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This Document Was Supplied by the Depositor and Has Been Modified by AHDS History This document was supplied by the depositor and has been modified by AHDS History 5645 - Foreign Diplomatic Representatives to the Stuart Court, 1603-1625 FOREIGN DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES TO THE STUART COURT Part i: James VI & I (1603 – 1625) researched, transcribed and analysed by Roberta Anderson Ambassadors have no battleships at their disposal, or heavy infantry, or fortresses; their weapons are words and opportunities. In important transactions opportunities are fleeting; once they are missed they cannot be recovered. (Demosthenes, De Falsa Legatione) In the seventeenth century, men of varying talents were being sent to England on diplomatic missions that required great delicacy and tact. These men were the ambassadors from one state, and accredited to the Court of St. James, who were sent to negotiate matters of mercantile importance, arrange state marriages and political alliances and protect the reputation and political status of their masters. Traditionally work on these men has concentrated on individuals, the country the individuals represented or on specific negotiations in which they were involved. The study of diplomats has become a thriving subject area of memoirs, monographs, papers, theses and articles in specialist journals. Furthermore, the history of diplomacy itself has traditionally focussed on Italy during the latter half of the fifteenth century. Interest was kindled in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s by such writers as Mattingly, Nicolson and Carter and since then, in more recent times, there has been a renewal of this interest. G. M. Bell has also recently undertaken some work on the representatives instructed by early modern English monarchs to work in courts abroad. Over past years historians have also provided numerous partial listings, some more comprehensive than others, which relate to specific countries and which, alongside the works cited above, demonstrate a certain fascination with the question of diplomacy in the early modern period. However, very little work has been undertaken on the ambassadorial group as a whole during this particular period and it is therefore the intention of this work to establish which individuals came as diplomats to the English court. For this purpose, research has been undertaken on individual residents and an entry for each has been made within a Database. The Database contains details of: country of origin dates of embassies date and place of first audience for each embassy type of embassy and the object of the mission place of residence and at whose expense titles held by the ambassador and details of any honours granted by James promotions received on return home In respect of the information gathered together in the Database, the principal purpose has been to identify the diplomats and to provide as accurate a record as possible of their missions. For this purpose a systematic study of a number of sources has taken place. The essential sources surveyed were the various relevant manuscript holdings, as well as the Calendars of State Papers, Domestic and Foreign, the lists and calendars of the Historical Manuscripts Commission and various other collections of correspondence which are listed in the bibliography. In addition, the secondary sources available relating to Stuart domestic and foreign diplomatic history have been identified and consulted. The information contained in the Database meets certain criteria set for inclusion. Each man needed to have received from his sovereign official written instructions which ordered him to represent his government at the court of St James. Adhering strictly to this criterion certain representatives have had to be excluded from the Database. Those excluded can be summarised in the following categories: Messengers and couriers who, as a rule, did not receive written instructions and did not negotiate. Not included in this category however, were those men who came to England to receive, by proxy, from James honorary titles or orders. Military men who were received with diplomatic honours, whilst engaged on a military mission and who were not strictly involved in any diplomatic negotiations. Those who were received by James but who represented a person other than his sovereign or prince, for example the many commissioners sent by the Dutch East India Company. Although one could argue that, in some cases, they were involved in minor negotiations, merchants and consular figures have been excluded from the Database. Also excluded from the Database are representatives for whom no conclusive evidence that an embassy was undertaken has been found. The prime objective in providing a Database of foreign diplomatic representatives is to expand our knowledge of these men and their missions to London, thereby furthering our understanding of the diplomatic game played at Court. It is during this period that we begin to see the development of the diplomatic service as a whole and this work will show that, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, very few men were designated ambassador. Most were still agents, a vestige of the old Tudor system, but by the end of the reign the majority of embassies came accompanied by an increasingly large entourage of attendant secretaries, translators and cipher clerks. The accession of James VI and I brought no immediate changes to the European diplomatic scene, nor did it affect in any dramatic way the structure of the diplomatic corps, although an increased number of ambassadors reached England in the early years of the seventeenth century to offer commiseration on the death of Elizabeth and congratulations to James on the smooth transition of the crown. Many ambassadors were recalled at the end of Elizabeth’s reign, but the new agents sent in their place were, for the most part, from the states who had already had ambassadors here. But not even the changes in personnel were complete. Sir Noel Caron, the States General’s ambassador, who had first come to England in 1590 was to remain in London until his death in 1625 and the French ambassador, Christopher de Harlay, Count de Beaumont, although unpopular, stayed on until November, 1605. It was at this time that Venice sent her first permanent embassy to London and when Spain first began to think about restoring diplomatic relations with the crown of England. At the beginning of James’s reign very few men were designated ambassador; most were still agents, a vestige of the system already in place. During Elizabeth’s reign no ambassadors were received from Spain or Venice and those countries which did send high-ranking diplomats usually sent them with no supporting staff. By the end of James’s reign the majority of embassies came accompanied by an increasingly large entourage of attendant secretaries, translators and cipher clerks, and it was during this period that the position of embassy secretary emerged as a distinct office. By the mid-sixteenth century, capable royal secretaries were aiding their masters in the administration of foreign policy, though they rarely exercised much influence over its formation. The successors to these men evolved over a period into foreign ministers, though often still retaining the title of secretary, as in Britain and the United States. During the twenty-two years of James’s reign some two hundred and thirteen men were received on more than two hundred and fifty diplomatic missions from thirty- one countries. Of these embassies only France, Spain, Venice and the United Provinces maintained permanent embassies in London. The permanence of these few reflected the importance of foreign affairs and commercial interests between those nations and England. The seventeenth century diplomat was the personal representative of his prince to a foreign head of state, and, although such expressions as ‘Envoy from The Hague’ or ‘Ambassador from France’ were commonly used, these men were legally designated ‘Envoy from the States General to James I’ or the ‘Ambassador from the Most Christian King to James I’ and all diplomatic papers described foreign representatives in this way. This shows that diplomats were, in theory at least, chosen, accredited, instructed and recalled by their Kings and princes. Country Represented Agent Commissioner Extra-ordinary Ordinary Secret Special Total Envoy Envoy Bavaria 1 1 Bohemia 1 1 Brandenburg 6 6 Brunswick 3 3 Denmark 14 14 Emperor /Imperial 2 2 Diets Flanders 3 3 5 1 3 15 France 4 17 9 2 32 German States 3 3 Hesse 2 2 Lorraine 4 4 Mantua 1 1 Morocco 1 1 Muscovy 1 6 2 9 Neuberg 1 2 3 Palatine 4 14 2 1 21 Papal States 3 3 Persia 2 2 Poland 2 1 1 3 7 Savoy 2 5 3 3 13 Saxony 2 2 4 Spain 4 2 6 5 3 20 Stade 1 1 Sweden 1 1 2 4 Switzerland 3 3 Turkey 1 2 3 Tuscany/Florence 5 1 2 8 United Provinces 1 36 3 2 42 Venice 3 5 8 16 Würtemburg 14 1 15 TOTAL BY TYPE 36 41 108 45 3 25 258 Table 1: Style and numbers of ambassadors Of the two hundred and fifty-eight missions noted in Table 2 some 17% of the representatives were ambassadors in ordinary who came as official envoys to maintain the status and authority of their masters and to represent the concerns and interests of their countrymen resident in England. Alongside these ordinary ambassadors worked a select élite of extra-ordinary ambassadors, some 42% of the whole, who were sent to deal with specific treaties, alliances and depositions. Unlike ordinary ambassadors who were, in general, career diplomats, the Extra-ordinary ambassadors were noblemen or high-ranking government officials. In several cases these extra-ordinary ambassadors were James’s own subjects who were resident, for various reasons, at foreign courts. Type No Percentage Received of those sent Agent 36 13.95% Commissioner 41 15.90% Extra-ordinary 108 41.85% Ordinary 45 17.45% Secret Envoy 3 1.15% Special Envoy 25 9.70% TOTAL 258 100.00% Table 2: Type of Embassy by Percentage Received From the moment of their arrival in England, through the conduct of their missions, up to their leave taking, a pattern of rigid ceremony defined ambassadors for what they were: the embodiment of the sovereign power they represented.
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