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University Mierisilms International 300 N INFORMATION TO USERS This was produced from a copy of a document sent to us for microfilming. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or notations which may appear on this reproduction. "I.The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting through an image and duplicating adjacent pages to assure you of complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a round black mark it is an indication that the film inspector noticed either blurred copy because of movement during exposure, or duplicate copy. 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In all cases we have filmed the best available copy. University MieriSilms International 300 N. ZEEB RD„ ANN ARBOR. Ml 48106 8218661 Davidson, Robert Gregory ROMANTICISM AFTER ELIOT: THE CONTINUANCE OF THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICAN POETRY The University of North Carolina at Greensboro PH.D. 1982 University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106 Copyright 1982 by Davidson, Robert Gregory All Rights Reserved ROMANTICISM AFTER ELIOT: THE CONTINUANCE OF THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT IN TWENTIETH-CENTURY AMERICAN POETRY by Robert G. Davidson A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Greensboro 1982 Approved by Dissertation Adviser APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Dissertation (~^ V C\ V | Adviser ^ Committee Members XL ,s:>> \*\ 81 Date of Acceptance by Committee Date of Final Oral Examination 11 DAVIDSON, ROBERT GREGORY. Romanticism After Eliot: The Continuance of the Romantic Movement in Twentieth-Century American Poetry. (1982) Directed by: Dr. Charles Davis. Pp. 202. T. S. Eliot, through his criticism and his poetry, attempted to change the directions of twentieth-century poetry. His aim was to replace the poetry of the continuing Romantic movement with a highly scholarly, allusive poetry that had its foundations in the Metaphysical traditions of the early seventeenth century. In this aim, Eliot failed because the course of poetry that he advocated proved to be an inappropriate response to the chaos that served as a backdrop to all twentieth-century poetry. Eliot's poetic career exemplified the successful quest, based on tradition and religion, to find an orderly response to the chaos; however, Eliot's success was one that few poets could duplicate and therein lay his failure. A more acceptable response to the chaos was that exemplified by the poetry of Hart Crane and William Carlos Williams, in which the constantly adapting quest itself became a more reasonable response to the chaos than was an Eliot-like culmination of the quest. Crane and Williams conceived their poetry as a deliberate attempt to combat the changes that Eliot tried to create in twentieth-century poetry. Through the success of their own poetry, they underlined the temporary nature of Eliot's influence while reinforcing the dominance of the Romantic movement. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I gratefully acknowledge those who have helped me with this project, including those who have served on my advisory committee: Dr. Robert Watson, Dr. Amy Charles, Dr. Charles Tisdale, Dr. Robert Stinson, Dr. James Wimsatt, and Dr. Elizabeth Sewell. Special thanks goes to my dissertation adviser, Dr. Charles Davis, for the encouragement he has given me and the patience he has shown me. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page APPROVAL PAGE ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. RESPONDING TO ROMANTICISM IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 8 III. THE ELIOT PROGRAMME FOR MODERN POETRY .... 46 IV. HART CRANE'S AFFIRMATION OF THE ROMANTIC TRADITION 80 V. WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS' REFUTATION OF THE ELIOT PROGRAMME 127 VI. THE CONTINUANCE OF ROMANTICISM 174 BIBLIOGRAPHY 197 iv 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The critical debate concerning whether or not we are still in the grip of the Romantic movement has served as a backdrop to twentieth-century poetry. Until about the time of the First World War, it was generally conceded that the dominant trend in poetry continued to be Romantic; not long after the war, critics and poets began to speculate on the possibility of a new poetic movement having recently taken place—a movement equal in significance to the Romantic movement, whose origins lay more than a century in the past. On one side of the debate is the major figure of T. S. Eliot. For those who contend that we are living in a post-Romantic age, his poetry and criticism serve as the starting point. Eliot's advocates see The T7aste Land in particular as the decisive statement of the new movement—in much the same way that the Lyrical Ballads signaled both an end to Classicism and the birth of Romanticism. The advocates of a post-Romantic movement have dominated literary criticism since The Waste Land appeared in 1922, and even as early as The Sacred Wood, which was published in 1920. In addition to Eliot, Cleanth Brooks has been outstanding among the post-Romantic critics, and such major critics and poetic-critics as John Crowe Ransom, 2 Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, W. K. Wimsatt, I. A. Richards, and William Empson have added their support. These same men are also developers of a method of criticism that came to be known as the New Criticism, which grew to dominate twentieth-century critical theory. In their nearly total domination of the critical discussion of literature, the New Critics were able to foster the impres­ sion that their ideas concerning a post-Romantic revolution were beyond debate. There has been, however, another side to the debate, a side in which the unbroken continuation of Romanticism has been advocated. Critically, this side of the debate has been spearheaded by Karl Shapiro, but due to the pervasive influence of the New Critics, Shapiro and like-minded critics have had an uphill struggle in gaining widespread support for their views. If one were to examine the critical debate only, the result would appear to be hope­ lessly one-sided. But such an approach would ignore the actual poetic situation. From the very publication of The Waste Land (even from the time of earlier poems such as "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"), there were major poets who fought against the direction in which Eliot was taking poetry. They fought against Eliot and the post-Romantic tide not with criticism, in which they were comparatively weak, but primarily with poetry of their own. 3 Foremost among the poets who deliberately countered Eliot were Hart Crane and William Carlos Williams, whose works remain an affirmation of Romanticism. Both men reacted strongly against the direction in which Eliot was taking poetry, and in one sense, their poetry can be seen as a rebuttal to Eliot. Crane and Williams recognized the importance of Eliot's poetry and realized the influence he would have on their generation. Thus, they understood the magnitude of the task before them. Eliot's success forced them to be even more successful, and at the same time, they had to guard against his influencing them. When Crane died a few months short of his thirty-third birthday, he had already achieved some recognition as a major poet, but The Bridge was commonly criticized as a magnificent failure. Recognition of Williams' true stature was slow in coming. He was possibly the last great poet of his generation to be accorded major status. Gradually, critical opinion toward Crane and Williams swung in their favor, accompanied by a gradual shift away from Eliot's bias toward Romanticism. The diminishing acclaim for Eliot's poetry can be attributed, at least in part, to the predictable pendulum swing of critical opinion, and it is possible that before the twentieth century is over, we will see a revived interest in Eliot. For the moment, however, it can be said that Eliot has had surprisingly little influence on present-day poetry. Of the poets who first took up his 4 cause, only Robert Penn Warren is left, and his poetry shows a steady disengagement from the Eliot programme. The New Critics who were Eliot's strongest supporters show a lessening certainty that the Eliot programme has indeed become a lasting reality. Even Cleanth Brooks, in his revised introduction to Modern Poetry and the Tradition, appears to have backed away from his 1939 statement "that we are witnessing (or perhaps have just witnessed) a critical revolution of the order of the Romantic Revolt."''' One of the principal reasons for the collapse of the post-Romantic movement was that it did not provide a satisfactory response to a century whose manifest characteristic was chaos.
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