Visual Impact Assessment in British Oil and Gas Developments1

Dennis F. Gillespie2/

Brian D. Clark3/

Abstract: Development of oil and gas resource in the North Sea has led to the application of visual impact assessment techniques to onshore oil and gas developments in the . Formal visual impact assessment methods are needed to supplement landscape evaluations and site selection studies. Three major orientations of British visual impact assessments are: the delineation and mapping of the zone of visual influence, or viewshed; the preparation of accurate graphic representations of the proposed facility; and, the collaboration of engineering and design professionals in all phases of facility plan- ning and design. Visual impact assessments have been successfully applied in case studies throughout the United Kingdom. Formal methods and techniques for visual impact assessment will continue to evolve and their application will extend beyond oil and gas developments to include major energy and other industrial facilities.

INTRODUCTION every, "Minister, government department and public body to have regard to the desirability Visual resource management has a long of conserving the natural beauty and amenity established tradition in the United Kingdom. of the countryside in all their functions Since the Town and Country Planning Act of related to land" (Cullingworth 1976). Con- 1947 and the National Parks and Access to the sequently, the preservation of amenity is a Countryside Act of 1949, landscape management basic objective of all planning policy. for amenity has been a statutory requirement However, nowhere in the acts or their accompany- (Hall 1975). ing legislation is the term "environmental impact assessment" used, nor is there a More recently, the Countryside () statutory requirement for impact assessment Act 1967 and the Countryside Act 1968 require as there is in the U.S.A., under the National

Environmental Policy Act. Rather, local and 1/Submitted to the National Conference on regional planning authorities have considerable Applied Techniques for Analysis and Manage- power to require, on a case by case basis, ment of the Visual Resource, Incline evidence that a proposed development will not Village, Nevada, April 23-25, 1979. injuriously affect the environment. With few exceptions, all development requires the 2/ Visiting Research Fellow, University of prior approval of the local planning authority, Aberdeen, Scotland, and Frank Knox Memorial and the authority has almost unlimited dis- Fellow 1978-79, Graduate School of Design, cretion as to what documentation will be Harvard University, Cambridge, required before planning approval will be Massachusetts. granted. This is known as the "Development 3/Project Director, Project Appraisal for Control Process" and many planning professionals Development Control (PADC) Research Unit, argue that it is sufficient, and a separate, Department of Geography, University of formal environmental impact assessment process Aberdeen, Scotland. is not necessary. Others, including Thorburn

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(1978) argue that the development control process based on their professional opinion.5/ Often can only be improved by incorporation of some planning officers and consultants developed form of environmental impact assessment. formal methods of landscape evaluation and applied them in comprehensive county and In the last few years increasing concern regional studies. Among the best known work has been expressed about the effects of new is that of Fines (1968), and of Land Use large scale development on the quality of the Consultants (1971), but numerous methods have environment and the ability of the planning been developed, applied and reviewed.6/ While and development control process to take these certain methods were criticized,7/ most were effects into account. Since 1970, the offshore generally accepted as legitimate and lands discovery and development of oil and gas were subsequently designated for conservation. resources in the North Sea has placed tremendous pressures onshore, particularly in Scotland, Site Selection for development sites for associated industrial facilities. This situation prompted the Landscape evaluations are successful in central government to examine the possibility rural environments where development pressure of incorporating into the planning system is low, several alternate development areas formal methods and techniques of environmental are available and the type of development is impact assessment, including visual impact small scale land uses, already present in the 4/ assessment. area. With the increase in pressure for large scale industrial developments in the Since October 1973 the Project Appraisal rural countryside and along the coastline, for Development Control (PADC) Research Unit the traditional landscape evaluation begins at the University of Aberdeen has been studying to lose its effectiveness as a method of the methods and techniques of impact assessment restricting development. Industrial site used in the United Kingdom and abroad, with selection choices often extend well beyond particular emphasis to their application in county or regional boundaries. For certain appraisal of oil and gas related development. facilities there may be literally only a Drawing upon the PADC work, this paper presents handful of sites within a large region that a survey of techniques for visual impact can accommodate the installation for engineering assessment applied to onshore oil and gas or safety considerations. Site selection may developments in the United Kingdom. It also be influenced by government policy re- discusses both general approaches used in stricting certain developments from vast areas visual impact assessment and techniques used and encouraging there location in others. The in specific projects. Scottish Development Department (1971) identi- fied certain segments of the Scottish coastline where oil and gas related industries are to be NEED FOR VISUAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT discouraged. The identification of the coastal segments to be conserved was based mainly on Landscape Evaluation their "scenic quality" as judged through a series of landscape evaluations. Prior to the discovery of and gas the approach planning authorities In other cases, a political decision may used to protect and manage the visual resources be made to locate within a certain region for of the countryside was the preparation of a employment and other social and economic county or regional landscape evaluation. The considerations, or, the argument may be made evaluation was intended to classify the study that a particular facility site is the only area into homogeneous tracts or zones suitable location and is necessary in the according to its relative visual quality. The national interest, regardless of the immediate particular high quality tracts identified impacts on local amenity. Such an argument would then be designated for conservation was advanced when planning approval was purposes on the local development plan and requested to develop a concrete offshore any incompatible development proposals would production platform fabrication yard at be excluded. Drumbuie, near the mouth of Loch Carron on

Sometimes recognized experts were commis- sioned and asked for a landscape evaluation 5/ See for example Murray (1962). 6/ See for example Robinson, et al. (1976), Dunn (1974), and Clark et al. (1976h). 4/ Two major central government funded research reports resulted, see Catlow and Thirlwall 7/ See for example Brancher (1969). (19771, and Clark et al. (1976a).

646 the west coast of Scotland (Baldwin and The PADC Research Unit at the University Baldwin 1975). The application was finally of Aberdeen has suggested a simple technique denied, but only after the Secretary of State for determining the zone of visual influence for Scotland conducted one of the most extensive directly from topographic maps (Clark et. al. public inquiries on a development issue to that date. 1976b). First developed by Hebblethwaite (1973) for use by the Central Electricity In situations such as these, the role of Generating Board, the technique considers two the landscape evaluation is to guide forward factors, topography and horizontal distance planning by identifying suitable sites based from the installation. It does not easily on amenity concerns. To be effective, they allow for consideration of existing vegetation must inevitably precede site selection. Once or structures although the technique can be a site has been chosen, comprehensive visual adapted to include them. impact assessments during detailed project appraisal become a significant factor in Two inexpensive pieces of equipment are deciding whether development should proceed. required, a transparent ruled "height plate," corresponding to elevation, and a transparent "sight line," (Clark 1976b). The technique VISUAL IMPACT ASESSMENT involves laying the sight line over a large scale topographic map projecting away from Visual impact assessment to date in the facility in any desired viewing direction. Britain has exhibited three major orientations. The height plate is superimposed over the sight The first is the delineation of the "Zone of line corresponding to the maximum height of Visual Influence," or what is commonly referred the facility. Proceeding outward from the to in the United States as the "viewshed." facility, visible and invisible points along That is, a zone of adjacent land from which the sight line can be identified. If the the proposed facility will be visible is visibility of only one viewpoint along each mapped. sight line is important, it can quickly be determined. Second, it has been the concern for preparing an accurate graphic representation of what This technique can provide a rapid and the facility will look like from certain accurate method of determining if a proposed sensitive viewpoints. While the emphasis is installation will he visible from a few placed on the form of the facility and its specified sensitive viewpoints without the general outline within the scene, certain necessity of drawing elevation profiles. If studies have emphasized alterations in both the technique is used with successive sight the architectural design of the structures lines established at constant intervals in and the overall site layout. all directions, an isopleth can be drawn around the installation defining the aerial The third, and perhaps most significant, extent of the zone of visual influence. The orientation has been the active incorporation technique is of particular value to local of architectural and landscape architectural planning authorities without professional designers into the initial facility layout staff skilled in either the drafting of and structural design stages of project elevation profiles or conducting computer- development. Fortunately, a situation has aided analyses. resulted where impact assessment can easily stimulate design changes and mitigation British Gas Corporation prepares a view- measures that will ameliorate much of the shed analysis mapping all visible lands negative visual impact. within a five-mile radius of most above ground facilities and for a larger radius 8/ Zone of Visual Influence from certain major installations. In the case of relatively small facilities, such as Several methods for determining the compressor stations along gas transmission attendant zone of visual influence of a pipelines, the viewshed may be determined facility have been employed. They vary from from Ordinance Survey topographic maps using rather simple techniques for study of small simple map study techniques such as those scale topographic maps, to computer simulations described above, or by preparing hand drawn and to actual empirical data collection. In elevation profiles at five degree intervals common with all is the desire to map the around the facility. For particularly actual lands from which the facility will be visible. 8/Conversation with P.G. Parkinson, Environmental Planning Division of British Gas Corporation, 21 December 1978.

647 sensitive areas, hand drawn profiles are oil refinery at Nigg Point at the mouth of the prepared at one degree intervals.9/ Cromarty Firth.

For large industrial installations such Cromarty Petroleum Co. Ltd. had applied as the St. Fergus coastal gas terminal and for planning permission to use a 569-acre site for liquified (LNG) storage on the southwest side of Nigg Point for con- installations, computer programs have been struction of a very large crude carrier (VLCC) developed to determine the viewshed tanker berthing facility and a hydroskimming zone. The programs employ radial searching refinery with ultimate processing capacity of algorithms incorporating gridded input data 200,000 barrels per day (Cromer and Warner on topography, vegetation and distance from a 1974). If built, it would be the first re- specified location, and outputs line printer finery and among the largest industries in the or pen plotter maps. The programs are similar . in operation to viewshed mapping programs described by Elsner (1971) and by Steinitz The Architects Design Group (1974) was (1976). commissioned to analyze and comment on the visual impact of the proposal and the effects The computer programs have been beneficial upon the amenity of the area. Nine sensitive during early facility design stages to test viewpoints were identified and sight lines rapidly the effects of changing site layouts, were constructed from the viewpoints, through structure heights and potential landscape the highest point of the proposed refinery mitigation measures. The same technique has facilities, to the hill serving as the backdrop also been used for locating sites for radio to the site. The main emphasis of the analysis masts which have to he within sight of each was to determine from which viewpoints the other (Dean and Graham 1976). existing skyline of the hill would be broken by the refinery facilities. Sketches were In cases where the facility was expected presented showing the form of the facilities to be visible from a large area and the issue as they would be viewed from each viewpoint. of visibility was of major importance, a An alternate site layout plan was proposed computer viewshed map study has been that would minimize skyline interruption from supplemented with a different type of simulation. all nine viewpoints. The study did not indicate British Gas has raised balloons in the exact how the nine viewpoints were selected or how location and to the same height as the proposed many people were likely to see the facilities structure, and then traversed the roads of from each viewpoint. The proposal was sub- the study area recording where the balloon sequently withdrawn for reasons other than the can and cannot he seen.10/ expected visual impact.

These techniques for determining the A similar analysis was carried out for a zone of visual influence yield information proposed natural gas liquids separation and only on the extent to which proposed facilities storage facility near Peterhead, Scotland will be visible. For a determination of how (Shell U.K. Exploration and Production 1976). the facility will be perceived other analyses In this case, the facility was proposed in an must be made. agricultural area of gently rolling topography with numerous hedgerows and woodland copses. Graphic Representations of Views Altering the site layout or onsite planting of vegetation screening would have little effect Almost all oil and gas project appraisals on the visibility of the higher structures have included a graphic representation of from distant viewpoints. Instead, limited what the installation will look like from one offsite planting of vegetation along the sight or more viewpoints. They usually represent a lines, between the viewpoints and the facilities, ground level view from a sensitive viewpoint was proposed to act as a visual screen. several miles away in a nearby town or from a Elevation profile drawings documenting the nearby public road. Typical of most such site line analyses and sketches of the view studies is that carried out for the Ross and from each viewpoint with and without mitigative Cromarty County Council in 1974 on a proposed vegetation planting were presented.

With a large number of viewpoints from 9/Conversation with Frank Dean, Chief Environmental which a view of a facility must be represented, Planning Officer, British Gas Corporation, 21 the preparation of hand-drawn elevation profiles December 1978. and sketches can become an almost insuperable task. British Gas, working with the Computer 10/ Conversation with P.G. Parkinson, Environ- Aided Design Centre of Cambridge, has developed mental Planning Division of British Gas a computer program for quickly and accurately Corporation, 21 December 1978. simulating the addition of a structure or

648 group of structures into a photograph of the Britain and is operated by British Petroleum landscape (Dean and Graham 1976). for a consortium of companies. Several studies including limited environmental impact assess- The program uses as input: three-dimensional ments preceded construction (The Sullom Voe coordinate location information for existing Environmental Advisory Group 1976). However, objects within the photograph; information as no comprehensive visual impact assessment or to the viewpoint, height, lens focal length mitigation studies were prepared, apparently and enlargement factor of the camera used; and because of its isolation. three-dimensional descriptive and locational information on the structures to be inserted St. Fergus Gas Terminal-- From the time a into the photographic scene. The program site near Peterhead, on the northeast coast of calculates the position of the structure Scotland, was selected for the major receiving within the scene and plots, to scale, the and distribution system of gas from the Frigg structure outline on a transparent overlay as offshore field, the Architects Design Group it would appear in the photograph. The technique collaborated with British Gas engineers in all is of value to British Gas because they are phases of the site layout and facility design.l3/ continually conducting such analyses and The component buildings, compressor stations, because the majority of their facilities are piping units, gas storage tanks, pressure of standard design. Thus, the facility unit release stacks and all ancillary facilities descriptions in computer readable form can be received design treatment by the architects. stored for continual use. The program allows The offshore pipeline landfall required ex- for rapid evaluation of the effects of design cavation through and restoration of a frontal alterations, site layout changes and topographic dune. Recently completed, the result is a or vegetation changes. When the final site sensitive, orderly, visually coherent example layout and facility design is selected, a of an industrial facility that is usually photomontage can be prepared for public pre- perceived negatively. sentation. Flotta Oil Terminal-- The major oil The technique has been successfully used handling terminal in Scotland to receive in a number of studies, especial1ly for gas detailed visual assessment is currently under pipeline compressor stations.1l/ The computer construction on the island of Flotta, in the aided photomontage technique can be expected Orkney Islands off the northern coast of the to play an increasing role in the visual Scottish mainland. Occidental Petroleum impact analyses prepared by British Gas.12/ Corporation of Britain, in association with other companies, selected the Flotta site Design Collaboration after evaluation of seven possible locations in Scotland (Thielhelm 1973). The comparative When it is not possible to site a major evaluation was made based solely on technical facility out of view, emphasis has been placed suitability for construction and operation of on incorporating architects and landscape the terminal facilities with no consideration architects into the project engineering design of visual or other social and environmental team. Rather than bring designers into the concerns. Occidental subsequently retained process only to assess or attempt to mitigate W.J. Cairns and Partners, an Edinburgh planning visual impact, they have been incorporated and design firm, to conduct detailed environ- from the initial stages of project design so mental analyses of the project, including a that many potential impacts have been avoided comprehensive visual impact analysis (Cairns in the first instance. Two of the earliest and Associates 1974). gas terminals to receive comprehensive design treatment were the Bacton terminal in Norfolk, The Flotta study was concerned with the and the Theddlethorpe terminal in Lincolnshire. site layout and color treatment of the seven In addition, the most recent attempts at oil storage tanks, to minimize their visibility professional collaboration have dealt with the as viewed from adjacent islands and from the main oil and gas receiving, storage and distri- air, and to "achieve maximum integration of bution terminals in Scotland. They are the the development and the landscape..." (Cairns St. Fergus gas terminal on the northeast coast and Associates 1974). Because Flotta was near the town of Peterhead, and the Flotta directly under a heavily travelled commercial crude oil terminal in the Orkney Islands. The airline flight path, the form of the terminal Sullom Voe oil terminal in the Shetland Islands layout as perceived from a nearly plan view is the largest oil handling terminal in took on added significance.

11/See for example Architects Design Group (1978). 13/Conversation with Frank Dean, Chief Environ- 12/Conversation with Frank Dean, Chief Environ- mental Planning Officer, British Gas Corp., 21 mental Planning Officer, British` Gas Corp., 21 December 1978. December 1978. 649

The study identified seven "cones of British Standard 4800 range were selected for site visibility" within which the terminal testing. Six landscape scenes representing would be visible to boaters in surrounding the variation in vegetative landcover and Scappa Flow and to motorists on public roads background color were photographed and printed on the adjacent islands. Panoramic photographs on high quality color enlargements. A rectan- were taken from representative viewpoints gular strip of each of the eleven colors was within each cone of visibility and from the then superimposed onto each of the six photo- air. Working with project engineers, alternative graphs, resulting in 66 superimposed photographs. tank sizes, heights and layouts were sketched Each composite photo was then rephotographed as they would he viewed from each viewpoint. onto transparent color slides. Each of the Site models at the scales of 1:5000 and 1:1000 six sets of eleven colors were then evaluated were also prepared. Each alternative model on a scoring system applied independently by layout was photographed from sea level fore- four trained observers in two groups. Potential ground, middleground and background positions. colors were narrowed to two and submitted to The three criteria against which each proposed onsite testing by erecting large color panels layout was measured were, to minimize "edge in the location of the tanks, photographing definition," diminish "depth of field recog- them on transparent color slides and repeating nition," and maximize "visual overlap." the rating process. Finally, a single color Neither the alternative layout schemes nor for each tank as viewed from each viewpoint assigned ratings based on the criteria are was selected. presented. Through successive iterations a final "solution" was agreed upon. No justification is given as to why or how the original range of eleven colors were In attempting to design to meet the above identified, nor what the evaluation criteria criteria, the selection of tank color became were or how they were applied in the rating. an important factor in the Flotta study. The It also seems that the design team felt they tanks would been seen against a backdrop of must eventually narrow color selection to one low rolling topography barren of trees and or at most two colors for ease of application covered in various heathers, grasses and low and maintenance.14/ With the exception of these shrubs, all changing color with the seasons possible shortcomings, the Flotta study and with atmospheric light conditions. Two represents a significant attempt at collaborating alternative approaches to color treatment of with petroleum industry engineers in assessing, the facilities were examined. The first was and more importantly mitigating, visual impact that of using bold primary colors in "image of the proposed project. making." It is argued that in monotonous landscapes brightly colored structures can British Gas has incorporated many of the provide a sense of place and location, a same color and pattern concepts explored in landmark for orientation and a stimulus for the Flotta study into their treatment of gas visual excitement (Cairns and Associates transport and storage facilities, particularly 1974). The designers recognized that while gas pipeline compressor stations and liquified such an approach has been successful when used natural gas (LNG) storage facilities. in the nondescript urban industrial scene, the approach is not likely to be totally accepted The national gas transmission system in in this location of comparatively undisturbed Britain comprises over 3000 miles of onshore countryside. Thus, they adopted a strategy of pipelines up to 36 inches in diameter (British using color to camouflage the tanks to the Gas Corporation 1977a). Compressor stations extent possible not to try to make the are required approximately every 40 miles on a installation invisible, but to attempt to major truck line in order to maintain required breakup the solid mass of the tanks and in- pressures. A station may occupy from 20 to 40 tegrate them with landscape. The use of bold total acres with from 5 to 10 acres of above colors was not abandoned entirely, however. ground structures. The compressor cab enclosures Working on the hypothesis that a single bright are the largest and most visible structures on object in a field of homogenous dull objects any site. Recognizing that the compressor will be visually isolated and will focus cabs should be visually pleasing as well as attention on itself and away from the remaining acoustically suitable, British Gas undertook a objects in the field, the designers proposed program beginning in 1969 where engineers, using hold, bright colors on the associated architects and compressor manufactures collabor- control, storage and maintenance complex. ated on the architectural design of compressor

In order to test the camouflaging effect of various colors, a technique described by Hardy (1971) was used to simulate the introduction 14/Conversation with W.J. Cairns, Senior Partner, of colored structures into a photographic W.J. Cairns and Associates, 20 November 1978. landscape scene. Eleven colors from the

650 cabs (Dean and Graham 1977). Two standard the progressively lighter blue colors moving designs resulted. Working with these standard up the tank are intended to merge the tank top units, site planners develop individual layout with clouds in the background sky. plans for each station.l5/ The LNG installation at Partington, LNG storage installations represent Cheshire, is in a quite different situation. greater visual intrusions in the landscape The three new tanks and associated structures than do compressor stations. They are much are located within an existing industrial area larger in size and scale than compressor and can be seen from three strikingly different stations, and are often associated with other viewpoints. From the west the tanks are existing industry. Thus, opportunities for viewed in the foreground from a residential architectural modifications of the facilities area; from the east and southeast they are are much more limited than in the case of viewed in the middleground within an industrial compressor stations. British Gas has instead panorama; and from the north they are viewed relied on color treatment as the primary as background elements to an existing large visual impact mitigation technique for LNG petrochemical complex. The analysis examined storage installations. several possible combinations of color and pattern for each of the three viewpoints LNG storage tanks are the major visual recognizing that no single solution would be feature of any storage installation. The suitable for all three viewpoints. standard tanks used in Britain are approximately 150 feet (46 meters) high and 150 feet in Consequently, a scheme was selected diameter. A typical storage installation will involving painting the three sectors of each include two or more such tanks along with tank oriented toward each viewpoint with associated structures and buildings. British colors either to harmonize or contrast with Gas has adopted the approach that it is useless the surrounding visual elements, as determined to attempt to camouflage the tanks, and instead appropriate. A pattern of vertical stripes of attempts to use contrasting colors to integrate varying widths was selected to reduce visually the tanks visibly with their surroundings. the square proportions of the tanks and to Rather than using singular striking colors to correspond to the other vertical industrial draw attention to the tanks in an "image- elements adjacent. making" exercise as was considered in the case of the Flotta oil terminal, patterns of contrast- Four colors were selected, a deep violet, ing colors are developed for each specific flat white, reflective aluminum and a yellow- situation to attempt to break up the mass of orange. The violet and white combination is the tanks when viewed from sensitive viewpoints. in the foreground from the housing area to the Two existing LNG storage installations to west and is intended to break up the massive receive such color treatment are at Glenmarvis silhouette of the tanks. The reflective in Scotland, and at Partington in Cheshire, properties of the aluminum colored stripes . against the flat white stripes were intended to create light absorbing and reflecting The installation at Glenmarvis includes "shimmer" effects when viewed from the south- two tanks with the possibility of a third east in the middleground panorama of the future tank in a "greenfield site," an area existing petrochemical complex. The pre- with no existing industry. The site is an dominately orange face of the tanks is intended agricultural area on gently undulating topo- to serve as a strong positive contrast to the graphy and is equally visible for several dull monotone of the existing industrial miles in all directions. There are no topo- complex, when viewed from the north as back- graphic features to serve as a visual background. ground elements to the existing petrochemical Thus, the tanks are viewed against the sky complex. The associated buildings and struc- from throughout the viewshed. tures also receive architectural design and color treatment in order to link the tanks and A horizontal handing pattern of blue associated structures visually as a single colors was developed to breakup the perceived unified complex. verticality of the tanks and to attempt to give the impression that the tanks fade into the sky. The dark blue colors at the base of CONCLUSION the tank visually anchor and associate it with the surrounding installation structures, while Concern for visual resources and their management has long been an objective of British countryside planning. However, in- creased pressure for industrial development in 15/See for example British Gas Corp. (1977b). the countryside in recent years has forced the

651 incorporation of visual impact assessment Cairns, W.J., and Associates techniques into the development control 1974. Flotta Orkney oil handling terminal, process. visual impact appraisal and landscape proposals, report 2. Prepared for So far these techniques have largely been Occidental of Britain Inc., Getty Oil limited to manual and automated viewshed International Ltd., Union Texas North analysis and graphic representations of what Sea Ltd., Thomson Scottish Petroleum the proposed facility will look like from Ltd. 85 p. Edinburgh, Scotland. sensitive viewpoints. Recently, significant cases of professional collaboration between Catlow, J., and C.G. Thirlwall engineers and designers in the overall layout 1977. Environmental Impact Analysis. DOE and architectural design of oil and gas Research Report No. 11, Department of installations have resulted. Of these three the Environment, London. major orientations toward visual impact assess- ment, collaboration between engineers and Clark, B.D., K. Chapman, R. Bisset, and designers appears to have been the most success- P. Wathern ful in mitigating visual impacts. When such 1976a. Assessment of major industrial collaboration also occurs in the regional site applications: a manual. DOE Research selection studies, overall reduction in the Report No. 13, Department of the visual impacts of the eventual development is Environment, London. even more likely. 1976b. Appendix E: Technical advice Formal methods and techniques for visual note 2, landscape character assessment impact assessment will continue to evolve, and for the appraisal of major development their application will extend beyond oil applications, annex: a review of selected and gas developments to include major energy landscape evaluations and evaluation and other industrial facilities. techniques. In Assessment of major industrial applications, a manual, research report 13 to the Department of LITERATURE CITED the Environment, Univ. Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, p. 83-90. Architects Design Group 1974. Oil refinery at Nigg Point, report on 1976c. Appendix E: Technical advice note planning application submitted by 3, a method for determining the zone of Cromarty Petroleum Company Ltd., pre- visual influence of a proposed industrial pared for the County installation. In Assessment of major Council. industrial applications, a manual, re- search report 13 to the Department of Architects Design Group the Environment, Univ. Aberdeen, 1978. Visual impact analysis for a pro- Aberdeen, Scotland, p. 91-95. posed compressor station near Arbroath. Prepared for British Gas Corp. 57 p. Cremer and Warner, Consulting Engineers 1974. Environmental feasibility report on Baldwin, Pamela L., and Malcolm F. Baldwin the application by Cromarty Petroleum Co. 1975. Onshore planning for offshore oil, Ltd. for a crude oil refinery, crude oil lessons from Scotland. The Conservation storage, finished product storage and Foundation, Washington, D.C. 183 p. marine terminal facility at Nigg Point, County of Ross and Cromarty. Brancher, D.M. 1969. Critique of K.D. Fines: landscape Cullingworth, J.B. evaluation: a research project in East 1976. Town and country planning in Britain. Sussex. Regional Studies, Vol. 3, No. 6th ed. 287 p. George Allen & Unwin, 1, p. 91-92. London.

British Gas Corporation Dean, F.E., and G. Graham 1977a. British gas pipelines and above 1976. The application of environmental impact ground installations, with particular analysis in the British gas industry reference to proposed developments in (practical applications). Submitted to Northumberland. 23 p. the economic commission for europe committee on gas, symposium on the gas industry and 1977b. Layout and landscaping of com- environment. (Minsk [Byelorussian SSR], pressor stations, with particular 20-27 June 1977). reference to a proposed development near Haddington. 17 p.

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