ENCYCLOPEDIA of PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS Volume Editor Vivien Gornitz is a Senior Research Scientist, Center for Climate Systems Research, Columbia University and NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies. She holds a B.A. from Barnard College and a Ph.D. from Columbia University. Her research interests include global sea level rise–past, present, and future, coastal hazards, climatic implications of land cover transformations, and planetary geology, including Mars. In addition to numerous scientific publications, she has edited Geology of the Planet Mars (Benchmark Papers in Geology, v. 48, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979) and has contributed articles to several of the encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. She was a Contributing Author for the IPCC in 1990, 1995, 2001, and 2007. Advisory Board Caspar Ammann Joseph Ortiz Climate and Global Dynamics Division–Paleoclimatology Department of Geology National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Kent State University Boulder, CO 80307 Kent, Ohio 44242-0001 USA USA Mark A. Chandler Linda Sohl 5018 Woodburn Drive Goddard Institute for Space Studies Madison, WI 53711 2880 Broadway USA New York, NY 10025 and USA Goddard Institute for Space Studies 2880 Broadway James D. Wright New York, NY 10025 Department of Geological Sciences USA Wright-Reiman Laboratories Rutgers University Anthony Hallam 610 Taylor Road, Piscataway School of Earth Sciences NJ 08854-8066 University of Birmingham USA Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT UK Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatol- ogists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line. About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than 8 volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Principal Marine Geologist with Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. and Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; Southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA. Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of PALEOCLIMATOLOGY AND ANCIENT ENVIRONMENTS edited by VIVIEN GORNITZ Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia University New York USA Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934597 ISBN: 978-1-4020-4551-6 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-4411-3 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-5197-5 Published by Springer PO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands Printed on acid-free paper Cover photo: Landforms – Heart of the Colorado Plateau: The Story Behind the Scenery (KC Publications, 1995). Photo reproduced courtesy of G. Ladd Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions. All Rights Reserved for Contributions on Coal Beds, Origin and Climate; Glendonite/Ikaite and Ostracodes © 2009 Springer ScienceþBusiness Media B.V. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Contents List of Contributors xi Astronomical Theory of Climate Change 51 André Berger Preface xxv Acknowledgements xxvii Atmospheric Circulation During the Last Glacial Maximum 57 Aerosol (Mineral) 1 David Rind Ina Tegen Atmospheric Evolution, Earth 61 Albedo Feedbacks 2 James Farquhar Andrew A. Lacis Atmospheric Evolution, Mars 66 Alkenones 4 David C. Catling Mark Pagani Ancient Cultures and Climate Change 6 Atmospheric Evolution, Venus 75 Vivien Gornitz Bruce Fegley, Jr. Animal Proxies, Invertebrates 10 Banded Iron Formations and the Early Atmosphere 85 Robert R. Gaines and Mary L. Droser Bruce M. Simonson and Alan J. Kaufman Animal Proxies – Vertebrates 13 Basal Ice 89 Thomas H. Rich and Patricia Vickers-Rich Peter G. Knight Antarctic Bottom Water and Climate Change 16 Beachrock 89 Stan Jacobs Ian D. Goodwin Antarctic Cold Reversal 22 Vincent I. Morgan Beetles as Quaternary and Late Tertiary Climate Indicators 90 Antarctic Glaciation History 24 G. Russell Coope Kathy Licht Beryllium-10 92 Antarctic Sea Ice History, Late Quaternary 31 Jürg Beer Xavier Crosta Binge-Purge Cycles of Ice Sheet Dynamics 94 Archean Environments 34 Martin J. Siegert William H. Peck and John W. Valley Arctic Sea Ice 38 Bolide Impacts and Climate 96 Anne de Vernal Michael R. Rampino Arid Climates and Indicators 45 Bølling-Allerød Interstadial 100 Andrew Goudie Wim Z. Hoek vi CONTENTS Borehole Climatology 103 Cordilleran Ice Sheet 206 Hugo Beltrami and Daniela Nitoiu John J. Clague Carbon Cycle 107 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 211 Abraham Lerman Jürg Beer Carbon Dioxide and Methane, Quaternary Variations 118 Cretaceous Warm Climates 213 Bernhard Stauffer Erle G. Kauffman and Claudia C. Johnson Carbon Dioxide, Dissolved (Ocean) 123 Cretaceous/Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Impact, Richard E. Zeebe and Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow Climate Effects 217 Elisabetta Pierazzo Carbon Isotope Variations Over Geologic Time 128 Ján Veizer Cryosphere 221 Philippe Huybrechts Carbon Isotopes, Stable 133 Cyclic Sedimentation (Cyclothem) 226 Steven W. Leavitt Allen W. Archer Carbonate Compensation Depth 136 Dansgaard-Oeschger Cycles 229 Torsten Bickert Irene A. Mogensen Carbonates, Cool Water 138 Dating, Amino Acid Geochronology 233 Jonathan Clarke Gifford H. Miller Carbonates, Warm Water 143 Dating, Biostratigraphic Methods 237 Dan Bosence Peter M. Sadler Cenozoic Climate Change 148 Dating, Dendrochronology 239 James D. Wright Brendan M. Buckley Cirques 155 Dating, Fission-Tracks 247 Peter G. Knight John I. Garver CLAMP 156 Dating, Luminescence Techniques 249 Robert A. Spicer Glenn W. Berger CLIMAP 158 Dating, Magnetostratigraphy 252 James D. Hays Wout Krijgsman and C. G. Langereis Climate Change, Causes 164 Dating, Radiometric Methods 255 Thomas J. Crowley Chris M. Hall Climate Forcing 174 Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) 260 Andrew A. Lacis William W. Hay Climate Variability and Change, Last 1,000 Years 178 Deltaic Sediments, Climate Records 265 Michael E. Mann Steven L. Goodbred, Jr. Coal Beds, Origin and Climate 181 Dendroclimatology 269 C. Blaine Cecil and Sandra G. Neuzil Brendan M. Buckley Coastal Environments 183 Desert Varnish as a Paleoclimate Proxy 275 Robert W. Dalrymple and Kyungsik Choi Ronald I. Dorn Coccoliths 187 Deuterium, Deuterium Excess 278 Jeremy R. Young Gilles Delaygue COHMAP 188 Diamicton 278 Thompson Webb III John Menzies Continental Sediments 192 Diatoms 279 Marc S. Hendrix Amy Leventer Corals and Coral Reefs 198 Dinoflagellates 280 John E. N. Veron Anne de Vernal CONTENTS vii Dole Effect 282 Glacial Isostasy 374 Georg Hoffmann Kurt Lambeck Drumlins 284 Glacial Megalakes 380 Peter G. Knight Victor R. Baker Duricrusts 284 Glacial Sediments 382 David J. Nash Douglas I. Benn Dust Transport, Quaternary 286 Glaciations, Pre-Quaternary 384 Karen E. Kohfeld and Ina Tegen Emmanuelle Arnaud and I. Peter Martini Early Paleozoic Climates (Cambrian-Devonian) 291 Glaciations, Quaternary 389 Arthur J. Boucot Shawn J. Marshall Earth Laws and Paleoclimatology 294 Glaciofluvial Sediments 394 Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) Douglas I. Benn and Vivien Gornitz Glaciomarine Sediments 395 Eccentricity 301 Kathy Licht Marie-France Loutre Glendonite/Ikaite 396 Eemian (Sangamonian) Interglacial 302 Ian P. Swainson Ulrich C. Müller