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Davranişsal Iktisat Hatime Kamilçelebi DAVRANIŞSAL İKTİSAT IJOPEC PUBLICATION London ijopec.co.uk Istanbul DAVRANIŞSAL İKTİSAT Hatime Kamilçelebi Davranışsal İktisat Hatime Kamilçelebi IJOPEC PUBLICATION London ijopec.co.uk Istanbul IJOPEC Publication Limited www.ijopec.co.uk 60 Westmeade Close E-Mail: [email protected] Cheshunt, Waltham Cross Phone: (+44) 73 875 2361 (UK) Hertfordshire (+90) 488 217 4007 (Turkey) EN7 6JR London Davranışsal İktisat First Edition, December 2019 IJOPEC Publication No: 2019/20 ISBN: 978-1-912503-83-4 No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronically without author’s permission. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions expressed in these haptersc are not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. A catalogue record for this book is available from Nielsen Book Data, British Library and Google Books. The publishing responsibilities of the chapters in this book belong to the authors. Printed in London. Composer: IJOPEC Art Design Cover illustrators are from Pinclipart & Freepik İçindekiler Tablolar Listesi ..................................................................................................... 5 Grafikler Listesi .................................................................................................... 6 Ön Söz ................................................................................................................. 7 Giriş ..................................................................................................................... 9 Birinci Bölüm Psikoloji Biliminin ve Davranışsal İktisadın Tarihsel Gelişimi 1.1. Psikoloji Biliminin Gelişimine Genel Bakış ................................................. 11 1.2. Davranışsal İktisadın Tarihsel Gelişimi ........................................................ 14 İkinci Bölüm İktisadi Davranışlarımızın Psikolojik Temelleri 2.1. Karar Almada Zihinsel Kısayollar ve Ön Yargılar ......................................... 29 2.2. Beklenti Teorisi............................................................................................ 38 2.3. Çerçeveleme Etkisi ve Zihinsel Muhasebe ................................................... 52 2.4. Anomaliler .................................................................................................. 58 2.5. Dürtme ....................................................................................................... 73 Üçüncü Bölüm Fayda Kavramları, Faydanın ve Öznel İyi Olmanın Ölçülebilirliği 3.1. Beklenen Fayda Teorisi ............................................................................... 77 3.2. Faydanın Ölçülebilirliği: Deneyimlenen Fayda ve Hatırlanan Fayda ............ 83 3.3. Öznel İyi Olma ve Öznel İyi Olmanın Ölçülmesi ........................................ 95 3 Dördüncü Bölüm Davranışsal İktisatta Oyunlar ve Nöroiktisat 4.1. Davranışsal Oyun Teorisi, Adalet ve Güven Oyunları ................................ 107 4.2. Nöroiktisadın Gelişimi ve Nöroiktisatta Kullanılan Yöntemler .................. 117 4.3. Beynin İktisat ile İlişkili Olan Bölgeleri ve Nöroiktisat ile İlgili Deneyler.. 121 Sonuç ............................................................................................................... 131 Kaynakça .......................................................................................................... 135 TABLOLAR LİSTESİ Tablo 4.1. Mahpus İkilemi ..................................................................109 Tablo 4.2. Kamu Malı Oyunu .............................................................110 GRAFİKLER LİSTESİ Grafik 2.1. Beklenti Teorisi Hipotetik Değer Fonksiyonu ......................42 Grafik 2.2. Rasyonel Tercih Modelinde Fayda Fonksiyonu ....................44 Grafik 2.3. Beklenti Teorisi Değer Fonksiyonu (Örnek Üzerinden) .......44 Grafik 2.4. Beklenti Teorisi Ağırlıklandırma Fonksiyonu .......................48 Grafik 2.5. Kazançlarda (w+ ) ve Kayıplarda (w-) Ağırlıklandırma Fonksiyonu ...........................................................................................49 Grafik 2.6. Zihinsel Muhasebe – Birleştirme ve Ayrıştırma Tercihi ........56 Grafik 2.7. Kayıtsızlık Eğrisinin Türetilişi ..............................................61 Grafik 3. 1. Riskten Kaçan ve Riski Seven Bireylerin Fayda Fonksiyonu .. 80 Grafik 3. 2. A ve B Grubu Hastalarına Uygulanan Kolonoskopide Hastalarca Bildirilen Acının Şiddeti .......................................................92 Grafik 3.3. İstek Seviyesi (A) ve Gelirin (y) Bir Fonksiyonu Olarak Öznel İyi Olma(u) ............................................99 Ön Söz Yirminci yüzyılın başlarından itibaren modernizm yerini yavaşça farklı bir dö- neme bırakırken insanı teknolojik, rasyonel ve üretmeye odaklı bir varlık olarak tanımlamak zorlaşmaya başlamıştır. Yeni dönemle birlikte insanın kognitif yan- lılıkları olan bir varlık olduğu ve kararlarını bu kısıtlar altında aldığı anlaşılmaya başlanmıştır. Psikoloji biliminde özellikle son elli yılda bu çerçevede önemli ça- lışmalar gerçekleştirilmiştir. Psikoloji alanından önce sanatta Dadaizm, felsefede M. Heidegger ile netleşmeye başlayan bu yeni bakışın iktisat bilimine ulaşması biraz daha fazla zaman almıştır. İktisat bilimi, uzun süre utiliteryanizm ve homo-economicus gibi kavramlar üze- rine kurduğu insan anlayışını günümüzde sorgulamaktadır. Bu çerçevede iktisatta psikoloji alanının bulgularının kullanılması gittikçe yaygınlaşmaktadır. Bu bul- guları iktisadi olguları yorumlamak amacıyla kullanmak meselenin bir yönünü oluşturmaktadır. Son yıllarda yaşanan bir başka gelişme ise psikolojinin araştırma yöntemlerinin iktisatta daha sıklıkla kullanılmaya başlanmasıdır. Anket deneyleri, standardize psikolojik ölçekler ve deneyler gibi yöntemler iktisat alanındaki bi- limsel çalışmalarda önemli yeni bulgulara ulaşılmasını sağlamaktadır. Bu sayede kalkınma problemlerine daha gerçekçi çözümler üretilmekte, emek piyasasında çalışma koşullarını belirleyen psikolojik etkenler, gelir dağılımı, nispi gelir, vergi politikaları, işsizlik, girişimcilik ve daha birçok olgu daha iyi anlaşılmaktadır. Davranışsal iktisadın, iktisadi olguların daha iyi anlaşılmasına yaptığı katkı mese- lenin bir yönünü oluşturmaktadır. Bir başka yön ise bu çalışmaların politika ya- pıcılarının neler yapması gerektiğine dair önemli ipuçları içermesidir. Bazen bu bulgular ipucu olmanın veya yol göstermenin ötesine geçip nudge (dürtme) uy- gulamaları gibi doğrudan uygulanabilir teknikler de içermektedir. Tüm bu özellik- leri düşünüldüğünde davranışsal iktisat, hem iktisadi olguların anlaşılmasına hem politika üretilmesine verdiği katkılar nedeniyle her geçen gün daha da ön plana çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışmaların iktisat bilimi içerisindeki yerinin ne yönde ilerleye- ceğini zaman gösterecektir. Alanın en önemli isimlerinden D. Kahneman’a dav- ranışsal iktisadın geleceği sorulduğunda buna gelecek kuşakların karar vereceğini belirtmiştir. Fakat alanın her geçen gün artan önemi ve iktisat bilimine getirdiği 7 ÖN SÖZ yeni açılım hesaba katıldığında gelecekte daha fazla davranışsal iktisat çalışması olması yüksek bir olasılık gibi görünmektedir. Davranışsal iktisadın alana bir diğer katkısı ise ülkeler veya kültürler arası fark- ların iktisadi olgular üzerindeki etkisini daha net bir şekilde ortaya koymasıdır. Davranışsal iktisat ile gelen gelişmeler sayesinde örneğin gelişmiş bir ülkede başa- rılı olan bir istihdam politikasının gelişmekte olan bir ülkede neden başarılı ola- madığının nedenlerini göstermek daha olası hale gelmiştir. Din, kültür ve iktisadi gelişmişlik farkı gibi birçok unsurun iktisadi olgular ile etkileşimi daha iyi anla- şılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu çerçevede davranışsal iktisadın Türkiye’yi daha iyi anla- mamıza verebileceği katkı da açıktır. Dolayısıyla değerli meslektaşım Dr. Hatime Kamilçelebi’nin bu kıymetli çalışması ayrıca bu açıdan da önem arz etmektedir. Akademisyenlerin, öğrencilerin ve profesyonellerin yanı sıra davranışsal iktisada ilgi duyan herkesin bu kitaptan yararlanacağını düşünüyorum. Prof. Dr. Gökhan Karabulut 8 Giriş Bin yıl önceye gidip Ömer Hayyam’ın dediği gibi akılla bir konuşma yapalım. Ona sorular soralım. Her bilginin temeli olarak gördüğümüz akıldan bize yol gös- termesini isteyelim. Peki, akıl bize her zaman doğru yolu gösterir mi? Bu kitapta çokça rastlayacağımız gibi bu sorunun cevabı aslında çok uzun zamandır tartışı- lıyor. Beklenti Teorisi’nin yazıldığı 1979 yılına denk gelen bir filmle açıklamak isterim. Tarkovsky’nin Stalker (İz sürücü) adlı bilimkurgu filminde, bölge olarak adlandırılan yer yıllar önce arkalarında yıkıntılar bırakmış uzaylılar tarafından zi- yaret edilmiş veya göktaşı çarpmış bir yerdir. Burası ordu tarafından izole edilme- sine rağmen iz sürücü bir miktar para karşılığında bölgeye gizlice insanlar götür- mektedir. İz sürücü bölgenin içindeki odaya girebilen insanların buradaki bilinç tarafından en derinden diledikleri şeylerin, acılarından doğmuş olan isteklerinin gerçekleşeceğini iddia etmektedir. Filmin diğer karakteleri olan yazar ve profesör bölgeye iz sürücüyle giderler. Yazarın bölgeye gitme sebebi ilham kaynağını bul- maktır. Profesörün asıl amacını filmin sonuna doğru öğreniriz, o odaya bomba atarak yok etmek istemektedir. Çünkü odanın insanların duygularını suiistimal ederek kötüye kullanılabileceğini düşünür. Odanın eşiğine geldiklerinde iz sürücü profesörün amacını anlar ve bombayı patlatmasını istemez, yazar ise iz sürücüye engel
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