Fire Management Assessment of the Songshan Nature Reserve, China

GLOBAL FIRE INITIATIVE

Technical Report Fire Management Assessment of the Songshan Nature Reserve, China

April 2008

GFI technical report 2008-1a Citation: Myers, R., D. Johnson and M. Krawchuk. Fire Management Assessment of the Songshan Nature Reserve, China. GFI technical report 2008-1a. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA.

For more information:

Ronald L. Myers Latin America and Caribbean Fire Director Global Fire Initiative The Nature Conservancy Tall Timbers Research Station 13093 Henry Beadel Drive Tallahassee, FL 32312 USA 850-668-5569 [email protected] www.tncfuego.org

Cover Photo: Old-growth Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) in Songshan Nature Reserve. ©Ronald Myers

2 contents contents

Section Page

Introduction ...... 1 Purpose ...... 1 Fire Management Assessment Framework & Process ...... 2 Focus & Constraints ...... 3

Vegetation, Fire Environment & Disturbances ...... 5 General Information ...... 5 Vegetation ...... 5 Fire Response Categories, Fire Regimes & Fuels ...... 6 Disturbance History ...... 13

Characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis ...... 16 Distribution ...... 16 Adaptations to Fire & Other Disturbances ...... 16

Fire Management at Songshan ...... 26

Conclusions & Recommendations ...... 27 Future of Chinese Red Pine Under Current Management Regime . . . .27 Current Fire Management Approach at Songshan ...... 27 Ecological Disturbance Model for Songshan Nature Reserve ...... 28 Future Fire Management Options at Songshan ...... 28 Fire Management Options in China ...... 28

Next Steps ...... 30

References ...... 31

iii 1introduction introduction Purpose During 27–31 August 2007, a team of fire north of Beijing to assess the role of fire, management and fire ecology experts from if any, in the dynamics and maintenance of the United States traveled to Beijing to Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis Carr. ) meet with Chinese foresters, ecologists and associated vegetation. Preliminary and geographers interested in fire manage- Nature Conservancy conservation planning ment issues. The Team also made a field in the area pointed to the lack of regenera- visit to Songshan National Nature Reserve tion of red pine in the Reserve.

Team Members - Darren Johnson, Fire Ecologist, Global Fire Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA - Meg Krawchuk, PhD., Post-doctoral Researcher, Center for Fire Research & Outreach, University of California at Berkeley, USA - Ronald Myers, PhD., Fire Director, Latin America & the Caribbean, Global Fire Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA - Yu Guangzhi, Protected Area Strategy Manager, The Nature Conservancy, China - Matthew Durnin, PhD., Conservation Scientist. The Nature Conservancy, China - Xiaorui Tian, PhD., Research Institute of Forest Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, China The team was accompanied by Ruiyi Chen, Lili Li and Wanjie Jiang from the Conservation Sector at Songshan Nature Reserve.

During the trip, the Assessment Team met with: Hu Yuanhui, Division Director, International Forestry Cooperation Center, State Forestry Administration, Beijing, China Fu Yuling, Institute of Geographic Sciences & Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) Beijing, China Zheng Du, Professor, Institute of Geographic Sciences & Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing, China Guirui Yu, PhD., Synthesis Center of Chinese Ecosystem Research Network, CAS, Beijing, China Ying Sun, PhD., Chief, Office of International Cooperation, Institute of Geographical Sciences & Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing Wu Shaohong, PhD., Professor, Institute of Geographical Sciences & Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing Keping Ma, PhD., Director & Professor, Institute of Botany, CAS, Beijing Yang si qi, Journalist of Current Events, The Beijing News 1 The objectives of the assessment were to: Fire Management Assessment Framework & Process (1) Gather information on fire manage- Prior to arriving in China and visiting ment needs and issues at Songshan Songshan Nature Reserve, the assessment National Nature Reserve that may be team gathered background information on important in biodiversity conservation and the Reserve and the fire situation in north- management of the Reserve. west China. Key areas of inquiry were:

(1) Review of ecological/environmental

introduction (2) Assess whether fire plays a role in the regeneration and maintenance of Chinese and socio-economic information of the red pine at the site. assessment area. (2) Identification of ecological and socio- (3) Evaluate fire management planning, economic equivalents elsewhere in the training, research and information needs at world which the assessment team was the Songshan Nature Reserve, and gain familiar with or where there already exists some preliminary insights into the status considerable information and management of fire management and fire ecology in experience. China as a whole. (3) Identification of key ecological and fire (4) Provide fire managers and conservation management experts: (1) within the specif- management specialists with recommenda- ic area or region to be visited and (2) in tions on long-term strategies and actions ecologically equivalent ecosystems else- to reduce fire-related threats at the where in the world. Reserve. (4) Determination of current approach to (5) Introduce ecological concepts related fire management in the area by reviewing to fire that could be adapted to conserva- existing management plan, fire policies, tion management strategies throughout and fire staffing, etc. China. (5) Understanding how the socio-econom- (6) Provide The Nature Conservancy ic and political systems in China influence (TNC) in China with a conceptual frame- the type, approaches and effectiveness of work for identifying and addressing fire- fire management. related threats to biodiversity conservation at their priority conservation areas. Once in China, the assessment team pur- sued information about: fire management at the Reserve, national and local fire poli- This assessment was conducted as part of cies and laws, and perceptions of the pub- the Global Fire Partnership, which lic, scientists and land managers about includes the Conservancy’s Global Fire wildland fire and fire management, includ- Initiative and the University of California ing their basic understanding of fire at Berkeley’s Center for Fire Research & regimes and fire as an ecological process. Outreach.

2 introduction

These issues and questions included: change, or how are they changing now, as a result of fire prevention and suppression (1) Based on meetings with key area man- and/or fire use practices? agers, Nature Conservancy staff, country or regional decision makers, scientists and (7) Be prepared to address concerns about natural historians, and community-level fire effects on fauna, specific plant species, stakeholders: What are current views about and soils. What are current local views? fire? What are current policies? Are poli- How do these relate to what we know cies effectively applied? Ignored? Counter about ecologically equivalent ecosystems productive? and species elsewhere?

(2) What is the general perception about (8) How is fire related to climate change, fire in different levels of society in the area invasive species, watersheds and water or region? quality/quantity, etc. at the site?

(3) What is the fire history of the area- (9) Evaluate the role of human burning in long-, medium- and short-term? Have creating, maintaining and negatively recent fires been mapped and fire effects impacting existing vegetation, desired con- evaluated? Are there old photographs of ditions and fire regimes. the area? Have fire ignition sources been documented? Given fuel conditions, plant (10) What broad economic and social poli- adaptations, climatic conditions and local cies and cultural traditions are affecting capacity, is there evidence that lightning fire regimes and fire management effec- ignitions are appropriately identified or tiveness, e.g. agricultural policies, land under-reported? tenure issues, forestry and logging practices, industrial agriculture, energy explo- (4) Ecological review: General classifica- ration, urbanization or domestication of tion of vegetation/ecosystem responses to the landscape? fire, i.e. dependent, sensitive, independent. Are these categories accepted by scientists Focus & Constraints and fire managers? Identify adaptations to Information in this report is based on fire of keystone and dominant species in observations made at Songshan National fire-dependent ecosystems. Nature Reserve and through discussions with: (1) Reserve staff, an ecologist with (5) Assess current and desired conditions the Chinese Academy of Sciences, staff and fire regimes, and define role of fire and from The Nature Conservancy’s China potentially acceptable fire regimes in each program, and a local resident living in the ecological state, and fire regimes or actions village of Dazhuangke located within the that cause shifts, i.e. create a preliminary Reserve (during a day and a half visit in conceptual ecological model. What is the the Reserve); and (2) State Forestry long-term prognosis of the area under Administration officials, and scientists existing management and fire regimes? with the Chinese Academy of Science (during a three-day visit in Beijing). The (6) Brief qualitative assessment of fire Team’s observations in the Reserve were danger, fire risks, and values at risk to fire limited to the main trail in the Reserve in and around area. How might these that follows one of the primary drainages 3 and is open to the public. The Team was from scientific studies in similar ecosys- also able to enter a portion of an old- tems around the world. growth stand of Chinese red pine that is closed to the public. The team was not able The Team was informed that there is a enter the core conservation area, which is substantial body of ecological literature in closed to the public. Although the Team Chinese that addresses ecological succes- could observe vegetation patterns on slopes sion and vegetation structure and dynamics and ridges from the valley bottom trail, throughout China. The Team had no abili-

introduction they were not able to enter this vegetation. ty to access these materials. The validity of interpretations in this report will eventual- The short duration of the visit and limited ly have to be determined through a thor- access prevented the Team from observing ough review of the Chinese ecological lit- the full range of forest conditions at erature, and the results of future studies Songshan. The interpretations presented and monitoring programs that focus on in this report are largely inferences based fire and disturbance regimes at the on the Team’s observations, their profes- Reserve, and on effects, and responses of sional expertise and experience with fire species, habitats and vegetation types to management and fire ecology in ecological- fire and other types of disturbances that ly equivalent habitats elsewhere, and drawn occur within the Reserve.

4 vegetation, fire environment vegetation, fire environment & disturbances 2& disturbances General Information Vegetation Songshan National Nature Reserve is The vegetation is described as zonal mixed located approximately 120 km northwest deciduous broad-leaved forest intermixed of Beijing in Beijing Province at latitude with pine and oak, and has been classified 400 32’ N (Figure 1); about the same lati- into eight forest communities (modified tude as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. It from descriptions provided by Reserve is imbedded in the Yanshan mountain staff ): range and includes Mt. Hai-tuo, which, at 2200 m is the second highest mountain in Oak forests (Quercus mongolica). Widely the province. The lowest point of the distributed on shallow soils on steep slopes Reserve (628 m) is at the southern in mid- to upper watersheds (Figure 2). entrance. Soils throughout the Reserve are Pine may occur scattered throughout. derived from granite parent material. Granite outcrops are common, particularly Mixed Broad-leaved forests. This forest on the ridge tops and upper slopes. consists of genera typical of mixed-broad- Granite boulders protrude throughout the leaved forests in the northeastern USA: Reserve. Tilia, Acer, Fraxinus, Carpinus, Celtus, Betula, Juglans, Prunus, Morus, Robinia. The climate is considered temperate conti- These forests are best developed in valley nental monsoon with an annual rainfall of bottoms and lower slopes (Figure 3). There 493 mm falling primarily in the summer may be scattered pine throughout. months. Maximum recorded temperature is 39 °C and the minimum is -27.3 °C. Pine forests. Monospecific stands of There are approximately 150 frost-free Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) days per year. The fire season extends from (Figure 4). These forests are scattered November to April.

Songshan Nature Reserve

Figure 1. Map of China with provinces and location of Beijing Province and the Songshan Nature Reserve. 5 Dry shrublands/forests. Widely-distributed on upper slopes and ridges. Consists of short-statured, drought-resistant trees and shrubs. Characteristic species are Ulmus macrocarpa, Syringa reticulate, and Armeniaca sibirica. Chinese red pine is widely scattered throughout (Figure 6). Fire Response Categories, Fire Regimes & Fuels The Conservancy uses three very broad categories to classify vegetation according Figure 2. Quercus mongolica forest in the upper to its response to fire. These fire response watershed at Songshan Reserve. Oak-dominated categories are: fire-dependent, fire-sensi- forests are frequently the result of relatively fre- quent, low-intensity surface fire that removes tive and fire-independent (Shlisky et al. shade-tolerant competition. As large individuals, 2007; Myers 2006). oaks have relatively thick bark that allows them to survive the fires. Smaller individuals frequently Fire-dependent ecosystems are those that have the ability to re-sprout if damaged by fire. The fire response and adaptations of Q. mongolica are require fire. If they do not burn under an unknown. Photo courtesy of Songshan Nature ecologically appropriate fire regime, they Reserve. change to something else and species and habitats are lost. The vegetation tends to be flammable and readily carries fire. The throughout from ridge tops to slopes and majority of plant species have adaptations valley bottoms. to respond positively to fire and they frequently have characteristics that facilitate Mixed pine-hardwood forests. Scattered the spread of fire. throughout the Reserve. The Reserve staff consider this the most unique vegetation type in the Reserve.

Juglans mandshurica forests. Distributed in valley bottoms on better soils.

Birch forests (Betula dahurica and B. vegetation, fire environment & disturbances environment fire vegetation, platyphylla). Distributed between 1000- 2000 m; often mixed with other hard- woods.

Aspen forests (Populus davidiana). Distributed between 900 - 1500 m as Figure 3. View of valley bottom and lower slopes pure stands or mixed with maple, ash dominated by Mixed Broad-leaved forests. Chinese red pine clumps and individuals are scattered in and/or birch (Figure 5). this type and grade into the Mixed pine-hardwood forest type. Photo courtesy of Songshan Nature Reserve.

6 vegetation, fire environment & disturbances

Figure 4. Naturally regenerated, even-aged Chinese red pine stand along main visitors’ trail. The trees are probably 35-40 years old. The low herbaceous ground cover may be due to the dense shade of the pine canopy, but many stands along the trail exhibited trampling due to heavy visitor use. Reserve staff are working to restrict visitor use to trails. Photo by R. Myers.

Figure 5. An aspen (Populus davidiana ) stand within Songshan Nature Reserve. Aspen is a genus frequently associated with fire, and fire plays an important role in the maintenance of aspen on a site. Aspen is shade-intolerant and does not regenerate under an intact canopy. Fire opens a stand and stimulates vigorous re-spouting. In the absence of fire stem density decreases over time and the stand succeeds to shade-tolerant species. Low-stature aspen sprouts are an important browse species for animals like deer. This food source becomes unavailable as the height to the canopy increases. Most aspen stands are clones formed from the sprouting from roots. This adaptation allows aspen to expand into adjacent burned or disturbed areas. Photo by R. Myers. 7 Figure 6. Dry shrublands on upper slopes with scattered individual Chinese red pine. Shrubs are deciduous and leaves are on the ground during the fire season. Pine may be a component of this vegetation even without fire or major disturbances. Photo by R. Myers.

Fire-sensitive ecosystems are those where too dry or too cold to burn. Ecosystems in the species lack adaptations to survive fire this category can become flammable if they or to respond reproductively to it. They are are subject to non-native invasive species generally not very flammable, and fire that change fuel characteristics. tends to be a problem only during droughts or protracted dry seasons. A moderate A fire regime is defined as a set of recur- amount of fire may be important in creat- ring conditions of fire that characterize a ing specific habitats and initiating succes- given ecosystem (Myers 2006). Those sional processes and creating habitats that conditions include the frequency at which are important to biodiversity. In these situ- fire returns to a given spot on the ground;

vegetation, fire environment & disturbances environment fire vegetation, ations, the ecosystem can be considered fire behavior-the intensity and rate of fire-influenced, but if fire becomes too fre- spread of fires; burn severity-the impact quent and/or too intense, it is very damag- that fires have on vegetation, fauna and ing and is likely to change the vegetation to soils; timing of burn-usually considered the a more flammable type, e.g. forests being time of year or season in which fires occur, converted to grasslands or shrublands, if but also involves timing in relation to ignitions sources persist. meteorological or phenological events; type of fire-ground, surface, crowning; Fire-independent ecosystems are those and pattern and extent of burning over where fire plays little or no role. They the landscape. occur in environments that are too wet, 8 vegetation, fire environment & disturbances

Virtually all vegetation types have a fire sensitive and fire-independent ecosystems, regime, even those that are fire-sensitive or fire’s influence may be much more subtle fire-independent. Fire, even if very infre- and difficult to ascertain. quent, is a recurring event in most ecosystems. Altering a fire regime will change Applying the general ecosystem response vegetation structure and species composi- categories to the vegetation at Songshan, tion and may lead to a different vegetation aspen and oak forests are generally consid- type and species loss. ered to be fire-dependent, i.e. they are maintained or created by fire. Their pres- The fire regime concept can be applied at ence and maintenance of these forests at a multiple scales from a fire regime needed site require a specific fire regime that stim- to maintain a particular species’ habitat, to ulates regeneration, frequently by re- specific vegetation types or vegetation sprouting, and that limits the competition structures, to vegetation patterns and of less fire-adapted, shade-tolerant species. mosaics within a reserve, or to a bioclimat- Oaks generally have the ability to survive ic region (see Box 1). low-intensity surface fires as larger individuals, owing to their thick bark. Top- A fire regime may be only one component killed individuals usually have the ability to of an overall disturbance regime at a given re-sprout after fire. site. Examples of additional disturbance agents that might contribute to a distur- The assessment team did not have the bance regime include: wind damage, flood- opportunity to enter the Quercus mon- ing, insect outbreaks, frost events, or man- golica vegetation type and only observed a agement. In fire-dependent ecosystems, few scattered individuals of the species. It fire tends to be predominant. In fire- may be that existing stands will show multiple stems that may indicate re-sprouting after fire.

Aspen has the ability to vigorously re- sprout after fire and will not regenerate in the shade produced by dense older stands. Its presence and maintenance on sites is usually a function of fire, but the current stands at the Reserve could also be the result of regeneration after logging. Reserve staff indicated the area had been actively logged as recently as 1960 (see Disturbance history).

The broad-leaved forest and the other Figure 7. Natural distribution of Pinus tabuliformis in hardwood forest types, such as those domi- China. The dashed line is the 400 mm rainfall iso- nated by Juglans and birch, fall into the pleth, which is considered the northern edge of the East Asia monsoon climate. From Wang & Feng fire-sensitive category, although fire may (1991) as it appears in Hongyan et al. (2002). have influenced the current distribution and relative abundance of species. These 9 10 vegetation, fire environment & disturbances moisture deficit frequency (Krawchuk and Moritz2007).moisture deficit frequency Afinalmodelwas selected foreach seasonality, months,preciptation annualwaterbalanceand anddriest tion ofthewettest precipita- month,temperatureannualrange, precipitation, temperature ofthecoldest nal range,temperatureseasonality, month,minimum maximumtemperatureofthewarmest including:annualmeantemperature,diur- variationin14climatevariables todescribe 1992) usingWillmott andFeddema (2001, by Hijmansetal.(2005)andWillmott andMatsuura prepared were builtforeachFireRegime.We data used interpolated globalclimatesurface orabsence) ofagivenRegimeclassin100kmcell;models was theoccurrence(presence foreachmodel data The response tionships betweenfireregimetypeandclimatevariables. program.The gamsallowedfornon-linearrela- intheRstatistical with abinomialresponse usinggeneralizedadditivemodels(gams) The relationshipswereestimated United States. andthespatial distributionofeachFireRegimeclassinthe ship betweenclimatevariables modelstoquantifytherelation- and returninterval.We developedspatially explicitstatistical fireseverity todescribe fiveclasses The uses Landfire ReferenceFireRegimeclassification inChina. Fire Regimes ofhistorical Landfire (Schmidtetal.2002)fortheU.S.todevelopapreliminaryassessment adoptedby We andtheReferenceFireRegimeclasses classes. usedglobalclimatedata using five Reference FireRegimepredictedforallareasoftheconterminousUnitedStates a identifies The Assessment Landfire Rapid acrosstheUnitedStates". and fireregimes wildlandfuel, vegetation, describing produce "consistentandcomprehensivemapsdata ManagementPlanningToolsResource Project; www.landfire.gov)initiativewasdevelopedto The Landfire Fireand (Landscape ofwildfireintheUnitedStates. andeffects of thecauses yearshasprovidedprolificscientific study The last30 fire relationshipsintheUnitedStates. ofclimate- climateenvelopeandourunderstanding basedonits National NatureReserve We indeterminingwhatfireregimewouldbepredictedfortheSongshan wereinterested ecosystems. disturbanceinChinese ofecological cussion abouttheimportance dis- This modelisnotanendpoint;itaspringboardforfurther oped fortheUnitedStates. modelsdevel- usingstatistical fire regimefortheregionofSongshanNatureReserve Here,weinferthehistorical landscapes. toits changes inmanyenvironmental has resulted regimeoffireinChina.The longhistoryofhumansettlementanddevelopmentinChina cal in additiontoignitionsource(lightningorhumanactivity).Little isknownaboutthehistori- cover/biomass)andfuelmoisture(weather/climate), function offuelavailability(vegetation sincefireoccursasa betweenthetwocountries fireregimes inhistorical find resemblance wemightalso andclimatesuggest parallelsinvegetation conditions. The intercontinental andclimate fromsharedhistorical hasfocusedonfloristiccomparisonsresulting interest intheireasternregions.Recent especially comparisonsbetweenthetwocountries, logical occupyasimilargloballatitudeandareathathasinspiredeco- China andtheUnitedStates Statistical inference from comparisonwiththeUnitedStates. Box 1.Historicalfire regime oftheSongshanNationalNature Reserve: vegetation, fire environment & disturbances Box 1, continued.

Fire Regime class; the climate variables retained in the final model were chosen based on the principle of parsimony using the Akaike Information Criterion. Parameter estimates from the final model for each Fire Regime class were used with climate data to predict the distribution of the Fire Regime in the United States and China. A complete description of model development and concepts can be found in Krawchuk and Moritz (2007).

The models suggested that Fire Regime II (short return interval (0 to 35 years, surface fire) is most probable in the Songshan Reserve region (Figure 1) based on its climate envelope. In the United States, Fire Regime II dominates in the central plains and eastern forests (Figure 1a). In grassland areas of China such as the Inner Mongolian steppe, this regime would represent replacement severity grassland fire, similar to the prairies of the central United States. In forested regions, this regime would represent the replacement of understory shrubs, grasses and forbs (surface fire), but rarely if ever a stand replacing (crown) fire. Overall, the spatial distribution of Fire Regime II in eastern China appears intuitively sound based on vegetation and climate patterns for the country. Contributors to The Nature Conservancy’s Global Fire Assessment (Shlisky et al. 2007) support the desig- nation of the north and eastern regions of China as fire dependent.

While the floristic analogy between the eastern United States (temperate, grassland and north-eastern regions) and eastern China is strong (Qian 2002), the same annual precipitation and temperature, their interaction and seasonality can also produce disparate biot- ic communities. Furthermore, the two countries are substantially different in the west (Guo et al. 1998; Qian et al. 2005). The U.S. is bounded by ocean on both the eastern and western edges, while China is adjacent to the large Eurasian land mass on its western boundary. The warm, dry, northwest Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and the cool, dry, southwest Tibetan plateau in the Xizang (Tibet) Autonomous Region of China lack an analogue in the United States. The validity of predicting Fire Regimes into the climates of western China needs further assessment. Overall, further research into fire and fire regimes is required in China to understand the importance of disturbance regimes in the conservation of ecological systems.

11 Box 1, continued.

Probability of occurance vegetation, fire environment & disturbances environment fire vegetation, Characteristics • 0-35 year fire return interval. • grassland and eastern forest. • surface fire; understory burn in forested stands, replacement severity fire in grassland.

The predicted distribution of Fire Regime II in China and the United States. This regime is characterized by a low fire return interval (0 to 35 years) of surface fire. Grasslands would experience replacement severity events, and forested stands would experience understory burns. Stand replacing fire in forested stands (such as in the Songshan Reserve) would be extremely rare. The spatial distribution of Fire Regime II was strongly influenced by five climate variables: annual mean water balance, temperature annual range, precipitation of wettest month, minimum temperature of coldest month, and the annual 12 mean temperature. vegetation, fire environment & disturbances forests are subject to, or can be influenced fall, winter and early spring. Crown fires by, surface fires in the dry season when could occur in the dense pine stands under leaves are on the ground, but the majority appropriate conditions, e.g. high winds, low of species that make up these forests do relative humidity. Scattered individual pine not have adaptations to survive fire or to trees could torch when surface fires reach respond positively to fire events. The vast them. The Team was unable to ascertain majority of the species in these forest types when the fire season is at its peak, but we have little resistance to damage by fire. assume that it is in the spring (March- Mortality and top-kill can be extensive, April) when leaves are on the ground, and even from low-intensity fires burning in the hardwood and shrub canopy is leafless, the leaf litter. Some of the species do have thus allowing solar radiation to dry surface the capacity to re-sprout and others can fuels, and when daily temperatures and readily re-seed burned areas or any area solar radiation are increasing. During the where the vegetation is removed or cleared. summer monsoon season, fuels are proba- Betula and Robinia species are usually bly too moist and too shaded to effectively early successional, and their presence and carry fire. abundance at the Reserve may be the result of past fires, agriculture abandonment, and Disturbance History other human-induced disturbances. Past disturbances associated with human activities were evident in the areas visited The Chinese red pine forests have some by the Assessment Team, and most likely features that allow the type to persist and are present throughout the Reserve. All of to regenerate after fire, but these charac- the vegetation was relatively young and of low stature, with few trees over 35 to 40 teristics are not pronounced (see years of age. Much of the valley bottoms Adaptations to fire and other distur- and lower slopes showed the effects of rel- bances). We are confident in saying that atively recent, human habitation and use, the species is disturbance-dependent, but i.e. abandoned in the decades prior to the not specifically fire-dependent. establishment of the Reserve in 1985. Remains of home sites and what had been The dry shrubland/forests type, due to the abandoned agricultural fields were evident. harsh environment where it is found and At lower elevations, the old agricultural due to its growth form, probably has the fields tended to be occupied by Chinese capacity to re-sprout after fire. It is diffi- red pine plantations, while naturally regen- cult to categorize this type without know- erated stands appeared to occupy these ing the regeneration requirements of its sites at mid-elevations. The latter suggests dominant species. The Team only had the a rapid colonization of abandoned agricul- opportunity to observe this type from the tural fields by Chinese red pine. valley bottom and lower slopes, but we speculate that without periodic burning Reserve staff said that there had been no their biodiversity might decrease. fires in the Reserve since it was established in 1985. The oral history of the area Fuels in all of the vegetation types are pri- obtained from the resident of Dazhuangke marily leaf litter (including pine needles), village emphasized the fact that the 1930’s which are available to burn during the late and 1940’s were periods of social upheaval

13 and war that severely impacted the vegeta- have an average diameter of 32 cm with the tion. Between 1937 and 1945, the occupy- largest individual 86 cm. A sign placed ing Japanese military repeatedly burned within the stand states that some trees may much of the area that includes Songshan to have an age of 360 years. Regardless of the drive out resistance forces and sympathiz- actual age of the trees, it is claimed that ers, and to eliminate food supplies. From this is the oldest and best protected stand 1945 to 1949 the Kuomintang (Chinese of Chinese red pine north China. The Nationalist Party) used the same tactics ground cover in this stand is severely dis- during the Civil War to drive out turbed and the soil compacted because the Communist sympathizers and fighters. area had only recently been closed to the public. People living in what are now the Reserve and its environs used fire to clear vegeta- As a contrast, the Team had the opportuni- tion for agricultural use. This activity con- ty to visit the gardens at the Summer tinued up to the time of the establishment Palace located just outside of Beijing. The of the Reserve. Some of these fires were gardens have groves of Chinese red pine, reported to have escaped. Fuel wood col- and the trees appeared to be very old and lection and cutting of trees for lumber were considerably larger than the trees we were also widespread. Reforestation efforts saw at Songshan. They also had large flat began in 1961. At that time the area was topped crowns, which we did not see in the largely denuded of forest vegetation. The Reserve. The specific epithet tabuliformis, most recent fires in the vicinity of i.e. table form, comes from this character- Dazhuangke village occurred in the 1960’s istic flat or table-shaped crown. The trees and in 1982. at the Summer Palace gave an inkling of what Chinese red pine forests might have According to Reserve staff, the Chinese looked like at some time in the past. They red pine forests had a long history of must have been quite impressive. repeated exploitation for timber. In the 1960’s, logging was banned, forest farms At Songshan, the Team observed no fire (plantations) were established, and refor- scarred trees, charcoal in the soil or other estation efforts where undertaken. There evidence of past fires anywhere in any of were some efforts to plant species not the stands along the access trail. Reserve native to the area, but most of the refor- staff maintained that they did not have estation focused on Chinese red pine, and lightning-ignited fires. Scientists from the the Chinese red pine plantings were the Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) most successful. informed us that lightning fires are rare in vegetation, fire environment & disturbances environment fire vegetation, China. The Team’s experience is that in Because of the history of extensive logging many of the world’s fire-dependent ecosys- and other human activities, few Chinese tems, lightning ignited fires are markedly red pines in the Reserve appear to be older under-reported in fire records. than 35 years. On the lower slopes in the upper reaches of the watershed there is an When speculating on possible “natural” or older growth forest of Chinese red pines ecologically appropriate fire regimes in the that for some reason escaped the final Reserve, it is important to keep in mind round of logging in the 1960’s. It supports the very long history of human habitation trees in a stand covering 150 ha that are and land use in this part of China, and how reportedly 85 to 110 years old. The trees human activities may have altered vegeta- 14 vegetation, fire environment & disturbances tion, fuel characteristics and ignition fre- fact, in China one has to consider a possi- quency and patterns. This long history begs ble hominid influence on fire regimes that a historical perspective quite different predates the appearance of modern from the conventional perspective that humans (Homo sapiens). Peking man managers and scientists tend to have of (Homo erectus) was in the vicinity of humans and fire regimes in North Songshan between 200,000 and 300,000 America. ybp. Although evidence is equivocal in China on Peking man’s use of fire, else- In North America, the temporal extent of where in Eurasia there is strong evidence human impacts on fire regimes is generally that H. erectus used fire at a time consid- considered not to exceed 10,000 to erably earlier than the dated remains of 12,000 years. The actual impacts of Peking man in China. Even if H. erectus human-induced fires on fire regimes and did not use fire in China, there is still a vegetation patterns are hotly disputed. history of over 100,000 years of H. sapi- Many fire management approaches in ens in China. Agriculture and its associated North America focus on the “natural fire burning was well established in China at regime”, i.e. the regime that would occur least 4200 ybp. without human interference. “Desired future conditions” are frequently modeled There was no evidence at Songshan of on assumed or inferred conditions extant other natural disturbance processes that prior to settlement by Europeans. This are known to affect the distribution and management philosophy thus looks at a regeneration of pine species in other parts history of at the most 500 years, while in of the world, e.g. soil slumping and land- many places no more than 200 years. slides, severe erosion following intense Considerable debate centers on the degree precipitation events, insect outbreaks, and to which pre-European human peoples in wind damage. Reserve staff stated that North America may have influenced vege- they were unaware of these disturbances tation structure, species evolution, species occurring in at Songshan. Clearly, the pre- abundance and the extent of fire- dominant disturbances over the past cen- dependent and fire-sensitive vegetation tury at Songshan have been agricultural through their land use and fire use prac- clearing, logging and fuel wood collection, tices. Nonetheless, strong arguments can and fire. be made that in many areas of North America, even those with high lightning frequencies, anthropogenic fires were effective in increasing the frequency of fires and may have markedly altered the seasonal distribution of fires. Altering season of burn and fire frequency can signifi- cantly affect which species of plants and animals are present, vegetation patterns and structure, and the areal extent of vegetation and habitats.

China presents a far longer history of human occupation and probable impacts on vegetation, fuels and fire regimes. In 15 3characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis Distribution standing, fire is known to be an important Chinese red pine (in some older texts the disturbance factor, and in some cases an name is spelled Pinus tabulaeformis), also essential process, throughout the range of known simply as Chinese pine, is one of the genus (Pinus). Virtually all pine the most abundant and widespread of the species regenerate in response to canopy 22 pine species found in eastern Asia. It and soil disturbances that create exposed occurs in a broad, discontinuous band from mineral soil and direct sunlight reaching southern Inner Mongolia and southern the forest floor. In many cases the pre-

Pinus tabuliformis Manchuria to northeastern Tibet and dominant disturbance is fire, although Yunnan province (Richardson & Rundel there are a few pine species that depend 1998) (Figure 7). There are two varieties: largely on windfall damage, and soil slump- Pinus tabuliformis var. tabuliformis, which ing and landslides to create regeneration is found in China except Liaoning niches. Province, and Pinus tabuliformis var. muk- densis, which is restricted to Liaoning and Chinese red pine at Songshan appeared to North Korea. It intermixes, and likely have no obvious adaptations to fire. hybridizes, with P. yunnanensis in south- However, older individuals have relatively eastern China (Mirov 1967). It is consid- thick bark and can probably withstand the ered an extremely variable species. Another heat of low-intensity surface fires. Saplings closely related species is P. hwangshanensis can probably survive very low intensity sur- which occurs at scattered sites across cen- face fires. Seedlings would be killed even by tral and eastern China (Richardson & very low intensity fires. The trees growing Rundel 1998). Richardson & Rundel in dense stands self-prune, which would characteristics of characteristics (1998) state that little is known about the serve to keep the canopy out of lethal reach ecosystem processes that affect the struc- of low-intensity surface fires. If recurring, ture and dynamics of any of these pine such fires would limit the establishment of forests. The range of P. tabuliformis corre- shade-tolerant species under the pines. sponds to the region in China subject to a Also, the understory vegetation in dense summer monsoonal climate, and its range pine stands tends to be very sparse and has expanded and contracted during there is little fine fuel accumulation. This is Holocene intensification and weakening of probably due to the relatively limited avail- the summer monsoon zone (Hongyan et ability of light. The low fuel loads and al. 2002). shading would also tend to limit the intensity of surface fires. Adaptations to Fire & Other Disturbances Single individuals scattered in the low- There is no available information on the stature vegetation of upper slopes and role of fire or other disturbances in main- ridges have a different growth form and taining Chinese red pine, or on the effects have branches that reach the ground. Their that fire or other disturbances have on pine crowns are probably more susceptible to survival and regeneration. That notwith- 16

characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis

Figure 8. Chinese red pine stands on ridge tops, around rock outcrops and scattered on a slope of dry shrubland vegetation. Photo by R. Myers. fires that might occur in the surrounding The distribution of Chinese red pine in shrub land vegetation. Chinese red pine the Reserve falls into at least seven cate- apparently has the capacity to produce gories: pollen and cones at a very early age, 1-4 years old (Mirov, 1967), which may be an (1) Stands of pine on ridge tops and rocky adaptation to respond to fire and other outcrops (Figure 8). disturbances. (2) Scattered individuals and small stands With the exception of the presence of a or clumps of pine in the dry shrub vegeta- few younger individuals, all pine stands tion on mid-to-upper slopes (Figure 8). observed at Songshan seemed to be even- aged, i.e. they likely regenerated all at the (3) Scattered individuals and clumps in same time when competition from other hardwood vegetation types on lower slopes vegetation and pines was low and soils and valley bottoms. were exposed to sunlight. Most trees were the same size, except for occasional sup- (4) Scattered monospecific stands on pressed individuals. This suggests that lower slopes and the lower valley bottom Chinese red pine, as with most other that are plantations. pines, is shade-intolerant and needs exposed mineral soil and direct sunlight to (5) Scattered monospecific stands that had successfully regenerate to any significant either colonized abandoned agricultural degree. fields and home sites, or regenerated from

17 Pinus tabuliformis

Figure 9. Monospecific Chinese red pine stand that probably became established after agricultural abandonment or regeneration after an existing stand was harvested. Although these stands are common in the Reserve, they are an artifact of past land use. They will persist in the landscape through the lifespan of the pine, which is at least several hundred years. Without disturbances like high-intensity crown fires, these stands will eventually be replaced by broad-leaved forests.

adjacent seed sources when existing stands bution of the pine, but the abundance of were harvested (Figure 9). stands on the lower slopes and valley bot-

characteristics of characteristics toms are probably more a function of land (6) Some older growth stands in the upper use and agricultural abandonment. reaches of watersheds that escaped the more recent exploitation (see cover photo). Other disturbances in the Reserve that may play a role in Chinese red pine distri- (7) Plantations and former nursery areas bution and abundance are landslides and in lower valley bottoms and slopes. soil slumping, and flash flooding after heavy rainfall. Reserve staff have never Chinese red pine may be able to maintain observed these processes. If they occur, itself on ridge tops and rock outcrops they are likely rare and very localized. without any disturbance, except possibly vegetation dieback due to drought. The Ecologically similar species to Chinese red ridge tops and outcrops are probably the pine in North America are red pine (Pinus central habitat of the pine from which it resinosa), pitch pine (Pinus rigida), table will spread downslope if disturbances cre- mountain pine (Pinus pungens), and ate suitable regeneration sites. Fire has Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). Probably likely been an important disturbance the closest analogue is Virginia pine, as the accounting for some of the current distri- other three species have obvious adapta- 18 characteristics of tions to fire. Red pine has the capacity to re-sprout after fire. Pitch pine possesses epicormic buds that can re-sprout after fire and may have serotinous cones in certain parts of its range. Table mountain pine has serotinous cones. All four of these species, like Chinese red pine, tend to be found on top of ridges and on rocky outcrops and readily invade disturbed areas on slopes and valley bottoms. They can be maintained on any of these sites indefinitely by recurring fire.

The hypothetical ecological relationships of Pinus tabuliformis fire, vegetation types, and pine stand dynamics at Songshan can be illustrated in a qualitative ecological or fire regime model (see Box 2).

19 Box 2. Ecological disturbance model for the Chinese red pine and related vegetation types at Songshan Nature Reserve using the Vegetation Dynamics Development Tool (VDDT).

Ecological models are useful tools in illustrating and summarizing current scientific and management knowledge, as well as inferences and hypothesis, about the dynamics of vegetation and fire regimes. Ecological models illustrate relationships between vegetation types and their disturbance regimes.

The Vegetation Dynamics Development Tool (VDDT) is a public-domain, state-and-transition model developed by Essa Technologies Ltd. that provides a framework for quantifying the rate and effects of succession and disturbance on a landscape (Essa Technologies Ltd. 2007). The model (Figure A), representing a Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) ecosystem, has been used to partition the landscape into states (e.g., combinations of cover and

Pinus tabuliformis structure) and define the transitions (e.g., disturbances and succession) that cause move- ment between classes. VDDT is a non-spatially explicit model. characteristics of characteristics

Figure A. VDDT state and transition model of Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) ecosystem at Songshan National Nature Reserve in Beijing province, China. Five successional stages or classes are depicted: Class A through E. Descriptions of each class and disturbance regime hypotheses are:

20 characteristics of Box 2, continued.

Class A. Early successional development:

Primary species present are grasses and/or shrubs including young pine (Pinus tabuliformis) and oak (Quercus mongolica).

I Canopy closure from 0% to 100% I Maximum shrub height at this stage of development is approximately 1 meter. I In the absence of disturbance this stage persists for approximately 5 years before succeeding to the next seral stage (Class B). I Disturbances include short return interval fires that maintain the stage as Class A.

I With fire or other stand replacement disturbances, other successional stages may return Pinus tabuliformis to this stage (Class A.)

Class B. Mid-development, open canopy:

Primary species present include Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) saplings with oak (Quercus mongolica) and shrubs in the understory.

I Canopy closure from 20% to 60% I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 5 meters. I This stage persists for approximately 15 years before succeeding to the next successional stage (Class C). I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 40 years returns vegetation representative of this seral state back to successional stage Class A. I Mixed severity fire occurring on the landscape with an average fire return interval of approximately 40 years maintains vegetation characteristic of this seral state in successional stage Class B.

Class C. Mid-development, closed canopy:

Primary species include immature to mature pine (Pinus tabuliformis) occupying the overstory with a variety of shade tolerant broadleaf species in the understory.

I Canopy closure from 60% to 100% I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 10 meters. I This stage persists for approximately 45 years before succeeding to the next successional stage (Class D). I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 150 years returns vegetation in this stage back to successional stage Class A. I Mixed severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 80 years takes vegetation representative of this seral state back to successional stage Class B. I Surface fire recurring on the landscape approximately every 5 years maintains vegetation representative of this seral state in this successional stage (Class C). I Infrequent wind events would take this stage back to successional stage Class B. I Anthropogenic disturbances such as logging or agriculture would take this seral stage back to successional stage Class A.

21 Box 2, continued.

Class D. Late development pine, closed canopy:

Primary species include mature to over-mature pine (Pinus tabuliformis) and some oak occupying the overstory with a variety of shade tolerant broadleaf species in the understory.

I Canopy closure from 40 to 75 percent. I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 20-30 meters. I This stage will persist to the maximum life span of the pines I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 150 years will take vegetation in this stage back to the earliest successional stage (Class A). I Mixed severity fire occurring on the landscape after 90+ years will take vegetation repre-

Pinus tabuliformis sentative of this stage back to successional stage Class B. I Surface fire occurring on the landscape at any interval will maintain this stage up to the life span of the pines. As mortality creates canopy openings and if the fire return interval permits pine regeneration an uneven aged pine forest could be maintained indefinitely. I Wind events occurring infrequently would take this stage back to successional stage Class B. I Wind damage, followed by fire, would take this stage back to successional stage Class A. I Anthropogenic disturbances such as logging or agriculture would take this stage back to successional stage Class A. I The absence of fire or other disturbance for at least the life span of the pines will result in this stage succeeding to successional stage Class E.

Class E. Late development, broad-leaved trees, closed canopy:

Primary species include mature oak (Quercus mongolica), possibly with scattered old-growth red pine, occupying the overstory with a variety of shade tolerant broadleaf species in the understory. There may be a stage beyond this where the oak drops out and the canopy is characteristics of characteristics dominated by shade tolerant broadleaved species.

With infrequent disturbance this stage persists indefinitely. I Canopy closure from 60% to 100% I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 25 meters. I With limited or no disturbance this stage persists indefinitely. I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape at any time would take this stage back to Class A. Replacement fire would be considered an infreguent event in this successional stage (Class E). I Mixed severity and Surface fire would favor the oaks and stimulate pine regeneration at the expense of the shade tolerant broadleaved species. I Infrequent wind events would take this stage back to successional stage Class B.

22 characteristics of Box 2, continued.

Model Run Outputs

The VDDT model was used to perform scenario analysis over a one thousand year time period. Analyses were conducted using four specific scenarios. For the purposes of the simulation specific values for fire return interval and burn severity where used.

1. All fire (replacement severity, mixed severity and surface fire) and anthropogenic (logging and agriculture) disturbances included in the model run (Box A). 2. All fire (replacement severity, mixed severity and surface fire) but no anthropogenic (logging and agriculture) disturbances included in the model run (Box D). 3. Anthropogenic (logging and agriculture) but no fire disturbances included in the model run (Box B).

4. All fire (replacement severity, mixed severity and surface fire) and anthropogenic (logging Pinus tabuliformis and agriculture) disturbances excluded in the model run (Box C).

Simulation 1

Results from a model run using Scenario 1 (Box A) illustrate that over time, as a result of both fire and anthropogenic disturbances, representation of Class E, late development closed canopy broad leaf dominated stands, on the landscape becomes negligible. Classes B and C, mid-development open canopy and mid-development closed canopy pine dominated stands respectively, become the more dominant successional stages. Representation of Classes A and D, early successional pine stands and late development closed canopy pine dominated stands respectively, on the landscape would appear to remain consistent over time when modeled under this scenario.

Simulation 2

Scenario 2 (Box D) outputs illustrate the potential effects of a fire management policy that allow a percentage of the landscape to burn in the absence of logging or agriculture activities. The results are a bell shaped distribution of the 5 seral states being modeled with the majority of the landscape being represented by Class C, mid-development closed canopy pine dominated stands. It is important to note that under this scenario a significant portion of the landscape is also represented by Class D, late development closed canopy pine dominated stands.

23 Box 2, continued.

Simulation 3

Outputs yielded from Scenario 3 (Box B) indicate that, over time, in the absence of fire the pine dominated seral states diminish resulting in a landscape composed predominantly of Class E, late development closed canopy broad leaf dominated stands.

Simulation 4

Outputs resulting from a model run using Scenario 4 (Box C) are similar to those obtained using Scenario 3 where over time the result is a closed canopy broad leaf dominated land- Pinus tabuliformis scape. Of significance however is that the pine dominated seral states, Classes A thru D, are represented on the landscape to an even lesser extent than in Scenario 3. This might suggest that in addition to fire related disturbances, anthropogenic disturbances such as logging and agriculture may also play a role in the proliferation of pine on this simulated landscape.

Results from the four simulations are illustrated in Figure B. Specifically the bar graphs within each scenario represent the percent of each successional class (A thru E) represented on the landscape at the beginning of the model run (Timestep 0), after 100 years (Timestep 100), 500 years (Timestep 500) and finally after 1000 years (Timestep 1000). characteristics of characteristics

24 characteristics of

Box 2, continued. Pinus tabuliformis

Figure B. VDDT model run outputs illustrating the percent of successional Classes A thru E represented on the Songshan Reserve landscape over a 1000-year time period for each of the four scenarios being considered.

25 4 fire management at Songshan

Fire management at the Reserve focuses prevention campaign is directed at both on prevention and suppression. As a result visitors and at the residents of the village of government policy fire use has not been of Dazhuangke. Furthermore, 71 members an option. The largest administrative unit of the village (25 households) form a at the Reserve, in terms of number of staff, brigade of ecological forest guards who is the Forest Protection Division, which work in fire prevention and other manage- includes a professional fire fighting brigade ment activities, and are available for fire and fire lookout towers scattered through fighting. the Reserve. In order to reduce the probability of fires during the dry season, the This aggressive fire exclusion strategy Reserve is closed to the public from seems to have been successful as no fires November to April. have been reported in the Reserve since it was created. Fire prevention is also a key component in the Reserve’s fire management strategy. A fire management at Songshan fire

26 conclusions & recommendations 5 conclusions & recommendations

1. Future of Chinese red pine under of different ages and scattered individuals current management regime of different ages. In particular, older aged The vegetation within the Reserve is in a stands will senesce in the near future, state of early recovery from past distur- regeneration of red pine will not occur in bances that were very large-scale, e.g. large the understory as this is not the evolution- repeated fires, escaped agricultural fires, ary strategy of the pine. Yet stands at other various land use activities, and logging. locations in the landscape will grow to be With the exception of an older growth old. stand that we visited, the age of most of the vegetation is probably no more than 2. Current fire management approach one to three decades prior to the establish- at Songshan ment of the Reserve in 1985. Under current management philosophy throughout China, having any wildfire in a If Reserve management continues to reserve or state forest is considered a fail- exclude fire from the area, this recovery ure on the part of managers. This leads to process will continue, with some early suc- inappropriate management actions for cessional species eventually becoming less ecosystems that require fire or distur- abundant. Although disturbance needs to bances to maintain their biodiversity and be recognized as an important ecological character. At Songshan, for the foreseeable process maintaining biodiversity in the future, there is no need to alter the fire Reserve, there is no immediate need to management approach, i.e. aggressive and allow or create disturbances through burn- effective fire exclusion, but should fire ing or allowing fires to burn. occur it should be recognized that the fire is not necessarily always a negative to the Over time, if the current management ecosystems and not always a management regime is maintained, Chinese red pine failure, especially if a fire only affects a will become less abundant in the absence small portion of the Reserve. of fire or other disturbances, and the current pattern of pine distribution will At this time, probably the only change that change, i.e. pine may persist on ridges, rock could be made is to have Reserve managers outcrops, and upper slopes, but larger and administrators recognize that distur- stands in the valley bottoms and lower bance (fire) is an ecological process essen- slopes will eventually disappear and be tial to the maintenance of biodiversity at replaced by broad-leaved forests. From its the Reserve. Should a fire occur at the current state, it will be several centuries Reserve, it can and should be aggressively before there is a significant loss of pine. suppressed if it threatens Reserve facilities, What will be missing are even-aged stands the community, or visitors, or will nega- 27 tively impact the scenic quality of areas have management objectives that allow for accessible to visitors. All fires should not the creation of a dynamic mosaic of differ- however, be considered ecological catastro- ent aged vegetation that will conserve bio- phes, especially those that only affect a diversity and maintain Red pine in even- small percentage of the Reserve. With aged stands of different ages. Achieving experience and a change in policy, manage- this would require active management ment decisions on individual fires can treatments using prescribed fire, and pos- focus on using natural fuel breaks rather sibly logging, if prescribed fire is not an than always focusing on aggressive direct option. At this time, however, because of suppression that is used today to minimize the young state of the vegetation, such the area of vegetation affected. active management is not necessary. There is time for study, capacity-building, and 3. Future fire management options at changes in fire management policy Songshan The Reserve could consider including spe- 4. Fire management options in China cific quantitative fire management goals In our discussions with government agen- within its management plan that state (as cies and scientists in China, we learned an example): no more than an average of 1 that the State Forestry Administration percent of the Reserve should burn per (SFA) does use prescribed fire in forest year with less than 5 percent of the management to reduce hazardous fuels, Reserve burning in any one year. Some create fire breaks, and prepare sites for years would have no fires. Information for regeneration. This takes place primarily in visitors (signs, brochures) could discuss the northeast China. Additionally, the Botany role of disturbance. Any disturbed areas Institute of the Chinese Academy of that develop along trails or are visible from Sciences has been using experimental pre-

conclusions & recommendations overlooks or vistas could have interpretive scribed fire in the steppes of Inner signs that discuss the important ecological Mongolian to evaluate its effect in halting role of fire and other disturbances. These shrub encroachment into grasslands. quantitative goals can be modified when As a whole, Chinese society has a strong fire regimes and fire effects are better cultural view of all fires being detrimental understood. Such goals would acknowledge and believe that all fires should be aggres- that fire is an essential disturbance process sively suppressed. Although fire is recog- and would remove the stigma of failure if a nized by vegetation scientists in the small percentage of the Reserve burns over Chinese Academy of Science as an impor- a given period. tant ecological process, fire occurrence in protected natural areas is still considered To gain this understanding, recovery from undesirable. The use of prescribed fire in any fire should be monitored and area protected natural areas appears not to be burn severity classes should be document- an option. What is needed in China as a ed. Feedback from monitored trends will whole, particularly in protected natural drive future management approaches and areas, is a review of the role of fire, the actions. classification of vegetation types as fire- dependent, fire-sensitive, or fire- Reserve management would eventually independent, and the determination of have to consider whether they want to ecologically appropriate fire regimes need- 28 conclusions & recommendations ed to maintain fire-dependent vegetation context of the natural environments and types and desired habitats. This informa- socio-economic systems in which they tion would allow planners and managers to occur. Relative risks of fire are evaluated design management scenarios to maintain and balanced with the beneficial or neces- desired vegetation types and habitats, and sary ecological, economic and social roles would better justify the use of fire in cer- that it may play in a given conservation tain instances. It would also begin the area, landscape or region. process of gradually changing the way scientists, managers, administrators, and soci- China has a high degree of technical capac- ety thinks about fire and its effects. ity to predict, prevent, detect, and suppress unwanted fires. Their fire organization and The Nature Conservancy’s Global Fire programs are very sophisticated, and com- Initiative is promoting Integrated Fire munity involvement in these programs is Management (Myers 2006) as a conceptu- considerable. What is missing is the inte- al framework for considering and manag- gration of this technical capacity and com- ing fire for the maintenance of sustainable munity involvement with ecological knowl- ecosystems and communities. It integrates edge of the benefits of fire in fire-depend- fire management technologies with ecolog- ent ecosystems. Enhancing technical capac- ical needs of ecosystems and habitats, and ity to include prescribed fire and other fire with the socio-economic needs of commu- use actions where they are appropriate, nities that use fire or are impacted by fires. including inside protected natural areas, is This integration can be illustrated by a tri- a critical next step, that first needs to be angle with three sides: (1) fire manage- supported by administrative policies and ment, (2) fire ecology, and (3) the socio- laws. Accomplishing this would involve a economic-cultural aspects of fire (Figure paradigm shift in the way people and 10). In other words, Integrated Fire reserve managers and administrators think Management is an approach to addressing about fire and how prevention programs the problems of, and issues posed by, both are designed. It would also require training unwanted and beneficial fires within the to develop technicians skilled in prescribed burning, and developing scientists focused on studying fire ecology and fire effects.

Figure 10. Integrated Fire Management combines the full range of fire management technologies with the fire ecology of the area or vegetation under consideration and with the socio-cultural- economic necessities of using fire and the perceptions of fire held by different segments of society. 29 6next steps next steps 1. Translate and disseminate this report to by organizing one or more study tours TNC’s China Program, Songshan of sites in North America that present Nature Reserve, the State Forestry equivalent ecological and management Administration, the Chinese Academy situations. TNC’s Maine Chapter, of Science, and other appropriate TNC working with the Global Fire Initiative, partners. (GFI) has already proposed a study tour to sites in the northeast United States that 2. Gather information that will fill in gaps are managed to maintain pitch pine- (much of China) in the Global Fire and red pine-dominated ecosystems. Assessment. (GFI) The evaluation of fire at other areas in China beyond Songshan and Chinese 3. Consider translating the Integrated Fire red pine may suggest other areas in Management document “Living with North America that would be useful to fire…” and the Global Fire Assessment visit. (GFI, TNC Maine Chapter, other into Chinese. (GFI) TNC Chapters)

4. Designate a Global Fire Initiative lead 8. Look for opportunities to include key for China and a TNC-China staffer Chinese fire managers who speak who will have responsibility fire-related English to attend fire behavior, fire issues. Provide the latter with training effects, and prescribed fire courses in and mentoring opportunities (some of the United States. These could be which are mentioned below). (TNC- courses offered by TNC or by the China & GFI) National Interagency Prescribed Fire Training Center. (GFI) 5. Meet with TNC-China to discuss strategy and action options, and next 9. TNC-China’s fire lead (with assistance steps. (GFI & TNC China) from the Global Fire Initiative) will identify conservation areas where cur- 6. Evaluate the role of fire at other TNC rent fire management approaches need priority conservation areas in China, to be modified and identify managers particularly those with pine species, that need to be introduced to grasslands, or savannas. (GFI & TNC- Integrated Fire Management concepts China) and prescribed fire techniques. Consider organizing workshops to pres- 7. Enhance TNC-China and staff of select ent these issues and techniques. partners; understanding of fire management, fire regimes, and prescribed fire 30 references 7references

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