An historic survey

RY J. ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A., D.Litt.

P~espnfrdhy f fie GENER4L !iSSZp:131V OF LINITARIAW AND FRfi Gi-IRISTIA:lI C;iURGHES, LON-DON.

THE LINDSEY PRESS

5 ESSEX STREET, STRAND, LONDON, Mr.C. 2. 1922 (Watermarks are World War 2 damage when Essex Hall was destroyed by flying bomb VI). - PUBLISHERS' NOTE Dr. Carpenter's essay on ' ' was written for ' The Encyclop~diaof Religion and Ethics.' This reprint is by arrangement with and the permission of Messrs. T. & T. Clark, the publishers of the Encyclop~dia.

ESSEXHALL, LONDON. July, 1922.

1'RINTWD UP ELSO11 AND CO. NARICET PLACE:, BULL. UNITARIANISM NITARIANISM, an English term derived from the Latin unitarius (first used of a legalized religion in r6001), is applied to a mode of religious thought and organization founded on the conception of the single personality of the Deity in contrast to the orthodox doctrine of his triune nature. The cor- responding term " Trinitarian " was first used in the modern sense by Ser- vetus in 1546. The adjective " Unitar- ian " has sometimes been employed be- yond the limits of Christianity-e.g., in connexion with Muhammadanism; this article deals only with the development of modern Unitarianism on Christian lines. The place of the corresponding doctrine in the New Testament and Che early Church must be studied in the usual authorities on historical theology. 1 See 3 4 below. 2 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 3

I. BEGINNINGS ON THE CONTINENT were carried far' and wide. In Naples a The general movement of humanism young Spaniard, John Valdes, became at the opening of the 16th cent. led to a the centre of a religious group of noble variety of speculation which was largely ladies for the study of the Scriptures till stimulated by the publication of the his death in 1541 ; and in 1539 Melanch- (Greek text of the New Testament by thon found it necessary to warn the Erasmus (15 16). His omission of the Venetian senate of the existence of wide- famous Trinitarian verse, I John 5 and spread Servetianism in N. Italy. Out his aversion to the scholastic type of dis- of this circle comes Bernard Ochino putations, produced a marked effect on (1487-1565) of Siena, who passes slowly many minds. The earliest literary trace through Switzerland to London, serves of anti-Trinitarian tendencies is usually as one of the pastors of the Strangers' found in a treatise of Martin Cellarius Church (1550-53) till it is broken up by (1499-1 564), pupil of Reuchlin, and at Queen Mary, takes shelter 'again in first a'follower and friend of Luther. In Zurich, and finally migrates to Poland 1527 he published at Strassburg a work in I 559, and joins the anti-Trinitarian entitled de Operibus Dei,. in which he party. There Catherine Vogel, a jewel- used the term deus of Christ in the same ler's wife, had been burned at theLageof sense in which Christians also might be 80 in 1539 at Cracow for believing in called. dei as " sons of the Highest." " the existence of one God, creator of all The first treatise of Servetus (15 I 1-53), the visible and the invisible world, who de Trinitatis E~roribus,followed in I 5 3 I. could not be conceived 'by the human The minds of the young were on the intellect?"' An anti-Trinitarian move- alert. Teachers, theologians, lawyers, ment showed itself at the second synod physicians, mathematicians, men of of the Reformed Church ih 1556, and in letters and science, were a11 astir. They Wallace, Antitrinitarian Biography, ii. I 39, quoting travelled and discussed, and new views Polish histokians. .. c . 4, UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 5 1558 secured a leader in the person of a tion, and reason as grounds of faith, and. Piedmontese physician, George Bland- had pleaded for freedom of investiga- rata. Dutch Anabaptists started vari- tion. Lollard and Anabaptist diverged ous heretical moveients, and David in different directions from orthodoxy Joris of Delft (1501-56) declared, in his along independent lines. On 28th Dec. Wonder-book (I 542) that there is but 1548a pri;st named John Assheton ab- " one God, sole and indivisible, and that jured before Cranmer the " damnable it is contrary to the operation of God " that " the Holy Ghost is not throughout creation to admit a God in God, but only a certain power of the three persons." Thousands of Pro- Father," and that " Jesus Christ, that testants from , Alsace, and the was conceived of the Virgin Mary, was a Low Countries, migrated to England in holy prophet . . . but was not the true the reign of Henry VIII, and the and living God." In the following Strangers' Church under Edward VI, April a commission was appointed to contained also Frenchmen, Walloons, search out all ~naba~tists,'Ceretics,or Italians, and Spaniards. contemners of the Common Prayer. A number of London tradesmen were 2. IN BEG1,NNINGS ENGLAND brought before this body in May. The English thought was not unaffected. opinions which they recanted included In the 15th cent. Reginald Peacock, the statements " that there was no bishop of Chichester, had opened the of persons; that Christ was only way Gy his two treatises, the~ep~e~so~ a holy prophet and not at a11 God; that of overmuch Blaming of the Clergy1 and "allwe had by Christ was that he taught the Book of Faith,2 to the discussion of us the way to heaven."l Occasional the relative values of Scripture, tradi- 1 Ed. C. Babington (Rolls series, xix. I, 2), London, Gilbert Burnet, History of the Reformation of the I 860. Church of ErtgEand, London, 1679-81, bk. i., new ed., ' 2 Ed. J. L. Morison, Glasgow, '1909. Oxford, 1829, ii. 229. 6 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM

executions took place, such as that of X which he managed to retain even when the surgeon ~eor~evan Parris, of Bishop Grindal excommunicated him Mainz, in 1551 for saying that God the two years later for advocating toler-. Father was the only God, and Christ ance to Anabaptists. In his %ratage- was not very God. The Eastern coun- mata Satand he drew a distinction be-. ties, beilig in constant co~mmunication tween articles of faith necessary to sal- with , Holland, supplied most of the vation and beliefs derived from them victims, down to Bartholomew Legate, which might be matters of dispute. of Essex, whd declared Christ a " mere Adhering to Scripture, he declared the man," but " born. free from sin," and Father to be " the only true God "; who was the last sufferer by Smithfield affirmed the moral, not the essential, fires (1612), and Edward Wightman, \ filiation of Jesus Christ; and asserted who was burned a mohth later at Lich-. the subordination of the to. field, charged with ten various heresies the Father. But the time was not yet as incongruous as those of Ebion, come for his full influence in England. , , and Manes2 One foreign teacher, Giacomo Aconzio (Lat- 3. TYPES OF SPECULATION inized as Acontius, born at Trent about 1520), held his own through the troubled Three types of speculation were thus. times. Engineer and theologian, philo- in the European field by the middle of. sopher and lawyer, mathematician and the 16th century. (I) That of Servetus. poet, he came to England in 1559, and was founded on the " dispositio " of' received a post at Elizabeth's court, Irenzus and the " economy " of Ter- tullian; the Trinity was a Trinity of' Anti-Trinitarian opinions were developed in the manifestations or modes of operation; first Baptist Church founded in London in 1613, by when God is all in all (I Cor. 15~8),"the Thornas Helwys. See W. H. Burgess, John Smith, th~ S?-Baptist, London, 191I. 1 , I 565. De Trin. Error, p. 48. UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM

Economy of the Trinity will cease." l long known in Western Europe as His theology was Christocentric : "There . is no other person of God but Christ Socinus (I 5 39-1604) belonged to a . . . the entire Godhead of the Father is distinguished Italian family, the Sozini, in him?"' (2) Many of the Anabaptists in Siena. His uncle Lelius Socinus were Arians. (3) A humanitarian view (15 25-62) had evaded the Inquisitian by *ofJesus, recognizing a miraculous birth, flight to Switzerland in 1547. He be- was beginning to claim attention. The came the friend of Calvin and Melanch- last of these succeeded in establishing thon ; he visited England; he travelled itself in the east of Europe before Eng- to Poland. He did not escape con- lish Unitarians began to move. troversy and suspicion; he would not deny the doctrine of the Trinity, but he 4. THE SOCINIAN DEVELOPMENT would accept it only in the words of Scripture. Faustus Socinus was of a When Blandrata reached Poland in more aggressive temper. At twenty- 1558, he found that there were already three years of age he published his some anti-Trinitarians in the Protestant ExpZicatio prime partis primi capitis synod. Seven years later they were ex- Evangelii 70hanni.Q in which he as- cluded, and they consequently formed a cribed to Christ only an official and -small group which refused to call itself not an essential deity. A long series of by any other name than Christian, works followed, and in 1578 he accepted though other titles (such as the Minor an invitation from Blandrata, then in Church) were sometimes applied to it. the service of Prince John Sigismund of In qj9 the settlement A6f Faustus Transylvania, and went to Kol~zsviir Socinus in their midst led to the estab- (Kluj). Blandrata had invoked his aid lishment of a new theological type to be against Francis Dhvid, who rejected all

, 1 Ib. p. 82. ' 2 Ib.pp. 112f. * Rakow, 1662. UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM forms of cultus addressed to Christo1 the Bibliotbeca fratrum Polonorum quos Socinus pleaded for the adoratio Cbristi Unitarios vocant. published at Amster- as obligatory on all Christians, and urged d& (1665-69). i is theology rested on that the invocatio Cbristi should not be a rigid view of the authority ~f Scrip- forbidden. In 1579 he settled in Po- ture? The modern methods of his- land, where the rest of his life was spent. torical criticisn~ were of course un- The members of the Minor Church were known. Philosophy raised no difficul- converted to his views, which found ex- ties about the supernatural, but reason pression in the Racovian Catechism started objections from the side of the issued in polish in 1605, a year after his multiplication-table. death.2 A Latin edition followed in " The essence of God is one," says the Racovian 1609. The Polish adherents of Socinus Catechism, " not in kind but in number. Wherefore it cannot in any way contain a plurality of persons, since failed, however, to hold their ground., a person is nothing else than an individual intelligent Deprived of their right to office, their essence. Wherever then there exist three numerical leaders were powerless.. Roman Catho- persons, there must necessarily in like manner be reckoned three individual essences, for in the same lic reaction triumphed. Their college sense in which it is affirmed that there is one numerical at Rakow was suppressed, and finally essence, it must be held that there is one numerical in 1660 they were offered the option of person. "2 conformity or exile. Some went to Ger- But Socinus ,admitted the application many and Holland; some carried their of the term cc God " to Christ in an worship to Transylvania, and main- inferior sense (John ~o~~f),and argued tained a slender separate existence till 1 His treatise de Azlctoritate S. SCriptur~,written in 1793. But the infl;ence of Socinus was 1570, was first published at Seville, and claimed by a perpetuated in the massive volumes of Jesuit Lopex as his own. Commended in 1728 in a charge by Bishop Smallbrooke, it was translated into 1 See below. English by Edward Combe in 1731. 3 The town of Rakow, founded in 1569, was the- 2 Eng. trans. by Thomas Rees, London, 1818, iii. ecclesiastical base, with a school and university (1602)- ch. i. p., 33: 12 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM

from John 313 that after his her son Prince John Sigismund. At Christ had been conveyed to heaven, KolozsvAr he was brought into con- where he had beheld his Father, and tact with Francis Dsvid, who had been heard from him the things which he was sent by his Roman Catholic teachers to afterwards sent back to earth to teach. Wittenberg. There Dhvid had passed Raised again to heaven after his resur- into Lutheranism, but afterwards, dis- rection, he was made the head of all satisfied with its doctrine of the sac- creation, with divine authority over the raments, he joined the Calvinists. His world, and in that sense God. He was distinction led to his appointment thus no " mere man," and deserved (1564) as bishop of the Hungarian divine honour. Modern Unitarianism churches in Transylvania. Under Blan- has departed widely from this Christo- drata's influence he began to doubt logy. Apart from the necessarianism of the separate personality of the Holy Priestley, it is nearer to Socinus in its spirit, - and became involved in dis- view of human nature, which he treated cussions with the Calvinist leader, Peter (against the Calvinists) as endowed with Melius. In these debates Melius is said free will, and capable of virtue and to have first used the word Unitarius. religion. But the Polish Unitarians did Dhvid was strong enough to carry large not regard it as intrinsically immortal. numbers of clergy and laity with him. A future life would be a gift direct from In 1568 a royal edict was issued, grant- God, its conditions being made known ing entire freedom of conscience and by Christ. For those who did not fulfil speech, and giving legal recognition to them there was no hell, only extinction. " the Four Religions," Roman Catho- Unitarianism acquired ecclesiastical licism, Lutheranism, (or Re- status also in the adjoining province of formed), and " the Klausenburg Con- Transylvania. In 1563 Blandrata was fession." More than 400 preachers invited by Queen Isabella to the court of with their churches, and many pro- UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM fessors in colleges and schools, ranged joyed ecclesiastical peace? They have themselves . under Dhvid7s supervisor- now about 140 churches, chiefly among ship. . Dhvid, however, soon advanced the Szeklers of Transylvania, with a few another step, and questioned the pro- in Hungary, including a vigorous mod- priety of prayer to Christ. Blandrata's ern foundation in Buda-Pesth. Till attempt to influence him through 1919 their bishop sat in the Hungarian Faustus Socinus (1578) did not con- House of Peers. At Kolozsvhr they vince him, and in the following year, have a university, and they have de- under a Roman Catholic prince; DAvid voted great attention to education. No was tried for innovation in doctrine doctrinal subscription is imposed upon and sentenced to imprisonment. Five their ministers, arid under the influence months later (Nov. 1579) he died in the of progressive change, and contact with castle of D6va in his seventieth year. Unitarian teaching in England and The name Unitarius first appeared in America, the Socinian has an authoritative document in a decree been abandoned. The official hymn- of the Synod of Lkcsfalva in 1600. It book of 1865 made no provision for the was formally adopted by the Church in worship of Christ. 1638. For two centuries after DAvid's death the community was in frequent 5. GROWTH OF UNITARIANISM IN danger from political and religious ENGLAND vicissitudes. Their churches were trans- The teaching- of Socinus gradually ferred to Calvinists or to Roman Catho- made its way into England. The Latin lics; they were deprived of their schools; . . Cf. Michael Loambard Szentabrahhmi, Surnma they were debarred from public office. Uni~ersaTheologia Christian@ secundurn Uycitarios, A statute of 1791, however, confirmed Klausenburg, 1787. The above was written before their position as one of " the Four the great majority of Unitarian Churches passed under Religions," and they have since en- Rumanian rule by the Peace of 1919. r 6 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM I7 version of the Racovian Catechism was teacher of theology, what was theology, sent to England with a dedication to asked Hooker, but the science of divine James I; it was formally burned in things ? and " what science," he went 1614. Two Socinian works appear in on to ask, '' can be attained unto with- the first two catalogues of the Bodleian out the help of natural discourse and Library (1620-35), but a considerable reason ? " l The Arminian revolt against number may be traced in the catalogue Calvinism tended in the same direction, by Thomas Hyde in 1674. Bishop and " the ever memorable " John Hales Barlow, himself once librarian, in Direc- (1584-1656), when he left the Synod of tions for the Choice of Books in the Dort after hearing Episcopius expound Study of Divinity (originally drawn up John 3 6, '' bid John Calvin good night ."2 in 1650 and expanded after 1673), named A stream of protest flowed on against numerous others in connexion with a the attempt to define the mysteries of syllabus of the principal questions at the Godhead beyond the terms of issue between Socinians and other Re'- Scripture. It had been the plea of formed communion^.^ Theology was ~coitiusin the Stratagemata Satan@; deeply concerned with the claims of the and William Chillingworth (I 602-44) Roman Catholics on the one hand and owned him as his teacher of the mischief the controversies of the on the of creeds which led to the " persecuting, other, and from the days of Richard burning, cursing, damning of men for Hooker (155 3-1600) a series of writers not subscribing to the words of men as discussed the respective authority of the the words of God."3 Chillingworth was Church, the Scriptures, and reason. Laws of Ec~lesiasticalPolity, bk. iii. ch. viii. 11, Doubtless revelation was necessary, but ed. Keble, Oxford, 1836, i. 473. Scripture was its medium. If it was the 2 Letter of Anthony Farindon (17th Sept. 16571 pre- fixed to the Golden Remains, London, 1659. 1 The Genuine Remains of Dr. Thomns Barlow, late 3 The lieligi~aof Protestants, Oxford, 1638, iv. 16,. Bishop of Lincoln, London, 1693. referring to Acontius, vii. IS UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM I9 indebted for acquaintance with Socinian was such a person as Jesus, that he rose literature to Lord Falkland. He had from the grave and was worshipped after seen some volumes in the rooms of Hugh his death. He vindicates his character Cressy of Merton College, Oxford, who as Messiah, but never mentions the " claimed to have been the first to bring Incarnation. His Annotationes on the in Socinus's books." Cressy afterwards New Testame-nt were equally free from became a Benedictine monk; Falkland traditional dogma. It was not surpris- was designated by John Aubrey " the ing that Stephen Nye, the author of the first Socinian in England." Other and Brief History of the Unitarians also called wider influences were at work. Lord Socinians,l should affirm that he " inter- Herbert of Cherbury (1583-1648) in his preted the whole according to the mind de Yeritatel analysed the whole faculties of the Socinians." Under such influ- of the mind, and discovered among its ences diversity of opinion was re- notiti~ communes, innate, of divine cognized as inevitable. Writers so dif- origin, and indisputable, certain " corn- ferent as Hales, Jeremy Tayloq2 and mon notions " of religion in five articles. Milton3 declare in almost the same These he exemplified historically twenty words that is not a matter of the years later in the de Religione Gentilium understanding; the faithful pursuit of (completed in 1645), one of the earliest reason did not make a h.eretic; the mis- treatises in comparative theology. The chief lay in the influences that-perverted great authority of Grotius (1583-1645) the will. Chillingworth thought it pos- gave special weight to his exposition of sible to reduce all Christians to unity of Christianity in the de Yeritate Religionis communion by showing that diversity Christian~.~He discourses of the attri- London, 1687. 2 In the Liberty of Prophesying, London, 1646; ed. butes of God, but is silent about his 1817, sect. ii. p. 32. triune nature. He proves that there 3 In his last tract, Of True Religion, Heresy, Schism,

1 Paris, 1624, London, 1633. 2 Leyden, 1627. Toleration, London, 1673, p. 6. UNITARIANISM 21

of opinion was no bar to it. That a11 York agreed in June 1640 to prohibit Christians should think alike was an the import, printing, or circulation of impossibility; it remained for them to Socinian books; - no minister should be " taught to set a higher value upon preach their doctrines; laymen who those high points of faith and obedience embraced their opinions- should be wherein they agree than upon those excomrnuni~ated.~A series of angry points of less moment wherein they writers denounced them with shrill differ? Such writers did not adopt abuse. Parliament made the denial of the theology of Socinus, but they were the Trinity a capital crime (1648), but in agreement with him in his plea for an English translation of the Racovian Scriptural statements rather than dog- Catechism was published in 1652 at matic creeds. " Vitals in religion," said Amsterdam, followed by A Twofold Benjamin Whichcote (1609-8 3), the Scripture Catechism from the pen of leader of the Cambridge Platonists, in 1654. These works led L c are few."2 the Council of State to order John Owen, Meanwhile an occasional English tra- whom Cromwell had made Dean of veller like Paul Best (I 590-1 65 7) had Christ Church and Vice-Chancellor of visited Poland and returned infected. the university of Oxford, to prepare a Milton noticed in the Areopagitica3 the reply. His Bindici~Evangelica? ap- " stay'd men " sent by " the grave and peared in 1655. frugal Transilvanian " to learn the

" theologic arts " of England. The " Do not look upon these things," he wrote with danger of Socinianisrn was spreading. heat,2 " as things afar off wherein you are little con- cerned; the evil2 is at the doore; there is not a Citty, The Convocations of Canterbury and a Towne, scarce a Village in England, wherein some Religion of Protestants, iv. 40, pp. 209 f. of this poyson is not poured forth." 2 Moral ar~dReligious Axioms, ed. Salter, London, 1753- 3 London, 1644. Canons iv, and v. 69. ley3 pue 'les~anrun seM an01 s'po3 '3'3 'uopuo7 leqz 'aqo le3r~aqdo~dsrq 203 pa33n~~sur "ap.8sdoyslg asn no^ aqysuonaa qv A~e~qq6spua!~a aq7 a! pahxasa~dan sqalqdmvd ay& *zLgr F uuad aq 02 uaneay oqur dn uayq seM ueur SE rue!llTfi puv ypoMpaH hrua~uaaluTaq ds~a~oxjuo:, ~snmqeqq sMarA ay3 U! a~uangut. uerur3 . . v U! uopxo~'xalv dq punoj uaaq sey aux-eu aycl; -0s 33UI$STp. . 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The . Christianity. 'Toleration Act of 1689 excluded those Locke's Letters concerning Toleration1 who denied the Trinity on the one side, and his Essay concerning Human Under- .and Roman Catholics on the other. But standing2 had already placed him at the .an active controversy broke out the head of contemporary English thinkers. following year, which resulted in the It was a lamentable sign of the heated production of a long series of Unitarian - temper of the time that the inquiry tracts (1691-1 705) largely financed by into the essential nature of Christianity Firmin, in which the chief ecclesiastical was published anonymously. Locke did ldisputants, John Wallis and William what Grotius and Hobbes (in the Sherlock,l were cleverly played off Leviathan3) had done before him. He against each other, and the argument went back to the Gospels and the first was enforced on grounds of scripture preachers of the new -faith, and found and early patristic testimony. The that their message consisted in the pro- Unitarian influence was so strong that clamation of Jesus as the Messiah, the Parliament found it necessary (1698) proof of this character resting on his to threaten the profession of the obnoxi- fulfilment of prophecy and his miracles, ous heresy with cumulative penalties especially the Resurrection.' He had in- .amounting to the loss of all civil rights, deed already confided to his journal in and three years' imprisonment. But 1681 the pregnant remark that the in the meantime a new and powerful in- miracles were to be judged by the fluence had entered the field. In 1695 doctrine, and not the doctrine by the John Locke (1632-1704) had published miracles. But he could still say in 1703 that the Scripture had God for its Cf. John Barling, A Review of Trinitarianisrur, :London, 1847, p. 71 ; John Hunt, Religious Thought in London, 1689-92. 2 London, I 690. England, 3 vols. ; do. I 870-73, ii. 210ff. 3 London, 1651. 26 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 27 authority and truth without any mix- 1710; and it was in the background ture of error for its matter. This did of the treatise of Samuel Clarke (1675- not, however, prevent him from re- 1729) on The Scripture Doctrine of the cognizing the occasional character of the Trinity,' though he objected to the apostolic letters; and in the para- ancient Arian statement, " there was [a phrases of the Epistles of St. Paul1 time] when there was no Son." (published after his death), by treating The formularies of the Church of Eng- their teaching as relative to the age and land prevented anything like general. persons for whom it was designed, he change within its ranks. But Protest- really laid the foundation of the histori- ant Dissent was not organized on the cal method. His whole theory of know- basis of dogmatic creeds. The English ledge, however, and his polemic against Presbyterians under the leadership of innate ideas, led him to fall back on the Richard Baxter (I61 5-9 I) had ardently conception of revelation, and to find in desired comprehension in the Estab- Scripture an ultimate authority for lishment, but they had as ardently religious truth. Meanwhile the violence repudiated what they called " human of some of the Trinitarian contr6versial- impositions." Driven out of the Angli- ists drove many minds along the paths can Church, and unable to create a already trodden by Milton and Sir Isaac Presbyterian polity, they found them- Newton in the direction of some form selves side by side with the Congrega- of . William Whiston (1672- tionalists in 1689. When they took out 1752), who had succeeded Newton at licences for places of worship, their Cambridge as Lucasian professor in trustees avoided doctrinal tests, though 1703, was deprived for this heresy in they themselves were mainly Calvin- istic. They often devoted their chapels A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, Gorinthians, Romans, and Ephesians,. to " the worship of God by Protestant London, I 709. London, 17I 2. UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM

Dissenters." Sometimes the Presby- Manchester College, Oxford) was opened terians were named, sometimes the in 1786, its first principal, Thomas Independents, sometimes both con- Barnes, who dedicated it " to Truth, to jointly. They reserved to themselves, Liberty, and to Religion," was him- in the language of Timothy Jollie of self an Arian. His colleague, Ralph Sheffield (1659-1714), " liberty to re- Harrison, became a Unitarian. True form according to Scripture rule in to the practice of their forefathers, the doctrine, discipline and worship. "l The founders refrained from imposing any 3. .l. way was thus open to gradual theologi- tests on either tutors or students. The cal modification. The process was slow, Presbyterian Board, established in 1689, and its operation unequal in different governs the Presbyterian College at places. Pastors and people did not Carmarthen-the continuator of a-series always move together. - The transition of academies, the first of which was through varying types of Arianism founded on the same basis by Samuel naturally took place it varying rates; Jones, sometime fellow of Jesus College, e.g., Nathaniel Lardner (1684-1 768), Oxford, one of the zoo0 ejected ministers after resting in Clarke's Arianism, finally of 1662. abandoned it in his Letter on the Logose2 The result was that at the beginning of 7. THE WORK OF PRIESTLEY AND the 19th cent. nearly zoo chapels were BELSHAM occupied by Unitarians, whose principles were unfavourable to sectarian activity. The process of theologic change was When the Manchester Academy (now promoted from another side. Joseph Pastoral Care Exemplified (funeral sermon for his Priestley (I 73 3-1 go+), bred among the father), London, 1704, p. 28. Independents, threw off the Calvinistic 2 A Letter writ in the Year I 730, comerning the Question whether the Logos supplied the Place of a Human theology of his youth, and, after resting Soul irr the Person of Jesus Christ, London, 1759. a little while in Arianism, reached in 30 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 31 1768, while minister at Leeds, a simple Cause of all phenomena, including every humanitarian view of the person of form of human activity, created a Jesus. His scientific studies had al- . type of religious sentiment which long ready gained him the fellowship of the pervaded Unitarian devotion. In his Royal Society (1766), and his Appeal to Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Il- the Serious and Candid Professors of lustrated he affirmed that his doctrine Christianity1 carried his name in 30,000 -- should produce " the deepest humility, copies all over England. His industry, the most entire resignation to the will his wide range of knowledge, his clear- of God, and the most unreserved ness of thought and style, his fearless confidence in his goodness and provid- utterance, his untiring earnestness, his ential care." Among the Yorkshire elevation of purpose and purity of life, acquaintances of Priestley was Theo- his simple piety, secured for his theologi- philus Lindsey (1723-1808), vicar of cal and philosophical teaching a domin- . Catterick on the Tees. A movement ant position in Unitarian thought. At had been started by a small group of the Doddridge's Academy at Daventry he clergy of the Establishment for the re- had studied Hartley's Observations on laxation of the terms of subscription. Man,2 and adopted a materialist view of The failure of a petition to Parliament human nature. But this in no way im- led Lindsey to resign his living (1773) paired the religion which he learned and make his way to London. There in from the Gospels. The teachings of 1774 he opened an auction-room in Jesus, guaranteed by his miracles and Essex Street, Strand, as a' Unitarian triumphantly established by his resur- chapel, and thus " first organized Unit- rection, supplied him with -a positive arian Dissent as a working force in the ground for faith; and the identification religious life of England."3 He used of the God of revelation with the Sole London, 1777. 2 5 ix. 1 London, 1770. London, I 749. 3 J. H. Allen, History of Unitarians, etc., p. 152. sir uo way3 30 uotlruyap. . Xue Zursod -mr aolj pau eqa~s~apunoj S$

s!y~-, *uo!$ersoss~ uerrelrun. . u8ra~od UEUQ ay2 02 pue Xlraa ay$ ur suoslad pue ysppg ay$ ur paleme8leme azaM aalyljo au~~lsopuenelruu;~. . ay3 03 qloq uor~rsoddour L~sny3snsq jo X~rueuxny a1dGrs ay2 30 pu; 'p03 30 ~~run'rado~d ay$ uy jaqaq 30 uoyssajo~dsilqnd $sly ay$ paure~uo~'ureyspg Xq dn uMeJp 43v ay$ Xq paMOpU3 *UIO~~UT~393 $0 Csapt~pue alqruea~day;L *slapeal slr swd snorleh 03 $no luas alaM saneuors alaM nueyslag pue 'Xapsarq LXaspury -srm pue 'pal~elsse~ punj uer~elrun. . 4 L *syoog 30 uopnqms!a ay$ Xq anllrn e f pa~s~ssr:alaM suorle8ar8uos Mau 30 a3r33e~aay3 put: a8pa1~0uyuerJsnq3 . . f pauadoa~araM pas013 8ioI sIadey3 *dn Sunoruo~dJOJ Xlar3os uene)run. . ,, ay$ Sur%unds. . se~a~n~elalr~ leuorleurruou JO &o;~ePunojay3 kq r6L1 uy pauado se~ -ap e put? 'papunoj uaaq pey suor~er:,. . sryL *dlrnr)se Ieuorleurarouap 30 luam -osse uenelrun. . ~esolapyMueaK -1e831l: -dopap ay; ~u~~orubld;r aleys 8u:peal msruenelrun.. . 30 uorssajo~day2 palapua~ E yooq pue %ad snoloi?~e paplap 9319~$3~ uorle~a~o~ ay$ jo sasnep ay2 ay Csluamuyeqle ~~eursou 30 ~eloy3s jo Cale8ufly~r~a3ua101a 30 ~aylejpue~8 Q dauyse~Je 3831103 e ur drys~o)n~~es -rSoloayl e 02 'luapuadap;I ue Xapsand ayq asuo '(6zg1-oSLI) metpp8 seurh~-, 30 luaruqurodde ay2 Xq 6gL1 ur pas203 31 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 35 adherents. In the spirit of the English Bible, from that moment we receive it. Prove any doctrine to be a doctrine of Christ, emanating from that Presbyterians of a century and a half wisdom which was from above, and we take it for our before, they left each member free to own, and no power on earth shall wrest it from us." l interpret them for himself. On this basis Jesus was presented as a The type of Unitarianism then pre- " man constitited in respects like vailing was largely shaped by the writ- all other men, subject to the same infirm- ings of Priestley and Belsham. There ities, the same ignorance, prejudices and were still Arians of different degrees frail tie^,"^ who was chosen by God to (designated as " high " and " low ") introduce a new moral dispensation among both ministers and congrega- into the world. For this end the Holy tions. But the emphasis of contro- Spirit was communicated to him at his versy fell more and more clearly on the .L baptism. He was instructed in the humanity of Jesus, and the proof of this nature of his mission and invested with lay in the Scriptures. The doctrine of voluntary miraculous powers during his their plenary inspiration was indeed sojourn in the wilderness, and, thus denied. Criticism had already distin- equipped as the Messiah, was sent forth guished different documents in Genesis. to reveal to all mankind without dis- The narratives of the birth of Jesus tinction the great doctrine of a future were inconsfstent with each other, and one or both might be rejected. But life in which men should be rewarded according to their works. Of this the both the Old Testament and the New supreme proof was found in the Resur- Testament contained "authentic records rection, which his death on the cross of facts and of divine interpositions," & and Charles Wellbeloved, principal of Three Letters to Archdeacon Wrangham, London, Manchester College, York, could write 1823, p. 51. 2 Belsham, A Calnz Inquiry into the Scriptuve in 1823: Doctrine concerning the Person of Christ, London, 181I, " Convince us that any tenet is authorized by the P. 447- 36 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 37 as a martyr to the truth was a necessary Wordsworth, and Crabbe-powerfully preliminary; and he was destined to impressed on Unitarian thought the reappear to raise the dead and to judge doctrine of universal restoration, which the world. From this scheme all theor- had already found utterance in one of ies of atonement and satisfaction dis- Cromwell's chaplains, and gained vari- appeared. Priestley with his usuaI ous champions (Hartley among them) frankness had admitted that a n'eces- in the 18th century2 sitarian " cannot accuse himself of . . having done wrong in the ultimate -, sense of the words?"' But, though .8, LEGAL DIFFICULTIES this type of Unitarianism was deficient in thkAsense of sin and produced a The modifications of belief which had curious reluctance to recognize the brought many of the occupants of existence of a " soul," its teachers lived chapels erected by Presbyterians and habitually at a high moral tknsion, Independents to Unitarian theology at demanding a constant conformity of the last aroused the attention of those who will of man to the will of God. Asso- remained orthodox. Besides a number ciated with the emphatic assertion of of meeting-houses, the Unitarians were the Father's wisdom and beneficence, in possession of two important trusts- such views naturally anticipated the Lady Hewley's Charity in York (1704), final victory of good. Thomas South- and Dr. Williams's Trust in London wood Smith (1788-1861) in his Illustra- 716). A suit was instituted against tions of the Divine Government 2-a book ady Hewley's trustees in 1830. Legal warmly admired by Byron, Moore, roceedings were slow and costly, and n 23rd Dec. 1833 judgment was finally Illustrations of Philosophical Necessity, I 777, xi. . (Works,ed. Rutt,iii. 518). . iven against them. One of the trustees l 2 Glasgow, I 8 16. , .,... 3 See art, UNIVERSALISM. 38 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 38 was the minister of St. Saviourgate lapse of time.1 The chapels subse- Chapel (which Lady Hewley had habitu- quently built by Unitarians, and the ally attended), Charles Wellbeloved. It funds raised for the support of their was at once seen that the whole tenure ministers, have been almost invariably of the chapels was endangered. A long founded on the principle known as period of litigation followed, but the C C open trust." The consciousness of Zaw Lords finally confirmed the first this historic evolution supplies the key decision in I 842. Meanwhile numbers to the conflict of tendencies in modern of suits were threatened for the recovery Unitarianism between the impulse to* of the buildings, burial-grouhds, and theological denominationalism and the endowments which had descended in desire to realize on however 'small a undisputed succession through genera- scale the " Catholic communion " which tions of pastors and laity. Between had been the ideal of the English Pres- Lady Hewley's pastor, John Hotham, byterians who followed Baxter. and Charles Wellbeloved there had been but one ministry, that of Newcome g. MARTINEAU AND THE MODERN Cappe (I 75 5-1800) ; the- three pastorates- SCHOOL covered 144 years. In the presence of The most potent personal influence such continuity of tenure the claim of in the latter direction was that of' the existing occupants was irresistible, James Martineau (I 805-1900). In his. and in 1844 the Dissenters' Chapels Act, first work, of introduced by the Government, gave the The Rationale Religious Inq~iry,~he abandoned the position of. needed relief. Without naming either the older Unitarianism, which would. Presbyterians or Unitarians, it secured 1 Cf. the speech of W. E. Gladstone, on the second to such Dissenting congregations as had reading, Parliamentary Debates on the Dissenters" no creeds or tests the right to change Chapels Bill, London, 1844. p. 165. their opinions as they saw fit in the 2 London, 1836. -LZI *d 'a2vuoyag -In3 931yM (f022202~[VUOZ$VLv put? 202g326~ , -old aql U! sapsie JuerIpq jo sarias IIaj snsa1 jo ~a33e~ey3lein~euiadns ZUO~e 30 mrmy3'senn uo!;oiap Ieuosiad ay? jo aa~ue~en3puo3as ay3 'pau~osrp $0 ad& 3~~~8~~aql SE paqp~sappey 3iaM Sa~3T3JI'UIay3 UayM '$STly3 03 l3Jal Xapsayq yqq~,C mrq ur p03 pue p03 ur 03 pasodd& sapaydoid ay3 'jo dueu jo 8uy~a~p,, 3-ey~ loj Inos s,ueur uy a3eld a~ue~yruzrs. . Xleiodma3uo3 ay3 uo pa~srs e pug pug ursrayl pm3nrds jo sa~dr~utid ay3 ysgqelsa ' o~ *.~;~ieuosiadAq9!q e Jnq '~JOM U~~~IJMe ~OU S~M rrrnrpanr ay,L -d3ruer$sny3. .. 03 ler3uassa sq fm~~ei~y3payexa aiou . jo uor) ~ouS~M sapeim ur. jarpq. 3eyi uorsnp -ezr[eai ay3 o~uruo~3ni~sur . ~e~n~vu~adns -uo3 ay3 pay~axuoos pue 'ssnei~sBur woij pamlojsueij sny3 se~uor3eIanaX -peal S~May appueam *X~rssa3aujo -p03 jo an01 put: ssausnoa3yBri aq3 jo pealsur. I~M. aaq jo srseq ay3 uo ajrl ~eiorrr 'ain~euino 30 s~turq. . ay3 utq31~. . c~~r~~a~d ay3 jo uoye3a~dra$uy ysaxj E pue- -xa ay$ se snsal pa~uasa~dpue 'akr~r~. . suor33age pue a3uarssuo~ay3 03 ~eadde. ay3 ~JIM~1116s uemny ay3 jo uoyunurmo3 ue se Inq 'sapeqrn ;lq paypia:, cq~n~~jo ay3 p;$es;pkn. . aq le3;ydosol!yd ay3 uo a~rq~'aprs p3sr~n3s~r uo Xnuer~sr~y3. .. jo S&JO. . ay$ J~"u~y~3ti~~suosa~.r ua8uyq~j ay3 papunodxa ay mazmay .u$suzucgsaki ay3 ur sapr~iejo dno~8e uI *Xpn)s 30 aurl alqnop e pansmd a~rynnuearu neaur3leK *uorBrp~. . lt3xn)eu 30 pury 3urq~Xueysqqejsa ue3 ,, 'paunge ay ON ~or~adnse Xpo amo3aq 03 pauaas ~snq3 CL'uo~~~irdsu~ . . . 8urmaas. ,, *sa~n3dnss $0 q3~ejaq3 pue 'X3ruer3sq;). .. ,, alqE ay3 ur punoj aq pp03 Lay3 jr cs3uau~o~ -uoseai ,, lrayq 30 panr~dapsaALasmay3 8uqse1xana pue g~uamauo3vay3 cX3run~-. pun03 ay307 30 sJaMo1Ioj. ay7 :X~ME ay2 jo saun3~opay3 paldame aney 42 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 43 minated in two great treatises, Types of . John Kenrick, George Vance Smith was Ethical Theory1 and A Study of Religiom2 invited to join the company of the Re- By these works, as well as by his ser- visers (1870). In James Drummond mons and occasional Addresses, he (1835-1918) Unitarianism possessed a exercised an influence which went far theologian -of the old school-of learning, beyond his own denomination, so that whose works on The Jewish Messiah Gladstone described him as " the great- (1877), Philo Jud~us(1888), Inquiry est of living [English] thinkers. "3 into the Character and Authorship of the Other writers were not inactive be- Fourth Gospel (1903), and Studies in side him. The saintly John James Christian Doctrine (1908) maintained Tayler (1797-186g), in his Retrospect of the tradition of devout scholarship. the Religious Life of England,4 delineated John Relly Beard (1800-76) led the way with singular breadth of view and to modern dictionaries of the Bible by literary charm the significance of con- his People's Dictionary of the Bible,l and trasted principles of authority and free- made other valuable contributions to dom; and from his pen came the first theological literature. Cultivated lay- formal discussion of the Johannine men, also, such as Edgar Taylor, Samuel question in England in his Attempt to Sharpe, and H. A. Bright, rendered no ascertain the Character of the Fourth small services to the Unitarian cause. Gospel.5 A long series of scholars had Most influential of all, perhaps, in its pleaded for the revision both of the text protest against prevailing supernatural- and of the translation of the New Testa- ism was The Creed of Christendom2 ment; and by the advice of the veteran by William Rathbone Greg. Francis 1 2 vols., Oxford, 1885. 2 2 vols., Oxford, 1888. William Newman and Frances Power J. E. *Carpenter,James Martineau, Theologian and Cobbe found many readers; and the Teacher, London, 1905, p. 413. London, 1845, new ed. by J. ~artineau,do. 1876. f 2 vols., London, 1847-48. London, 1867. 2 London, 185 I, 8th ed., 2 vols., 1883. UNITARIANISM 44 UNITARIANISM portant urban centres, established on writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and . unsectarian principles after the visit Theodore Parker, together with the of Joseph Tuckerman of Boston, Mass., studies of Max Muller, opened the way in 1833), they have not attempted to to religion beyoad the bounds of Christi- secure large numerical increase. New anity. The Hibbert Trustees, who chapels have been built, but denomi- sought to promote the spread of Christi- national zeal has never been active. anity, in " its simplest and most intel- Congregational independence has been ligible form," were the first to inaugur- sturdily maintained. In 1882 a Nation- ate in 1878 a series of lectures on the al Conference was organized, which has history of religions, and Manchester now 357 congregations in the United College included that subject in its Kingdom on its roll, but they have no theological course as early as 1875. common name. Proposals for united The discourses of Martineau, J. Hamil- action on Presbyterian lines were made ton Thom, and Charles Beard provided by Martineau in 1888, but the demand varied illustration of the preacher's for congregational autonomy defeated power; and the sermons and hymns of them. The individualism fostered by Stopford Brooke, after his withdrawal the constant plea for liberty is unfavour- from the in 1880, able to the g;owth of corporate church- presented, with a rich glow of poetic life. Generous funds have been raised bea;ty, the main features of religion as in aid of ministers' incomes and insur- understood by Unitarians. ance, and the Conference has found it necessary to lay down educational 10. CHURCH ORGANIZATIONS qualifications for access to these bene- fits, and has thus constituted an accred- While English Unitarians have been ited class of religious teachers. Unit- active in education and philanthropy arianism has thriven actively in some (witness their domestic missions in im- 46 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 47 districts of Wales, but it has little hold church government under the name in Scotland. The oldest of its congre- of the Non-subscribing Presbyterian gations north of the Tweed was founded Church of Ireland. at Edinburgh in 1776. In Ireland Thomas Emlyn was prosecuted at I I. UNITARIANISM IN AMERICA Dublin in 1703 for denying the deity af Christ. Ulster Presbyterianism wit- Unitarianism in America sprang out nessed a movement against subscription . of the Congregational order of the New which culminated in I 726 in the forma- England churches. Their theology was tion of a separate Presbytery of Antrim Calvinistic, but the 17th cent. founda- on a non-subscription basis. Many of tions were based upon religious coven- the ministers passed through Arianism ants instead of dogmatic creeds. Thus to Unitarianism, and in 1830 the Re- the First Church in Boston affirmed : monstrant Synod of Ulster was formed. At the same time, largely through the " We . . . do hereby solemnly and religiously promise and bind ourselves to walk in all our ways according to zeal of Martineau, then assistant hastor the rule. of the Gospel, and in all sincere conformity to in Dublin, an Irish Unitarian Christian Christ's holy ordinances, and in mutual love and Society, embracing both individuals and respect to each other, so near as God shall give us congregations, was established in Dublin grace." l which was merged (1835) in an Asso,cia- tion of Irish Non-subscribing Presby- The way was thus open, as in English terians and other Free Christians, in- Dissent in the 18th cent., to gradual cluding the Presbytery of Antrim, the theologic change. The literature of the Synod of Munster, and the Remon- Trinitarian controversy passed across strant Synod of Ulster. Finally, in the Atlantic, and the leaven of discus- 1.910 the Antrim Presbytery and the sion in the works of Sherlock and South, Ulster Synod united for purposes of Alien, p. 171. 48 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 49 Clarke and Whiston, supplemented by widely. It was found all the way from the writings of the Unitarian Emlyn, be- Portland (Maine) to Charleston (South gan to produce its effect. A slow-move- Carolina).

' ment towards Arianism and Arminian- In 1803 William Ellery Channing

ism set in, invigorated . by reaction (1780-1842) came to Boston and began against the " great awakening " under the ministry which so powerfully in- ~onathanEdwards (1735) and the early fluenced Unitarian thought. In re- preaching of George Whitefield (I740). action against a still powerful Calvin-

Jonathan Mayhew (I. 720-66). and Charles ism, with its doctrines of human de- Chauncy (1705-57), pastors in Boston, pravity, the wrath of God, and the led the way towards a more liberal faith. atoning sacrifice of Christ, he pro- Under the ministry of James Freeman claimed " one *sublime idea," which he (I 759-1 835) the congregation of King's defined as " the greatness of the soul, its. Chapel purged their Anglican liturgy of divinity, its union with God by s~iritual d .L all references to the Trinity (1785). By likeness, its receptivity of his Spirit, its. this act, says the historian of the chapel, self-forming power, its destination to the first Episcopal church in New Eng- ineffable glory, its immortality."l This ' land became the first Unitarian church was the real challenge to New England in the New World. The writings of ortho'doxy; it operated with no less Priestley and Lindsey were freely cir- force in dispelling the materialism of culated, and at the end of the century Priestley and giving a fresh impulse of the doctrine against which they pro- spiritual life to Unitarianism on both tested had been rejected by all the sides of the ocean. With this exalted Boston ministers but one. The name view of man's true being, Channing de- Unitarian was indeed rarely attached 1 J. W. Chadwick, William Ellery Channing, Boston, to the churches, but the mode of thought 1903,p. 246, quoting without date "one of the letters and worship prevailed more and more of his later life." 50 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 51

clared himself surer that his rational in I 8 16, when the Unitarian controversy nature was from God than that any was at its height. book is the expression of his will; and " It being understood," said the constitution, " that reason and conscience were , thus en- every encouragement be given to the serious, impartial, throned in the ultimate seat of judg- and unbiassed investigation of Christian truth.; and ment. Neither philosopher nor scholar that no assent to the peculiarities of any denomination be required either of the Students, or Professors, or in the technical sense, he exercised by Instructors." his religious genius and the force of his ethical appeal a far-reaching influence The movement of which Channing both in the United States and in Europe. was the most distinguished representa- tive soon demanded some kind of " Always young for liberty," he pro- tested &ainst every for^ of sectarian organization. Literature must be cir- narrowness. He cheerfully took the culated, congregations assisted, and name Unitarian because unwearied ef- churches built. In 1825, on the same forts were made to raise against it a day on which English Unitarians formed popular cry, and he never was in any their asso~iation,~the American Unitar- sense a Trinitarian. But he believed in ian Association was constituted. A Christ's pre-existence ; he accepted his noble line of eminent scholars, theo- miracles. He would not, however, ex- logians, historians, jurists, poets, states- clude from his fellowship the stoutest men, accepted its principles and gave humanitarian, though he might repudi- dignity to its profession of faith. It ate the miracles altogether. For such~a was not long, however, before new forces mind denominational aggressiveness was appeared on the field. The study of impossible, and this spirit was infused German philosophy produced a school into the leaders of the movement which of New England transcendentalism. culminated in the foundation of the Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82) re- Divinity Sch~olof Harvard University See § 7. * * UNITARIANISM

signed the pulpit of the Second Church group of bolder spirits formed a " Free inu~ostono^n tGe question of the observ- Religious Association," where Emerson's name appeared first on the list. In ance of the Lord's Supper, and six years I I later his famous "Address to the Har- I 894, however, the Conference repudi- vard Divinity School " (1838) signalized ated all authoritative tests, and simply the breach of the new thought with the accepted " the religion of Jesus, holding, older views of revelation and miracle. in accordance with his teaching, that Theodore Parker (I 8 10-60) emphasized practical religion is summed up in love the same theme in a much criticized to God and love to man."The de- sermon on " The Transient and Perma- veIopments of criticism, science, and nent in Christianity " (1841), followed philosophy, the study of comparative by his widely read " Discourse of Mat- religion, the desire for the widest pos- ters pertaining to Religion " (I 842). A sible fellowship, and the growing de- new type of Christianity without miracle mands of philanthropy, have all con- was thus presented, emphasizing the tributed to broaden the outlook in every divine immanence in nature, and hold- direction, and in 1900 the " Inter- ing up the religion of Jesus-the love of national Council of Unitarian and other God and the service of man-as the Liberal Religious Thinkers and Workers" " absolute religion." 'Unitarianism fell was formed in Boston. It has since into the snare from which Channing held large and successful gatherings in would fain have saved it, and developed ond don; Amsterdam, Geneva, Boston, Berlin (I~IO),Paris (1913), and Boston an orthodoxy of its own. When Henry 7- . Whitney Bellows of New York proposed (~gzo),assembling a wide representa- to organize the churches (1865) in a tion of different nationalities and faiths. National Conference, and its members As in England, so also in America, adopted the declaration that they were 1 George Willis Cooke, " Unitarianism in the United " disciples of the Lord Jesus Christ," a States," Ency. Brzt. l* xxvii. 596. 54 UNITARIANISM UNITARIANISM 55 Unitarianism has been an important in- ian churches. English and American fluence in religious thought. It repre- Unitarians are also in close touch with sents a mode of approach to the great the Theistic churches of India, and with problems of human life and destiny in Unitarian work in Japan, and receive which it is closely allied with the time- students from the Far East into their spirit. Its looseness of denominational theological colleges, besides sending out organization makes its advance over representative ministers to preach and so vast an area slow and hesitating, lecture. but its churches steadily increase, and (b) Germany.-Continental thought in 1921 the list (including Canada) has been affected by the same general comprised 452 societies. The Divinity influences which produced the Unitarian School at Harvard University gradually movement in England and America. broadened out under the administration The writings of the English Deists of of Charles W. Eliot (1869-1909) into a the 18th cent. helped to foster German school of scientific theology and inde- rationalism, and the critical study of the pendent research. The Meadville Theo- Scriptures led to the abandonment of logical School (Pennsylvania), founded doctrines of mechanical inspiration and. in 1844, and the Unitarian Theological Biblical authority. Belief in miracles School at Berkeley (California), founded was partly undermined by the influ- in 1904, have remained more definitely ences of science and philosophy; and within Unitarian lines. the Leben Jesu of D. F. Strauss, together with the investigations of F. C. Baur into the development of the early 12. WORLD-WIDE INFLUENCE Church, opened new paths for the. (a) The Colonies and India.-The historical treatment of the origins of British Dominions, Canada, Australia, Christianity. The results reached by New Zealand, Africa, all have Unitar- 3 vols., Tiibingen, 1835. UNITARIANISM 57

Baur were modified by the subsequent hand, the study of Christianity in con- researches of some of his own pupils, nexion with the religions of the empire but a powerful school of thought, led by has led younger scholars to emphasize teachers such as H. Holtzmann (Strass- its relations with contemporary pheno- burg), C. Holsten (Heidelberg), Carl von mena; and along these lines the late Weizsacker (Tubingen), A. E. Bieder- professors W. Wrede, J. Weiss, and W. mann (Zurich), R. A. Lipsius (Jena), Bousset, and the brilliant group led by 10.Pfleiderer (Berlin), reached a posi- H. Gunkel, E. Troeltsch, C. Clemen, H. tion which was substantially Unitarian: Weinel, W. Heitmuller, and H. Lietz- though it did not employ theaname or mann have all been working. The valu- lead to withdrawal from the State able translation and commentary issued Church. In 1863 a liberal union was under the general editorship of Johannes founded under the title of the " Pro- Weiss,l and the long series of Religions- testantenverein," which gave practical geschichtliche Yolksbucher, represent the ,expression to this mode of thought. It general attitude of liberal theology on still exists, though in a state of some- the problems of primitive Christianity. what diminished activity. Recent theo- (c) France.-A similar movement of logical liberalism has tended to take one thought, though more 9imited in range, of two directions. Under the influence may be traced in France, since the ap- of Albrecht Ritschl of Gottingen, a pearance of Renan's Pie de Jes~s,~with- higher value has been ascribed to the in the Reformed Church, represented person of Jesus, quite apart from exter- especially by A. Coquerel (fls), Albert nal miracle, than was usual among the and Jean Reville, and a distinguished older " liberal " theologians. Among group of scholars and preachers. When the leaders in this direction are A. l Die Schriften des Neuevt Testawents, 2 vols., Harnack, W. Herrmann (Marburg), and Gottingen, I 906; H. H. Wendt (Jena). On the other 2 Paris, I 863. lxed E 02 8urpeal uana pue 'ursr

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" The Unitarians," in A Hisory of the Unitarians and Universalists in the United States, New York, 1894, pp. 1-246, by J. H. Allen. Heralds of a Libeval Faith, 3 vols., Boston, U.S.A., 19x0, by S. A. Eliot. Biographies of Martineau, Channing, and Theodore Parker. THE LINDSEY PRESS - l I ,l " A superb achievement ."-Scotsman. l Cr. 800. . Cloth, 3/- net, Stifl Covers, 2/- net. THE TWELFTH AN1 1 ASPECTS OF * FINAL VOLUME 01

I EDITOR.ALFRED HALL, M.A., B.D. l 1 I 1 I. INTRODUCTION i THE EDITOR. 1 IS NOW PUBLISHED I 11. OUR UNITARIAN HERITAGE 1 S. H. MELLONE,M.A., D.Sc. EDITOR,DR. JAMES HASTINGS 1 111. MAN R. NICOLCROSS, M.A. Messrs. T. & T. Clark wish it to be distinctly understood that there is no abridged l edition of this great work-in fact no abridgment of it would be adequate. I IV. THE DOCTRINE OF GOD I R. NICOLCROSS, M.A. *S Professor J. MOFFATTwrites:-" It is only justice to l V. REVELATION say that Dr. Hastings' Encyclopedia is far ahead of any W. WHITAKER,B.A. similar work. Those who use it most will appr~~iateit best. It is a rare achievement of modern scholarship. J. CYRILFLOWER, M.A. The Right Hon. the Earl of BALFOUR,K.G., writes :-" It is VII. ATONEMENT AND SALVATION so incomparably better than any other work attempting to cover the,, same ground as to give it an absolutely unique ( THE EDITOR. position. 6 6 / VIII. FELLOWSHIP lI Prof. W. T. DAVISON,Richmond, says :- It contains W. WHITAKER,B.A. 1 in twelve admirably arranged volumes the substance of TX. THE IMMORTAL HOPE I I twelve hundred." l S. H. MELLONE,M.A., D.Sc. l l The essays in this volume deal only with a selection from I In Beautiful Cloth Binding . . 35/- net per vol. many religious subjects on which Unitarianism has a dis- tinctive message. It is, however, hoped they will adequately In Half Morocco . . 4%'- ,, ,, ,, demonstrate the fact that Unitarian thought is not unpro- / gessive, and that it will have some effect on the constancy Full particulars from all Boobellers with which statements of faith made by Unitarians a century ago are quoted as representative of the modern I or jrom the Publishers: message. 38 GEORGE STREET, E D B R G LINDSEY PRESS, 5 ESSEX STREET, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.2. T. & T. CLARK,