Christianity's Dangerous Idea

Christianity’s Dangerous Idea The Protestant Revolution—A History from the Sixteenth Century to the Twenty-First Alister E. McGrath In memory of Stephen Charles Neill (1900–1984) Contents Introduction 1 pa r t i Origination 15 1 The Gathering Storm 17 2 The Accidental Revolutionary 37 Martin Luther 3 Alternatives to Luther 61 The Diversification of the Reformation 4 The Shift in Power 83 Calvin and Geneva 5 England 105 The Emergence of Anglicanism 6 War, Peace, and Disinterest 127 European Protestantism in Crisis, 1560–1800 7 Protestantism in America 151 iv Contents 8 The Nineteenth Century 173 The Global Expansion of Protestantism pa r t ii Manifestation 197 9 The Bible and Protestantism 199 10 Believing and Belonging 243 Some Distinctive Protestant Beliefs 11 The Structures of Faith 277 Organization, Worship, and Preaching 12 Protestantism and the Shaping of 311 Western Culture 13 Protestantism, the Arts, 351 and the Natural Sciences pa rt iii Transformation 387 14 The Changing Shape of 391 American Protestantism 15 Tongues of Fire 415 The Pentecostal Revolution in Protestantism 16 The New Frontiers of Protestantism 439 The Global South 17 Protestantism 461 The Next Generation Notes 479 Index 529 About the Author Credits Cover Copyright About the Publisher Introduction In July 1998, the bishops of the Anglican Communion met in the his- toric English cathedral city of Canterbury for their traditional Lam- beth Conference, held every ten years. The intention was to address the many challenges and opportunities that Anglicanism faced world- wide—such as the burgeoning growth of the church in Africa and Asia, its slow decline in the West, and the new debates on sexuality. The bishops gathered every day for prayer and Bible study, a powerful affirmation of the role of the Bible in sustaining Christian unity, guiding the church in turbulent times, and nourishing personal spirituality. But how was the Bible to be interpreted—for example, on the con- tentious issue of homosexuality, a major cause of friction within Angli- canism at that moment? Despite the best efforts of the conference organizers, a tempestuous debate erupted over precisely this thorny question in the public sessions of the Conference, reflecting multiple tensions between religious liberals and conservatives, modern and post- modern worldviews, and the very different cultural contexts of the West and the emerging world. To paraphrase Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester (executed in 1555), everyone meant well—but they certainly did not mean the same thing.1 In the view of many observers, the Anglican Communion came dangerously close to breaking apart at that point over the interpretation Introduction of the text that was meant to bind them together. How, many Anglicans wondered, could the Bible be the basis for their identity and unity when there was such obvious disunity on how it was to be understood? How could a text-based movement have a coherent inner identity when there was such clear and fundamental disagreement on how that text was to be interpreted and applied on an issue of critical importance? The idea that lay at the heart of the sixteenth-century Reforma- tion, which brought Anglicanism and the other Protestant churches into being, was that the Bible is capable of being understood by all Christian believers—and that they all have the right to interpret it and to insist upon their perspectives being taken seriously. Yet this powerful affirmation of spiritual democracy ended up unleashing forces that threatened to destabilize the church, eventually leading to fissure and the formation of breakaway groups. Anglicanism may yet follow the pattern of other Protestant groups and become a “family” of denominations, each with its own way of reading and applying the Bible. The dangerous new idea, firmly embodied at the heart of the Protes- tant revolution, was that all Christians have the right to interpret the Bible for themselves.2 However, it ultimately proved uncontrollable, spawning developments that few at the time could have envisaged or predicted. The great convulsions of the early sixteenth century that his- torians now call “the Reformation” introduced into the history of Christianity a dangerous new idea that gave rise to an unparalleled degree of creativity and growth, on the one hand, while on the other causing new tensions and debates that, by their very nature, probably lie beyond resolution. The development of Protestantism as a major religious force in the world has been shaped decisively by the creative tensions emerging from this principle. THE DANGEROUS IDEA To its supporters, the Protestant Reformation represented a necessary correction and long-overdue renewal of the Christian faith, liberating it from its imprisonment to the transient medieval intellectual and social order and preparing it for new challenges as western Europe emerged from the feudalism of the Middle Ages. Christianity was being born all Introduction over again, with a new potency and capacity to engage with an emerging new world order. Yet from its outset, the movement was seen by its opponents as a menacing development, opening the way to religious mayhem, social disintegration, and political chaos. It was not simply that Protestantism seemed to revise, corrupt, or abandon some of the traditional beliefs and practices of the Christian faith. Something far more significant— and ultimately much more dangerous—lay beneath the surface of the Protestant criticisms of the medieval church. At its heart, the emergence and growth of Protestantism concerned one of the most fundamental questions that can confront any religion: Who has the authority to define its faith? Institutions or individuals? Who has the right to interpret its foundational document, the Bible?3 Protestantism took its stand on the right of individuals to interpret the Bible for themselves rather than be forced to submit to “official” interpretations handed down by popes or other centralized religious authorities. For Martin Luther, perhaps the most significant of the first generation of Protestant leaders, the traditional authority of clerical institutions had led to the degradation and distortion of the Christian faith. Renewal and reformation were urgently needed. And if the medieval church would not put its own house in order, reform would have to come from its grass roots—from the laity. Luther’s radical doctrine of the “priesthood of all believers” empowered individual believers. It was a radical, dangerous idea that bypassed the idea that a centralized authority had the right to interpret the Bible. There was no centralized authority, no clerical monopoly on biblical interpretation. A radical reshaping of Christianity was inevitable, precisely because the restraints on change had suddenly—seemingly irrevers- ibly—been removed. The outbreak of the Peasants’ War in 1525 brought home to Luther that this new approach was dangerous and ultimately uncontrollable. If every individual was able to interpret the Bible as he pleased, the out- come could only be anarchy and radical religious individualism. Too late, Luther tried to rein in the movement by emphasizing the importance of authorized religious leaders, such as himself, and institutions in the interpretation of the Bible. But who, his critics asked, had “authorized” these so-called authorities? Was not the essence of Luther’s Introduction dangerous new idea that there was no such centralized authority? That all Christians had the right to interpret the Bible as they saw fit? In the end, not even the personal authority of Luther could redirect this religious revolution, which anxious governments sought to tame and domesticate. By its very nature, Protestantism had created space for entrepreneurial individuals to redirect and redefine Christianity. It was a dangerous idea, yet it was an understanding of the essence of the Christian faith that possessed an unprecedented capacity to adapt to local circumstances. From the outset, Protestantism was a religion de- signed for global adaptation and transplantation. This book sets out to tell the story of the origins and development of this radical form of Christianity, not to record the past but to understand the present and anticipate the future. It is a subject of immense historical, intellectual, and social importance. The English Civil War of the seven- teenth century was ultimately a battle for the soul of Protestantism, as rival visions of what it meant to be Protestant collided, with disastrous results. Yet not only has Protestantism survived the first five hundred years of its existence, but it seems poised for further growth and adaptation in the twenty-first century. As religion once again comes to play a significant role in world affairs, an understanding of the complexities of this great religious power becomes progressively more important. Although this book makes use of the best historical scholarship, it is not yet another chronicle of the development of Protestantism. Rather, it is an interpretative history of the movement that sets out to clarify the identity and inner dynamics of Protestantism through its historical manifestations. Whereas many older studies thought of Protestantism as being analogous to a seed, capable of development and growth along predetermined lines, the evidence presented in this analysis suggests that this model is inadequate and misleading. To use an alternative biological imagery, Protestantism turns out to be more like a micro-organism: capable of rapid mutation and adaptation in response to changing envi- ronments, while still maintaining continuity with its earlier forms. This insight gives a new importance to critical historical analysis: what does the historical development and transformation of the movement tell us about its genetic makeup—and hence its possible future forms? This study is written at a highly significant time in the history of Protestantism. Throughout its existence, the United States of America Introduction has been a predominantly Protestant nation.

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