methane (fire-damp), 77 Doherty, J., 101, 123 mining engineers, 109, 128 domestic production, 10, 11, 31, regional differences in, 76–8 33, 36, 41, 44, 51, 56, 60, 61, safety, 77–8, 128 62, 71, 73, 97, 98, 99, 111, scale of production, 76–8, 112, 116, 117 109–10 diversity of, 31, 36, 63 underground haulage, inspection of, 109, 111 76–7, 78 domestic servants, ponies and horses, 77 gender, 52–3, 62–3 use of harnesses and numbers of, 52, 54–5, 69, 87 chains, 120 sparseness of evidence of, 69 ventilation of pits, 77–8, 109–10 domestic service, 1, 9, 10, 12, 17, Cobbett, W., 115 34, 51–2, 52, 53, 63, 64, 69, Cold War, 1 70, 71, 87, 94, 132 Coleman, D. C., 3, 94 domestic tasks, 4, 10, 18, 56, Colls, R., 114–15 80, 118 Colyton, Devon, 34 dressmakers, 85 common land, 37 drudges, 69 constables and watchmen, 109 Duffy, B., 114 consumer demand, 40, 41 Dukinfield, Cheshire, 39 and economic growth, 4 Dunstable, Bedfordshire, 62 164 INDEX

Dupree, M., 3 General Register Office, 10, Durham, 31, 103 20, 80 state inquiries (see also earnings, 67, 84, 95, 111, 115, 133 government reports), 9, children, 3, 4, 16, 23, 28, 29–31, 13–14, 19, 22, 93, 97 34, 45, 64, 71, 95, 98, 128 guides to government families, 16, 24, 29, 41, 44, 45, reports, 22 73, 74, 128 inspectors’ reports and ‘in kind’, 16 papers, 14, 22, 61, 93 men, 28, 63 state commissioners, 13, in wake of Napoleonic Wars, 99–100, 120 40, 84 testimony of working-class women, 4, 28, 30, 31, 64 children, 13 earthenware manufacture, 54 health records, 15–16 Eccles, Lancashire, 39 civil registration, 16 education see schooling medical inspections, 15 educational schemes, 116 occupational health, 15, 23 educationists, 115, 128 stature of children, 15 emigration, forced, 70 urban illness and mortality, Engels, F., 100–1, 102, 126 15–16 England, 26, 34, 59, 106 household accounts see north, 39, 71 household north east, 76, 83, 109 non-quantitative, 18–19 south, 69 novels, 19 England and Wales, 11, 26, 27, parish registers, 20, 106 46, 52, 60, 62, 63, 68, 79, 80 periodicals, 14 errand boys, porters and message Poor Law, 10, 33, 37 runners, 53, 68, 69, 118, 132 Public Record Office, 18, 22 numbers and concentrations of, quantitative, 11–13 53–5, 68 shortage of, 52, 134 Essex, 65 reluctance of parents to provide evangelicals, 97–8 information, 12 evidence, 9–25, 131, 133 settlement examinations, 17, 87 anecdotal, 36, 79 sparseness of, 131, 133 autobiographical, 18–19, 24, for eighteenth century, 56, 81 12, 134 business accounts, 16 exploitation of children, 1, 46, 93, farm wage books, 12, 23 101–2 census explosive devices, 108 abstracts and reports, 9–10, 11–13, 18, 20, 52, 53, factories, 51, 52, 60, 61, 62, 63, 79–80, 81 71–6, 96, 104–9, 117, 123, enumeration and 124, 127, 132 enumerators, 11, 12, child labour in, 1, 53, 71–6, 13, 37, 75 93, 94, 101–3, 104, 107–8, quinquennial age groups in, 110, 111, 117, 119, 21, 80 121, 132 doctors, 15, 23, 124 children of operatives, 39, 73 INDEX 165

concentrations of children Farey, J., 40 in, 71 Farnie, D. A., 76 decline of parental supervision farriers see blacksmiths in, 97 Felkin, W., 101 family labour in, 72–4, 89 fellmongering, 96 half-timers, 74–6, 89, 94, females, employment of, 28, 30, 108, 126 32, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48, 51–3, abolition, 126 56, 59, 63, 64, 68, 71–2, 76, numbers of, 75, 89, 90 95, 102, 105, 132 hours of work, 102, 104, 105 under-recording in censuses, night working, 104, 125–6 11, 79–80 ‘relay’ system, 108, 125–6 unemployment of, 79–80, 81 scale of operations, 14, 51, 52, unmarried 61, 71, 106, 107–9, 123 in agricultural districts, 21, sexual activity of workers, 34, 58–60, 64, 101, 122 99, 100–1 in domestic service, 69 short-time movement, 96, in domestic tasks, 118 102, 123 in textiles, 53, 64, 71–2, 76 stature of children, 107, 125 in workshops and Ten Hours Movement, 101–2, handicrafts, 53, 61, 121, 123 63, 71–2 water-powered, 39, 40, 107–8 Fielden, J., 93 ‘factory age’, 51 fishermen, 57 factory commissioners, 110, 126 flax, linen manufacture, 54, 55 threats of violence towards, 126 framework knitters, 31, 33, factory inspection, 94, 105–9 66, 101 certifying surgeons, 106–7 French wars, effects of, 30, 33, factory inspectors, 14, 20, 31–2, 40, 62, 64, 84, 101 61, 105–9 defectiveness of statistics, 74, gardeners, 57 75, 89, 90 Gardner, P., 113, 129 examination of children’s George, M. D., 48 teeth, 107 Glasgow, 69, 88 fraudulent certificates, 32, 107 glove makers, 54, 63 prosecutions, 106, 107, 108 Goldstone, J. A., 42 questionnaires, 14 government reports resources available for, 14, 105 Select Committee on Parish factory owners, 1, 2, 14, 71, 98, Apprentices (1814–15), 102, 107, 115, 117, 123 48, 88 factory production, Select Committee on increase from late eighteenth Manufactures (1816), 15, 104 century, 31 Sadler Committee (1831–32), factory reform (see also legislation), 13, 15, 102, 123 73, 74, 93, 94, 97, 98, Factory Commission (1833), 13, 117, 124 97, 102 effect upon poor families, Lords’ Committee on the Poor 98, 122 Law Amendment Act magistrates, 104, 107, 108, 125 (1837–38), 95 166 INDEX government reports (Continued) historical demographers, Report on Hand-Loom 26–7 Weavers (1840), 68, 116 Honeyman, K., 88 Children’s Employment Horner, L., 107, 108, Commission (Mines) 113, 125 (1842), 13, 20, 22, 46, Horrell, S., 24 48, 99, 100, 105 hosiery and stocking Reports of Special Assistant Poor manufacture, 54, 62, 63 Law Commissioners on the household Employment of Women and accounts, 3, 16–17, 24 Children in Agriculture artisanal, 38 (1843), 32, 35, 59–60, 122 divorce and separation, 45 Children’s Employment early studies of, 6 Commission (Trades and economic contributions of Manufactures) (1843), 22, children, 3, 28, 29, 35, 61, 66–7, 99, 127 95, 133 Newcastle Commission (1861), economy, 3–5, 26–32, 34, 56, 112, 119 41–2, 43, 44, 46, 60, 61, Returns to the Poor Law 66, 72–4, 88, 117–19, Board on the Education of 122, 133 Pauper Children (1862), 88 ‘proto-industrial’, 41, 79 Select Committee on Regulation and schooling, 30, 112 and Inspection of Mines effect of industrial and urban (1866), 46 development, 3, 17, 72–4, Gray, R., 23 97–101, 111 Gregs of Styal, 40 effect of life-cycle, 10, 16, 30–1, grooms, 57 34, 45, 58 family strategies, 3, 23, 34, 60, Hair, P. E. H., 21, 129 131 Hammond, J. L. and Hammond, B., ‘household production 1, 93, 123 function’, 3–4 hand-loom weavers, 30, 33, 37, lone parents, 28–9, 44, 131 39–40, 62, 75, 97, 117 middle- and upper-class ideal, Hanway, J., 7, 19, 20 98, 128 Hardy, T., 25 organisation of time and labour, Hartwell, R. M., 2, 98 3–5 hat manufacture, 35, 62 poverty, 28–32, 43, 44, 45, 67, Heesom, A. J., 114 95, 119 Henriques, U. R. Q., 98 private aspects of family life, Hertfordshire, 31 18–19 Higgs, E., 21 Hudson, P., 99 Hill, B., 22 humanitarianism, 93, 94, 97–101, Hill, C., 36 110, 121, 132–3 ‘hiring’ fairs, 17 Humphries, J., 24, 101, 103 historians, 72–3, 93–4, 111, Hunt, E. H., 37 114, 141–5 Hutchins, B. L. and Harrison, A., ideological motivations of, 2, 1, 22, 93, 134 114–15 Hutt, W. H., 22, 134 INDEX 167 ill-treatment, 1, 2, 9, 39, 101–2 industrial, 8, 9, 13–14 agricultural gangs, 59 intensity, 35, 53, 63, 72 apprentices, 18, 49 migratory, 60–1, 69 silk mills, 101 mobility of, 96, 120–1 import tariffs, 62 multiple employment, 75, 79, on foodstuffs, 30 80–1 on silk, 85 occupation structure, 17 India, 111 release of, 60 industrial growth, pace of, 51 seasonality of, 9, 12, 17, 21, industrial labour market, 71–8 38, 53, 60, 113–14, and schooling, 111–13 128, 132 Industrial Revolution, 71 supply of, 28–32, 40, 60, 61, and child dependency, 27–8 83, 95, 108, 120–1 and child labour, 53, 79, 132 lace-making, 4, 37, 54, 61, 62, early histories of, 51 63, 108 as ‘industrious revolution’, 4 Lancashire, 32, 46, 51, 59, 62, and literacy, 116 71, 75, 76, 82, 84, 101, regional nature of, 2, 51, 81 103, 112, 117 and sexual activity, 99–101 east, 76 and social problems, 97 Lanigan, J., 87 Inglis, B., 1 Laslett, P., 8, 9, 26 iron miners, 54 Lavalette, M., 46 Italy, 62 leaving home, 3, 10, 20, 32–5, 46, 131 Japan, 44, 62, 80, 84, 126–7 ages at, 32–5, 47 Johnson, R., 114 gender differences in ages Jordan, E., 21 at, 33–4 in rural and urban Kay, J. P., 95, 123 districts, 34 Keeling, F., 94, 120 and skilled trades, 33 Kidderminster, Worcestershire, 99 Leek, Staffordshire, 61 Kingsley, C., 19–20 legislation (see also Acts of Knox, W. W., 67 Parliament; factory reform) Kussmaul, A., 3, 57 13, 93, 94, 95, 102, 103–11, 122, 123, 132–3 labour ‘administrative momentum’, 120 adult, 43, 53, 73–4, 76, 96, 102 education, 111–12, 118, 132 casual, 9, 38 factory, 37, 102–3, 123 competition, 39–40, 102–3, 109 effectiveness of, customs, 41, 42, 57, 68, 89, 103–11 131–2 inspection and enforcement, ‘St Monday’, 81, 91 105–11 demand for, 7, 17, 30, 41, 42, and the labour market, 110–11, 43, 56–7, 69 132–3 distribution of, according to mining, 37, 103, 126 family needs, 32, 46 regional differences in hand labour, 61, 62, 72, 76 support for, 103 household, 31 non-textiles industries, 126 168 INDEX legislation (Continued) millwrights, 35 opposition to exclusion of mineral extraction, 71 children, 32, 103 mines and quarries, 52 reformers, 97–103, 110–11 Mitch, D. F., 119 Leicestershire, 31, 62, 116 Monmouthshire, 117 Levine, D., 4 More, H., 48 Lincolnshire, 59, 60, 82 literacy, 30, 65, 97 nail-manufacture, 63, 64, 85 measurement of, 116, 117, 129 Nardinelli, C., 7, 74, 102, 107, by occupation, 116, 117 126, 127 regional variations, 116, 117 Neff, W., 19 of working-class Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 128 autobiographers, 18 Norfolk, 59, 82, 118 Liverpool, 127 Northumberland, 103 lodging-houses, 69 Nottingham, 101 London, 20, 35, 39, 66, 68, 69, 87, 101, 103, 123 Oastler, R., 98, 121 Londonderry, third marquis of, occupational training, 118 99–100, 114, 126 occupations as surnames, 133 Lord Ashley see Shaftesbury, Owen, R., 93 seventh earl of Lords, House of, 103, 104, 126 parliamentary papers see lost children, 127 government reports Lothians, 39 Peacock, A. E., 107 Luton, Bedfordshire, 62 periodicals and newspapers, 14, 99–100 Macclesfield, Cheshire, 66 declining costs of, 118 MacDonagh, O., 93 ‘pessimists’, 2 machine production, 51, 64 petitions, 95, 103 health effects of, 15 philanthropy, 36, 98, 134 Macpherson, A., 70 ‘philanthropic abduction’, 70 maids-of-all-work, 10, 12, 69 picking stones, 38, 48, 56 Malthus, T. R., 45 pin-making, 11, 36, 64 Manchester, 15, 36, 88, 89, 104, Pitt, W., 6–7 123 Place, F., 100–1 Marshall, A., 93 Playfair, W., 96 Marvel, H. P., 107 political economy, 3, 95–7, 121 masons, 35 freedom of labour, 66, 95 matchmaking, 84, 108 Poor Law, 13, 29–30, 32, 37–40, Mathias, P., 132 43, 79, 84, 87, 95, 98, 124, Mayhew, H. 20, 68 131, 132 McCulloch, J. R., 3 child allowances, 29–30, 32, 95 McKendrick, N., 4, 32 child destitution, 38, 131 mechanics, 39 Commission, 29, 40, 69–70 Medick, H., 41 commissioners, 40, 48–9, 59 metal-working, 36, 38, 64 illegitimacy, 38 millers, 61, 63, 64 ‘less eligibility’, 38, 48 milliners, 85 ‘non-resident’ relief, 38 INDEX 169

outdoor relief, 34, 37, 45, 95 poverty, 9, 17, 87, 119, 127, 131 overseers, 39, 48, 71 as cause of child labour, 3, 34, questionnaires, 79, 91 37, 43, 97 records, 10, 37 depressed trades, 44 settlement, 37–8, 87 destitute children, 14, 37, 70, examinations, 33 71, 131 Speenhamland system, 29 household, 28–32, 34, 44, 67, workhouses, 37, 38, 39, 69, 123 131 population and social structure, 4, life-cycle, 30–1, 34, 45 26–50, 43, 50, 131 orphans, 14, 29, 38, 43, 69, age-structure, 26–8, 43, 131 70, 131 bachelors and spinsters, 26, 43 rural families, 111 birth-rate, 26 vagrants, 70 child dependency, 3, 4, 10, Preston, Lancashire, 34, 36, 73, 26–32, 34, 42, 43, 45, 131 118 dependency ratio, 26–8, 44 printers, 63, 64 life-cycle, 30–1 professional, clerical and local child population, 26–8 government, 52 civil registration, 46, 106 puberty, 10 fertility, 42, 50 public space, 70 and economic growth, 42 ‘putting-out’ system, 72 by occupation, 42 illegitimacy, 30, 43, 48 Radcliffe, W., 63 increasing population, 26, 41–2, Ragged School Movement, 14, 61, 66 87–8 of children and juveniles, Registrar General, 116 26–8, 95 ‘respectability’, 70, 87 rural increase, 38 retail, foodstuffs and hostelries, 52 marriage, 26, 41, 45, 57, 58, Ricardo, D., 121 64, 133 Rickman, J., 12 age at marriage, 32, 42, 89 Roberts, C, 125 in pre-industrial society, 41 Roberts, R., 118 migration, 34, 38, 60–1, 67, Robson, A. H., 93 69, 117 Rochdale, Lancashire, 69, 87 mortality rope making, 55, 63, 84 child, 20 Rose, M. B., 39 parental, 29, 41 Rostow, W. W., 102–3 population size, 26 Rowntree, B. S., 45 studies of, 133 royal commissions see government urbanisation, 47, 67, 71, 116 reports widowers, 45 Royton, Lancashire, 39 widows, 28–9, 45 Rye, M. S., 70 postal workers, 117 potato-setting, 35 Sadler, M. T., 13, 15, 22, 93, 98, potteries, 4, 28, 32, 36, 67, 108 102, 121, 123 family structure in the sailcloth-makers, 63 Potteries, 3 Saito, O., 28, 44 sexual activity of workers, 99 Salford, Lancashire, 36, 87 170 INDEX

Sanderson, M., 117 Seccombe, W., 93 sawyers, 35 secularism, 116–17 school boards, 111, 118 servants in husbandry see school leaving, 37, 69, agriculture: farm service 118–19, 124 services, 38, 110, 111, 132 ages, 119 Shaftesbury, seventh earl of, 19, school masters, 105, 113 84, 93, 97, 98, 109, 121, literacy of, 113 123, 126 prosecutions, 127 Shahar, S., 46 schooling, 30, 108, 111–19, Sheffield, Yorkshire, 64 128, 133 shepherds, 57 in agricultural districts, 113–14, shipwrights, 66 118–19 shoe and boot manufacture, 61, Board of Education, 69–70 63, 64 census evidence, 112, 113 shopkeepers, 68 compulsory, 13, 111–12, 122, Shropshire, 103 127, 133 silk manufacture, 54, 61, 62, 63, costs of, 112, 113, 127 66, 84, 85, 104–5, 123 education laws, 93, 111–12, 127 high concentrations of children effect upon child labour in, 85, 104–5 market, 111–12, 133 ‘Spitalfields Acts’, 66, 86 established church, 114, 116 Simonton, D., 38, 65, 91 in factory districts, 117 slavery, 121 free, 112, 127 and child labour, 2, 97, 121 and literacy, 112, 115–18, 133 ‘Yorkshire Slavery’, 121 regional variations in, 116 Smelser, N. J., 73 of older children, 112 Smith, A., 96 state education, 119 Snell, K. D. M., 3, 25, 35, working-class attitudes towards, 47, 112 112, 115–16, 117–18, soap-boilers, 63 119, 129 South Africa, 70 schools (see also Sunday schools) Sowerby, Yorkshire, 37 attendance, 21, 113–14, 117, Speechley, H. V., 12, 20, 23, 118, 128 47, 82, 91 ‘dame’ schools, 113, 127 spinning, 36–7, 62–3, 71, 73, day-schools, 112, 127 74, 84, 89 holidays, 114 age structure of adult spinners, private, working-class, 112, 73–4 113, 119 carding, 74 quality of teaching, 119, 127 decline of domestic, 85 scarcity of, 117 jennies, 62, 72, 88 ‘social control’, 114–15 mules, 62, 72, 74, 75 Scotland, 11, 26, 32, 46, 52, self-acting, 74, 76 58, 59, 60, 66, 79, 106, picking, 74 113–14 piecers, 72, 73, 74, 76 central, 51, 71 scavengers, 74 east, 103 water-frame, 62, 72 west, 46 wheels, 62–3, 71 INDEX 171

Staffordshire, 65, 67, 99 ‘technological determinism’, 74 south, 103 textiles, 62–3, 71–3, starting work, 10 74–6, 88 ages at, 3, 24, 32–7, 47, 63 textiles, 4, 38, 71–6, 104 effect of Industrial employment statistics, 74 Revolution, 36 Thomas, M. W., 93 age-specific demand for child Thompson, E. P., 1, 50 labour, 35–6 Thring, H., 84 agriculture, 35, 47 Tillott, P. M., 21 apprentices, 35, 46, 48 Tonna, C. E., 100 armed forces, 36, 47, 52 Tories, 98 coalmining, 35–6, 46, 77 toy manufacture, 64 in Japan, 48 trade unions, 23–4 pin-making, 36 attempts to restrict entry to potteries, 36 trades, 24 urban and industrial cotton textiles operatives, 101 districts, 35 transport and communications, 52 Statistical Society, 12, 113 Tranter, N. L., 37 Journal of, 14 Tremenheere, H. S., 84, steam-power, 40 109–10 Stephens, W. B., 118 Trollope, F., 123 Stewart-Vane, C. W. see Londonderry, third unemployment, marquis of of adults, 79, 81 straw-plaiting, 4, 31, 37, 54, 61, of children, 3, 8, 20, 62, 63 79–81, 91 street-entertainers, 70 and the census, 79 street-trading, 68, 70, 118 by gender, 11–12, 20, regulation of, 70 79–80, 81 Styal, Cheshire, 40 trade cycle, 79 Suffolk, 32, 56, 82 urban districts, 67–8, 68–71, 97 Sunday schools, 112–13, 127 begging, 68, 87 regional variation in ‘boy labour problem’, 69 attendance, 112 by-laws, 70 Sykes, J., 76 cities, 68 ‘criminal’ children, 70 tailors, 35, 38, 63, 64 under-recording of urban child Taylor, A. J., 77 labour, 68 technology, 43, 94, 110 Ure, A., 72 agriculture, 56 and child employment levels, Verdon, N., 122 74–8, 81, 89, 101, 107–8, Vincent, D., 116, 117 109–10 coalmining, 76–8, 103, 109–10, wages see earnings 128 Wales, 13 framework knitters, 101 south, 32, 76, 103 intermediate, 56, 61 walking to work, 34, 67, 84 lace-making, 62 Wall, R., 20, 33, 46 172 INDEX

Walvin, J., 1, 93, 111 working conditions, 39, 94, 97, Warrington, Lancashire, 28 108, 110, 120, 121, 123 Warwickshire, 37, 119 dangerous machinery, 94 watch-makers, 35 workplace organisation, 43, 72, water-cress selling, 68 94, 110 weather, 53, 56 workplace safety, 132 weaving, 72, 75–6, 88 workshops and handicrafts, 2, 9, power-looms, 75 12, 51, 52, 60–8, 84, 94, 99, tenters, 75 108–9, 110, 131, 132 Weiner, M., 111 concentrations of children in, Westminster, City of, 39, 69 63, 132 wheelwrights, 61, 66 ‘sweated’ labour, 63 Winstanley, M., 83 worsted manufacture, 54, 61 Wood, N., 128 wool-combing, 33 Yorkshire, 48 woollen cloth manufacture, 54, west, 51, 76, 103, 112, 117 55, 61 Young, A., 41, 48, 58