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Factors Influencing the Establishment of Translocated Eland and Springbok in the Nyae Nyae Conservancy.Pdf FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF TRANSLOCATED ELAND (Taurotragus oryx) AND SPRINGBOK (Antidorcas marsupialis) IN THE NYAE NYAE CONSERVANCY, NAMIBIA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN SCIENCE (CONSERVATION BIOLOGY) OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA BY SELMA M.W. LENDELVO STUDENT NUMBER: 9504214 APRIL 2018 Main Supervisor: Prof. John K. E. Mfune (University of Namibia) Co-Supervisors: Prof. Lawrence Kazembe (University of Namibia) Dr. Helen Suich (Australian National University) TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. vii LIST OF ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... x DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... xii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Linking translocation to wildlife management in Namibia ............................................. 6 1.3 The importance of CBNRM to local communities in Namibia ....................................... 8 1.4 Statement of the problem ............................................................................................... 10 1.5 Study objectives ............................................................................................................. 11 1.6 Research hypotheses ...................................................................................................... 12 1.7 Layout of chapters ......................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 13 2.1 Conservation and management of ungulate species ...................................................... 13 2.1.1 The perspectives of wildlife management in Africa ............................................... 13 2.1.2 Characteristics and conservation practices regarding ungulate species .................. 15 2.2 Wildlife translocation .................................................................................................... 17 2.2.1 The definition of translocation ................................................................................ 17 2.2.2 Purpose and extent of wildlife translocation ........................................................... 19 2.2.3 Factors influencing translocation outcomes ............................................................ 22 2.3. Theoretical framework: The declining-population paradigm ....................................... 29 CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................................................... 34 3.1 Study area and species of focus ..................................................................................... 34 3.1.1 Location of the Nyae Nyae Conservancy ................................................................ 34 i 3.1.2 Sources of livelihood of the Nyae Nyae Conservancy ............................................ 36 3.1.3 Natural resources of the Nyae Nyae conservancy ................................................... 37 3.1.4 Selection the Nyae Nyae conservancy .................................................................... 38 3.1.5 Selection of study species ....................................................................................... 39 3.2. Research Methodology: Mixed-method design ............................................................ 43 3.2.1 Trends in species composition, diversity and population sizes using long-term data .................................................................................................................. 45 3.2.2 Population structure and diet composition of springbok ......................................... 48 3.2.3 Population structure and diet composition of eland ................................................ 51 3.2.4 Assessment of habitat factors affecting translocated springbok and eland species 53 3.2.5 The effects of the practice of hunting on translocated species in the conservancy . 60 3.3 Data analysis .................................................................................................................. 60 3.4 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................. 63 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 65 4.1. Trends in the composition, diversity and population sizes of wildlife species ............. 66 4.1.1 Species composition ................................................................................................ 66 4.1.2 Diversity of wildlife species .................................................................................... 69 4.1.3 Trends in abundance of wildlife species ................................................................. 72 4.1.4 Factors influencing trends in wildlife composition, diversity and abundance ........ 77 4.2 Changes in population sizes and distribution of springbok and eland ........................... 79 4.2.1 Trends in population sizes of the springbok and eland ........................................... 80 4.2.2 Distribution patterns for the eland and springbok in the conservancy .................... 82 4.3 Population structure and social activities of the present springbok and eland .............. 92 4.3.1 The age, sex and social structure of the present springbok population ................... 92 4.3.2 Social activities and diet composition of the springbok .......................................... 96 4.3.3 The age, sex and social structure of the present eland population .......................... 98 4.3.4 Social activities and diet composition of the observed eland................................ 102 ii 4.4 Factors perceived to influence the translocation outcomes of the species .................. 103 4.4.1 Water sources ........................................................................................................ 104 4.4.2 Vegetation/Range condition .................................................................................. 108 4.4.3 Human settlements and farming activities ............................................................ 111 4.4.4 Veld fires ............................................................................................................... 112 4.4.5 Predation................................................................................................................ 115 4.5 The impact of hunting on translocated species ............................................................ 120 4.5.1 The influence of the practice of hunting on translocated species in the Nyae Nyae conservancy ................................................................................................. 120 4.5.2 Hunting levels among the translocated species in the Nyae Nyae conservancy ... 124 4.5.3 Perceptions on the effects of hunting on translocated species .............................. 128 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 130 5.1 Factors influencing the composition, diversity and population sizes of wildlife species .................................................................................................................. 130 5.2 The trends in abundance and distribution of eland and springbok .............................. 133 5.3 Population structure and diet composition of the springbok and eland population ..... 136 5.3.1 Age, sex and social structures of the eland and springbok.................................... 136 5.3.2 Activities and diet composition of springbok and eland ....................................... 138 5.4 Factors influencing the translocation outcomes of the springbok and eland ............... 140 5.5 The effects of the levels and hunting types on translocated species ............................ 146 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 150 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 155 APPENDIX 1: Description of the study species and translocation numbers ........................ 178 iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: The development of conservation approaches in Namibia, including the communal conservancy areas between 1975 and 2013 ...................................................... 4 Figure 2: The distribution of ungulates across Namibia, 2008 ................................................. 8 Figure 3: The components of the definition of conservation translocation ............................. 18 Figure 4: The extinction
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