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Profiles of Countries referenced in the exhibition: The World through His Lens, Steve McCurry Photographs

Summarized by Brandon Liddy, MWPAI Education Intern https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html

Afghanistan

Since the 1980s, Afghanistan has found itself in the unfortunate situation of almost constant war and conflict. For the multiethnic population of this country, oppression and danger, whether by internal or external forces, has created serious problems for the economic, social, and political wellbeing of Afghanistan’s citizens. War has affected every aspect of Afghan life, down to figuring out how many people live in the country (the last official national census was compiled in 1977, three years before the Soviet invasion).1 Afghanistan is notable for being an extremely difficult place to conquer, whether it is the country’s mountainous terrain or the population’s ability to beat back invaders, since the days of the Great, whose powerful armies were stalled by the native Afghans. Shortly before the new decade was to begin, on Christmas Eve 1979, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in a show of strength and support for the communist Afghan . Before this, Afghanistan had been ruled for nearly four decades by a , and its people enjoyed a relatively calm existence, until the King was deposed in a coup in 1973. A series of bloody coups against the leadership of the Afghan continued throughout the , this instability caught the attention of the gigantic world power that bordered the entirety of Afghanistan’s north; the .2 The relationship between the Afghan state and the Soviets swung like a pendulum, from full-blown alliance to a less amicable relationship many times throughout the 1970s. According to the Soviet Government, in particular the head of the KGB at the time, the Soviets believed they could achieve their objectives, which centered on “establishing Leninist principals in the party and state leadership of Afghanistan, and securing our positions in this country.” with around “two battalions”, thinking that an invasion would be relatively quick.3 This turned out to be a grave misjudgment, leaving the Soviets stuck in a quagmire until 1989, when

1 Country Profile: Afghanistan / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. 5th ed. Washington, DC : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 2008. 2 Idem 3 "Personal memorandum Andropov to Brezhnev," December 01, 1979, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, APRF; trans. for CWIHP by Daniel Rozas. http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113254

1 ordered the troops to pull out. The Afghan resistance had humiliated one of the two major powers of the bipolar world, but the chaos and uncertainty continued, with a between the government and the newly formed Taliban, resulted in the formation of an Islamic state in Afghanistan from 1996 until the and other countries toppled the government in the post-September 11th invasion. The people of Afghanistan still face many challenges, and although the fall of the Taliban has provided a new government to the country, it still faces insurgency from militant organizations. Currently, Afghanistan’s economy is facing great difficulty, with a largely agriculturally based labour force (roughly 78% in a 2009 estimate) and only 23% of the population living in urban areas indicating that modernization and industrialization continues to be a slow and arduous process.4 The recent flow of refugees into Europe from war-torn areas of the Middle East has brought specific attention to the plight of Syrians in particular, but it is interesting to note that after Syrians, Afghans make up the second largest population of refugees. Making up about thirteen percent of the current refugees attempting to cross into Europe, Afghans have chosen now to flee mainly due to renewed attacks by extremist forces, which have (according to the Afghan government itself) made 80% of the country unsafe.5 Despite these extreme challenges, there are still people who refuse to leave, whether this is because of their devotion to their homeland, family, or the financial difficulties associated with migrating, many people continue to live daily life in Afghanistan. The country is home to various ethnic groups, namely the Pashtun (42%), Tajik (27%), Hazara (9%), and Uzbek (9%), and the majority of people follow either Sunni (80%) or Shia (19%) . This, coupled with the two major official languages (Afghan Persian and Pashto), show just how diverse Afghanistan truly is to the rest of the world.6 Since the ousting of the Taliban, the fields of secular art and culture have been able to grow, despite the danger many in these occupations still face. One instance in particular is that of contemporary artist Munera Yousefzada, who created an all-female owned art gallery with the hopes of promoting more gender quality and dialogue through art. Although the paintings in the Kabul-based Shamama Contemporary Arts Gallery have come under fire from more conservative elements within Afghan society, Yousefzada remains committed to the rebuilding of cultural centers in Afghanistan, saying to the Washington Post that ““It doesn’t matter if ISIS is here or any other extremists groups…I want to work and fight here. Afghanistan needs people like me because

4 Central Intelligence Agency. Afghanistan Country Profile; Afghanistan provinces and districts, 2012. From Library of Congress, Map Collections. http://lccn.loc.gov/2012594311. 5 Kingsley, Patrick. "Refugee Crisis: Apart from Syrians, Who Is Travelling to Europe?" , September 10, 2015, World sec. Accessed September 22, 2015. 6 Central Intelligence Agency. Afghanistan Country Profile; Afghanistan provinces and districts, 2012. From Library of Congress, Map Collections. http://lccn.loc.gov/2012594311.

2 the international community is leaving, so it’s the responsibility of Afghans to take care of our country.”7

Pakistan

The post-colonial history of Pakistan can be accurately defined by the term experimentation, in that the country has gone through several changes to its government. From authoritarian military dictatorships, to quasi-Soviet , to popular Islamist uprisings, and attempts at democracy, Pakistan has gone through many different changes since its creation as a nation shortly after World War II, and its relationship with its neighbors, namely Afghanistan to the west and India to the east, has greatly affected its history. Pakistan was rocked with two major wars in the 60s and 70s, both fought against their neighbor India, which severely fractured the relationship of these nations that previously were one. Perhaps the most important effect of the Third Indo-Pakistani war was the creation of a separate and independent state out of what was East Pakistan, named Bangladesh. Despite the territorial losses inflicted on Pakistan, the two nations have been at a virtual standstill in terms of war, with neither side gaining much in terms of territory from conflict. The rivalry between India and Pakistan took two sharp and potentially dangerous turns in 1974, when the Smiling Buddha nuclear test brought India into the “nuclear club” (the nations that currently possess nuclear weaponry), and in 1998, when Pakistan continued their rivalry with India and initiated the Chagai-I nuclear test. As of 2015, both nations retain a nuclear weapons stockpile ready to use in the direst of circumstances, and the power of these destructive forces has remained a hotly contested diplomatic issue between the two nations. 8 Currently, the people of Pakistan are facing challenges related to Islamic extremism, namely insurgency taking place in the semi-autonomous tribal regions of the country that is closely connected to conflict occurring in neighboring Afghanistan. The threat of terrorism, regular border skirmishes with India, as well as tense political situations between the civilian government, religious leaders, and the powerful military have created yet another period of uncertainty for the people of Pakistan. 9

Burma/

The beginning of the 1980s saw the continuation of one-party rule and Soviet-style socialism in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. The country that had once been ruled as a British colonial possession known as Burma had experienced a great deal of upheaval in the period after World War II, seen in the assassination of several of the top leaders

7 Holley, Peter. "In Afghanistan, the Art of Fighting Extremism." The Washington Post, , 2015, World sec. Accessed September 22, 2015. 8 Pakistan: 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 9 Munir, Syed Rashid. "Politics 101: Why Military Coups Happen in Pakistan." Dawn.com. July 28, 2015. Accessed September 22, 2015.

3 of Burmese independence, including the “father of the nation” , in July 1947.10 The brutal killings of Aung San and other members of the government is attributed to political infighting and a particular rivalry between Aung San and another politician named . Despite this tragedy, Burma gained independence from the in January of the following year, to further sever ties with their former colonial overseers; Burma rejected an offer from the British to join the Commonwealth after independence (an offer that many former British colonies took seriously). After the death of Aung San and the end of British control, Burma descended into anarchy, with the main political factions refusing to come together under a single state, for fear they would lose power and freedom. The Burmese army soon was tasked with taking power in the form of caretaker government, in order to (in the words of then prime minister ) “clean up this mess”.11 This attempt at bringing order to the chaotic political scene in Burma led to the formation of a in 1962, which lasted in various capacities until 1988. During the coup, the military put almost the entire under , Prime Minister U Nu, the president, and Chief Justice were the most high profile of the fifty government officials arrested12. As the military rule transitioned into a single-party (akin to the Soviet Union, , and ), the government was consistently controlled by a single man, , the General who was asked to form the caretaker government quickly seized the opportunity to gain control during the chaos.

This style of government remained in control for over twenty five years, during which the economy faltered and ethnic tensions renewed, until in 1988 mass by students, monks, and ordinary people led to the resignation of Ne Win as political leader. While the protests were successful in removing the authoritarian Ne Win, the military yet again seized the opportunity to “promote order” and establish another military junta, this time headed by a brutal army officer named , who during the protests ordered the army to fire on civilian protesters in the capital Rangoon (). Infighting in the military soon became a factor and lead to even more chaos during the immediate period after Ne Win’s resignation, Sein Lwin was himself deposed by another army General named . Maung declared the foundation of the State Law and Order Restoration Council, which was to be the transitional government intended to hand over power to a civilian government once elections were held. Shortly before the elections were held, a coalition of opposition parties was created and named the National League for Democracy, with two former Generals ( and ) and (the daughter of Aung San, the founder of modern Burma) at the helm. 13 The

10 "Burma: A Brief Political History." ABC News. August 11, 2009. Accessed September 29, 2015. 11 Aung-Thwin, Michael, and Maitrii Aung-Thwin. 2012. A since ancient times: traditions and transformations. : Reaktion Books. 12 Ibid. 13 Topich, William J., and Keith A. Leitich. 2013. The history of Myanmar. Santa Barbara, Calif: Greenwood.

4 military council saw the growing popularity of the NLD as a threat to their power in the upcoming elections, leading to yet another coup (this time it was more muted infighting between military generals) in which General took power.

The NLD soon became a massive force in the country, which changed its name at this time also, from the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma to the Union of Myanmar, Myanmar being the name for the country in their language, Burma being the country’s name in English. The political situation for most of the 1990s was stagnant, with the military junta continuing to hold power; this was the case until 2011 when General Shwe stepped down in favour of his picked successor, . Sein retired from the military before his election by the Parliament, thus marking the first time in almost fifty years that a civilian ruled Myanmar. Although Myanmar is still facing many problems, such as restrictions on personal freedoms and continued ethnic conflicts, the reforms begun under Sein’s leadership (including the gradual lifting of restrictions on the press and civil society, and the release of many political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi, from arrest) seem to show Myanmar slowly moving towards a path of reconstruction and peace that has long been overdue. While the political situation in Myanmar seems to be getting better, the social situations resulting from over fifty years of military rule, single-party socialism, and poor economic planning due to the two are still problematic for those still living in the country. Urbanization has been slowly occurring, but has not been making an impact on the nearly seventeen million people who live in poverty in the country. The failures of the past have made any attempt at attracting investment from other countries difficult, as extremely poor infrastructure and major corruption that still exist in Myanmar has undoubtedly worried potential investors.14 Despite the uncertain future, there have been improvements to the lives of Myanmar’s people, since the relaxation of junta-era military law; Myanmar has seen a reawakening of culture and art. Musical bands, especially rock bands, began to perform (although the government still monitors them and has banned some songs) and art galleries have opened up, including one in the home of the former minister of intelligence of the junta, General .15 A recent development in the political sphere of life in Myanmar is the November 2015 country-wide elections, which resulted in a landslide victory to Suu Kyi’s NLD party against the Military’s political party. Although Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from taking the position of president, due to the dual-citizenship of her children, she will never the less exude major power over the new government of Myanmar.16Religion and ethnic identity, both of which were important in the pre-colonial life of Burma and still held some symbolism during the military rule, are regaining importance as well. In terms of culture, Myanmar has been the epicenter of a combination of nationalistic and Buddhist state-sanctioned culture. This

14 Burma/Myanmar: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 15 McPherson, Poppy. "Check out the Counter-culture Scene in Rangoon, Burma." The Guardian. February 21, 2015. 16 Fisher, Jonah. "Myanmar's 2015 General Elections Explained." BBC News. November 13, 2015.

5 can be attributed to a combination of the state’s willingness to return to the pre-colonial period of the country, as well as the growing power of the Buddhist majority in both cultural and political spheres. Since the dismantling of the military junta in the past twenty years, Buddhist temples and monuments have started to be renovated and brought back to importance.17 is the religion of choice for over 89% of the country’s population; this can be seen in the plethora of statues, monuments, and religious buildings of Buddhism within Myanmar. Although much of the country is Buddhist, there is a large amount of ethnic populations that practice Islam and ; this has in recent years caused deep divisions within the country, with political Buddhist parties acting out against Myanmar’s minority populations.18 and in this country have unfortunately fallen victim to the increasingly politicized role of Buddhism and the Buddhist monk class, with forced conversions and government laws regulating religious expression becoming commonplace.19

Cambodia

Over 90% percent of the population of considers itself the native Khmer population, which traces its roots back to the mighty Khmer (sometimes referred to as Angkor) , the makers of the largest religious monument in the world. The Angkor Wat, originally built in the 12th century as a Hindu temple, was later converted to a Buddhist temple and is still important to Cambodians today (it appears on the Cambodian national flag). This connection to the past remains an important part of the Cambodian nation and people today, and, despite the troubled past of the country, continues to inspire its citizens to this day. The decline of the in the 14th century was immediately followed by a series of civil wars between the smaller entities that made up the former Khmer, the nation-states fought continually until the final king of Cambodia, fearful of invasion by neighboring and Siam, agreed to bring Cambodia under the control of the French Empire. Cambodia became a part of the French Empire, although they were allowed to have their own titular king still, from 1867 until the Japanese Empire invaded the country and occupied it from 1941 to 1945. 20 Once the Japanese were driven from Cambodia, the monarchy resumed under French supervision, this would continue until a movement for independence, largely led by the young Cambodian King Norodom Sihanouk. When the previous King, Sihanouk’s grandfather, died, his father was to be king, the French overruled this appointment however, believing that the young Sihanouk would bend easier to their will. This meddling in Cambodian royal affairs would soon spell the

17 Skidmore, Monique. Burma at the turn of the twenty-first century. (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 2005) Pp. 119-122. 18 "The Buddhist Core of Fractured Myanmar." Stratfor Global Intelligence. June 18, 2015. Accessed September 29, 2015. 19 Kellner, Mark. "The New Law Making It Harder for People in Burma to Switch Religions." Deseret News National. August 25, 2015. 20 Cambodia: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015

6 downfall of French over the nation, as one by one, Southeast Asian nations broke off the chains of mostly French , Cambodia freed itself in 1953.

Despite gaining freedom, Cambodia began the downward spiral into authoritarianism, while Sihanouk touted the arrival of democracy to Cambodia, in reality he controlled the country (first as King, then later as Prime minister after handing over the monarchy to his passed-over father). With the in full swing, the developing world and former colonies began to be approached by the two sides and their allies, the United States, the Soviet Union, and others within the two ideological camps. Cambodia was no exception and soon after their freedom from the United States began to supply the nation with millions of , in the hopes that they would become the American ally, the bastion of “democracy” in the face of encroaching , in Southeast Asia. Soon however, with the beginning of armed conflict in neighboring Vietnam and the introduction of the great superpowers into the war, Sihanouk broke off relations with the Americans, who he said were “corrupting” (he was also attempting to stave off potential military conflict with Vietnam).21 This began a chaotic period of upheaval that was indicative of the ideological struggle of the Cold War period; Sihanouk was overthrown by an American allied General named Lon Nol, who created the Khmer Republic. Although he received vast amounts of American monetary support, Lon Nol was himself ousted when, in a fury, Sihanouk (who despite his corruption was still considered a “god-king” of sorts by Cambodia’s peasantry) declared support for the underground communist rebellion growing in the countryside of the country. This would begin an almost five year civil war that would result in the formation of a communist government, one that would result in one of the most brutal and totalitarian regimes the world has ever seen.

Although it only ruled for three years, the Khmer Rouge would perpetuate a campaign of societal purging, attempting to bring about the creation of a utopian communist society. The leadership of the Khmer Rouge, headed by the notorious , was extremely xenophobic, ignoring the advice of Chinese leader Zhou Enlai to slowly build communism and even executing Vietnamese military and governmental advisors that had helped to train the Khmer Rouge. The campaign of cleansing and rebuilding by this regime resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million people, roughly 20 percent of the country’s population, the fleeing of a large amount of the population to neighboring Thailand as refugees, and the eventual invasion of Vietnam after continual attacks on the country by the Khmer Rouge. This brings us to Cambodia in the 1980s, a supported only by the machinations of Vietnam and the Soviet Union, attempting to rebuild after the disastrous Khmer Rouge regime, facing and a low population from the previous years of chaos.22 The Vietnamese-sponsored government stayed

21 Brinkley, Joel. Cambodia's curse: the modern history of a troubled land. (New York, NY: PublicAffairs. 2011.) 22 Jackson, Karl D. Cambodia, 1975–1978: Rendezvous with Death.(Princeton, NJ: Princeton U. Press, 1992.) Page 63

7 in place for the almost the entirety of the 1980s, with the Vietnamese army occupying the country and Vietnamese advisors attempting to help rebuild the country. The multi-culturalism and religiousness of Cambodia, almost wiped out by Pol Pot’s regime, began to be rebuilt by the Vietnamese-backed People’s Republic, and by 1989, coinciding with the fall of the and the worldwide dissolution of the majority of communist regimes, Vietnam pulled out of Cambodia and a democratic government began to form. 23 Due in part to a UN brokered ceasefire and democratic elections that took place in the early 1990s, Cambodia has gained a great deal more stability than it previously had, with elections being held for government positions since the 90s (although the legitimacy and “freedom” of the votes has been questioned by both international agencies/governments as well as Cambodian citizens). Further stability was realized in 1999, when the last holdouts of the former Khmer Rouge, which had been staging an underground insurgency since their ousting, surrendered, this was followed by the beginnings of a joint Cambodian-UN tribunal against the senior surviving members of the Khmer rouge government in 2006. The tribunal continues to this day, attempting to ascertain the truth as to the numerous crimes committed during the Khmer Rouge period, the trial has already charged the main four defendants with crimes against humanity, but the other trial, on the charge of (largely of ethnic Vietnamese and the Muslim Cham living in Cambodia at the time of the Rouge) is still in session.24

Despite the advancements in political life, and the trial of the main perpetrators of the Cambodian genocide, there are still many issues facing Cambodians, including disputed elections and the almost thirty year rule of Prime Minister Hun Sen. Although the country has been experiencing rapid economic growth in the past few years, it still has the third lowest GDP per capita of Southeast Asia, and industrialization continues to be a slow process. Cambodian culture has a strong rooting in the Khmer empire in the past, holidays are important to every Cambodian family, especially the celebration of their New Year in April. Lasting days, the celebration brings families and communities together to celebrate with traditional music and religious ceremonies, this helps to bring the people together, whether they are still in Cambodia or somewhere else. One of the most important parts of Cambodian culture is the reverence of the elderly, this cultural respect for older individuals is seen particularly in the traditional music and dances.25 Looking back on the past decades of Cambodian history, immense sorrow can undoubtedly be seen, but with the future comes new hope, and while it might not be great strides forward in democracy just yet, it is a step on the right path. With 2015 being the fortieth anniversary of the beginning of the genocide in Cambodia, it seems

23 "Independent Lens: War and Cambodia.” (PBS. PBS, n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2015.) 24 Hunt, Luke. "Evidence Mounts Over Khmer Rouge Genocide of Muslims and Vietnamese." The Diplomat. The Diplomat, 19 Sept. 2015. Web. 06 Oct. 2015. 25 Ebihara, May, Carol A. Mortland, and Judy Ledgerwood. Cambodian culture since 1975: homeland and exile. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1994)

8 important to acknowledge the resolve of the Cambodian people, who despite this tragedy are moving forward to develop and sustain a different society.

China

With a history that spans thousands of years and a multitude of , China truly has stood the test of time, retaining a powerful tradition and culture despite civil unrest, invasion and occupation, and the passage of time. Containing the world’s largest population (currently around 1.3 billion), as well as the world’s largest active military, China today is a major player in world affairs. The road to the current strength of the People’s Republic of China starts during the last great Chinese imperial , the Qing (Manchu) which lasted from around 1650 to the dissolution of the monarchy in 1912. The decline of the began with the industrialization occurring in the west, primarily Europe, which lead to the opening of the lucrative Chinese markets by the British in the mid-nineteenth century. As the imperial European powers attempted to stake their claim to the Chinese market, primarily using their highly developed military means as a way of “strong-arm” diplomacy, the Qing dynasty faltered. 26 In 1912, several small rebellions throughout China spelled the end of the dynastic system that had ruled over the nation for centuries, and the establishment of a Chinese republic.

The Republic of China began the process of industrialization, but ran into a multitude of problems, including but not limited to insurgency and rebellion. The main perpetrators of this being the various western warlords remaining from the Qing times, and, after the Russian Revolution of 1917, the . The Chinese republic ruled until the beginning of hostilities with the Empire of , which resulted in the invasion of China in 1937, two years before the official beginning of the Second World War. Invading Japanese forces meant the momentary of hostilities between the republic of China and the various insurgency movements in the country.27 Almost immediately after the end of the Second World War and the defeat of the Japanese occupation, the various factions within China resumed fighting. Although the United States attempted to reconcile the differences between the two main forces, the nationalists and the communists, this failed and civil war began. The Nationalists, commanded by Chiang Kai-shek, were unable to recover from fighting the Japanese occupation in the way the Chinese, commanded by , were. This is largely due to the interference of the Soviet Union, who by the end of the war had gathered scores of Japanese weaponry and occupied the former Japanese puppet state of Manchuko. The Soviets, hoping to bolster Mao’s forces and assist them in taking over China in both the spirit “fraternal communism” and the hopes of finding an ally in the coming ideological confrontation with the West. By 1948 the Soviet hopes had been realized, with the declaration of the People’s

26 Wright, Curtis. The . (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press. 2001.) 27 Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam. History of modern China. (New Delhi: Atlanti. 2004.)

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Republic of China by Mao as well as the exiling of the remaining nationalist forces to the small island of , where still today the “Republic of China” remains. With the proclamation of the PRC came the beginning of communist government in the country, collectivization and industrialization being two hallmarks of this transition. With designs and weapons originally supplied by the Soviets, along with military generals who saw industrialization and modernization as ways for Chinese influence to permeate into the world, China soon became a major player in the ideological and military struggle of the Cold War, participating in supportive action in both the Korean and Vietnamese conflicts. Collectivization became the primary goal of one of the most important and failed events of modern China, the Great Leap Forward, which attempted to rapidly industrialize the cities and collectivize the countryside of the nation. Lasting from around 1958-1961, this coincided with a considerable dissolving of relations between the Soviets and the Chinese. The withdrawal of Soviet economic and political advisors due to the breaking of relations began a series of disasters during the Great Leap, with factories and manufacturing centers being left half-built in many cases. This downturn in manufacturing, coupled with failed Party policies and increasingly difficult natural disasters (floods, tsunamis, and severe drought all within a few years), led to massive famine in the countryside.28 The Great Leap Forward did create new cultural situations within China; with the adaption of “backyard” steel working in communes, women gained a considerable amount of freedom from traditional household work, and (as in many communist countries) the fostering of the citizen’s militia brought a quasi-military culture into many households.

The Sino-Soviet split, coupled with the famine and failure of the Great Leap Forward brought condemnation down upon Chairman Mao, who more and more felt himself surrounded by enemies. With the tense political situation came a heavy handed attempt by Mao to re- consolidate his power, restart the Chinese political and ideological sphere, and purge the Party of dissenters, opponents, and “bourgeoisie elements” in a . Mao attempted to rebuild his power base through his Party supporters as well as ordinary students, who through his efforts became increasingly militant, eventually forming into the notorious Red Guards. A ten year period of political struggle and fraction followed, with economic progress virtually halted by the chaos that erupted. The Red Guards flooded the cities with their extreme Maoist philosophies, attacking those who did not “fall in line” with their beliefs; they attempted to create a new Chinese communist society by breaking down the traditions and culture of the past (attacks against religious and former imperial monuments and cultural centers was common).29 Even after Mao died in 1976, Party infighting and the power of the extreme leftist cliques within the Party negatively affected the economic and social progress of China. The

28 Schoppa, R. Keith. The Columbia guide to modern Chinese history. (New York, NY: Columbia University Press 2000.) Pp. 112-120. 29 Schoppa, R. Keith. The Columbia guide to modern Chinese history. (New York, NY: Columbia University Press 2000.) Pp. 112-120.

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People’s Republic of China emerged from the chaos of the 1970s with the ascension of a new “Paramount leader” to in the chaos and promote new models of economic and political success; , a Party functionary who was sidelined and denounced during the Cultural Revolution. Deng was able to begin his restructuring of the Chinese economy, as well as attempt to purge the Party of corrupt elements and bring about a new social and cultural philosophy. The 1980s became the decade of revival, with Deng at the helm China was able to progress further and with greater success than during the periods of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Although Deng never held the top positions within the Party and Government, his ceremonial position as “Paramount Leader” meant he was able to formulate and guide future Party policy, leading to the policy of “Four Modernizations” which placed priority on advancing the Chinese spheres of the economy, technology, agriculture, and national defense, as well as the process of slow and controlled opening and liberalization.30 Deng’s ability to learn from the mistakes of Mao’s regime, as well as allow for small amounts of liberalization rose the weakened China from the brink of chaos to an economic powerhouse, eventually outliving the “big brother” of Communism, the Soviet Union. By the time Deng Xiaoping died in 1997, he had not only brought extreme economic growth to the country, but had also reformed the Party in a way that his successor would not be subject to coup attempts or divisions within the Party. His successor, Jiang Zemin, who rose to prominence after the crushing of pro-democracy in Tiananmen Square in 1989, became leader and instituted further economic changes; China joined the World Trade Organization in 2001 and initiated reforms of the Chinese state owned enterprises, leading to restructuring in that sphere. Since Jiang left office in 2003 two leaders of China have continued to uphold the economic and political successes begun by Deng in the 1980s; Hu Jintao and the current leader Xi Jinping. China today is still successful, although the country has experiences an economic downturn (albeit not at the levels seen in the period under Mao), with the Xi Jinping making a drive toward an efficient economy and the purging of corrupt Party officials his priority. The variety of different ethnicities within China has allowed for great diversity in the fields of culture and society, although these traditions seem to take a “back seat” to the “unifying” concept of Chinese Communism (at least in the eyes of the State). Since the early 2000s there has been a steep rise in separatist movements and other dangerous forces striking at the Party and people, attacks primarily in the autonomous northwest region of Xinjiang have increased dramatically.31 Traditional Chinese culture, which dates back thousands of years to the great , was attacked and almost destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, now with some liberalization in the communist country it is regaining prominence. The teachings of the great ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius and the art of Chinese calligraphy have become popular with many

30 Pantsov, Alexander, and Steven I. Levine. Deng Xiaoping: A Revolutionary Life. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2015.) 31 "China Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. September 27, 2015.

11 youth in the country, to the point that the State has been re-evaluating its previous stance on the “bourgeoisie” imperial past.32 The reemergence of religious faith in the lives of Chinese, particularly that of Buddhism and their holy sites indicates yet another Chinese tradition that has stood the tests of both time and conflict. A once mighty Chinese tradition since the ancient , Buddhist faith drove faithful to become monks, roam the countryside preaching, and create magnificent and beautiful structures and statues. Once the country adopted communist ideology, the aversion towards religion that is a staple of led to the destruction of many religious buildings and the reprimanding of religiously affiliated persons, Buddhism was no exception to this crackdown, which greatly intensified during the Cultural Revolution. A resurgence of in particular has occurred within the past twenty or so years, predominantly in the circles of Chinese youth; many of whom see the religion as a method of stress-reduction and community service.33 Additionally, the world renowned martial arts/religious sect of monks located in the Shaolin monastery, have also seen resurgence in the face of past mistreatment. The monks, with their bright orange robes and martial arts prowess, were also denounced, arrested, and even in some cases executed with the adoption of Communism in China. Much like the Tibetan Buddhists, the Shaolin were originally just reprimanded by the new government, which had economic, political, and military matters to focus their attention towards, but during the period of the Cultural Revolution, both the Tibetan and Shaolin monks were abused and denounced by the Red Guards in particular/ Monks were arrested and forced into exile, once great monasteries and temples, renowned for their architecture and beauty, were ransacked, defaced, and abandoned, and these institutions faced near annihilation. After the chaos of the Cultural Revolution the Shaolin temple did not reopen until 1979, after the reopening however, and the reforms of Chinese government and society under Deng Xiaoping assisted in the resurgence of many different forms of religious society (including Tibetan Buddhism and Shaolin).34

Cuba

The small island nation of has gained much notoriety within the past six decades, with events taking place on the country that almost led to the annihilation of all mankind in the tense climate of the Cold War. Before this however, Cuba was a relatively less powerful player in international affairs, with the island being discovered and claimed by the in the late 15th century, ruled by this empire across the ocean until the end of the . With an increasing buildup of military by the United States during the latter part of the 19th century, and the beginnings of an uprising against Spanish rule by poet and philosopher Jose Marti. After the Spanish-American war however, Spain handed over their former colony to the

32 "Chinese Students Revive Traditional Chinese Culture." Yibada RSS. October 9, 2015. 33 Liang, Lu-Hai. "Buddhism Attracts New Converts in China." CNN. June 24, 2015. 34 Watts, Jonathan, and Huang Lisha. "Everybody's Kung Fu Fighting." The Guardian UK. February 15, 2006.

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United States, beginning the often rough relations between America and Cuba. The beginning of the twentieth century brought Cuba independence in a way, although due to an agreement with the American government their affairs were tightly controlled and monitored by the large neighbor to the north. American-backed leaders, who were often corrupt and dictatorial, led the country throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the last of whom being the military man Flugencio Batista, who came to power first as a democratically elected leader in the wake of American ending of the control agreement (known as the Platt Amendment) and later as the military dictator of the country.35 The end of the Second World War brought several new forms of conflict to the world; that of nuclear weaponry and deterrence theory, chemical weaponry, and space technology, as well as ideological warfare between the two emerging sides of communism and capitalism. Cuba ended up directly in the crosshairs of this ideologically-driven conflict with the beginning of hostilities between the Batista regime, who with the support of the United States attempted to keep capitalism and pro-American policies in power, and the growing Marxist rebels, supported with arms and training by the Soviet powerhouse. In the end, the United States was unable to provide enough support to Batista to keep his regime in power, leading to the overthrow of the government in the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the installation of as the head of the Party and nation.

With the introduction of Communism as the economic, cultural, and political model for Cuba came monumental changes to the country, one of the largest being related to religion; from when the Spanish Empire conquered the land Christianity had been the predominant religion, with the adoption of Marxist doctrines came a government-led effort to disassemble the importance of this facet of life. Although not as brutal as the Stalinist regime towards religious peoples and institutions, the Castro regime was responsible for the exiling of almost ninety percent of Cuba’s catholic population. Despite the government’s very anti-religious stance, there still remained faithful, and although the period of the Cold War was undoubtedly difficult for religious Cubans, recent events have provided a glimmer of potential reform in this aspect of Cuban life.36 For almost the last sixty years, the Castro regime has firmly held power in the small island nation, passing successfully from the aging Fidel to his younger brother Raul in 2008, and for most of this period Cuba has been an important player in world events. Shortly after Castro took power and established a Marxist government, the United States imposed trade embargos on Cuba, and in 1962 the world reached the peak of Cold War confrontation with the aptly named Cuban Missile Crisis. After this, Cuba became increasingly involved in the affairs of the “third world”, acting as military and political advisors to nations that the Soviets limited their involvement in, this is no more evident than in a conflict a world away from Cuba in West , where several groups were vying for power in a brutal civil war in . While

35 "Cuba Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. July 22, 2015. 36 Crooker, Richard A., and oran Pavlovi . 2010. Cuba. New York: Chelsea House Publishers.

13 early on the Soviets provided logistically and political support to the left-leaning rebels against their CIA-advised rivals, their support dwindled once Cuba stepped in, in total sixty thousand Cuban troops were deployed to Angola in support of the leftists, leaving only after a brokered peace agreement withdrew rival South African forces (who were supporting the American- backed rebel groups). Cuba also played an important political and military role during another African conflict, this time assisting in the Ethiopian in their war against in what is commonly referred to as the War (1977-78). By the end of the Cold War Cuba was a major player in world affairs, acting as both a strong arm and a fraternal communist ally of the Soviet monolith despite a continued American embargo.

Cuban fortunes would change yet again beginning in 1989 with the separating communist East from its western capitalist counterpart, this act struck a major blow to the Soviet Union, which due to economic stagnation as well as their disastrous military intervention in Afghanistan had begun the rapid descent into collapse. With the decline and eventual dissolution of the primary military, economic, and political ally of Cuba in 1991 came hard times for the country, which despite the collapse of the Soviet Union was still under American embargo.37 Despite this, Cuba has adapted and remained one of the few post-Soviet communist countries still in existence, being the only one outside Asia to still exist. Recent developments in US/Cuban relations are beginning to break down the political and economic sanctions that stemmed from the cold War era hysteria. Cuban and American embassies have reopened and the beginnings of normalization between the two nations can be seen on the horizons, despite this, the Cuban government still holds tremendous power and still clings tightly to communist philosophy.

Ethiopia

The country of , located in Eastern Africa, traces its lineage back almost two thousand years with the founding of the ancient Axumite Empire. The Axumites became a dominant regional power around this period, and was the first African empire to embrace the new growing religion of Christianity in the mid-4th century, beginning an important Ethiopian religious tradition that still continues to this day. Although the Axumites were eventually overtaken by external power, a king claiming to be descendent of the Axumite Empire rallied together the people and established what we now know today as the Ethiopian or Abyssinian Empire. Around the 12th century, with the foundation of the new Abyssinian Empire, the introduction of Aramaic as the official language of the nation occurred, which it still is to this

37 "A Cuban Timeline." The Economist. July 20, 2015.

14 day.38 The continued to prosper throughout the centuries, managing to stave off the European powers during the colonization period (commonly referred to as the “”) and, along with Liberia, remaining the only African nation able to remain un-colonized during this period. One of the most important events in Ethiopian history is the , which occurred due to an attempt by the , recently created due to the unification of the various Italian city states, to gain their own colonial holdings in Africa. The first Italo-Abyssinian War was decisively decided at the Battle of Adwa in March of 1896, where the Ethiopian army gained a strategic victory over the Italian forces, marking one of the first major defeats of a colonial power by an African nation. With the victory at Adwa Ethiopia had successfully quashed any attempts by the European powers to invade and colonize, the empire would continue to remain free and prosper until 1935, when the , emboldened by new weaponry and the fascist fervor of the new government’s leader Mussolini, invaded again. The second Italo-Abyssinian war lead to the occupation of Ethiopia, which had remained a free empire since its founding in the 12th century, but this would not spell the end of this once mighty nation. The reigning of Ethiopia, Halie Selassie I, retreated from the country and sought refuge with the European powers, who were busy fighting the Axis (of which Italy was a major part of ), with this came an alliance of sorts, culminating in the defeat of the Italians and the restoration of the Ethiopian monarchy in mid-1941. Despite the defeat of the and the beginning of a new era for Ethiopia there were still major problems facing Emperor Halie Selassie I, mainly stemming from the post-World War II political world. 39

The end of the Ethiopian monarchy did not come from the actions of an invading foreign force, but from within, due largely to the radicalization of Ethiopia’s students and intelligentsia, many of whom found through their international travels and studies the tenants of Marxism. The 1960s and 70s in Ethiopia were marked with many student protests against the monarchy, as well as a devastating famine occurring in Wollo province in 1973-74. The combination of famine, economic decline, and student radicalization culminated in a coup against Emperor Selassie I by a military commission comprised of relatively mid-to-low ranking members of the army on September 12th 1974. The Ethiopian empire that had continued to endure and remain powerful despite external and internal threats for more than a thousand years was, with the proclamation from the military commission, known as the Derg, of a Marxist-Leninist socialist state, effectively destroyed. What followed the dissolution of the Ethiopian Empire was a period of bloody repression and relative chaos, rivalries and disagreements from within the power structure of the Derg lead to infighting and executions of several leaders of the initial coup against the Emperor. In 1977 the Derg, through infighting between various factions, received a new leader named Mengistu Halie Mariam, who would go on to be the head of the

38 Adejumobi, Saheed A. 2007. The . Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. 39 "Ethiopia Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. July 30, 2015.

15 communist military government until the Derg was dissolved in 1991.40 Despite military, economic, and political assistance from its “fraternal” communist allies, namely the Soviet Union and Cuba, the Derg was unsuccessful in restoring order and prosperity to Ethiopia, with its failed collectivization and agricultural initiatives playing a major role in the development of a major famine beginning in the 1980s. Famine, forced resettlement of ethnic peoples in Ethiopia, a brutal war with Somalia, and (at the end of the decade) the crumbling of the largest ally of the communist Derg, the Soviet Union, lead to Mariam’s government being toppled in 1991 in a popular uprising. The chaos of the revolution against the Derg lead to yet another conflict, this time with the northern region of , which broke away from Ethiopia after declaring independence in later in 1993. The uneasiness between the two nations, formerly united, erupted into full-out war in 1998, the resulting conflict causing even more bloodshed and ethnic conflict until a UN-sponsored ceasefire ended the conflict in 2000. In an attempt to quell chaos in neighboring Somalia Ethiopia invaded in 2006, citing treats to its borders by the increase in terrorism perpetuated by the Somali-based Al-Shabbab jihadist group in particular. Despite invading in 2006, Ethiopia pulled out of Somalia in 2009, but still continues to engage both Islamic rebels in East Africa but also what it calls hostile terrorist elements in Eritrea. Despite how tense the situation continues to be currently in Ethiopia in regards to Somalia and Eritrea, the country has experienced renewed economic growth, growing at an impressive rate of 10.8% every year. Although the is growing, and this is providing much needed economic support to the country, the threat of drought and famine is still great, especially considering devastating droughts in 2011 and 2015 that are affecting many .41 Despite the many challenges that the country faces, from the threat of militants to the adverse affects of nature to politics, Ethiopia continues to face these challenges with the same resolve that their ancestors showed at the Battle of Adwa almost a century ago. Despite attempts by the Communist Derg government to dissolve the church, Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, which had been adopted by the country through contacts with Egypt in the 4th century CE, continues to be a major part of Ethiopia’s religious and cultural profile.

Brazil

Known today as the largest and most populous nation in , ’s history extends back to the first , who migrated from either Polynesia or eastern Siberia to the area between forty and fifty thousand years ago. Hunting and gathering remained the staple of life for these groups, who until the European colonization of the 15th and 16th centuries continued this tradition of living off the land. Contact with the other side of the Atlantic began in 1500 with the arrival of the Portuguese navigator Pedro Cabral on the coast of what is today Brazil, proclaiming it as a territory of the . Over three hundred years of Portuguese

40 Adejumobi, Saheed A. 2007. The history of Ethiopia. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. 41 Anyangwe, Eliza. "Ethiopia: From to Economic Lion." CNN. October 20, 2015.

16 rule played a considerable impact on the population makeup, culture, and religion of what would become modern day Brazil, which declared independence from Portugal in 1822.42 The Portuguese colonists brought with them their fervent adherence to Catholicism, as well as slaves (predominantly from the Portuguese colonial possessions in Africa) to cultivate the vast natural resources, these two major additions to Brazilian society are still felt today. Most of the population still speaks Portuguese, around 80% of the population is Christian (65% Roman Catholic, 22% Protestant), and the ethnic makeup is about 47% white, 43% or mixed ethnicity, and 7% black (less than .4% of the current Brazilian population is of indigenous background).43 With the subsequent removal of Portuguese colonial control came the installation of an , which ruled until it was overthrown in 1889 and replaced by a federal republic. Although slavery was abolished and the monarchy was deposed, and industrialization was creating vast amounts of exportable resources, the century would be one of political instability. Revolts and coups against the Brazilian government occurred in 1930, 1937, 1945 and 1964; the 1964 coup by Brazilian military ushered in a period of extensive repression but also advanced economic growth that would last twenty one years. The first direct presidential election would not come immediately, starting in 1989 with the election of Fernando Collor de Mello as the president, but the beginning of true democracy in Brazil was not without problems. Corruption charges led to de Mello resigning, his successor would introduce reforms in order to ease the stifling inflation of the 1990s, as well as introducing land reform for the poor. Further reforms came to Brazil with the election of the first left-wing leader in forty years, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, more commonly referred to as Lula, led the country through advanced economic and industrial growth through his eight years in office.44 This period brought the highest gdp growth for the country in twenty-five years, as well as a decline in the income inequality that had previously plagued the country. Despite this impressive growth there are still major problems, most noticeably in the urban areas, related to housing, poverty, and crime, that the government is having a difficult time in combating.45 Brazil today, regardless of the challenges it faces, is economically and industrially growing at a very quick rate, and is acknowledged by many political scholars as being the regional leader of South American nations today.

India

The lands that make up current day India have been inhabited continuously for thousands of years, with the first precursor civilization to India emerging roughly in the 2nd or third millennia.

42 Levine, Robert M. 1999. The . Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. 43 Brazil: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015

44 "Brazil Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. July 30, 2015. 45 Brazil: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015

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The first large-scale empire to emerge in this area was the Maurya, which grew to its largest extent under the reign of renowned emperor Ashoka. Different dynasties from different regions eventually came and went throughout the decades and centuries, leading to a flourishing of art, culture, and various religions in India. From this diverse history come the many different peoples, religions, and languages that are currently found within India today. There are two major ethnic groups within modern-day India, stemming from the border changes and migrations of old; the Indo-Aryans, who make up 72% of the population, and the Dravidians, who account for roughly 25%. Although there are only two major ethnic groups in India, there are a variety of different languages spoken in the country, there are currently fifteen officially recognized languages, including the most widely spoken language of Hindi.46 Conquest and migration during this period has also brought the variety of religions that are present in modern-day India, of course Hindu is the primary religion in the country (accounting for almost 80% of the population), but Islam and Christianity both have followings in the country of over one billion people.47 Although the Indian subcontinent had been under the relatively prosperous and firm Mughal (deriving from the Central Asian descendants of the Mongol Khans) rule for over three hundred years, the arrival of the European powers, with dreams of empire-building as their primary goal, meant the end of the Indian imperial dynasty and the beginning of colonial control. The in particular would become the European powerhouse within India, first by strategically taking control of the lucrative spice trade between India and the rest of Europe under the rule of the British-owned East India Company.48 The East India Company ruled as the organization responsible for the Indian subcontinent until 1858, when the British government revoked the Company’s rule and declared the country apart of the British Empire, the reason being a failed mutiny against the East India Company by parties in India. The British Empire held dominion over India (officially known as British India or ) from 1858 until the declaration of Indian independence in 1947, being one of the first colonies to become independent in the de-colonization period following the end of World War II.49 For almost twenty years the process of non-violent demonstration and resistance against the British rule was championed by two men in particular, Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and their work at organizing the citizens of India against British rule helped secure Indian independence. Although the British had left and allowed India freedom, the post- independence atmosphere of the country was tense, due in part to the various ethnic and religious differences in the country; violence occurred in these communities throughout the post-independence period of India, even after the government attempted to remedy the problem by partitioning the country into two separate states; India and Pakistan. The

46 India: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 47 Idem. 48 Stein, Burton, and David Arnold. 2010. A . Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell. 49 "India Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. July 30, 2015.

18 relationship between the two former pieces of British India has been rough ever since, with wars occurring between the two in 1947, 1965, 1971, and more recently in 1999. The Third war led to yet another Indian loss of territory with the declaration of Bangladesh, the homeland of the ethnic Bengali peoples, as an independent nation. Further straining diplomatic ties between the nations of Southeast Asia were the development of nuclear weapons programs, nuclear weapons research and testing by both India and Pakistan resulted in successful nuclear weapon tests for the nations in 1974 and 1998 respectively. India’s world standing has changed in the last seventy years, it has been able to ward off invasions and win wars, as well as developing their own nuclear weaponry. With the end of the Cold War came an economic upturn for India, in which the government under PV Narasimha Rao moved the country from an industrializing mixed economy to a free-market model, reducing bureaucratic red tape for both foreign and domestic investment and lowering tariffs and interest rates. While these economic changes began positive change to the Indian economy, there are still serious problems in terms of overpopulation and poverty, both of which are undoubtedly affected by the extreme number of people living in the country.50 As previously spoken about, there are a variety of different religions and sects in India that continue from generations upon generations, unfortunately religious differences brought many to conflict in the country. Although religious differences have created some issues in contemporary India, and extremism has grasped hold of some in these communities, people in India still worship their different gods and engage in their different and often large holidays and festivals. Despite the political and social successes of contemporary India, they have had major problems also, in particular, the loss of two major areas of land in the last seventy years, as well as border skirmishes with its northern neighbor China, the issue of nuclear weapons with Pakistan, and after the tragedy of the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks the issue of terrorism. Like most countries, India has had great successes and difficult failures, but despite all of this, India has obtained the position of political and economic powerhouse of South Asia, and is presently home to the second largest population in the world.51

Kashmir

This mountainous region that once was a part of British-administered India during the period of is today split; broken up between three major (and at the present, nuclear) countries during decades of war and conflict. The problem is one that has evaded a solution since the end of British India and the of the country into Pakistan and India- proper, with the introduction of China in the 1960s making the problem even more difficult to solve. While China indeed claims lands part of Kashmir, the Aksai Chin territory that links vital commercial and military routes from southern China to the Chinese-controlled, yet

50 India: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 51 India: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015

19 autonomous, Tibetan region, India and Pakistan claim the largest portions of this region.52 The Kashmir border disputes have been so volatile and militarized that the became concerned, sending peacekeepers and observers to keep an eye on the situation in 1949 (this peacekeeping force is still in place to this day in Kashmir). Kashmir is split three ways between the Indian (Jammu and Kashmir territories), Pakistani (Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan), and Chinese (Aksai Chin) areas, and this split tremendously affects the peoples who call this area home.53 The Indian-controlled region, Jammu and Kashmir, is incredibly diverse, with Kashmir having a large number of Muslims and Jammu containing a large amount of Hindus, the Ladakh area of the region also contains a fair amount of Buddhists originating from nearby as well. The Pakistan-administered regions of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan are, in terms of religion, more homogenous due to the most of the population being Muslim. In terms of the population of the Chinese Aksai-Chin area it is difficult to say because the primary use of the region is not for civilian settlement but rather transportation and military outposts, most of the people living in Aksai Chin are from the Chinese military.54 Although there have been diplomatic attempts at rectifying the situation between these three major powers in regards to the Kashmir region, there are no signs of a comprehensive agreement to satisfy all diplomatic parties at this time.

Mali

Mali’s history extends back to some of the earliest humans, as is the case with much of the contemporary African countries of today, and the country of today descends from the legacy of some of the most successful and mighty empires of historical Africa. The first of the empires was the Empire of Mali, which established itself in the region around the 11th century under the leadership of Sundiata and extended all the way from modern day Mali straight west to the Atlantic coast (extending through most of the Niger river also). As the continued to flourish, due largely in part to the trans-Saharan trade of precious metals and ores, ivory, and different plants and seeds, the spread of the Islamic faith soon reached west Africa, beginning a tradition of Islam in Mali that still exists to this day.55The Mali Empire faded however in the 15th century and, as was usually the case in the many ages of Empires, another powerful empire swallowed up the lands of the old Mali Empire and rose in its place. The successor Empire in the land of Mali was the Songhai, once a part of the Mali Empire, under the leadership of a Muslim king, Sonni Ali, the Songhai created an empire even larger than their predecessors. The Songhai controlled the mineral wealth and power in the former Malian empire’s lands until the late 16th

52 Easen, Nick. "Aksai Chin: China's Disputed Slice of Kashmir." CNN. May 24, 2002. 53 India: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015, see. Transnational Issues. 54 "Kashmir Territories Profile - BBC News." BBC News. 13 November, 2015 55 Mendoza, Ruben G. "West : Dates 400-1591 C.E.," in John Powell, ed., Weapons and Warfare (Pasadena: Salem Press, 2001), 293.

20 century, when the northern Moroccans took advantage of the Songhai decline. The religiousness of the Songhai , as well as the inevitable rise of the Moroccans in the area, further solidified the Islamic faith in Mali, one that is still quite important the almost 95% of Malians who identify as being Muslim.56 The rise and fall of empires in this region continued up until the age of Imperialism, when the European great powers began to scramble and claim lands in Africa, Mali was no exception to this, and in 1898 the French claimed Mali as its own, renaming it French .57 The French controlled this region until the end of the Second World War, with the beginning of decolonization and the rise of the ideologically-driven Cold War brought many changes to French Sudan, which in 1960 changed its name to Mali and declared full independence.

The end of French imperialism brought freedom from external control to Mali, but it also provided an opportunity for individuals to take advantage of the situation, leading to the overthrow of the democratically elected president in a military coup in 1968. Although Mali had eight years of democratic rule, the economic situation in the country had deteriorated to the point that the military needed to take matters into their hands to restore economic and political stability, in 1968 a Malian military officer named Moussa Traore took power and ruled the country for another twenty three years.58 Another coup took Traore out of power in 1991, ending his long period of political repression, allowing for the democratic processes to start occurring with the free election of Alpha Oumar Konare to the position of president. From 1992 to 2002, Konare held the post of president and was able to bring some economic updates to Mali, including the milestone of the Manantali hydroelectric dam, created in 1988, producing its first megawatt of electricity in 2001. When Konare’s term ended in 2002 he was replaced by Amadou Toure, who was a military officer who led the main coup against Traore in 1991, during this period there were economic successes, such as the the cancellation of around 40% of the debt Mali owed France, as well as failures, largely due to bad harvests, locust infestations, and a severe drought in 2004. Mali under Toure continued to struggle economically despite its attempts to rectify the situation, and the beginnings of a full scale rebellion by the Tuareg ethnic population in the north of the country left the country in an extremely difficult situation. The Tuareg rebellion flared up both in 2007 and 2012, but the situation in 2012 grew even more severe due to the gains made by the main Tuareg rebel groups, who by this time were merged and supported by Al-Qaeda in North Africa.59 The alliance between the Tuareg and Islamist groups under AQM(Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb), soon itself broke down, with the Islamists seizing control of the situation and capturing large swathes of land in northern Mali, gaining the historically significant cities of Gao and Timbuktu. Malian heritage dating back hundreds of

56 Mali: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 57 "Mali Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. November 20, 2015. 58 Mali: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 59 "Mali Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. November 20, 2015.

21 years, from the glorious days of the Mali and Songhai empires, began to be plundered and destroyed; ancient manuscripts were burned and intricate tombs of some of Mali’s most famous historical figures were attacked.60 The inability of the Malian government to put down this rebellion, coupled with the indecisiveness of Amadou Toure as a leader, led to yet another military coup in 2012 that ousted Toure. A period of deep political instability after the military coup followed for about a year after until the election of the current democratic leader of Mali, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita. Despite the unrest there have been advances made since the removal of Toure as leader, with the military assistance of the French the Malian military was able to reclaim the lands in the north, although sporadic and often unpredictable terrorist attacks are still being perpetrated throughout Mali by AQM and its affiliates. One of the most recent and bloody attacks occurred at a hotel in the capital of Bamako, the attack left almost thirty people, both Malian and foreign, dead in the Radisson Blu hotel. This attack, claimed as an action by cooperating extremist organizations Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb and Al-Mourabitoun, has given a renewed resolve to the government to fight the extremists who perpetrated this attack in the heart of Mali, but it also showed the true weakness of the government, which is still rebuilding its own legitimacy and ability to lead after the 2012 coup.61 Although there has been a great deal of destruction and death attributed to Al-Qaeda and its allies, Islam in Mali has continued to grow and remain a firm influence on the country, although it is important to note that in many religiously mixed communities in Mali there is a relative understanding and mutual agreement that religious differences are the least of their worries in this period of economic and political uncertainty.

Nepal

The country of Nepal has been in the middle of two large empires, China and India, since the founding days of the Kingdom by Prithvi Narayan Shah, the Gorkha king who unified the lands of the Kathmandu valley in 1768. The Nepalese Shah dynasty would continue to rule the country as monarchs for more than two hundred years, until the dissolution of the monarchy occurred in 2007-2008. Despite the rule of the monarchy, the real political power in Nepal was in the position of prime minister, which became a hereditary position with the ascendance of the Rana dynasty to power. From 1846 until 1951 the Rana prime ministers controlled every aspect of Nepal’s government and virtually closed off the country to any and all foreign influence, it was not until the Rana were overthrown did the country open and begin to involve itself in the post-second World War global community.62 Although this opening brought Nepal into the international community, especially with Nepal’s joining of the United Nations in 1955, domestic politics in Nepal still were corrupt and absolute. With the adoption of a multi-party

60 Watling, Jack, and Paul Raymond. "The Struggle for Mali." The Guardian. November 25, 2015. 61 Idem. 62 "Nepal Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. September 27, 2015.

22 system in 1959 came the almost immediate suspension of this new law by the King, who in 1960 created a non-party system that was solely controlled by the monarchy. This system of “panchayat” continued to play a major role in the monarchy’s hold over Nepal until 1980, when the system was changed to allow an electoral process to the assembly, this was followed by protests that in 1990 gave way to a democratic constitution for Nepal, although the monarchy remained active.63 Two major events in contemporary Nepal brought about the eventual dissolution of the monarchy, one being the violent uprising by communist Maoist insurgents in 1995 in an attempt to overthrow the corrupt monarchy, which resulted in the deaths of thousands and did not end until 2006. The other blow to the Nepalese monarchy came from within; when in 2001, after a family gathering the Prince murdered the King, Queen, Crown Princess, and many others before killing himself. These two bloody situations strained the monarchy to its breaking point, and although the last king, Gyanendra, attempted to crush the Maoist rebellion, he was unable to resist pressures for the dissolution of the monarchy, which became official in 2008.64 With the end of the Maoist rebellion and the monarchy Nepal has begun to rebuild its political structure, although this process has attracted anger from Nepal’s largest ally in the region, India. The relationship between Nepal and India has been close throughout history, due to borders and also due to religion, as at least eighty percent of the population of Nepal identifies as a part of the Hindu faith, and often at times India has involved itself in Nepalese affairs, especially in the field of politics. In an effort to reduce this, the new post-rebellion, post-monarchy constitution has put several restrictions on children of Nepalese-Indian birth (their ability to run for public office is denied by this new constitution), directly affecting the large Madheshis population of the southern Nepal-Indian border. Open rioting in defiance of the constitution has recently broken out in Madhesi areas, the Indian government has also taken action, effectively engaging in an economic blockade of the country. This tension with India and the Madhesi ethnic population, coupled with recent devastating earthquakes, have had serious repercussions to the post-rebellion and post-monarchy rebuilding of Nepal, although in terms of political change the country has seen the successful rounds of democratic election resulting in both the installation of the country’s first female president as well as a Communist majority in government (currently giving Nepal the distinction of being the only country having a multi-party system in which the Communists are the governing party).65 Despite the economic and political challenges facing Nepal, it has come out of both the periods of and violent rebellion with a renewed push towards rebuilding and renewing the country.

Thailand

63 Ojha, Hemant. "The India-Nepal Crisis." The Diplomat. November 27, 2015. 64 "Nepal Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. September 27, 2015. 65 Ojha, Hemant. "The India-Nepal Crisis." The Diplomat. November 27, 2015.

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The Kingdom of Thailand has gone through monumental changes to its culture and society since the days of the first known cultivation of in the Thailand area some 7,000 years ago. Relationships between ancient Thailand and its neighbors have existed since around the third century BCE, with Buddhist from India making the trek to the Thai lands. Actual economic trading between ancient India and Thailand is said to have occurred close to this initial religious and cultural contact also, around 500 CE or so.66 The Thai soon came into conflict with the neighboring Khmer empire (modern day Cambodia), resulting in Khmer-rule until 1238, when the first independent Thai empire came to power, the Sukhothai. Being the first major Thai kingdom, the Sukhothai became a major player in Southeast Asian affairs, with the kingdom allowing refugees fleeing the Mongol conquest to integrate into Sukhothai. During the reign of Ramakhamheng also came a major development to Thai culture, the development of the unique Thai writing script by the king himself.67 Throughout the next centuries the kingdom faced both external and internal threats, leading to the dissolution of the Sukhothai into a new kingdom as well as wars of conquest with both the Khmer as well as Burma. A coup against the king in 1782 by General Chao Phraya Chakri brought about the creation of a new dynasty, the Chakri, which is the royal dynasty of Thailand to this day. With the ascension of this new dynasty also came the declaration of the name of the country, which would be known as Siam, as well as a new capitol, known as Bangkok. Beginning in 1804 Siam engaged in a powerful drive towards industrialization with the help of western imperial powers; creating a longstanding bond between the United Kingdom and Siam. Another change in identity occurred in 1939, with the onset of global war the name of Siam was changed to the current name of the country; Thailand. Almost immediately after this occurred however, the country became a victim of the aggressive expansion of the , avoiding invasion and occupation by Japan by allying itself with the Empire and declaring war against the United Kingdom and the US.68 Since this time however, Thailand’s political stability has been damaged significantly by a series of military coups d’état, especially during the Cold War period in which the country saw increased threats by both communist rebels and communist nations surrounding it (, Vietnam, and Cambodia all experienced communist governments at some point during the Cold War). 1980 saw the beginnings of economic growth in Thailand, partially due to the economic plans of the new premier, former army general turned civilian politician Prem Tinsulanonda. One of Prem’s most important decrees was the cessation of hostilities and a general amnesty to the communist guerilla forces fighting the government, thereby allowing thousands of young Thai, predominantly students, to return to their lives. The return of many young citizens helped a great deal in boosting Thailand’s economy, as well as the development of infrastructure designed to boost the country’s manufactured goods exports.

66 Mishra, Patit Paban. 2010. The history of Thailand. Santa Barbara, Calif: Greenwood. 67 Idem. 68 "Thailand Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. 19 August, 2015.

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In 1988 Prem was voted out of office, although he still to this day plays a major role in Thai political life as head of the King’s own (making him one of the principle advisors to King Bhumibol Adulyadej), and was replaced by another leader. After Prem left office however, another coup occurred, leading to an instable government and civilian protests and, in 1997, a major economic crisis due to the devaluation of the Thai currency that takes the country two years to bounce back from. Thailand today is still considered to be a powerful force in Southeast Asia, in terms of both international politics and economy, despite tourism falling due to the recent military coup, the country has been able to stabilize its economy by implementing a nation-wide minimum wage policy as well as tax reforms for the middle class. Despite the economic growth Thailand is currently experiences there are problems, including issues of labour shortages, declining exports, political, and ethnic issues. The current Thai political atmosphere is dominated by the military junta of Prime Minister-General Prayuth Chan-ocha, who has suspended the legislature and called for a re-drafting of the constitution, both of which are as of December 2015 either incomplete or haven’t been undertaken at all.69 Coupled with the issue of the military coup is the issue of another rebellion taking place in Thailand’s south, this time however it is not communists but rather groups of Thailand’s Muslim minority, Islam having been a small part of Thailand since missionaries arrived in the country in the 17th century. Since 2004 there has been violence between the government and the southern Thai Muslims, instability there, as well as the political instability and the worsening health of the 88 year old have worked against the economic progress the country has been experiencing, and it is unclear what exactly the future holds for the great potential Thailand clearly has.70

Tibet

The region of Tibet, formally under the control of the People’s Republic of China and known to them as the Tibet Autonomous Region, serves as a major point of contention between China and much of the world due to not only the issue of religion in the communist state but also the role of the often vocal Dalai , the spiritual guardian and titular of the country. Tibet has been the home of Tibetan Buddhism since the 8th century, when it was declared as the official religion of the then-, to this day Tibetan Buddhism, specifically the “ hat” sect, which in the period of Mongol rule allied themselves with the Khans, who first bestowed the of Dalai Lama upon Sonam Gyatso, beginning the tradition of Tibetan spiritual leaders that still exists to this day.71 The territories known as Tibet were conquered by the Chinese Qing Dynasty in the early 18th century and remained a part of China until the end of the dynastic system in 1912 and the subsequent warlords era. During the

69 Thailand: The World Factbook 2014-15. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2015 70 "Thailand Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. 19 August, 2015. 71 "Tibet Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. 13 November 2014.

25 period of Qing rule the Tibetans never formally agreed to be a part of the country, rather they were conquered and subjugated, by the time of the warlord period the Chinese government and military was too fractured to keep their hold on Tibet, resulting in the declaration of an independent Tibetan nation. This country, led by the Dalai Lama as both spiritual and political leader, remained independent despite external and internal influences against the , who died in 1933 and was succeeded by the current Dalai Lama in 1940, although he officially gained his full “temporal” power in 1950.72 The situation in independent Tibet soon took a turn for the worse with the declaration of a communist government in its neighbor China, and the subsequent declaration by Chinese leader Mao Zedong that the reacquisition and “liberation” of Tibet would occur. With the defeat of the Tibetan army by the Chinese military came the Chinese communiqué to the young Dalai Lama to negotiate a treaty between the two countries in order to avoid a full-scale invasion of Tibet. The Seventeen-Points Agreement was signed by Tibet and China in 1951; it amounted to the Tibetan acknowledgment of Chinese sovereignty over the country, in exchange for Chinese allowance of Tibetan cultural and religious life to continue unobstructed. With the agreement came the movement of Chinese political and military infrastructure and personnel into , the capitol of Tibet, as well as the exodus of several thousand Tibetans civilians and Buddhist priests, including the Dalai Lama, who sought refuge from the anti-religion attitudes of the Chinese communists in neighboring India. 73 Since the agreement China has continuously broken the edicts it set on the administration of Tibet, closing the territory off to all foreigners between 1963 and 1971, during which the chaos of the Cultural Revolution reached Tibet, resulting in the destruction of thousands of ancient and important monasteries and artifacts. Since then, the Dalai Lama, now in his eighties, continues to attempt negotiations with the Chinese government concerning the question of increased Tibetan autonomy and religious freedom, negotiations that have so far failed. Continued attempts to snuff out Tibetan cultural and religious history and traditions have also been occurring under the guise of relocation, in which thousands of ethnically Han Chinese have been relocated to Tibet, coming with their own Chinese culture and identity. The question of Tibet is one that seems unlikely to change in the years and decades to come, as the Chinese government not only retains control over the country, but also has infiltrated itself into the affairs of selecting the next religious leaders of Tibetan Buddhism, including the Dalal Lama. The unique Tibetan culture and religious existence seems under a very real threat at this point in history, but despite both internal and external pressure, the Tibetans remain strong in their will to preserve their culture and their quest for greater human rights.74

72 Idem. 73 Goldstein, Melvyn C., and Gelek Rimpoche. 1989. A history of modern Tibet, 1913-1951: the demise of the Lamaist state. Berkeley: University of California Press. 74 "Tibet Profile - Timeline - BBC News." BBC News. 13 November 2014.

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