ENCYCLOPEDIA of PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS

Volume Editor Vivien Gornitz is a Senior Research Scientist, Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University and NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. She holds a B.A. from Barnard College and a Ph.D. from Columbia University. Her research interests include global sea level rise–past, present, and future, coastal hazards, climatic implications of land cover transformations, and planetary geology, including Mars. In addition to numerous scientific publications, she has edited Geology of the Planet Mars (Benchmark Papers in Geology, v. 48, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979) and has contributed articles to several of the encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. She was a Contributing Author for the IPCC in 1990, 1995, 2001, and 2007.

Advisory Board Caspar Ammann Joseph Ortiz Climate and Global Dynamics Division–Paleoclimatology Department of Geology National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Kent State University Boulder, CO 80307 Kent, Ohio 44242-0001 USA USA

Mark A. Chandler Linda Sohl 5018 Woodburn Drive Goddard Institute for Space Studies Madison, WI 53711 2880 Broadway USA New York, NY 10025 and USA Goddard Institute for Space Studies 2880 Broadway James D. Wright New York, NY 10025 Department of Geological Sciences USA Wright-Reiman Laboratories Rutgers University Anthony Hallam 610 Taylor Road, Piscataway School of Earth Sciences NJ 08854-8066 University of Birmingham USA Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK

Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatol- ogists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line.

About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than 8 volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Principal Marine Geologist with Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. and Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; Southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS

edited by

VIVIEN GORNITZ Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia University New York USA Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934597

ISBN: 978-1-4020-4551-6 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-4411-3 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-5197-5

Published by Springer PO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: Landforms – Heart of the Colorado Plateau: The Story Behind the Scenery (KC Publications, 1995). Photo reproduced courtesy of G. Ladd

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Coal Beds, Origin and Climate; Glendonite/Ikaite and Ostracodes © 2009 Springer ScienceþBusiness Media B.V. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents

List of Contributors xi Astronomical Theory of Climate Change 51 André Berger Preface xxv Acknowledgements xxvii Atmospheric Circulation During the Last Glacial Maximum 57 Aerosol (Mineral) 1 David Rind Ina Tegen Atmospheric Evolution, Earth 61 Albedo Feedbacks 2 James Farquhar Andrew A. Lacis Atmospheric Evolution, Mars 66 Alkenones 4 David C. Catling Mark Pagani Ancient Cultures and Climate Change 6 Atmospheric Evolution, Venus 75 Vivien Gornitz Bruce Fegley, Jr. Animal Proxies, Invertebrates 10 Banded Iron Formations and the Early Atmosphere 85 Robert R. Gaines and Mary L. Droser Bruce M. Simonson and Alan J. Kaufman

Animal Proxies – Vertebrates 13 Basal Ice 89 Thomas H. Rich and Patricia Vickers-Rich Peter G. Knight

Antarctic Bottom Water and Climate Change 16 Beachrock 89 Stan Jacobs Ian D. Goodwin Antarctic Cold Reversal 22 Vincent I. Morgan Beetles as Quaternary and Late Tertiary Climate Indicators 90 Antarctic Glaciation History 24 G. Russell Coope Kathy Licht Beryllium-10 92 Antarctic Sea Ice History, Late Quaternary 31 Jürg Beer Xavier Crosta Binge-Purge Cycles of Ice Sheet Dynamics 94 Archean Environments 34 Martin J. Siegert William H. Peck and John W. Valley Arctic Sea Ice 38 Bolide Impacts and Climate 96 Anne de Vernal Michael R. Rampino Arid Climates and Indicators 45 Bølling-Allerød Interstadial 100 Andrew Goudie Wim Z. Hoek vi CONTENTS

Borehole Climatology 103 Cordilleran Ice Sheet 206 Hugo Beltrami and Daniela Nitoiu John J. Clague

Carbon Cycle 107 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 211 Abraham Lerman Jürg Beer

Carbon Dioxide and Methane, Quaternary Variations 118 Cretaceous Warm Climates 213 Bernhard Stauffer Erle G. Kauffman and Claudia C. Johnson

Carbon Dioxide, Dissolved (Ocean) 123 Cretaceous/Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Impact, Richard E. Zeebe and Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow Climate Effects 217 Elisabetta Pierazzo Carbon Isotope Variations Over Geologic Time 128 Ján Veizer Cryosphere 221 Philippe Huybrechts Carbon Isotopes, Stable 133 Cyclic Sedimentation (Cyclothem) 226 Steven W. Leavitt Allen W. Archer Carbonate Compensation Depth 136 Dansgaard-Oeschger Cycles 229 Torsten Bickert Irene A. Mogensen Carbonates, Cool Water 138 Dating, Amino Acid Geochronology 233 Jonathan Clarke Gifford H. Miller Carbonates, Warm Water 143 Dating, Biostratigraphic Methods 237 Dan Bosence Peter M. Sadler Cenozoic Climate Change 148 Dating, Dendrochronology 239 James D. Wright Brendan M. Buckley Cirques 155 Dating, Fission-Tracks 247 Peter G. Knight John I. Garver CLAMP 156 Dating, Luminescence Techniques 249 Robert A. Spicer Glenn W. Berger CLIMAP 158 Dating, Magnetostratigraphy 252 James D. Hays Wout Krijgsman and C. G. Langereis Climate Change, Causes 164 Dating, Radiometric Methods 255 Thomas J. Crowley Chris M. Hall Climate Forcing 174 Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) 260 Andrew A. Lacis William W. Hay Climate Variability and Change, Last 1,000 Years 178 Deltaic Sediments, Climate Records 265 Michael E. Mann Steven L. Goodbred, Jr. Coal Beds, Origin and Climate 181 Dendroclimatology 269 C. Blaine Cecil and Sandra G. Neuzil Brendan M. Buckley Coastal Environments 183 Desert Varnish as a Paleoclimate Proxy 275 Robert W. Dalrymple and Kyungsik Choi Ronald I. Dorn Coccoliths 187 Deuterium, Deuterium Excess 278 Jeremy R. Young Gilles Delaygue COHMAP 188 Diamicton 278 Thompson Webb III John Menzies Continental Sediments 192 Diatoms 279 Marc S. Hendrix Amy Leventer Corals and Coral Reefs 198 Dinoflagellates 280 John E. N. Veron Anne de Vernal CONTENTS vii

Dole Effect 282 Glacial Isostasy 374 Georg Hoffmann Kurt Lambeck Drumlins 284 Glacial Megalakes 380 Peter G. Knight Victor R. Baker Duricrusts 284 Glacial Sediments 382 David J. Nash Douglas I. Benn Dust Transport, Quaternary 286 Glaciations, Pre-Quaternary 384 Karen E. Kohfeld and Ina Tegen Emmanuelle Arnaud and I. Peter Martini Early Paleozoic Climates (Cambrian-Devonian) 291 Glaciations, Quaternary 389 Arthur J. Boucot Shawn J. Marshall Earth Laws and Paleoclimatology 294 Glaciofluvial Sediments 394 Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) Douglas I. Benn and Vivien Gornitz Glaciomarine Sediments 395 Eccentricity 301 Kathy Licht Marie-France Loutre Glendonite/Ikaite 396 Eemian (Sangamonian) Interglacial 302 Ian P. Swainson Ulrich C. Müller “Greenhouse” (Warm) Climates 397 Electrical Conductivity 308 Darren R. Gröcke Kendrick Taylor Heat Transport, Oceanic and Atmospheric 407 Eolian Dust, Marine Sediments 308 Dan Seidov David K. Rea Heinrich Events 409 Eolian Sediments and Processes 312 Sidney Hemming Daniel R. Muhs History of Paleoclimatology 414 Eolianite 319 Rhodes W. Fairbridge David B. Loope (deceased)

Eskers 320 History of Paleoclimatology – Biographies 428 Peter G. Knight Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) and Vivien Gornitz Evaporites 321 Stefano Lugli Holocene Climates 438 Evolution and Climate Change 325 Neil Roberts David A. T. Harper Holocene Treeline Fluctuations 442 Faint Young Sun Paradox 333 Mel A. Reasoner and Willy Tinner James Farquhar Human Evolution and Climate Change 446 Flood Basalts: Climatic Implications 335 Gail M. Ashley Andrew D. Saunders Hypsithermal 451 Foraminifera 338 Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) Harry J. Dowsett Ice Cores, Antarctica and Greenland 453 Geochemical Proxies (Non-Isotopic) 341 Dominique Raynaud and Frédéric Parrenin Matthew J. Higginson Glacial Erratics 354 Ice Cores, Mountain Glaciers 457 Patrick M. Colgan Lonnie G. Thompson Glacial Eustasy 354 “Icehouse” (Cold) Climates 463 Stephen F. Pekar Paul K. Link Glacial Geomorphology 361 Ice-Rafted Debris (IRD) 471 John Menzies Julian A. Dowdeswell viii CONTENTS

Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) 473 Maunder Minimum 550 Manik Talwani Drew T. Shindell

Interstadials 477 Medieval Warm Period 551 Wim Z. Hoek Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) Iron and Climate Change 478 David Archer Mesozoic Climates 554 Gregory D. Price Isotope Fractionation 479 Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow and Richard E. Zeebe Messinian Salinity Crisis 559 Stefano Lugli Kames 483 Peter G. Knight Methane Hydrates, Carbon Cycling, and Environmental Change 560 Kettles 483 Gerard R. Dickens and Clayton Forswall Peter G. Knight Mid-Pliocene Warming 566 Lacustrine Sediments 485 Mark A. Chandler Bernd Zolitschka and Dirk Enters Millennial Climate Variability 568 Lake-Level Fluctuations 489 Gerard Bond (deceased) Mark B. Abbott and Lesleigh Anderson Mineral Indicators of Past Climates 573 Last Glacial Maximum 493 Vivien Gornitz David Q. Bowen Last Glacial Termination 495 Monsoons: Pre-Quaternary 583 Didier Paillard Pinxian Wang and Qianyu Li Late Paleozoic Paleoclimates 498 Monsoons, Quaternary 589 Anne Raymond and Christopher R. Scotese Anil K. Gupta Late Quaternary Megafloods 504 Moraines 594 Victor R. Baker Peter G. Knight Late Quaternary-Holocene Vegetation Modeling 507 Mountain Glaciers 595 Jed O. Kaplan Lonnie G. Thompson Laterite 514 Mountain Uplift and Climate Change 596 Michael Widdowson Douglas W. Burbank Laurentide Ice Sheet 517 Nearest-Living-Relative Method 607 Arthur S. Dyke Volker Mosbrugger Little Ice Age 520 Neogene Climates 609 Drew T. Shindell Carin Andersson Loess Deposits 522 Nitrogen Isotopes 612 Konstantin G. Dlussky Julian P. Sachs Marine Biogenic Sediments 525 North Atlantic Deep Water and Climate Change 614 Wolfgang H. Berger and Gerold Wefer Thomas M. Marchitto, Jr. Marine Carbon Geochemistry 533 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Records 619 David Archer Heidi M. Cullen Marine Clay Minerals 539 Obliquity 625 Alastair Ruffell Marie-France Loutre Mars: Water and Past Climates 540 Ocean Anoxic Events 626 Phillip R. Christensen Bradley Sageman Mass Extinctions: Role of Climate 547 Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) 630 Garland R. Upchurch, Jr. Joanne C. Reuss CONTENTS ix

Ocean Paleocirculation 634 Paleosols, Quaternary 752 Roger Francois Tatiana D. Morozova and Andrei A. Velichko

Ocean Paleoproductivity 644 Paleotemperatures and Proxy Reconstructions 757 Adina Paytan Thomas M. Cronin

Ocean Paleotemperatures 651 Paleotempestology, the Sedimentary Record of Intense Mara Weinelt Hurricanes 763 Jeffrey P. Donnelly Organic Geochemical Proxies 659 Palynology 766 Philip A. Meyers Margaret Kneller and Sarah Fowell Ostracodes 663 Patterned Ground 768 Thomas M. Cronin Matthew R. Bennett Outwash Plains 665 Periglacial Geomorphology 770 Peter G. Knight Brigitte Van Vliet-Lanoë

Oxygen Isotopes 666 Phosphorite 775 Gilles Delaygue Yehoshua Kolodny

PAGES 675 Phosphorus Cycle 780 Keith Alverson and Christoph Kull Gabriel M. Filippelli Pingos 783 Paleobotany 679 Matthew R. Bennett Elizabeth A. Kowalski and David L. Dilcher Plate Tectonics and Climate Change 784 Paleocean Modeling 683 Robert M. DeConto Matthew Huber Pleistocene Climates 798 Paleoceanography 690 David Q. Bowen Katrin J. Meissner, Alvaro Montenegro, and Chris Avis Pliocene Climates 804 Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 696 Alan M. Haywood Gavin A. Schmidt PMIP 813 Paleoclimate Modeling, Pre-Quaternary 700 Vivien Gornitz Christopher J. Poulsen Pollen Analysis 815 Paleoclimate Modeling, Quaternary 709 Margaret Kneller Robert J. Oglesby and Kirk A. Maasch Potassium-Argon/Argon-Argon Dating 823 Paleoclimate Proxies, an Introduction 716 Chris M. Hall Vivien Gornitz Precession, Climatic 825 Paleo-El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Records 721 Marie-France Loutre Michael K. Gagan Pre-Quaternary Milankovitch Cycles and Climate Paleogene Climates 728 Variability 826 Donald R. Prothero Paul E. Olsen and Jessica H. Whiteside Paleohydrology 733 Proglacial Lacustrine Sediments 835 Françoise Gasse Wibjörn Karlén Paleolimnology 738 Proterozoic Climates 836 Philip Barker Grant M. Young Paleo-Ocean pH 743 Quaternary Climate Transitions and Cycles 841 Martin R. Palmer Mark Maslin Paleo-Precipitation Indicators 746 Quaternary Vegetation Distribution 856 Paul A. Baker John Jack W. Williams Paleosols, Pre-Quaternary 748 Radiocarbon Dating 863 Steven G. Driese R. Ervin Taylor x CONTENTS

Radiolaria 869 Sun-Climate Connections 929 Adolfo Molina-Cruz (deceased) and Kjell R. Bjørklund Peter F. Almasi and Gerard Bond (deceased)

Red Beds 871 Tephrochronology 937 Nathan D. Sheldon Andrew J. Dugmore and Anthony Newton

Roches Moutonnées 873 The 8,200-Year BP Event 938 Matthew R. Bennett Allegra N. LeGrande

Sapropels 875 Thermohaline Circulation 943 Kay-Christian Emeis Andrew J. Weaver and Oleg A. Saenko

Scandinavian Ice Sheet 877 Tills and Tillites 948 Jan Mangerud Douglas I. Benn Time–Series Analysis of Paleoclimate Data 949 Sea Level Change, Last 250 Million Years 879 David J. Thomson Kenneth G. Miller Transfer Functions 959 Sea Level Change, Post-Glacial 887 Stephen Juggins Vivien Gornitz Triassic-Jurassic Climates 962 Sea Level Change, Quaternary 893 Gregory J. Retallack John M. Chappell Uranium-Series Dating 969 Sea Level Indicators 899 Yemane Asmerom Michael S. Kearney Varved Sediments 973 Sedimentary Indicators of Climate Change 902 Matti Saarnisto and Antti E. K. Ojala Joseph P. Smoot Volcanic Eruptions and Climate Change 976 Snowball Earth Hypothesis 907 Richard B. Stothers Grant M. Young SPECMAP 911 Weathering and Climate 981 Franck C. Bassinot Louis A. Derry Speleothems 916 Wisconsinan (Weichselian, Würm) Glaciation 986 Yemane Asmerom John T. Andrews Stable Isotope Analysis 918 Younger Dryas 993 Germán Mora Dorothy M. Peteet

Strontium Isotopes 923 Author Index 997 Ján Veizer Subject Index 999 Sulfur Isotopes 926 Harald Strauss and Ján Veizer Appendix 1049 Contributors

Mark B. Abbott John T. Andrews Department of Geology and Planetary Sciences Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research University of Pittsburgh University of Colorado 4107 O'Hara Street Boulder CO 80309–0450 Pittsburgh PA 15260–3332 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Allen W. Archer Peter F. Almasi Department of Geology Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) Kansas State University 102 Core Lab 108 Thompson Hall 61 Route 9W Manhattan KS 66506–3201 Palisades NY 10964 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] David Archer Keith Alverson Department of the Geophysical Sciences Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) University of Chicago IOC/UNESCO 5734 South Ellis Avenue 1 rue Miollis HGS 419 75732 Paris Cedex 15 Chicago IL 60637 France USA [email protected] [email protected]

Lesleigh Anderson Emmanuelle Arnaud U.S. Geological Survey Department of Land Resource Science Denver Federal Center University of Guelph Box 25046 Guelph ON N1G 2W1 Denver CO 80225 Canada USA [email protected] [email protected] Gail M. Ashley Carin Andersson Department of Geological Sciences Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research Rutgers University Allégaten 55 610 Taylor Road 5007 Bergen Piscataway NJ 08854 Norway USA [email protected] [email protected] xii CONTRIBUTORS

Yemane Asmerom Douglas I. Benn Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences School of Geography and Geosciences University of New Mexico University of St. Andrews, Fife 200 Yale Blvd. NE Scotland KY16 9AL Albuquerque NM 87131 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] Matthew R. Bennett Chris Avis School of Conservation Sciences School of Earth and Ocean Sciences Bournemouth University University of Victoria Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow Petch Building 168, 3800 Finnerty Road (Ring Road) Poole BH12 5BB Victoria BC V8W 3P6 UK Canada [email protected] [email protected] André Berger Victor R. Baker Université Catholique de Louvain Department of Hydrology and Water Resources Institut d'Astronomie et de Geophysique G. Lemaitre University of Arizona 2 Chemin du Cyclotron 1133 James E. Rogers Way 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve Tucson AZ 85721–0011 Belgium USA [email protected] [email protected] Glenn W. Berger Paul Baker Division of Earth and Ecosystem Sciences Division of Earth and Ocean Sciences Desert Research Institute Duke University 2215 Raggio Parkway Box 90227 – Reno NV 89512 Durham NC 27705 0227 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Wolfgang H. Berger Philip A. Barker Scripps Institution of Oceanography Lancaster Environment Centre University of California, San Diego Lancaster University La Jolla, CA 92093–0244 Bailrigg USA Lancaster LA1 4YQ [email protected] UK [email protected] Torsten Bickert Franck Bassinot MARUM (Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences) LSCE University of Bremen CNRS/CEA/UVSQ Leobener Str. 2 Domaine du CNRS (bat. 12) 28359 Bremen 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette Germany France [email protected] [email protected] Kjell R. Bjørklund Jürg Beer Natural History Museum (Geology) Surface Waters University of Oslo Eawag P.O. Box 1172 Blindern PO Box 611 0318 Oslo 8600 Dübendorf Norway Switzerland [email protected] [email protected] Gerard Bond (deceased) Hugo Beltrami Environmental Sciences Research Centre Dan Bosence St. Francis Xavier University Department of Geology 1 West Street Royal Holloway University of London Antigonish NS B2G 2W5 Egham Surrey TW20 0EX Canada UK [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Arthur J. Boucot Gwangju 500–757 Department of Zoology Korea Oregon State University [email protected] Corvallis OR 97331–2914 USA [email protected] Phillip R. Christensen Mars Space Flight Facility, School of Earth and Space David Q. Bowen Exploration School of Earth and Ocean Sciences Arizona State University Cardiff University Box 876305 – Cardiff Wales CF10 3YE Tempe AZ 85287 6305 UK USA [email protected] [email protected]

Brendan Buckley John Clague Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Department of Earth Sciences 61 Route 9W - PO Box 1000 – Simon Fraser University Palisades NY 10964 8000 8888 University Dr. USA Burnaby BC V5A 1S6 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Douglas W. Burbank Department of Geological Sciences University of California, Santa Barbara Jonathan Clarke Webb Hall 1031 Geoscience Australia Santa Barbara CA 93106–9630 P.O. Box 378 USA Canberra ACT 2601 [email protected] Australia [email protected] David C. Catling Department of Atmospheric Sciences University of Washington Patrick M. Colgan Box 351640 Department of Geology Seattle WA 98195–1640 Grand Valley State University USA Padnos Hall of Science [email protected] Allendale MI 49401 USA C. Blaine Cecil [email protected] U.S. Geological Survey 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Mail Stop 956 Reston VA 20192–0002 G. Russell Coope USA Department of Geography [email protected] Royal Holloway University of London Mark A. Chandler Egham Surrey TW20 0EX NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies UK Columbia University [email protected] 2880 Broadway New York NY 10025 Thomas M. Cronin USA U.S. Geological Survey [email protected] 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Mail Stop 926A Reston VA 20192–0002 John M. Chappell USA Research School of Earth Sciences [email protected] The Australian National University Canberra ACT 200 Australia Xavier Crosta [email protected] UMR-CNRS 5805 EPOC Université Bordeaux 1 Kyungsik Choi Avenue des Facultés Faculty of Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences 33405 Talence Cedex Chonnam National University France 300 Yongbong-dong, Buk-gu [email protected] xiv CONTRIBUTORS

Thomas J. Crowley David Dilcher Grant Institute, School of Geosciences Florida Museum of Natural History University of Edinburgh University of Florida King's Buildings 254 Dickinson Hall Edinburgh N/A EH9 3JW Museum Road & Newell Drive UK Gainesville FL 32611 [email protected] USA [email protected] Heidi M. Cullen Climate Expert Konstantin G. Dlussky The Weather Channel AXYS Environmental Consulting Ltd. 300 Interstate North Parkway 4208–97 St., Suite 203 Atlanta GA 30339 Edmonton AB T6E 5Z9 USA Canada [email protected] [email protected]

Robert W. Dalrymple Jeffrey P. Donnelly Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering Geology and Geophysics Department Queen's University Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Kingston ON K7L 3N6 MS 22 Canada Woods Hole MA 02543 [email protected] USA [email protected] Anne de Vernal Département des Sciences de la Terre et de l'Atmosphère Ronald I. Dorn Université du Québec à Montreal School of Geographical Sciences Québec QC H3C 3P8 Arizona State University Canada Tempe AZ 85287 [email protected] USA [email protected]

Robert M. DeConto Julian A. Dowdeswell Department of Geosciences Scott Polar Research Institute University of Massachusetts Cambridge University Morrill Science Center Lensfield Road Amherst MA 1002 Cambridge CB2 1ER USA UK [email protected] [email protected]

Gilles Delaygue Harry J. Dowsett CEREGE Eastern Earth Surface Processes Aix-Marseille Université U.S. Geological Survey Europôle de l'Arbois BP80 926A National Center 13545 Aix-en-Provence Reston VA 22192 France USA [email protected] [email protected]

Louis A. Derry Steven G. Driese Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department of Geology Cornell University Baylor University 4142 Snee Hall One Bear Place # 97354 Ithaca NY 14853 Waco TX 76798 USA USA [email protected] [email protected]

Gerard R. Dickens Mary L. Droser Department of Earth Sciences Department of Earth Sciences Rice University University of California 6100 Main Street 900 University Avenue Houston TX 77005 Riverside CA 92521 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xv

Andrew J. Dugmore Sarah Fowell Institute of Geography, School of Geosciences Department of Geology and Geophysics University of Edinburgh University of Alaska Drummond Street Box 755780 Edinburgh Scotland EH8 9XP Fairbanks AK 99775–5780 UK USA [email protected] [email protected]

Arthur S. Dyke Roger Francois Geological Society of Canada Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences 601 Booth Street University of British Columbia Ottawa ON K1A OE8 6339 Stores Road Canada Vancouver BC V6T 1Z4 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Kay Christian Emeis Institut für Biogeochemie und Meereschemie Michael K. Gagan Universität Hamburg Research School of Earth Sciences Bundesstr. 55 The Australian National University 20146 Hamburg Bldg 61, Mills Road Germany Canberra, ACT 0200 [email protected] Australia [email protected] Dirk Enters Environnements Dynamiques et Territoires de Montagne Robert R. Gaines (EDYTEM) Geology Department Université de Savoie Pomona College Technolac 185 East 6th Street 77376 Le Bourget du Lac Claremont CA 91711 France USA [email protected] [email protected]

Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) John I. Garver Department of Geology James Farquhar Union College ESSIC and Dept. of Geology 807 Union Ave University of Maryland Schenectady NY 12308–2311 College Park MD 20742 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Françoise Gasse Bruce Fegley, Jr. CEREGE Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Université d'Aix-Marseille III Washington University BP 80 Campus Box 1169 13545 Aix-en-Provence St. Louis MO 63130 France USA [email protected] [email protected] Steven L. Goodbred, Jr. Gabriel Filippelli Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Earth Sciences Vanderbilt University Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) VU Station B 351805 723 W. Michigan St. Nashville TN 37235 Indianapolis IN 46202–5132 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Ian D. Goodwin Clayton Forswall Climate Risk CoRE aci consulting Department of Physical Geography 1001 Mopac Circle, Suite 100 Building E7A Austin TX 78746 Macquarie University NSW 2109 USA Australia [email protected] [email protected] xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Vivien Gornitz Alan M. Haywood NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies British Antarctic Survey Columbia University Geological Sciences Division, High Cross 2880 Broadway Madingley Road New York NY 10025 Cambridge CB3 OET USA UK [email protected] [email protected]

Andrew Goudie Sidney Hemming St Cross College Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Oxford University 61 Route 9W - PO Box 1000 St Giles Palisades NY 10964–8000 Oxford OX1 3LZ USA UK [email protected] [email protected] Marc S. Hendrix Darren Gröcke Department of Geosciences Department of Earth Sciences The University of Montana Durham University 32 Campus Drive Durham DH1 3LE Missoula MT 59812 UK USA [email protected] [email protected]

Anil K. Gupta Matthew J. Higginson Department of Geology & Geophysics LGC Forensics Indian Institute of Technology F5 Culham Science Centre IIT Campus Abingdon OX14 3ED Kharagpur – 721302 W.B. UK India [email protected] [email protected] Wim Z. Hoek Chris M. Hall Department of Physical Geography Department of Geological Sciences University of Utrecht University of Michigan Heidelberglaan 2 1100 North University Av. 3584 CS Utrecht Ann Arbor MI 48109–1005 The Netherlands USA [email protected] [email protected] Georg Hoffmann David A. T. Harper Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement Natural History Museum (Geological Museum) l'Ormes des Merisiers, Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique University of Copenhagen Saclay Øster Voldgade 5–7 91191 Gif sur Yvette Cedex 1350 Copenhagen France Denmark [email protected] [email protected] Matthew Huber William W. Hay Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science Department of Geological Sciences Purdue University University of Colorado at Boulder 550 Stadium Mall Dr. 2200 Colorado Ave. West Lafayette IN 47907 Boulder CO 80309–0399 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] Philippe Huybrechts James D. Hays Departement Geografie Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Vrije Universiteit Brussel 61 Route 9W – PO Box 1000 Pleinlaan 2 Palisades NY 10964–8000 1050 Brussel USA Belgium [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Stan Jacobs Margaret Kneller Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory John Cabot University Columbia University Via della Lungara 233 Route 9W Rome 00165 Palisades NY 10964 Italy USA [email protected] [email protected] Peter G. Knight Claudia C. Johnson School of Physical and Geographical Sciences Department of Geological Sciences Keele University Indiana University William Smith Building 1001 E. 10th St. Keele Staffordshire ST5 5BG Bloomington IN 47405–1405 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] Karen E. Kohfeld Stephen Juggins School of Earth and Environmental Sciences School of Geography Queens College University of Newcastle upon Tyne 65–30 Kissena Blvd. Room: 4.14b, Daysh Building Flushing NY 11367 Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU USA UK [email protected] [email protected] Yehoshua Kolodny Jed Kaplan The Institute of Earth Sciences EPFL-ENAC-ECOS Edmond Safra Campus, Givat Ram Station 2 The Hebrew University 1015 Lausanne 91904 Jerusalem Switzerland Israel [email protected] [email protected]

Wibjörn Karlén Elizabeth A. Kowalski Department of Social and Economic Geography Department of Geology and Geological Engineering Uppsala University South Dakota School of Mines and Technology Box 513 501 E Saint Joseph Street 75 120 Uppsala Rapid City, SD 57701 Sweden USA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Erle G. Kauffman Department of Geological Sciences Wout Krijgsman Indiana University Paleomagnetic Laboratory, Faculty of Earth Sciences 1001 E. 10th St. Utrecht University Bloomington IN 47405–1403 Budapestlaan 17 USA 3584 CD Utrecht [email protected] The Netherlands [email protected] Alan J. Kaufman Department of Geology Christoph Kull University of Maryland OcCC (Swiss advisory body on climate change) GEOL #237 Schwarztorstrasse 9 College Park MD 20742–4211 3007 Bern USA Switzerland [email protected] [email protected]

Michael Kearney Andrew A. Lacis Department of Geography NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies University of Maryland Columbia University College Park MD 20742 2880 Broadway USA New York NY 10025 [email protected] USA [email protected] [email protected] xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Kurt Lambeck Paul K. Link Research School of Earth Sciences Department of Geosciences The Australian National University Idaho State University Canberra ACT 0200 921 S. 8th Avenue, Stop 8072 Australia Pocatello ID 83209 [email protected] USA [email protected] C. G. Langereis Paleomagnetic Laboratory ‘Fort Hoofddijk’ David B. Loope Utrecht University Department of Geosciences Budapestlaan 4 University of Nebraska 3584 CD Utrecht 214 Bessey Hall The Netherlands Lincoln NE 68588 [email protected] USA [email protected] Steven W. Leavitt Marie-France Loutre Laboratory of Tree Ring Research Institut d'Astronomie et de Geophysique G. Lemaitre University of Arizona Université Catholique de Louvain Tucson AZ 85721 2 chemin du Cyclotron USA 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve [email protected] Belgium [email protected] Allegra LeGrande NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies Stefano Lugli Columbia University Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra 2880 Broadway Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia New York NY 10025 Largo S. Eufemia 19 USA 41100-Modena [email protected] Italy [email protected] Abraham Lerman Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Kirk A. Maasch Northwestern University Climate Change Institute 1850 Campus Dr. University of Maine Evanston IL 60208 5790 BGSC USA Orono ME 04469–5790 [email protected] USA [email protected] Amy Leventer Department of Geology Jan Mangerud Colgate University Department of Geoscience and Bjerknes Centre for Climate 13 Oak Dr. Research Hamilton NY 13346 University of Bergen USA Allégt. 41 [email protected] 5007 Bergen Norway [email protected] Qianyu Li School of Ocean and Earth Sciences Michael E. Mann Tongji University Department of Meteorology Siping Rd. 1239 Pennsylvania State University Shanghai 200092 523 Walker Bldg. China University Park PA 16802 [email protected] USA [email protected] [email protected] Kathy Licht Thomas M. Marchitto, Jr. Department of Earth Sciences INSTAAR and Department of Geological Sciences Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis University of Colorado 723 West Michigan Street Campus Box 450 Indianapolis IN 46202–5132 Boulder CO 80309 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xix

Shawn J. Marshall Irene A. Mogensen Department of Geography Sortemosevej 207 University of Calgary 2730 Herlev 2500 University Dr. N.W. Denmark Calgary AB T2N 1N4 [email protected] Canada Danish Meteorological Institute [email protected] Lyngbyvej 100 2100 Copenhagen I. Peter Martini Denmark Department of Land Resource Science [email protected] University of Guelph [email protected] Guelph ON N1G 2W1 Canada A. Molina-Cruz (deceased) [email protected]

Mark Maslin Álvaro Montenegro Department of Geography School of Earth and Ocean Sciences University College London University of Victoria Pearson Building Petch Building 168, 3800 Finnerty Road (Ring Road) Gower Street Victoria BC V8W 3P6 London WC1E 6BT Canada UK [email protected] [email protected] German Mora Katrin J. Meissner Department of Geological and Atmospheric Sciences School of Earth and Ocean Sciences Iowa State University University of Victoria 12 Science I P.O. Box 3055, Stn CSC Ames IA 50011 Victoria BC V8W 3P6 USA Canada [email protected] [email protected] Vincent I. Morgan John Menzies Antarctic Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) Department of Earth Sciences and Geography University of Tasmania Brock University Private Bag 80 500 Glenridge Avenue Hobart Tasmania 7001 St. Catherines ON L2S 3A1 Australia Canada [email protected] [email protected] Tatiana Morozova Philip Meyers Laboratory of Evolutionary Geography Geological Sciences Russian Academy of Sciences The University of Michigan Staromonetny 29 1100 North University Avenue – 119017 Moscow Ann Arbor MI 48109 1005 Russia USA [email protected] [email protected]

Gifford H. Miller Volker Mosbrugger INSTAAR and Dept. of Geological Sciences Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum University of Colorado Senckenberganlage 25 Boulder CO 80309–0450 60325 Frankfurt USA Germany [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Kenneth Miller Department of Geological Sciences Daniel R. Muhs Wright Geological Laboratory U.S. Geological Survey Rutgers University Denver Federal Center 610 Taylor Road MS 980, Box 25046 Piscataway NJ 8854 Denver CO 80225–0046 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] xx CONTRIBUTORS

Ulrich C. Müller Mark Pagani Institute of Geology and Paleontology Department of Geology and Geophysics Johann Wolfgang Goethe University-Frankfurt Yale University Senckenberganlage 32–34 P.O. Box 208109 60054 Frankfurt New Haven CT 06520–8109 Germany USA [email protected] [email protected] Didier Paillard David J. Nash Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement School of Environment and Technology CEA-CNRS University of Brighton Centre d'Etudes de Saclay Lewes Road Orme des Merisiers Brighton BN2 4GJ 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette UK France [email protected] [email protected]

Sandra G. Neuzil Martin R. Palmer U.S. Geological Survey Southampton Oceanography Centre 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., MS 956 University of Southampton Reston VA 20192 European Way USA Southampton SO14 32H [email protected] UK [email protected] Anthony Newton Frédéric Parrenin Institute of Geography, School of Geosciences Laboratoire de Glaciologie et de Géophysique de l'Environnement University of Edinburgh CNRS BP 96 Drummond Street 38402 Grenoble, St. Martin d'Hères Cedex Edinburgh Scotland EH8 9XP France UK [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Adina Paytan Institute of Marine Sciences Daniela Nitoiu Earth & Marine Sciences Build. Institute of Geodynamics of the Romanian Academy University of California Santa Cruz 19–21 Jean-Louis Calderon St. 1156 High St. 020032 Bucharest–37 Santa Cruz CA 95064 Romania USA [email protected] [email protected] William H. Peck Robert Oglesby Department of Geology Department of Geosciences Colgate University University of Nebraska Lincoln 13 Oak Dr. 214 Bessey Hall Hamilton NY 13346 PO Box 880340 USA Lincoln NE 68588–0340 [email protected] USA [email protected] Stephen F. Pekar Queens College School of Earth and Environmental Sciences Antti Ojala 65–30 Kissena Blvd. Geological Survey of Finland Flushing, NY 11367 P.O. Box 96 USA 2150 Espoo [email protected] Finland [email protected] Dorothy M. Peteet NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies Paul E. Olsen Columbia University Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory 2880 Broadway 61 Route 9W New York NY 10025 Palisades NY 10964 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Elisabetta Pierazzo Mel A. Reasoner Planetary Science Institute (no address) 1700 E. Ft. Lowell, Suite 106 Tucson AZ 85719 Gregory J. Retallack USA Department of Geological Sciences [email protected] University of Oregon 1260 Franklin Boulevard Christopher J. Poulsen Eugene OR 97403–1272 Department of Geological Sciences USA University of Michigan [email protected] 1100 North University Ave. Ann Arbor MI 48109 JoAnne Reuss USA IODP Interim Planning Committee, Department of Geological [email protected] Sciences University of Michigan Gregory D. Price 425 E. University Ave. Department of Geology Ann Arbor MI 48109–1063 University of Plymouth USA Drake Circus [email protected] Plymouth PL4 8AA UK [email protected] Thomas H. Rich Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology Museum Victoria Donald R. Prothero P.O. Box 666 Department of Geology Melbourne Victoria 3001 Occidental College Australia 1600 Campus Road [email protected] Los Angeles CA 90041 USA [email protected] David H. Rind NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies 2880 Broadway Michael Rampino New York NY 10025 Earth and Environmental Science Program USA New York University [email protected] 1009 Silver Center 100 Washington Square East New York NY 10003–6688 Neil Roberts USA School of Geography [email protected] University of Plymouth Drake Circus Plymouth PL4 8AA Anne Raymond UK Department of Geology and Geophysics [email protected] Texas A and M University College Station TX 77843–3115 USA Alastair Ruffell [email protected] School of Geosciences, School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology Queens University Dominique Raynaud Belfast Northern Ireland BT7 1NN Laboratoire de Glaciologie et de Géophysique UK de l'Environnement CNRS BP 96 [email protected] 38402 Grenoble, St. Martin d'Hères Cedex France [email protected] Matti Saarnisto Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia Finnish Academy of Science and Letters David K. Rea Pääsihteeri, Secretary General 1232 Regency Court Mariankatu 5 Las Cruces NM 88007 00170 Helsinki USA Finland [email protected] [email protected] xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Julian Sachs Nathan D. Sheldon School of Oceanography & The Program on Climate Change Department of Geology University of Washington Royal Holloway University of London Ocean Sciences Building, Room 521 Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX Box 355351 UK Seattle WA 98195–5351 [email protected] USA [email protected] Drew T. Shindell NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies Peter Sadler 2880 Broadway Department of Earth Sciences New York NY 10025 University of California USA Riverside CA 92521 [email protected] USA [email protected] Martin J. Siegert School of Geosciences, Grant Institute Oleg A. Saenko University of Edinburgh Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis West Mains Road University of Victoria Edinburgh EH9 3JW P.O. Box 3055 UK Victoria BC V8W 3P6 [email protected] Canada [email protected] Bruce M. Simonson Geology Department Bradley Sageman Oberlin College Earth and Planetary Sciences 52 West Lorain Street Northwestern University Oberlin OH 44074–1052 1850 Campus Drive USA Evanston IL 60208 [email protected] USA [email protected] Joseph P. Smoot U.S. Geological Survey Andrew D. Saunders 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive MS 926A Department of Geology Reston VA 20192 University of Leicester USA Leicester LE1 7RH [email protected] UK [email protected] Robert A. Spicer Department of Earth Sciences Gavin A. Schmidt The Open University NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies Walton Hall 2880 Broadway Milton Keynes MK7 6AA New York NY 10025 UK USA [email protected] [email protected] Bernhard Stauffer Christopher R. Scotese Climate and Environmental Physics Department, Department of Geology Physics Institute University of Texas University of Bern Arlington TX 76012 Sidlerstrasse 5 USA 3012 Bern [email protected] Switzerland [email protected] Dan Seidov NOAA NODC/Ocean Climate Laboratory Richard Stothers SSMC-III, E/OC5, Room 4326 NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies 1315 East-West Highway 2880 Broadway Silver Spring, MD 20910 New York NY 10025 USA USA [email protected] [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Harald Strauss Willy Tinner Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und Museum Institute of Plant Sciences and Oeschger Centre for Climate Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster Change Research (OCCR) Corrensstraße 24 University of Bern 48149 Münster Altenbergrain 21 Germany 3013 Bern [email protected] Switzerland [email protected] Ian P. Swainson Canadian Neutron Beam Centre Garland R. Upchurch, Jr. Steacie Institute for Molecular Sciences Department of Biology National Research Council of Canada Texas State University Chalk River Laboratories 601 University Drive Chalk River ON K0J 1J0 San Marcos TX 78666 Canada USA [email protected] [email protected] Manik Talwani IODP-MI, Inc. John W. Valley #210, 815 Connecticut Av., NW Department of Geology and Geophysics Washington DC 20006 University of Wisconsin USA 1215 W Dayton St. [email protected] Madison WI 53706 USA Kendrick Taylor [email protected] Desert Research Institute 2215 Raggio Parkway Brigitte Van Vliet-Lanoë Reno NV 89512 UMR 6538 CNRS, Domaines Océaniques USA IUEM [email protected] 29280 Plouzané France R. Ervin Taylor [email protected] Radiocarbon Laboratory, Department of Anthropology University of California at Riverside Ján Veizer Watkins Hall 1303 A – Department of Earth Sciences Riverside CA 92521 0423 University of Ottawa USA Ottawa ON K1N 6N5 [email protected] Canada [email protected] [email protected] Ina Tegen Institute for Tropospheric Research Andrei A. Velichko Permoserstrasse 15 Laboratory of Evolutionary Geography 04318 Leipzig Russian Academy of Sciences Germany Staromonetny 29 [email protected] 119017 Moscow Russia Lonnie G. Thompson [email protected] Department of Geological Sciences, School of Earth Sciences Ohio State University John E. N. Veron 275 Mendenhall Laboratory, 125 S. Oval Mall Australian Institute of Marine Science Columbus OH 43210–1002 PMB 3 USA Townsville Queensland 4810 [email protected] Australia [email protected] David J. Thomson or Mathematics and Statistics Coral Reef Research Queen's University 10 Benalla Road 411 Jeffery Hall Oak Valley Kingston ON K7L 3N6 Townsville Queensland 4811 Canada Australia [email protected] [email protected] xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Patricia Vickers-Rich Milton Keynes MK7 6AA School of Geosciences UK Monash University [email protected] Clayton Victoria 3800 Australia John W. Williams [email protected] Department of Geography University of Wisconsin-Madison Pinxian Wang Rooms 421 or 213 Science Hall School of Ocean and Earth Sciences 550 North Park St. Tongji University Madison WI 53706–1404 Siping Rd. 1239 USA Shanghai 200092 [email protected] China [email protected] Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow Alfred Wegener Institut für Polar und Meeresforschung (AWI) Andrew J. Weaver Am Handelshafen 12 School of Earth and Ocean Sciences 27570 Bremerhaven University of Victoria Germany P.O. Box 3055 [email protected] Victoria BC V8W 3P6 Canada James D. Wright [email protected] Department of Geological Sciences Rutgers University, Wright-Reiman Labs Thompson Webb III 610 Taylor Rd. Department of Geological Sciences Piscataway NJ 08854–8066 Brown University USA 324 Brook Street, Box 1846 [email protected] Providence RI 2912 USA Grant M. Young [email protected] Department of Earth Sciences University of Western Ontario Gerold Wefer London ON N6A 5B7 General Geology – Marine Geology Canada University of Bremen [email protected] Marum, Leobener Straße 28359 Bremen Jeremy R. Young Germany Palaeontology Department [email protected] The Natural History Museum Cromwell Road Mara Weinelt London SW7 5BD Institut für Geowissenschaften UK University of Kiel [email protected] Ludwig Meyn Strasse 14 24118 Kiel Richard E. Zeebe Germany School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology [email protected] Department of Oceanography University of Hawaii, Manoa Jessica H. Whiteside 1000 Pope Road MSB 504 Geological Sciences Honolulu HI 96822 Brown University USA 324 Brook Street [email protected] Box 1846 Providence RI 02912 Bernd Zolitschka USA GEOPOLAR, Institute of Geography [email protected] University of Bremen Celciusstrasse FVG-M Michael Widdowson 28359 Bremen Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Germany The Open University [email protected] Walton Hall Preface

The growing levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases generated Encyclopedia of World Climatology, provides the reader with by anthropogenic activities are already beginning to affect the an entry point to the rapidly expanding field of paleoclimatol- Earth's climate, according to the latest report by the Intergovern- ogy. Highly interdisciplinary, paleoclimatology integrates infor- mental Panel on Climate Change, and concern is mounting over mation from a broad array of disciplines in the geosciences, potential adverse consequences to society. However, Earth's cli- spanning across stratigraphy, geomorphology, glaciology, paleoe- mate has shifted dramatically and frequently during the last few cology, paleobotany, isotope geochemistry, geochronology, and million years, alternating between ice ages, when vast glaciers geophysics, among others. The encyclopedia covers the entire covered Northern Europe and much of North America, and span of the Earth's climate history from the early Precambrian interglacials—warm periods much like today. Farther back in to the Little Ice Age, and also offers an interplanetary compari- geologic time, climates have differed even more from the pre- son with the contrasting climates of Mars and Venus in 230 infor- sent. Could human actions push the Earth's climate system into mative articles written by over 200 well known international an unstable mode, beyond the relatively mild oscillations of the experts. The climates of the past were the product of closely last few millennia? To fully understand the unusual changes of inter-connected processes that shaped the Earth's atmosphere, the 20th century and possible future trends, these need to be lithosphere, and biosphere. Therefore, the separation between placed in a longer-term context extending well beyond the period topics is somewhat arbitrary and a certain degree of overlap of instrumental records. Paleoclimatology—the study of climates is inevitable. However, since authors often approach similar of the past–may provide us with insights into the workings of the topics from differing perspectives, these differences can provide modern climate system. By reconstructing ancient climates using a fuller picture overall. The volume is abundantly illustrated with natural “archives” of environmental change recorded in trees, cor- line-drawings, black-white and color photographs. Articles are als, cave deposits, ice cores, lake and ocean sediments, and running arranged alphabetically, with extensive bibliographies and cross- computer models, paleoclimatologists can place bounds on past references. climate variability and help us anticipate possible future changes. The Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Envi- March 2008 ronments, a companion volume to the recently-published Vivien Gornitz Acknowledgements

This volume is offered in tribute to the memory of Rhodes W. colleagues, he investigated planetary alignments, their possible Fairbridge, Senior Editor of the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences effects on solar activity, and ultimately on Earth's paleoclimates. Series, who sadly passed away before this encyclopedia could While still controversial, a growing body of literature points to be completed. It was upon his recommendation and inspiration some solar influence on climate and one of the articles in this that this project was undertaken. Rhodes Fairbridge took a keen volume addresses this particular issue. His ability to see beyond interest in paleoclimatology, which ties together many aspects the minutiae of narrow specialties combined with an amazing of the geosciences. He wrote several articles especially for this memory served him well as senior series editor. He will be sorely encyclopedia, including a detailed history of paleoclimatology missed and fondly remembered. and “Earth Laws and Paleoclimatology”, which summarizes I thank the contributing authors for their efforts in bringing many of the ideas he had covered in his long and distinguished this Encyclopedia to fruition. Thanks are also extended to the career. He was way ahead of his time in his early acceptance of members of the Editorial Advisory Board for their helpful sug- Wegener's theory of continental drift, the role of orbital cycles gestions and recommendations. Appreciation is also expressed in climate change (i.e., the Milankovitch theory), solar influences to Ms. Eden Licardo, for her secretarial assistance, to Mr. José on climate, and recognition of general aridity during glacial per- Mendoza for graphics support, and to Dr. Cynthia Rosenzweig, iods. He was among the first to report the twentieth century rise in Head, Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia Univer- global sea level in the 1960s. One of the recurrent themes in sity and NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York, Rhodes’ many publications is the role of cyclical phenomena for her encouragement and understanding during this lengthy on all timescales. A 1961 symposium that he organized at undertaking. Columbia University was among the earliest to explore the connections between Earth cycles and paleoclimates. With his Vivien Gornitz