Multiculturalism Is Already a Real Fact in Universities

Celebrating Geographical Diversity

Proceedings of the HERODOT Conference in Ayvalik, Turkey

28-31 May 2009

Edited by

Karl Donert Yilmaz Ari Maria Attard Gerry O’Reilly Daneila Schmeinck

Conference organiser: Yilmaz Ari Cover design: Sebastian Tyszkowski

Published by:

The Herodot Thematic Network e-mail: [email protected] http://www.herodot.net

In collaboration with EUROGEO, Liverpool Hope University and Balikesir University

The HERODOT Project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This Publication reflects the views only those who participated in the network conference, the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

1 Contents

Section 1: Cultural Diversity 4 Diversity and Symbolism of the Cultural Patrimony of the Aranjuez Royal Palace 4 (Spain) Geographic Diversity from an Artistic Perspective 11 Ethnic Diversity and its importance for the Vojvodina Region 17 Cultural Diversity and Nature: Nature conservation at Kazdagi National Park, Turkey 24 Images are coloured words in a multi-coloured world 30

Section 2: Educational Diversity 37 Windows on the World: Global Citizenship in Dutch Education 37 Using Problem-Based Learning to teach retailing and consumption geographies 42 Diversity of didactic approaches in teaching Geography 51 Reading Landscapes – Identity and Citizenship Issues: discovered by students on a 58 fieldwork visit to Belfast Becoming Geographers – promoting skills and citizenship in undergraduate fieldwork 63 Geography teacher quality and effectiveness: Lower Secondary School Students’ points 69 of view Scales of European Citizenship: how young European students see their future 75 Global Climate Change Education in Turkey 82 Do Polish Universities value Geography in the 21st Century 87 A Case for Geography and English Integrated Studies 93 Environmental study of landscape dynamics 99 Exploiting Research-based learning Resources Under the new Geography Curriculum in 104 China Place of the interactive whiteboard in higher education of the Polish educational system 109 The Role of Geography in the Primary Schools curriculum: Example of Turkey 113

Section 3: Environmental Diversity 119 Possibilities for Environmental Education at the Department of Geography 119 The role of students as change agents in identifying perceived barriers and gateways to 125 achieving sustainability at a UK university Between Fear and Fascination: An empirical Study on Risk Perception concerning 133 Global Warming Natural Resources and Education for Sustainable Development 138 The Influence of Short-Term Environmental Education on Graduate Students: an 144 example from Kaz Dagi National Park, Turkey Shades of forested landscape in a megacity of developing world: synthesising structural 150 and functional patterns Geography of Energy in the higher education – the point of view of young geographers 155

Section 4: Geographical Diversity 161 Austria and Turkey: their burden of histories 161 Consumption and City Fragmentation 168 Making Representations of Diversity in Vilnius – Capital of the most peripheral central 176 region in Europe Indicators of sustainable urban development: A review of urban regeneration projects in 183 Karachi, Pakistan Diverse Approaches to the Importance of Geography: the Death of Geography or 188

2 Geography Matters in the Information Age! Field Project: Crossing the Czech and Austrian Border 194 On the origins of cities in the Near East and their implications today 201 Cross-Border Co-operationbetween Bulgaria and Turkey (Cultural and and Historical 209 Heritage Diversity – Opportunities for Tourism) Parallels in nature and culture diversity of the European and Asian Southern Peninsulas 212 Regional Development and Spatial Planning in Bulgaria: geographical perspectives 219 The Main GeotourIsm Resources of Turkey 225 Celebrating Linguistic Diversity or accepting an `English-Only’ Europe? 232 Turkish Political History and Geographical Context 240 Water Reservoir Management and Nature Reserve Functioning – Jeziorsko Reservoir 246 (Central Poland) A New Proposal for Environmental Safeguarding of the Coastal Zone 252 The Spatial Dimension of Human-Wildlife Conflicts – Discoveries of New Animal 255 Geography

Section 5: Geotechnological Diversity 264 Practical Aspects of Project Based Interdisciplinary Teaching with GIS 264 Diversity of approaches to using geoinformatics in public education: the case of 269 Slovenia iGuess: Introducing GIS Use in Education in Several Subjects 275 GIS In Pre-Vocational Secondary Education 281 Teaching a Progression of Courses in Geographic Information Science at Higher 285 Education Institutions IT to promote Europe in Primary School 290 Geoinformation support of derived mapping based on digital terrain model 296 Utilization of GIS in mediaeval archaeology and historical geography 304 A Framework to Manage the Time Dimension of GIS 308 The Use of GIS and Remote Sensing as Information Support for Landscape 314 Management Dynamic Data Structures for Geographic Data 324 Digital:earth:at – Centre for Teaching and Learning Geography and Geoinformatics 329

3 Section 1: Cultural Diversity

Diversity and Symbolism of the Cultural Patrimony of the Aranjuez Royal Palace (Spain)1

Mª del Carmen Mínguez García Department of Human Geography Complutense University of Madrid [email protected]

Abstract Any landscape is in itself a manifestation or a celebration of geographical diversity. But, in countries like ours, marked by a strong humanization, landscapes are even more valuable. These landscapes become a great subject of study and not just for physical geographers, but also for human geographers. This combination of environment and humankind, throughout History, has not been as successfully implemented everywhere. And that is why we have decided to concentrate and analyze the landscaping surrounding the Aranjuez Royal Place. It is a place that perfectly represents a model that is constant in most European countries, where manmade construction presides over nature. As a result of this, there are multiple orchards, gardens and hedges around the palace, and also a very peculiar baroque town. These particular conditions have given the city of Aranjuez the honour of being included in the World Heritage List by UNESCO. This landmark, celebrated in 2001, has been a turning point on the way this palace has been perceived and studied. The different elements that are part of the landscape have been interpreted in order to understand its symbolism and are now also considered essential part of the Spanish national heritage.

Key words: Landscape, Cultural, symbolism, patrimony, UNESCO

Introduction

In recent years geographers have learned to use the landscape of an area to understand the history and culture of a place, not only at a specific moment in history but over an extensive period of time when it was designed, transformed and consolidated; for us the landscape is capable of transmitting intellectual, cultural and artistic information (Ortega, 1987:118-119), since it is the result of the combination of natural surroundings and human influence. In order to apply this dual analysis of the landscape I have chosen the Royal Site of Aranjuez, located in the Madrid Region, Spain, since it was the place chosen by the Spanish monarchs to install one of their residences in 1171. There is a distinguished physical landscape in Aranjuez marked by the joining of the Tajo and Jarama rivers, the first of which runs through some thirty kilometres of this territory. In addition, this fluvial presence has been crucial in the shaping of the agricultural lands which are dominated by nutrient-rich clay soils, excellent for growing a variety of crops (Gómez Mendoza et al. 1999). In the second place this is a strongly humanized landscape with several historic landmarks, most noteworthy of which is the Ilustración (s. XVIII); and it has been exactly this human intervention which has shaped

1 This call forms part of the Recent dynamics and strategies of intervention in national heritage destinations research project. Ministry of Education and Science. I+D+I (2004-2007) National Plan. Reference: SEJ2006-10898/GEOG. Director: M.A. Troitiño Vinuesa.

4 the landscape over nine centuries, causing it to be transformed in conjunction with the changes of society creating symbolic spaces.

In consideration, of all this the Royal Site of Aranjuez is a palimpsest in which a variety of elements come together to create a geographic reality, with which not only do its inhabitants identify, but with which we should all identify since it is ranked as a Cultural Landscape on the world Heritage List, as it satisfies the following criteria2: Criterion ii: Aranjuez represents the coming together of diverse cultural influences to create a cultural landscape that had a formative influence on further developments in this field, and criterion iv: The complex designed cultural landscape of Aranjuez, derived from a variety of sources, mark a seminal stage in the development of landscape design.

The fact that it was awarded this ranking pays tribute to a universal value, that comes from the balance between culture and nature, but it also demonstrates a commitment that all institutions should have to conserving the landscape, which should not be viewed as a burden for the local government, but rather it should be taken as an element that foments development so as to convert it into a local treasure which can attract tourism. Because of all this it is essential to understand and appreciate the landscape and territorial characteristics of this place.

Methodology for the analysis of the landscape diversity of Aranjuez

The territory is of great importance in the study of the environmental and landscape dimensions of Aranjuez (Comunidad de Madrid and al, 2001). To research at a deeper level an exhaustive study has been carried out which has categorized the Territorial and Landscape Units, which have been recorded on separate reports, which in addition to aiding comprehension and interpretation of the territory, facilitate the understanding of many processes and problems. This is a tool that has up until now been used primarily in the field of Physical Geography and in Territorial Planning, and which presents a unique approach and methodology for research to discover the integral essence of the landscape (Mínguez, 2008).

The Landscape and Territorial Units have been analysed separately taking into account their problems and their physiognomic, natural, socioeconomic and dynamic characteristics, with two scales of analysis. The first, a minor one, which permits a more general approach to the natural elements, and the other, which gives results of greater detail that, facilitates the study of the Landscape Units. Each of the landscape units that come from this study refer to a specific place, which is unique due to the singular combination of its human and natural aspects as well as the criteria followed for its definition (topography, litho logy and types of soils and its inhabitants, functional and structural elements like the property of the land, exploitation systems, and the type of occupation) (Mínguez, 2008).

The structure of these documents reflects different contents according to whether they refer to the Territorial Units, or the Landscape ones. In the first ones, of a total of five, a variety of urban, historic and physical (relief, vegetation, human presence) traits are identified. In each one a series of Landscape Units are identified which total thirteen which are the result of a combination of its uses, functions, urban structures, natural surroundings, land exploitation and their repercussions on the environment (Troitiño et al, 1999). To create their content,

2 http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1044

5 environmental guides, state, preservation and protective plans which have been developed and the Declaration file from the UNESCO (2000) were employed.

The diverse landscape of Aranjuez

It is impossible to talk about just one landscape in the Royal Site of Aranjuez, since there are numerous and varied natural landscapes (from those that are created by the rivers to the rolling hills to the dry non-irrigated lands) and places of more dense human activity (baroque city, gardens, industrial areas, modern urban centres etc). So this area is defined by strong contrasts in the landscape and its environmental quality (Brandis and del Río, 2000). From all of them I have selected five because they are the most representative and have been included in the World Heritage List by UNESCO.

The groves and the historic gardens. The location of Aranjuez next to the river, and more specifically at the union of the Tajo river with one of its main effluents, the Jarama river, corresponds to a very extensive geographic model and which is held together by the presence of water and by the richness of its soils, which are more fertile on the flood basins. But this location also comes with disadvantages related to the force of the rivers during floods, etc. To regulate this, the cities which are affected by these conditions develop a series of engineering interventions, which modify the landscape, with the intention of domesticating the waters; so, retention dikes are created (like the one dividing these groves), bridges, canalizations, etc. These groves and historic gardens were born from the attempt to dominate natural systems, by altering water flows and transforming riverside forests into irrigated agricultural land (Figure nº 1). This is the result of a planned territorial organisation model implemented from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.

This is characterised by a series of wide streets, flanked by three rows of eleven different species of trees, of which over thirty kilometres are still preserved today. This geometric plot was designed to aesthetically enhance the area, but later, as it was an area used for growing crops, it was used to gain access to these areas and to separate them at the same time. Later they were used as recreational zones for walking and strolling since they were cool Figure 1: Lemus street, one of de most beautiful of and pleasant and had wonderful Aranjuez's groves. views. With this exclusive model of the Royal Site of Aranjuez one of the primary objectives of the Ilustración was to demonstrate the power man can have over nature (Mínguez, 2007).

Today despite being a unique and beautiful landscape its symbolic value has decreased, since it is only known to the inhabitants of Aranjuez, who use the groves as a place of leisure and

6 recreation. For now the efforts over the past five years to promote this area, to outside tourists, have been fruitless despite the fact that it has a great potential to be used to for horseback riding routes, walking and cycling trails, which would help to realize the true purpose of a Royal Site. So for all of those not from Aranjuez it lacks any symbolic value.

The Tajo and Jarama plains In close relation to the previous landscape we find the plains landscape, located on the floodplains of the aforementioned rivers and the terraces and valley bottoms, with a surface area of some 900 hectares. This is an agricultural area that was designed in the era of Felipe II, and later expanded by the Bourbon kings, who attempted to achieve harmony on the Aranjuez lands through the use of vegetation. They have garnered a great importance in Aranjuez because during the reign of Carlos III, they became very relevant as they were turned into laboratories in which agronomic exploitation models, of the era were verified which converted them into an experimental field where phisiocratic, agricultural, livestock, scientific and social ideas were tested and verified. This served to activate progress in this area from a scholarly point of view (Mínguez, 2007). Not only were the fertile plains used to experiment with the basic Mediterranean trilogy (vine crops, olive trees and grain production), but in addition an area was dedicated to the raising of livestock and horses. It was created by the Royal Farmhouse of San Isidro, where the necessary facilities were built for processing and storage (storerooms, mills, oil and wine presses, etc). These buildings still stand today and they enrich and diversify the patrimony of this Royal Site. Thanks to all of this Aranjuez was converted into a model city that represented the philosophy of the Ilustración (18th century).

The Historic Gardens. These gardens are an essential element of great value in the Royal Site system; even more so in Aranjuez where they take on a special importance because of their aesthetic dimensions and characteristics, which makes them the most symbolic areas, for inhabitants as well as for visitors. There are a total of six gardens in Aranjuez located in the Palace surroundings, four of which border the North and East perimeters (the King and the Queen’s, the Parterre area – Fiure nº2- and the Isla area –Figure nº 4-), whereas the other two, (the Prince –Figure nº 3- and that of Isabel II), are isolated from the Palace, from the other gardens and from each other. The first ones, because of their proximity to the Palace, have been the King’s gardens, while the other two, especially the Prince’s, have been gardens of the Court. All of them, as does the Palace, transport us to a different era and have become the icon of the 18th century courtesan society. Centuries later they perfectly reflect the role that this place has had as a recreational area.

The presence of the river is constant in almost all of them, in such a way that it allows the natural landscape of the plains to melt together with that of the gardens, creating an environment in which nature is blended with the domesticated world such as the agricultural plains, gardens and rural areas.

The garden model that has been developed here is similar to those designed for the Versailles Palace, where there are essentially two types: the French style and the English style. The first of these in the case of Aranjuez is called the Garden of Parterre and is of modest dimensions in comparison to the Le Notre garden of Versailles (Figure nº 2). The second type corresponds to the Garden of the Prince (Figure nº 3), which in reality is a juxtaposition of a dozen gardens in which the cultural contradictions of the time and the tastes of successive monarchs are reflected. For this reason it has no one singular style but rather a mixture of the canons of the

7 Muslim, Italian, Oriental, Flamenco and French gardens (Añón and Luengo Añón, 2003 and Martínez, 1982).

Figure 2 (top). Parterre Garden Figure 3 (top right). Garden of the Prince Figure 4 (bottom right). Garden of the Isla

8 In the present activities of various natures are held in each so they are used for botanical, historical, landscape and artistic research. In addition cultural activities are held such as guided tours, concerts, theatre performances, etc. But walks and recreation are the most common activity in these highly sensitive environs.

3.4 The Monumental Collection of Historic Buildings. Is the most emblematic part of this Site, since it has a great historical artistic and cultural significance, as it contains the primary architectonic heritage including the palace, the gardens, the houses of the Court, the urban areas with access to the palace and the city centre. The last of these was designed by Bonavía and has an incalculable urban value, even though it goes largely unnoticed by the majority of visitors to Aranjuez given that the layout is more difficult to differentiate and to enjoy than the other architectural elements. This baroque city has a geometric design in which straight lines, perspective, uniformity and the historic nature of its buildings and open spaces are predominant. For its design the Palace, the adjoining houses and the pre-existing path system was taken as its point of reference. The model that was implemented in Versailles of Trident or “The Goose Leg”, which divides the layout in three great axis (Infantas streets, Prince Street and Queen Street) which in both cities begin at the Palace. Regular blocks are constructed through the rest of the city whose houses have, along with big interior patios, a large homogeneity with respect to the facades, heights, roofs and materials (Figure nº 5). Using this urban model the population is divided in two sectors separated by the San Antonio Square, which isolates the Palatine city from the Courtesan (Mínguez, 2007).

Figure 5: Panoramic of Aranjuez's historical city. After it, they find the groves (zone with trees) and finally the hilly area.

The historic complex is made up of a total of eighteen buildings of a monumental nature and, to these must be added the Royal Palace, emblem of this city and symbol of power. It is from a period of history associated with the Bourbon dynasty, which culminated in the Mutiny of Aranjuez during which the people claimed absolute power in 1808. Lastly a fifth type of landscape deserves mention, despite not being granted special recognition by UNESCO, because of its large presence in the area as well as the fact that it is a dry and poor landscape. It is part of the hilly area which comes into contact with the Ocaña Plateau. Its location in an area where the Ocaña plateau and the Agricultural fields of the Tajo river give rise to the mountainous country composed of gypsum and quartz covered by a typically sparse vegetation of shrubs and bushes.

9 Conclusions

Royal Sites are not simply palaces and gardens built near a capital of a European State. They are a complex of architectural, urban, natural and topographic elements of great importance, made up of a palatial residence and an urban nucleus, formed by civil and religious structures. They are located in municipalities close to the capital, where the Court resides at the time of the planning and construction (Calatrava Escobar, 2005). Let it suffice to say that they are urban and natural systems which are not seen as such. Since 2005 various professors from the Human Geography Department at the Universidad Complutense have wanted to transmit this complex and enriching image of a place that is extremely well known by the people living in the capital, albeit their understanding and appreciation is incomplete. For this reason, we travel to Aranjuez and to another Royal Site, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, with History students to show them Historic Geography and, also with secondary teachers, to whom we want to give a vision which is not the typically tourist one, but rather a larger global understanding of how Aranjuez fits into and how it has shaped its natural surroundings. This way they can conduct more complete visits with their students and they can know how to read history and geography in the landscape.

References Añón Feliú, C y Luengo Añón, M (2003), Jardines en España, SEEI y Lunwerg Eds. Brandis, D y del Río, I (2000), Los paisajes y los ambientes de un territorio singular. La Alambra de Granada, Anales de la Geografía de la Universidad Complutense, 20, 333-348 Calatraba Escobar, (2005), Turismo de masas y patrimonio histórico y arquitectónico: algunas reflexiones sobre el caso de Granada in Euziere, P and Madani, L (eds.), Vès Rencontres Méditerranéennes du Tourisme. Grasse, Francia, 136-141. Comunidad de Madrid, Ilmo. Ayuntamiento del Real Sitio y Villa de Aranjuez, Patrimonio Nacional (2001), Aranjuez “Paisaje Cultural”. Report para la propuesta de la inclusión en la lista Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO. Gómez Mendoza, J (dir), Mata Olmo, R, Sanz Herraiz, C, Galiana Martín, L, Manuel Valdis, C. M, Molina Holgado, P (1999), Los paisajes de Madrid: naturaleza y medio rural. Alianza Editorial y Fundación Caja Madrid. Martínez Correche, C. (1982), Jardines de Aranjuez II: Jardín del Príncipe, Reales Sitios, 73, 21-28 Mínguez García, M.C (2007), Patrimonio Cultural y Turismo en los Reales Sitios de la Comunidad de Madrid y su implicación en el territorio, Ph.D. Thesis, Madrid: Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Mínguez García, M.C (2008), Metodología para el estudio del paisaje del Real Sitio de Aranjuez, in Rivera, J (ed), V. Congreso internacional Restaurar la memoria: patrimonio y territorio, ARPA, Consejería de Cultura y Turismo de la Junta de Castilla y León, 1037-1045 Ortega Cantera, N (1987), Geografía y cultura, Alianza Universidad. Troitiño, M.A. (dir); Brandis, D; del Río, I, Calle, M de la; Cortés, T; García, M; Gutiérrez, J; Martín, F. (1999), Estudio para la Revisión del Plan Especial de la Alambra y Alijares. Documento de Síntesis y Diagnóstico, Patronato de la Alambra y Generalife.

10 Geographic Diversity from an Artistic Perspective Travel journals and reflections. Contributions by students studying for a degree in Fine Arts at the C.E.S. Felipe II in Aranjuez, Complutense University of Madrid

María Jesús Abad Tejerina PhD Fine Arts C.E.S. Felipe II de Aranjuez Universidad Complutense de Madrid [email protected]

Abstract One of the objectives in higher education in Fine Arts is to provide students with the creative tools they need to organise their creative thoughts, focusing on their personal projects. One of the stimuli is the journey and the observation of landscape and human geographic diversity. We encourage the tradition of keeping travel journals, which serve as a source of inspiration and as a catalyst for the short, medium or long term projects. In this article the observations and conclusions of a group of students from the “Idea, Concept and Process in Artistic Creation” class will be presented. They were asked to do an introspection on the subject. The study group looked at their travel journals to find traces which led to shows or pages which constitute a final play.

Keywords: Fine Arts, Artist Trip Journals, Geographical Diversity, Higher Education.

Fine Art Studies

The primary objective of a Fine Arts degree is to prepare future specialists in visual imagery. Contrary to popular belief the goal is not to create artists. This is a misconception about this degree, however we make the assumption that when students enrol in this major course they are already artists and they simply need to develop the tools so that they can carry out their work. Those students who enrol thinking they are artists but discover otherwise during their studies will obtain the necessary preparation for a professional career, access to research or a social position such as a specialist in image arts.

The course “Idea, Concept and Process in Artistic Creation” This course was chosen because: 1. It is a second cycle course (4th year of the degree) when the student has already chosen a specialty. The options for specialties are: Painting, Sculpture, Design, Engraving and Image Arts. 2. Information was available. 3. Students were accessibility.

This is an annual course in which has 15-20 students enrolled. It is worth 24 credits, meets bi-weekly and it is divided into three different foci: 1. Syntactic focus: to do exercises directly related to the subject such as photography, video, design, computer graphics and mixed systems. 2. Semantic focus: students are taught how to generate and plan ideas, which deal with theoretical products related to today’s culture. 3. Pragmatic focus: will encompass the basic nucleus of theoretical knowledge that the students can use to shape their professional futures.

11 This course gives equal attention to practical and theoretical applications. It’s important to note the difference between the theoretical and the practical components of the course.

Taxonomy of Images1

In order to organise the visual discourse in the work and theoretical areas we chose subjects that we thought were the most simple and practical so that students can experience and get to know everything that has been done throughout the history of images independent of the symbolism that they might have. This taxonomy that we published in 2006 serves as a reference to put into perspective the subject that we’re covering: 1st. Body: human and animal 2nd. Landscape: natural and architectonic 3rd. Still life and vestments 4th. Machines and man-made devices 5th. Abstract ideas: geometry and physical relationships 6th. Graphs: signs and letters We can note that natural and architectonic landscape has been placed second, immediately after the human and animal body, the great fortitude of occidental art. Landscape constitutes a reference in traditional art as well as in today’s art panorama.

Natural Landscape, Architectonic Landscape

We consider any portion of the earth observed from an artistic perspective to be “landscape” as it is related to the idea of art: painting, drawing, and engravings… Until recently photography was not included in the afore-mentioned techniques but with theoretical contributions2 and its incorporation as a rightful member in today’s art world we can include it in the curriculum with no fear of raising any controversy.

Landscape is a constant in occidental as well as in oriental art. It represents our identity, our diversity, the memory of the place to which we belong or the reminder of what we saw. We often see “Lost paradise” or metaphorically the emotional situation of human beings represented, whether it be directly or unconsciously. Classic art used it for decorative purposes and the Renaissance converted it into the main focus3 where it was used as the backdrop for other subjects, and those backdrops, which were usually invented, were a way of “adorning” and “giving a certain feeling” to the painting.

Landscape did not attain its independence as a genre until the XVIII century when El Canaletto and Guardi paved the way for landscape artists. It acquired the metaphorical dimension of representing human emotional states in the baroque era, especially with Turner and years later with Impressionism. Visual representation received a dramatic contribution with the arrival of photography- painters were no longer necessary to accurately depict a scene and act as the collective memory- painting was forced to occupy another role. It had to do a 360º turn and represent the emotion of contemplation and it did this by using feeling and

1 En: ABAD TEJERINA, M.J. Y MORENO SAÉZ, M.C., (2006) Cultura Icónica desde la Perspectiva Occidenta (Iconic culture from the Occidental Perspective)l.. en Annali dell’Università di Ferrara. ISBN: 978 88 6087 065 8. Casa Editrice Le Lettere 2 Jhon Berger, Susan Sontag, Joan Fontcuberta among other theoriticians. 3 For example Piero Della Francesca

12 experience, what is known as “open-air painting” whose main nucleus is made up of French lead by Renoir, Mane, Monet.

With the picture revolution afoot a new independence and liberty are born to make landscape more than just a simple representation of reality but rather all the creativity that the artist can transmit to the observer. The architectural representation is linked to that of the landscape. Everything that happens on the ground on which we walk is represented in paintings, everything natural-mountains, trees, rivers, oceans…-or everything that is built, destroyed by man or nature-buildings, bridges, ruins. Architectural representation can be viewed as a sub- genre within landscape. Currently, together with traditional representations, other discourses have been organised of which we’d like to highlight one of the strongest of our era: the little personal stories. In addition it’s worth noting the feminine look or the inclusion of weather in artistic language especially when photography is used as the means of portrayal.

Other noteworthy topics are those linked to the identity of a place (Photographs by Martin Parr: Parking Places in different countries), social critiques (Norfolk: cities after war and ruins as a metaphor), structures of power (Jaquelin Hassik: tables of power). There are many artists who speak about the world, society, about their own little stories and use the natural or architectural landscape as a genre to illustrate their visions.

The artistic thought that underlies the contemplation of architecture is more complex than one would be lead to believe. For an artist, architecture is something that cannot be completely explained, it is always seen from a certain point of view: from the inside o from the outside and always just a part, never in its totality. The architecture that we see is just “the tip of the iceberg” and that’s why architectural representation always presents an enigma to be solved, thus its intrigue and its complexity.

Diversity as a Stimulus for Creation

The clash with other realities, that is to say, the experience of diversity often caused by a break with daily routines related to “the journey” moves the artist’s mind to observe scenes with a heightened curiosity. Artists absorb anything that is new and question things they know which equates to a strong stimulus for creativity. When subjected to this deluge of ideas and knowing that every thought could be the beginning of a great idea for a work of art as well as knowing that one’s memory can be stimulated through different means –words, smells and, especially in artists, visual images. Students capture everything they want to remember in their journals which in effect become their memory. When you stop seeing what is familiar to you and you question it, you don’t only appreciate and analyse everything that is new but that analysis leads you to see ordinary things with new eyes.

The Artist’s Journal

There is a tradition among artists of keeping a travel journal. Painters, draughtsmen/women, photographers… whoever expresses themselves through images and knows how to create them uses this effective tool to remember what they felt when they confronted another reality: Diversity.

There are different ways to capture what one wants to remember, as different as the artists themselves but the recording in the journal has been a constant throughout time. Artists have always and will always carried journals to record what they are doing, what is going to

13 happen or to note down the ideas the come up in different situations. This constitutes the basic material for creation. The artist’s journal is a versatile “object”, as versatile as art itself.

Figure 1: Four images of “Travel journal to Ruesga” Palencia, Spain, 1998 The journal as an artistic object in and of itself:

We can find journals containing a variety of techniques with a strong verb-icon relationship and others which of a more purist style where the artist only draws with a quill pen. It’s common to see them use a combination of techniques: drawings, text, photographs, things found and stuck inside, doodles, notes, clippings… They can be a living maze full of meaning. Before photography was democratised, journals were made of drawings and paintings, generally watercolour because of its easy-to-transport nature, however today journals are usually made up of photographs.

Figure 2: Salt and sea journal. Murcia, Spain, 2008 The “food for thought” journal or development of ideas:

Mar’s journal: …

I look like a mess, I forgot that I was in the fashion capital and that everywhere appearances are expected to meet a standard, even to get into paradise. I was left standing at the gates of heaven, I wonder if this is the Figure 4: Italian journal. Mar García Clemente entrance to paradise? It was definitely not Saint Peter who chose who got in and who didn’t, or maybe it was, but he was in disguise. Some day I’ll know for sure when I see this great structure again, the Dome of Milan.

Pablo’s journal

A 5-day trip to Berlin made the forged foundations tremble for 25 years, three of them with specific artist training to understand the art. There’s no doubt that when we leave our little “nest” everything is new: language, culture, customs,… and in this it is implicit that the kind of art that was made, in this case German, was different. During my stay there everything seemed strange to me, from the modes of transportation to the traffic lights, the philosophy on life is totally opposite to what I live day to Figure 5: Pablo Martínez Caulín. day in Madrid. The respect for public things, education, Berlin journal. Germany 2009 the cultural level,… I definitely noted it as a possible place of residence and training in the future.

María Jesús’ journal:

Figure 6: Argentina journal. María Jesús García Valera

...it happened in the San Telmo neighbourhood in Buenos Aires among the tenement houses filled with shops selling the most diverse things like puppets, crystal jewellery, siphoning containers, cameras older than my grandfather, hats, leather goods, cheap silver jewellery and a lot of etceteras. I discovered a small photography studio full of old suits used by chance clients. It was very exciting to see those old style scenes, the sun hats, the dresses, the parasols and the large variety of props like a trip to the past, that exciting moment got lodged in my memory. Sometimes the most insignificant things turn into stimuli and ideas, which later we can recreate on canvas or paper, in videos or in any one of numerous forms of artistic expression because art and life melt together in an instant.

Lucía Hervas Journal:

“When someone is planning a trip they are actually doing nothing more than taking a break from his or her reality, a small tangent that starts with going to another place, another state, and which ends with a return, usually much too soon. During a trip everything changes to a different category, places, customs, speech and even living habits; and during this hiatus one’s eyes become keener, one’s ears become sharper, one’s tact becomes more sensitive.

15 This doesn’t have so much to do with the change of location and scenery but more to do with an internal transformation. One can go on a trip without even leaving one’s room and this is similar to what happens during the creative process. When we exercise our imaginations it is as if we entered into a hypersensitive state in which everything ordinary becomes extraordinary, and extraordinary things are embraced and personalised. When one travels, whether literally or figuratively, the surroundings are converted in a living stimulus, the landscapes speak to us and as we watch them messages, which are normally hidden under the veil of routine, suddenly make themselves evident”.

Conclusions

Artists receive an important stimulus when observing diversity and this stimulus affects the creative process in the short, medium and long term.

Artistic works are enriched in terms of ideas, concepts and processes after an artist has made a trip and subjected has scrutinised his/her understanding of the world and these experiences have been fully absorbed into his/her spirit. The travel journal is a very valuable asset for artists as well as for the study of art and its creator. For an artist, this journal becomes the catalyst to help him/her remember and recreate and the object as well becomes a work of art in itself. And for the researcher a door is opened, leading him/her to precise conclusions about the origin and development of some works of art.

References Abad Tejerina, M.J. and Moreno Saéz, M.C. (2006), Cultura Icónica desde la Perspectiva Occidental. in Annali dell’Università di Ferrara. ISBN: 978 88 6087 065 8. Casa Editrice Le Lettere, 285-301 Berger, J. (2006, 1º 1959), Barcelona. Gustavo Gili. Carrión, U. (2003), Libros de Artista. Ed Turner. Fontuberta J. (2004), El beso de Judas: Fotografía y verdad. Barcelona. Ed. Gustavo Gili. (1998), Ciencia y fricción. Murcia. Ed. Mestizo. Gilbert, D. (1968), La Imaginación Simbólica. Buenos Aires-Argentina. Amorrortu Editores. Guimon, J. (2003), Mecanismos Psico-Biológicos de la Creatividad Artística. Bilbao. Ed. Desclee de Brouwr, S.A. Sontang, S.(1981), Sobre la Fotografía. Barcelona. Ed. Edhasa. Wall, J. (2007), Fotografía e Inteligencia Líquida. Barcelona. Gustavo Gili Zunzunegui, S. (1989), Pensar la Imagen. Madrid.Ed. Cátedra. VVAA.(1986), Los cuadernos de Picasso. Verona, Ed. de A. Glimcher y M. Glimcher.

16 Ethnic Diversity and its importance for the Vojvodina Region3

Dr Tamara Kovačević University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, Novi Sad, Serbia [email protected]

Abstract

Vojvodina is the north region of Serbia. Ethnic diversity is the part of the identity of Vojvodina region. More than 29 minorities live in it. They are its richness. The first part of the paper is related to the short history of process of immigration of minorities in Vojvodina. The main part of the paper is about the importance of ethnic diversity for the territory of Vojvodina region. It is a factor of Vojvodina uniqueness. Analysis of the territorial distribution of minorities has tried to illustrate ethnic diversity and to explain some characteristics of the present situation. National minorities are meritorious for differences of the characteristics of the archeological findings, architecture (sacral buildings, castles and fortresses), but also for cultural and gastronomical features of Vojvodina region. Special attention is given to influences and consequences on the number, distribution, life quality and problems of the minorities. Because of national minorities, Vojvodina region was called “Small Europe”.

Key words: Vojvodina, ethnicities, minorities, regional geography.

Introduction

The Vojvodina region is the north region of Serbia. It covers only 21.506 kilometer square (Republički zavod za statistiku, 2004, 15). This region is situated in the southeast part of Pannonian plain, on the contact of the Balkan and Middle Europe (Geographic map of Vojvodina, 2001). Vojvodina region consists of three sub regions: Bačka, Banat, and Srem. Today, the Vojvodina region represents a multiethnic, multi confessional and multicultural space. There are 29 minorities in the Vojvodina region (Ministrastvo za ljudska i manjiska prava Srbije i Crne Gore, 2004, 462). According to their origin, tradition, culture, mother tongue, religion and demographic characteristics, they are extremely diversified. Good inter ethnical relationships, ethnic and confessional tolerance, respecting and protection rights of minorities are very important for stability, demographic and democratic development of Vojvodina region (Raduški, 2006, 369-374). Because of them ethnic, confessional and cultural disparities, Vojvodina became unique space. This paper tries to explain why national minorities are richness of Vojvodina region.

Immigration of different ethnicity on the territory of Vojvodina

According to archaeological findings, Vojvodina has been populated from the Prehistory. On the different location, material evidences from Paleolithic, Meozolithic, Neolithic and Eneolithic period as well as from the Bronze Age were found. The following “cultural

3 Paper is a part of the project (Contract Project EVB. 146017D) “Demographic transitions in Serbia”, financed by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development.

17 circles” of the Vojvodina past have been connecting with Roman Period, than Period of Big Migrations and Hungarian Period. In the first half of the 16th century Turkish Period began (Tomić et al. 2004, 42-53). The reign of Turks brought the territory of what Vojvodina means today to a poor condition. The area was full of swamps and neglected fields. Many of towns were deserted. According to some estimation, at the time in the area there could be hardly about 100.000 inhabitants, mostly Serbs with small percentage of Romanians and Bunjevacs (Kicošev, Kovačević, 2004, 271). For historians, Departure of Turks, in 1716, is the moment of the beginning of the development of recent population of Vojvodina (Ivkov, 2006b, 38).

At the suggestion of Eugene of Savoy, the territory of Banat was organized into a special Province, which was under the direct administration of Austrian court. The decision was mainly influenced by strategic reasons, so that there would be no territorial connection between Hungary and Turkey, as the Austrians did not really trust Hungarians after Rakotzi's Uprising. That made Banat a special "chamber area", in which the Austrian Czar was not only the ruler but the sole owner as well. At the same time, greater parts of Bačka and Srem were organized as Border of the Guards under the direct command of Vienna. Considering the economic development of Vojvodina, there were two possibilities: to keep the extensive cattle breeding or to turn pastures and barren areas into plowed fields. The second option was chosen (Kicošev, Kovačević, 2004, 271). For the fast economic growth and renaissance of the region, General Merci was the most responsible, who governed it (Ivkov, 2006b, 38). Under his guidance people began to use important land-reclamation measures, they built roads, plowed the barren fields, restructured cities, built different economic institutions etc. To do all that it was necessary to increase the population. In Vienna, it was decided to inhabit Banat with Germans who lived outside Austrian lands, from the south-western territory of what today constitutes Germany. Besides purely mercantilist reasons, the strategic goals of Vienna also influenced in that settling of Germans. During the period from 1722 to 1726 about Germans took up residence in Banat (Tomić et all, 2004, 42-53). Besides Germans, Merci colonized Banat with Italians, Spanish and French because of their skill in breeding silkworms, cultivating rice, growing vegetables etc. At that time Serbs and Romanians weren't very much liked due to their failing to keep up with the times, so they were often forced to leave the better quality land, making concessions to Germans. In Bačka and Srem that colonization wasn’t so extensive at first. Germans dominated in the number of newcomers as well, but there were also Hungarians, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenians, Armenians and others (Ivkov, 2006b, 38).

After the Austrian and Turkish war, there came big ethnic changes in Vojvodina. When Pomoriška and Potiska borders of Guards were abolished, a part of Serbian population moved to Russia, while others went to live in the South, in newly formed Borders of Guards in Srem, Banat and Šajkaška or to the Great District of Kikinda. A substantial number of Serbs came from the South again, after the war ended. That was a new migration of Serbs under the command of Patriarch Arsenije IV Šakabenta.

After the second half of 18th century, history has brought rules of different states. Some of the ethnic groups have gone and came back, but they never completely disappeared.

Recent distribution of ethnic diversity in the Vojvodina region

The consequences of the World War II (1940-1944) were much more devastating for the ethnic structure of Vojvodina. The scopes of war losses were exceeded by the results of migrations. All the Germans from Vojvodina and Yugoslavia were expelled and the Yugoslav

18 population was colonized on their settlements. Between September 1945 and July 1947 about 225.696 colonists have arrived in Vojvodina region (Gaćeša, 1984, 404).

Analysis of results of Censuses 1948 – 1991 has given trends of dynamism of national minorities in the territory of Vojvodina. Their number and share in ethnic structure have changed over the time. It was the result of the natural increase as well as migrations. Other factors are: change in statements in the moment of declaration about national affiliation, process of assimilation, mixed marriages etc. (Raduški, 1997, 139-147). Low and negative natural increase and balance of migration have influenced decreasing of majority ethnic groups, especially between Hungarians, Croats, Slovaks, Romanians, Ruthenians etc. (Kocsis, Kicošev, 2004). Other national minorities have noticed increase of absolute and relative number. It is a consequence of higher rate of natural increase of Roma, positive balance of migration of Macedonians or change in statements in the moment of declaration about national affiliation of Roma and Yugoslav people (Kicošev, 2004).

In the beginning of the 1990s, the aroused nationalism in the republics of the former SFR Yugoslavia led to the emigration of some ethnic groups into their original republics. In Vojvodina, it was most strikingly obvious when the Croats started to leave or to declare themselves again as Bunjevci and Shokci. However, their emigration was caused not only by political (refusal of mobilization, feeling of uncertainty, etc) but also by economical reasons: bad life conditions caused by economic sanctions against FR Yugoslavia (Tomić et al., 2004, 75). Kicošev (1999) has written that between 1991 and 1996, almost one quarter of a million of Serbs came into Vojvodina, which has significantly changed the ethnic structure of the region. The emigration of one part of national minorities has additionally intensified this process. In certain settlements, the immigration of refugees has lead to the change of ethnic structure, but this was mostly the consequence of property exchange. Such exchanges were characteristic of several settlements in Srem in which Croats used to be a majority. According to the results of the census of 2002, ethnic disparities on the territory of Vojvodina are still well conspicuous. Figure 1 has been produced from the following methodology. Firstly, every national minority has get own colour. Every settlement, e.g. settlement and its cadastre area, on the territory of Vojvodina region was coloured in accordance with the dominant ethnicity.

The results are evident. Serbs as majority and only eight other ethnic groups have a majority in at least one settlement on the territory of Vojvodina region (Knežević, 2005). Hungarians are dominant in the north part of Vojvodina region. Romanians are present in the settlements which are situated in the south east part of Vojvodina. Croats are concentrated on the northwest part. Montenegrins have majority in the middle of Bačka, sub region of Vojvodina region. Others, like Slovaks, can be found on the different part of Vojvodina region. The most numerous settlements with Serbian domination, according to the results of the census 2002, are marked on the southwest part of Vojvodina region, exactly in Srem sub region.

Figure 1: Ethnic map of Vojvodina region, according the Census 2002 (made by author)

Importance of national minorities

National minorities have given identity to the Vojvodina region. They have enriched the cultural heritage of the region. There are many examples of that fact. In the following text the most interesting ones will be referred to.

In the domain of architecture, the most remarkable buildings on territory of Vojvodina region are churches and monasteries. All ethnic groups in Vojvodina have built churches in the past. They have belonged to different confession. For example, there are many differences in the Christian church. Different architectural styles are present on the territory of Vojvodina, as Gothic, Baroque etc (Tomić et al., 2002, 22-63). In addition, several other styles can be found, which have came from the medieval Serbia, as architectural school of Raška or school of Morava etc. In the Hungarian settlements, as Subotica and Palić, secession, architecture style, had the best preservation (Kovačević, 2006, 179).

In the field of arts, Slovaks from Kovačica municipality are well known as painters (Ivkov, 2006a, 44). The style of painting was named “naive”, because the painters have not been educated for painting. They have special talent for that type of art. Romanians have made laces. Romanian women are well known because of free hand. Gypsies have always been excellent musicians (Pleša, 1976). Gypsies from Deronje village, which is situated in the middle of sub region Bačka, are the symbol of good amusement.

20 Traditionally, every nation on the Vojvodina territory has few well known dishes. For example, Slovaks sausages, Hungarian goulash or German kugloff are well known (Ivkov, 2006a, 112). Hence, Vojvodina has rich gastronomy to offer. Using this fact, every week different settlement on the territory of Vojvodina have organized different gastronomical happening (Bjeljac, Ćurčić, 2006), (Bjeljac, 1999). It is one of the strongest advantages in the tourist offer of the region.

Factors influencing minorities in Vojvodina region

Some factors have a positive, but some others do not have positive influences on preserving this type of specific richness. Positive influences does have official political postures. From 29 minorities (Ministrastvo za ljudska i manjiska prava Srbije i Crne Gore, 2004, 462), five are in better position. In Vojvodina, according to law, languages of some national minorities are official languages. Beside the language of majority, Serbian, official languages in Vojvodina are: Hungarian, Romanian, Slovak and Ruthenium. These minorities have their newspapers, radio programs, television program, and theatres (Tomic et al., 2004, 164-167). Hungarians, Romanians and Slovaks have several primary and secondary schools, and of course cathedras on the Faculty of Philology. Hence, some of them have never spoken Serbian language. In the process of employment, Institutions of the provincial government have always given priority to minorities, because of language.

Many groups of ethnicities have had small number of members, e.g. Germans, Russians, Turks and Slovenians etc. (Republički zavod za statistiku, 2003, 14) They have kept good and strong connections. Habitually, they have often helped for each other. Every April, Government of Vojvodina Province has organized public calling for all ethnic groups. Government has always planed financial help for them. This year there some 370.000 € reserved for that calling (Korhecz, 2009, 13). It is the form of direct support for preserving ethnic differences on the territory of Vojvodina region.

Negative influences also come from the nature. Average value of median age of population in Vojvodina is high (40.3 years). Median age of some minorities is higher than the average. For example, median age of Slovenians in Vojvodina is 52.5 years (Kovačević et al., 2008, 140). Gypsies have the youngest value of median age compared to others ethnicities: only 24.7 years (Kovačević et al., 2005, 57).

Political games have disturbed and disorganised the good relations among ethnicities with national majority. In the past, especially during the First and the Second World Wars, there were many conflicts between different minorities and the national majority. Many monuments on the territory of Vojvodina region have testified. The motto of the population of Vojvodina is “We must forgive, but we must not forget”.

Mixed marriages have often been in practice, especially after the Second World War. It was the period when official politic did not give any support to development of national consciousness and identity to Serbs, e.g. national majority. Mixed marriages were product of the love between different nationalities in Vojvodina. None has ever seen that fact as excellent example of tolerance, understanding and international love.

Spontaneously exchanging cultural and ethnic characteristics, most often have happened in the institution of marriage. Children from mixed marriages are perfect informed about cultural and ethnic characteristics of theirs parents. However, mixed marriages can, in the same time,

21 make negative influences. Children from mixed marriages can not very often declare themselves as being one particular ethnicity. They become undeclared. In the economical and political instable last decade of 20th century, children from mixed marriages have emigrated abroad. They felt like a citizen of the world, not member of one of national minority in Vojvodina.

Unfortunately, every conflict between two persons, who have different nationalities, is in the focus of media. It has always been used as an example of international animosity. Officially, they were been conviction by public attitude. In the background, the story is habitually different. Conflicts between people are habitually phenomena. When different nationalities live on the small territory, international conflicts have been more frequent than habitually.

Conclusions

For decades, Serbia has been ready for the European Union. Its north region, Vojvodina, well known as “Small Europe”, is proof of that thought. Living together and sharing destiny with different ethnicities have made “population of Vojvodina”. They have gotten their own identity. From the end of the World War II, on the territory of Vojvodina has exists special respect for all ethnic disparities. Material support of the Government of Vojvodina Province, which is designed for different ethnic group, tries to preserve this kind of richness.

References Bjeljac, Ž. (1999), Manifestacioni turizam Vojvodine, Ph.D. Thesis, Novi Sad: Institut za geografiju, PMF, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu Bjeljac, Ž. and Ćurčić, N. (2006), Tourism in the Serbian, Romanian and Hungarian borderline area as part of cross-border cooperation, Geographica Pannonica, 10, 73-77. Gaćeša, N. (1984), Agrarna reforma i kolonizacija u Jugoslaviji 1945-1948, Matica Srpska, 404. Geographic map of Vojvodina (2001), AP Vojvodina, Republika Srbija, 1:450.000, Magic Map, Smederevska Palanka Ivkov, A. (2006a), Folklorno nasleđe u turizmu Vojvodine, Zadužbina Andrejević. Ivkov, A. (2006b), Demografska slika Vojvodine, Zadužbina Andrejević. Kicošev, S. (1999), Matematičko-analitički pokazatelji etničko-verske strukture stanovništva Srbije, Društveno-geografski procesi u SR Jugoslaviji i njihova nastavna aktuelizacija, Beograd – Nikšić: Geografski fakultet Beograd i Filozofski fakultet Crne Gore, 143-152. Kicošev, S. (2004), Changes in the number and territorial distribution of religious groups in Vojvodina during 20th century according to the results of censuses, Geographica Pannonica, 8, 33-37. Kicošev, S. and Kovačević, T. (2004), Vojvodinian past, Colocviul Naţional de Geografia Popolaţiei şi Aşezărilor Umane, Evoluţia sistemelor de aşezări umane in contextul stretegiilor dezvoltării durabile, Ediţia a XIV-a, Timişoara – Buziaş: Asociaţia geografilor umanişti din România, Societatea de geografie din România, Asociaţia geografilor umanişti, Comisia Naţională de geografia populaţiei şi aşezărilor umane, Universitatea de Vest din Timişoara, Departamentul de geografie, Centrul de analiză geodemografică şi de habitat, 4-6 Iunie 2004, 261-274. Knežević, A. (2005), Stanovništvo Srbije prema nacionalnoj pripadnosti po rezultatima popisa 2002. godine, Glasnik Srpskog geografskog društva, 85, No 1, 103-110. Kocsis, K. and Kicošev, S. (2004), A Vajdaság mai területének etnikai térképe. 1:350.000 Számitógépes térképszerkesztés, Budapest: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia. Földtudományi Kutató Központ, Földrajztudományi Kutatóintózet, Kisebbségkutató Intézet.

22 Korhecz, T. (2009), Konkurs za dotaciju organizacijama etničkih zajednica u Autonomnoj Pokrajini Vojvodini, Novi Sad: Dnevnik, 5th April, 13. Kovačević T. (2006), Opstina Subotica, geografska monografija, Novi Sad: Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Prirodno-matematički fakultet, Departman za geografiju, turizam i hotelijerstvo, Novi Sad, 258. Kovačević, T. and Bubalo-Živković, M. and Ivkov, A. (2008), Age-sex of Slovenians in Vojvodina in the second half of 20th and the beggining of 21st century, Dela, 29, 131-144. Kovačević, T. and Ivkov, A. and Đurđev, B. (2005), Age Structure of Gypsies in Vojvodina, Zbornik Geografskog instituta „Jovan Cvijić“, Srpske akademije nauka i umetnosti, 54, 45- 61. Ministrastvo za ljudska i manjiska prava Srbije i Crne Gore (2004), Etnički mozaik Srbije, Beograd: Prema podacima popisa 2002. godine, 468. Pleša, J. (1976), Opština Odžaci, Geografske monografije vojvođanskih opština, Novi Sad: Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Prirodno-matematički fakultet, Institut za geografiju Raduški, N. (1997), Demografski razvoj nacionalnih manjina u Vojvodini, Zbornik Matice srpske za društvene nauke, No. 102-103, 139-147. Raduški, N. (2006), Etnički diverzitet stanovništva Vojvodine - popis 2002. godine, Zbornik Matice srpske za društvene nauke, No. 121, 369-374. Republički zavod za statistiku (2003), Stanovništvo, Nacionalna ili etnička pripadnost, Podaci po naseljima, Popis stanovništva, domaćinstva i stanova u 2002, Beograd, 1, 14. Republički zavod za statistiku (2004), Opštine u Srbiji 2003, Opšti podaci, Opštine po okruzima, Beograd, 15. Tomić, P. and Romelić, J. and Kicošev, S. et all (2002), Kulturna dobra u turističkoj ponudi Vojvodine, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Prirodno-matematički fakultet, Departman za geografiju, turizam i hotelijerstvo, Novi Sad, 139 Tomić, P. and Romelić, J. and Kicošev, S. and Lazić, L. (2004), Vojvodina, Scientifically popular monograph, Second edition, Geographic Society of Vojvodina, 183.

23 Cultural Diversity and Nature: Nature conservation at Kazdagi National Park, Turkey

Dr. Yilmaz Ari Dr. Abdullah Kőse Balikesir University, Department of Geography, Turkey. [email protected]

Abstract Throughout the world, efforts at nature protection have displaced, restricted or put bans on local residents. Locals find it difficult to continue with their traditional life styles. They may have been given some alternatives such as eco-tourism but in most cases the alternatives have not provided them with enough subsistence. Therefore, they suffer in survival terms and leave their traditional settings for a better life. The treatment of local residents in protected areas yields unwanted results for both the region itself and the local residents. By using Kavurmacilar Village as a case study, this research deals with how efforts at protection efforts affected small communities since their establishment in 1993 at Kazdagi National Park (KDNP). Nature conservation, while protecting biodiversity, may adversely affect cultural diversity of such areas. Banning all traditional activities without providing realistic alternatives may yield unwanted results. This is in turn harmful for protected areas, for local residents, and for society at large.

Key Words: Nature conservation, resettlement, amenity migrants, Kazdagi National Park, Turkey.

Introduction

Wittemyer et al. (2008) argue that places within the developing world where Protected Areas (PAs) are located are experiencing higher rates of population growth, suggesting that in- migration here reflects the economic and social benefits that result from the creation of PAs. They found that average human population growth rates on the borders of 306 PAs in 45 countries in Africa and Latin America were nearly double the average rural growth, suggesting that PAs attract, rather than repel, human settlement. If human settlement is seen as a whole, their findings might reflect an important aspect of reality. However, if we look at the changes in settlements around some PAs more closely, we see that although the population increases in some settlements, there are settlements on the edges of PAs that lose population. Even in those places where population has grown because of migration we need to look at who is moving to these settlements and whether there is an ethical dimension to these population increases. We suggest here that these kinds of human mobility, while helping maintain biological diversity, devalue cultural diversity in and around PAs. Cultural diversity should be stressed as important as biological diversity because humans have developed strategies over the centuries to use the PA resources in a sustainable way.

Figure 1: Map of settlements around Kazdagi National Park.

The south-western part of Kaz Dağları (Mount Ida) was reserved as a National Park because of its biological diversity, geomorphologic characteristics, endemic species, abundant water resources, archeological, and cultural resources. The National Park covers an area of 21,452 hectares. The area is basically located on the southern slope of Kazdağı. The highest peak of the mountain is Karataş Tepe (1774 m). There are more than 13 villages that have been dependent on the park’s resources for their livelihood (Figure 1). After the establishment of the National Park, free entrance to the park was banned and those who want to enter the park were obliged to hire a local guide. Pricing was seen a way of visitor control. Almost all traditional activities have been banned by the park administration, leaving locals with little choice for survival without leaving the area. This research deals with one of the settlements, Kavurmacilar, located on the southern slopes of Kazdagı National Park (Figure 1). The village of Kavurmacilar was abandoned in the process that created the Kazdagi National Park. Fieldwork was conducted at the site during the summers of 2007 and 2008, open-ended interviews were held with residents who had migrated from there and official statistics were examined.

Cultural Diversity on the Edges of Kazdagi National Park

There are 13 settlements that are situated outside, but adjacent to KDNP (Figure 1). Before 1993, these settlements used to use the resources of the park in their daily lives. There are two cultural groups living in these settlements. At the local scale these groups are known as Tahtaci Turkmen, and Yörük. These two groups are different in their beliefs although they are both Muslim. The Tahtaci settlements are Tahtakuşlar, Kavlaklar, Aritaşi, Mehmetalani, Kizilçukur (part of Avcilar) and Yassiçali (part of Güre). People living in these settlements are called Alevi or Alaouite, which is a religious group that reveres Ali in Islam. The Yörük, making up the Sunni group, which is traditional Islamic group, live in the settlements of Avcilar, Çamlibel, Kizilkeçili, Beyoba and Pinarbaşi. Towns like Zeytinli and Güre are essentially Yörük communities with few migrant Alaouite people.

Table 1: 1935, 1970, and 2000 Population numbers of Settlements around KDMP. Population Population Population Name of Settlemet (1935) (1970) (2000) Beyoba 177 292 216 Güre 1121 1592 3944 Kavurmacılar 220 105 - Kızılkeçili 613 775 2056 Mehmetalanı 323 495 546 Tahtaköy (Çamlıbel) 417 676 626 Uçurumoba (Pınarbaşı) 111 156 137 Zeytinli 2045 3089 10893 Altınoluk 1041 2500 11028 Avcılar 785 1311 2173 Kavlaklar 15 103 222 Tahtakuşlar 286 560 855 Arıtaşı - - 246 Toplam 7043 11498 32805 Source: Turkish Census of Population, 1935, 1970 and 2000.

In the above table, the settlements of Güre and Zeytinli appear in historical records dated 1530; and Kızılkeçili and Avcılar appear in records of 1573 (Yılmaz 1995). Considering that all of these first settlements have today been settled by the Yörük, one comes to the conclusion that the settlements in which the Türkmen population lives today had not been founded recently and that the Türkmen had lived nomadically in the region. The villages registered in the 1890 Ottoman yearbook are Aritaşi, Avcilar, Güre, Kavurmacilar, the subject of this study, Kizilkeçili, Mehmetalani, Çamlibel and Zeytinli (Mutaf 1995).

Concerning population increase, there are two distinct groups of settlements in the table, the settlements functioning as small towns and the settlements of the Türkmen population. This is because they choose to live together and there is less out-migration, also because of their better adaptation strategies to the mountain ecosystem. This is in contrast to Yörük villages. Yörük villages, a traditional Islamic group, on the other hand, have lost population in general. The population growth in small towns has been linked to natural reasons and in-migration, whereas the Türkmen settlement’s population increase can be linked solely to natural reasons. Since the Alevi Türkmen prefer to live with people of their own faith, there is almost no out- migration whatsoever, except for educational reasons. The out-migrations that do happen due to marriage happen almost solely to other Alevi villages. It appears that the migration from rural to urban areas has affected the settlements with the Yoruk population more. There is only one settlement that gained a village status in 2000 and that as Aritaşi, which is another Alevi settlement. It seems that while Yörük’s relationship with the Mount Ida is getting weaker, the relationship of Alevi’s is getting stronger. This might be considered as a product of popular culture which is promoting KDNP in particular and Mont Ida in general as a consumption space.

The village of Kavurmacilar is one these Yörük settlements that was established by residents who migrated to this region sometimes in the 14th and 15th centuries from the east. As the table shows the population of Kavurmacilar has declined tremendously between 1935 and 1970 and the settlement has lost its village status just before the 2000 census. The village was abandoned completely, leaving only a shepherd and his old mother in the village. Almost no

26 one lives in the village now. It was quite a large village as the population in 1935 and the cemetery suggests. However, the people of the village then started migrating either to nearby large settlements like Güre or outside the region. Almost all those who migrated from the village come back to hold annual celebrations in August of each year, dedicated to Sarıkiz, a holy women, supposed to have lived here once and left the village because of some false accusations and lived the rest of her life on top of Mount Ida and died there. There is a tomb dedicated to her on Sarıkız tepe, the second highest peak of Mount Ida.

Today the most notable places in the village are the real estate office and new villas which have been built by amenity migrants. The real estate office was established around the time of abandonment and many villagers sold their property to amenity migrants through this office. The office is run by one of the migrants who settled in Güre in late 1980’s. The amenity migrants came from nearby cities, most notable from Istanbul. They buy old houses or properties and build ‘modern’ villas in the village (Figure 2). This trend shows the major transformation agent of the southern slopes of KDNP. It is predicted that in near future most of traditional houses will be replaces by these new modern villa houses. Newcomers, mostly retired bureaucrats from large cities, replace those who have lived a traditional lifestyle here.

Figure 2. The village of Kavurmacilar, abandoned, but some amenity migrants started to build new houses.

The major livelihoods practiced in the village were forestry and animal husbandry with little support from agricultural practices. Almost all the people interviewed said that they engaged in either forestry or animal rearing of some sort. The forest surrounding the village is owned by the state and the Ministry of Forestry has been producing timber from it for the past 70 years. Before that time the property was managed by local communities. With this change in status, local villagers were hired as forest workers and they worked for the Ministry of Forestry. They used to work temporarily in summers when the Ministry produced timber here. They would support their livelihood by collecting non-timber forest products from the forest.

In the Yörük community animal feeding has been one of the most important livelihood practices. Almost all households had some sheep, but especially goats. They would keep the animals in lower altitudes in winter time as the weather was warm enough to keep them

27 outside. In summers they would take their animals on pastures located in certain places in the forest at higher elevation and they would stay there until the weather cooled off. This yearly movement of animals and shepherds is called yaylacilik, which is still practiced in some other parts of Anatolia. This practice was largely abandoned in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of strong pressure form the Ministry of Forestry because they thought that goats were the most important ‘enemies’ of the forest, and that they should be kept out of these areas. The Ministry, as other places in Turkey, put pressure on villagers to get rid of their goats.

After the National Park was established in 1993, almost all human activities were banned there and the traditional relationship between this community and the physical environment was lost. People were forced to sell their animals, the collection of herbs, mushrooms and other non-timber forest products became prohibited. Because the Ministry of Forestry stopped practicing forestry inside the protected area in late 1990’s, the forest workers became unemployed and left the area. People had to sell their animals and placing beehives inside the forest was either banner or made difficult and procedural. One of the local farmers could not understand this saying that: “we have lived here for centuries, we always had animals, especially goats. As you can see when they came here to protect this forest, the forest was there in a good condition and we always used pastures inside the forest. I do not understand what they mean by animals are giving harm to forest. If animals give harm to forest how come we have a natural forest to protect after all these centuries?”

When asked why they migrated from the village, the former settlers gave a number of different reasons. Some said that there was a problem with water supply and they found it difficult to live without water. This is ironic considering that Homeros talked about this place in Iliad as ‘Ida with a thousand springs. Some others raised concerns about the transportation infrastructure as there was no road for vehicles until 1987. Some others said that they migrated to provide opportunities for their children to get education in Güre. The kids had been commuting 4 kilometres by road everyday to go to school there.

Some of these migrations can be explained by traditional pull and push factors in migration studies. However, we believe that the reason for this abandonment was the lack of a strategic rural development planning. The village of Kavurmacilar is located in a place that has the base to support certain size of population. The village located next to a forest which is extremely rich in terms of biodiversity. The area was a premium destination for domestic tourists. When the National Park was planned, no socio-cultural projection was made to understand the social-cultural effects of the National Park measures. It has been common practice in the Turkish conservation system to overlook the wills and needs of local communities and it was expected that if they lose jobs, they should go to cities and find employment there. However, this is an unsustainable practice giving the problems of contemporary cities.

Conclusions

As Wittemyer et al. suggest, there has been in general a population increase in settlements surrounding PAs around KDNP. However, there are two important dimensions to this increase. The first is that the increase, while it helps maintain biological diversity in PAs, it decreases cultural diversity. Traditional lifestyles and the everyday lives of people and their relationships with resources have changed fundamentally. As a result a less diversified,

28 ‘modern’ lifestyle is encouraged and the rural character of these places is lost. This is mainly because the newcomers, amenity migrants, have income which is derived from outside the region sources and they are not dependent on the local resource base for their everyday lives. Because these people migrate to the region for perceived benefits, it is important for them to keep the environment clean and protect the resources without any kind of usage. This contradicts to locals’ interests because they want to use resources for their livelihood.

The second dimension is that as amenity migrants come and settle in the region, they tend to buy the locals’ properties. The creation of KDNP has already decreased the the relationships between people and resources. In addition to this if they sell their properties to the newcomers, there is not much left to keep local people in these places. As a result an out- migration trend is seen in these villages. Some of the villages balance migration because while some people settle in the village others leave these settlements. But villages like Kavurmacilar have not been as fortunate because the village lost its village status just before the 2000 census. Almost all the villagers left the village for Güre, which is a larger settlement just 5 kilometres down the hill. It was expected that a village like Kavurmacilar would flourish as suggested by Wittemyer et al., however, because of the unsustainable practice of nature conservation a village just adjacent to the protected area was spoilt.

The results of this study show that the National Park was planned without a holistic approach and almost no alternatives were provided for the local communities. Despite the fact that the area is very favourable for alternative tourism, no particular plans exist as to how to develop these opportunities into income-generating activities. Therefore, it is expected that this trend of out-migration, while maintaining population increase around the edges of KDNP, will continue to decrease the cultural diversity and local ways of life around the protected area. In this case, cultural diversity should have the same importance as biological diversity because humans have developed strategies over the centuries to use the PA resources in a sustainable way.

References Arı, Y., (2004), Environmental Impacts of Cılbak Rituals at Kazdağı National Park, Turkey, “Proceedings of The Third Turkey-Romania Geographic Academic Seminar, September 16-24, 2004, Zeytinli, Turkey. Arı, Y., (2006), Kazdağı Milli Parkı’nın Yerel Toplumlar Üzerindeki Ekonomik Ve Sosyal Etkileri, Kazdağları 2. Ulusal Sempozyumu, 22-25 Haziran 2006, Çanakkale. Arı, Y. and Soyakan, A., 2006, Kazdağı Milli Parkı’nda Kültürel Ekoloji ve Doğa Koruma, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, (44): 11-32. Mutaf, A., (1995), Salnamelerde Karesi Sancağı, Taner Ofset, Balıkesir. Wittemyer, G., et al., (2008). Accelerated Human Population Growth at Protected Area Edges, Science Vol. 321 4 July. Yılmaz, F., 1995, XVI. Yüzyılda Edremit Kazası, Doktora Tezi, Ege Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Tarih Anabilim Dalı, İzmir.

29 Images are coloured words in a multi-coloured world

Adriana Galvani University of Bologna [email protected]

Abstract

All disciplines use images, but more than others, geography does. Some aspects of geography need more icons, in fact teaching tourism offers many opportunities for using images. Images should be not only presented but analysed and discussed, because normally they disclose and hide messages and meanings. Students know images since childhood at home through television, but usually parents don’t teach how to interpret them, because they didn’t learn that either. Teachers need to know how to deal with images. For being able to teach, they should know semiotic and cinema techniques; they could be considered competent when they are able to produce movies by themselves and when students are also proficient in practising these techniques; in other words to be able to speak with words and without words, especially in a multicultural world where words constitute a barrier for intercultural communication. A case study is presented here.

Teaching tourism at the University of Bologna

Forward Throughout my career I have thought that movies were not useful tools for teaching. However media has become more remarkable every day, particularly if we sustain the idea of a “pansemiotic” culture (Knoblauch, 2001: 4). In fact as stated by Gozzi, “as the number of radios and televisions increase in a given high-context culture, people will pay less attention to each other and more attention to the media (1992: 60). Media are of a ubiquitous nature in our lives, especially in cross-cultural studies, so it seems necessary to examine their role in the “communicative paradigm” (Knoblauch, ibid) which our brain and our lives are inserted in, while culture can be considered as the construction of contexts by means of communicative actions.

We must use media in teaching several types of languages, because we know there are various types of communication. I n fact even silence is a form of communication, so that it could have a meaning: “like a zero in mathematics, it is an absence with a function” (Braithwaite, 1990: 321).

Media communication should be mediated by parents from childhood, but these too are artless respect to the requirements of the emergent technology, and surely they never have had any form of acculturation in this direction. As a consequence, the role of school results is enhanced, since adapting to socio-cultural changes requires knowledge - acquiring that knowledge requires communication (Smith, 1992: 214).

30 Personal experiences

I have learned, during an Erasmus visit, that movies are much utilized in the UK, due to the number of immigrants with many difficulties in speaking English or with a low level of understanding or knowledge. Inter-acculturation is in fact not easy. “It goes without saying that every border crossing involves some need for adjustment and acculturation. Just as visitors often find the need to adopt the manners and customs of their host country, so do texts (and things – we add) (Cohen and Roeh, 1992: 23).

It is sure that there is a growing trend among scholars to focus on and to study the “universal” nature of media contents and the “globalization”, because the media markets try to sell products in enlarged markets, creating the lines of a desired “post-Babel” hypothesis (Cohen and Roeh, cit.: 32) or a simple “shared biosphere” (Smith, 1992: 223). In the two last decades the same is also true of Italy, as it became a country of immigration and now we have the same issues that English schools have had.

Movies are useful in teaching geography, because they illustrate the geography of our real world. It is important to pay attention even regarding films narrating the past history, because eventually they are too much elaborated or “modernized”. It is easier to teach geography through images, but it is necessary to understand and to let understand that landscape and situations don’t have an unique point of view, and the perspective could be a revelation of ideas and ideologies. In fact “mass media both reflect and affect a given culture and society” (Berger, 1992: 11).

Research could focus on art forms of various types and attempt to discover changes that were media related (Gozzi, cit.: 61). For these several reasons movies couldn’t be only presented in schools but they should be profoundly analyzed and discussed, as every instrument must be, maybe even more. Films and television require a second level of processing that involves the decoding of symbols that are non media specific, like language and gestures, other than the media-specific symbolic codes that are used to manipulate points of view, location in space, temporal sequence and order, pacing and rhythm, and specific visual effects including fades, dissolves, and wipes (Hobbs and Frost, 1992: 112).

I have tried to manipulate movies in my lessons for the love of geography, in the extreme sense of using them and also producing them. At the beginning, I was accustomed to present films and only superficially to discuss them, but finally, trying an experiment in my classroom, I have followed a scheme suggested by Berger (cit.: 18): “What is the visual style of the text like? What is the camera work like? What kinds of shots are dominant? What is the lighting like? What editing techniques are used? How sophisticated is the text from a technical point of view?”

The same author suggests that one might for example examine the ways football matches are televised and compare the same matches all around the world. Previous research has suggested that some combination of developmental age and experience with the medium is necessary to successfully decode the complex array of cuts, zooms, pans, music, and other techniques commonly used in film and television editing (Hobbs and Frost, cit.: 110).

31 Movies in teaching

I suppose that movies can be superb for teaching literature, inspiring criticism, because statistically many novels have been bad translated into cinema, or when they have been good realized, they are in most cases an inferior copy of the written words. But globalisation requires that we know the variety in our world and the rich variety of faces and souls of different peoples, to know from where they derive, how they live far away from us, how they communicate, how they afford the everyday life. Images are necessary for geography, both in books, in computer, in photos….with every instrument, in order to represent the immense heritage we do possess. With the marvellous instruments we manage today, images are usually and necessarily modified and managed, so that the result of modification could correspond to the desired message.

According to this, and according to the exigencies of the media-world, students must gain competences in producing images for themselves and be capable to communicate through images. For this reason, students should be given opportunities to generate communication contents; as they should be clever in writing, producing written material; it is nowadays necessary that they should be trained to write through images. Only in this way can they live in a democratic world, being free and not being manipulated by new instruments and new functionalities, in other terms, avoiding to be coca-colonized (Berger, cit.: 14). Surely this process requires a lot of time, money and efforts, but this can be realized in schools and universities; this could be the final stage after designing charts, graphs, thematic maps, doing photographs ….

In my experience, I spent lot of time in learning many passages in software images manoeuvring, in order to arrange them as a presentation, but I spent more time in realising my first movie. Nevertheless, during these processes, I learned more geography than supposed, because I visited the studied areas many times, I visualized my pictures many times, I interviewed many persons, I studied the local history and I read the biography of many local authorities, and, most important, I discovered unknown places and activities, old houses and minor ones, but, surely not less beautiful, artistic heritage. In this way, geography has more important functions than other disciplines in the specificity of modern technology, and it assumes a major role in the process of globalization and in the process of mutual understanding through mutual knowledge.

In this sense, the knowledge of the real world, even in its worst aspects such as wars, famine, and natural disasters, becomes a complete education of the person. Real documents are the opposite of fiction which is, in my opinion, completely contributing to bad upbringing. Televisions all around the world are presenting miseducating situations which encounter the taste of youth. The worst of these products is, in my opinion, the series of Harry Potter books and films, because, among the quantity of products we find on the market, it is very easy to find good materials, and why to use the bad ones? As teachers we are obliged to choose the best, from the content point of view, the technological point of view, the formal point of view, and the moral point of view as well.

The real world in images

Multiculturalism is already a fact in universities. Some institutions are very prestigious all around the world and they attract many students from different regions. Bologna is one of them, its status derives from its old age - being the oldest university in the world - and from

32 the efforts spent in order to maintain the reputation gained since ancient times. European Union also is sustaining the international fame of cultural institutions through numerous exchanges of programs, teachers, employees and students.

A privileged area in this University is the Faculty of Foreign Languages where many European exchanges have been approved and where many students from all the world are inscribed. The teaching personnel is also quite mixed, because here, not only European major and minor languages are thought, but also oriental studies are afforded. In this faculty the privileged disciplines, hosting students of different languages, are Geography of Tourism and Sociology of Tourism (taught by a geographer, or the author of this work). Tourism per se is quite an international topic and many foreign students are choosing this theme sure to find the possibility that their country could be spoken about. In the academic year 2008-09, students from USA, Giordania, Morocco, Uzbekistan, Australia, China and many others from European member and non-member States were present in one course.

Their lessons were taught in Italian language, but not all students could understand it, so the teacher occasionally translated some words in different languages, but the most powerful tool has surely been Internet, thanks to the fact that some lessons took place in media laboratory. In order to avoid nationalism, we had chosen as a main issue for discussion, a neutral argument, the tourism in New Zealand, because anyone had been there or studied the manifestations of this phenomenon over there.

The main tools used in the lessons were many images taken by the teacher during a visit in that country. Being the course based on ecotourism philosophy, images about agriculture and breeding have been utilized, in order to let student impress with the typical green images reflected in all the country. The case study has also offered the possibility to speak about the interesting position local communities have in economy and to recognise how the social peace has been attained through many cultural inter-exchanges between settlers and Maoris.

At the end of the course it was suggested that not only had the students understood which type of tourism were offered by this distant country, but that they would not forget the immense extent of green fields. So, in the final lessons the teacher opted to utilise many images offered on advertised material, directly derived from New Zealand, as the vision of the country with its economy and society that had already been taught.

Particularities in teaching and learning

In Italy teaching methods are quite traditional, based on spoken lessons, while electronic media is emerging at a slow pace. In higher education teaching institutions there is more freedom in programs and more possibilities of experimenting with technology, but little knowledge is offered on innovative methods. Inter-disciplinarity is also requested, because the question of innovation isn’t related only to new tools, but to the basic technology requested for utilizing these tools. That means not only to know how a CD or DVD player functions, or to understand presentations, but how the content can be interpreted and the hidden messages read. For this, cinema-psychology theory or media communication psychology is needed.

People from different cultures often have different types of accepted behaviour. People etiquette and manners are often not the same around the world. In addition, there are many aspects of non verbal communication with which we should be acquainted. The situation of

33 our case study presents the great possibility to reflect how the presentation of the same argument could affect students arriving from different backgrounds. Surely it is impossible to realize a personal teaching, and also it is impossible to note the several effects of teaching, according to personal characteristics, but the idea could be better developed in future or with more time, or by other teachers.

Fortunately I have many tools for teaching geography of tourism, deriving from travels, tours operators’ guides and exhibitions gifts all around the world. The most notable material - officially produced by the Government and reported on CD, which were recently obtained - is two disks on Italian heritage.

The first CD presented the continental region of Greece. Its content was atypical, in the sense that classic Greek monuments didn’t appear at all. Instead monuments related to the Venetian occupation were presented. Many students have been disappointed, because they had expected classic history to be presented. Only Italian students, at not all, know about the Venetian Republic occupation during the 18th century; foreign students didn’t understand even after explanation. That means that some times, surely not stereotypes are expected, but shared icons or shared images, in other words we do expect a national character, according to Gumperz (1992: 51, cited in Knoblauch: 12) who states: “Culture consists of the shared typification that enters into the signalling and use of activity types in interaction, as well as systems of contextualization conventions”.

From the technical point of view, in this document the colours and landscape were disappointing, in fact, at this point we should remember that colours are the dominant effect on Greek icons; Santorini is in our mental map with its white-blue houses and blue sky reflecting in dark blue sea. What was strange for the teacher was the fact that the students didn’t appreciate the narrator voice, because he was a national narrator, speaking Italian with a Greek accent.

The second movie presented a small Italian region of secondary importance in the Italian tourist market. From a technical point of view, nothing was wrong in this documentary, but the presentation insisted too much on the topic of food, because of its major importance in relation to the landscape. Italian students were quickly bored, but foreign student didn’t understand the specificity of food, because it was similar to the gourmet speciality of many other regions in Italy; only residents could really appreciate the nuances in taste of the same family of products. One part of this CD presented local traditions and fests, but these also are too much specific of local authenticity for being understood by non local population. Berger (cit.: 12) pointed to the same fact, that foreigners usually think about some “American character”, forgetting that the USA is composed by a “great variety of life-styles, belief structures, attitudes, values, and so on”. In fact we usually remind our tourism students that visitors are very curious to participate in local ceremonies, because rites and ceremonies are very particular and colourful as well as providing aspects of authenticity.

The third document was about Kerala in India. The presentation was greatly appreciated because of strong colours of sunsets and landscapes; also rivers, seas and water changed colour in order to attract viewers towards the last asset in international tourism, the spa and fitness facilities. The tour operators also pointed to another aspect, largely utilized in tourist advertisement, the presence of models who were present everywhere.

34 The fourth document presented a spa situated in an Italian resort in the same region where the city of Bologna is located. In order to avoid localism, the presentation had been shortened. The presentation was judged too technical and specific. The tourist attractions pointed to some monuments, instead of landscape, and students didn’t appreciate too much.

The fifth CD was considered to be the best one. It was produced to present tourism in Taiwan. Its excellence was based on high level of movie art technology, founded on different scenes, spots, movements and zooming, utilizing music, songs, instruments and interviews. A student from Taiwan, present in classroom, testified to the authenticity of statements and situations; he was the most interested in the content and in the discussion.

It was clear from this that the use of movies is justified only if they are discussed and reflected upon, if questions are posed, and if images stimulate thoughts.

Conclusion

Culture and knowledge are multi-faced and multi-interpreted, according to personal values, as Umberto Eco has argued: “ Codes and sub-codes are applied to the message in the light of a general framework of cultural references, which constitute the receiver’s patrimony of knowledge: his ideological, ethical, religious standpoints, his psychological attitudes, his tastes, his value systems (1972: 115).

The main question, possible in the classroom situation described above, has not been entirely posed: how students from different cultures interpret or decode our understanding of the world. I noticed that it would require psychological, anthropological competencies that not all teacher could have. In addition, this work requires more time than few hours in a short semester course, more years of course with the same opportunities, but this experience could be a starting point for future reflection. The goal of my classes has not been well focused, because I noticed that the individual predispositions of my students, their schemas, repertoires, life histories were more diversified than their pertinence to an identified country. In other words, I can say that there are more peculiarities among persons than between one population and another.

The final point could be, according to Berger (cit.: 20), “to learn to narrow our focus and qualify our assertion and to recognize how complex cultures and societies are”. In addition – as Gozzi states (cit., p. 112), “a better understanding of the natural strategies for processing audiovisual information could provide a valuable arena for further systematic exploration of visual-cognitive skills in general. Such evidence may help explain the communicative and persuasive power of the medium of television as it compares with other communication tools”. This means that our experience is only a starting point in the understanding the several colours of our globe.

References BERGER, A.A. (1992), Analyzing Media and Popular Culture from a cross-cultural perspective in KORZENNY F., TING-TOOMEY S. (eds.), Mass Media Effects Across Cultures, Proceedings of the International and Intercultural Communication Annual 1992, Vol. XVI, London: SAGE, 11-22. BRAITHWAITE, C.A., (1990), Communicative Silence: A Cross-Cultural Study of Basso’s Hypothesis, in CARBAUGH, D. (ed), Cultural Communication and Intercultural Contact, Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Ass. Publishers, 321-328.

35 COHEN, A.A. and ROEH, I. (1992), When Fiction and News Cross Over the Border- Notes on Differential Readings and Effects in KORZENNY F., TING-TOOMEY S. (eds.) cit., 23- 34. ECO, U. (1972), Towards a semiotic inquiry into the television message, Working Papers, University of Birmingham. GOZZI, R. (1992), Mass Media Effects in High and Low-Context Cultures, in KORZENNY F., TING-TOOMEY S., cit., 55-66. HOBBS, R. FROST, R.(1992), Comprehension of Transitional Editing Conventions by African Tribal Villagers, in KORZENNY F., TING-TOOMEY S. (eds.) cit., 110-129. KATSIOLOUDES, M.I., (2006), Strategic Management. Global Cultural Perspectives for Profit and Non-Profit Organisations, Oxford: Elseviere. LACAN, J., (2006 ), The Function and Field of Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis in Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English, transl. by Bruce Fink, New York: W.W. Norton and Co. KNOBLAUCH, H. (2001), A Communicative Constructivist Approach to Intercultural Communication, in DI LUZIO, A., GUNTHNER A., ORLETTI, F. (eds), Culture in Communication, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Publ Comp., 3-34. SMITH , L.R. (1992) Media Networking- Toward a Model for the Global Management of Sociocultural Change, in KORZENNY F., TING-TOOMEY S. (eds.) cit., 201-228.

36 Section 2: Educational Diversity

Windows on the World: Global Citizenship in Dutch Education

Mirjam Nagel Project Manager Alice O – Education in a Global Perspective [email protected]

Abstract

Children and young people are increasingly part of a globalising world. In order to effectively participate in this world, it is of vital importance that they learn to be aware of and look critically at their own environment and the wider world. Global citizens do not only have knowledge of global systems and processes, they are also actively engaged with the world and its inhabitants.

In January 2009, the official Dutch ‘Canon’ for Global Citizenship was launched. The canon is an initiative of NCDO (National Commission for International Cooperation and Sustainable Development) and Utrecht University which offers windows to the world. The canon offers the education sector a way of working with global citizenship in the classroom. In the canon for global citizenship, eight central themes are distinguished: Diversity, Identity, Human Rights, Sustainable Development, Globalisation, (North-South) Division, Peace and Conflict and Global Interconnectedness. Each theme offers three ‘windows to the world’ which form a starting point for working with global citizenship in the classroom. The canon was not meant to be a prescribed set of topics, but offers different views through its windows on the world. It challenges people to look through them, discover the interconnectedness with places, people and events elsewhere in the world.

Global citizenship

Global citizenship; is an often used term, but still hard to define. The many perspectives in which you can look at global citizenship education makes the term hard to interpret. Everybody has their own ideas and concepts about this topic. The question is how global citizenship can be implemented in education, and should geography play a role in this case?

In the Netherlands the Canon4 of Global Citizenship was launched. This canon offers different ‘windows’ to the world, which form a starting point for teachers to implement global citizenship in their classrooms. How is this canon built up, and how does it contribute to education for global citizenship? We will show which steps were taken to build the canon, so other countries can also benefit from it. The main question in this paper is therefore: “How does the Dutch canon for Global citizenship contribute to education on global citizenship, and how can Geography benefit from this canon?”

4 Canon stems from ancient Greek, and means ‘measuring rod’ or ‘standard’. In this sense it is used as a group of themes which are generally seen as representing the field of global citizenship education.

37 The world is getting smaller; other parts of the world are easier to reach and because of digital means of communications, the possibilities for sharing and obtaining information have increased dramatically. As citizens we should adapt to this global reach and be global citizens.

Out network of friends and family is getting more global; people are going to study or work in other countries and the media brings news from all the parts off the world. Also our food, clothes, transport, computer or cell phone show the global connections; we can’t see ourselves apart from the rest of the world. The last argument for creating global citizenship is the fact that ‘we’ are the 20% of the world population who lives in prosperity. By realizing this you can reflect on your own existence and put your own life in broader perspective. This awareness can lead to a certain contribution to make the world more liveable and fair.

In the Netherlands, the National Commission for International Cooperation and Sustainable Development (NCDO) has made a description of a global citizen; He or she: • is aware of the world and his own role as global citizen • respects diversity in norms and values • is willing to contribute in making the world more fair • takes responsibility for his/her own actions • contributes to the own community • has a clear vision on international affairs • recognizes possibilities and challenges to enrich global participation and interaction with the world • feels involved with humanity

Besides the assumption of a certain base of knowledge and perception about international affairs and trends, global citizenship also demands an active attitude towards global matters. Such a global participation can only be reached by being aware of what is happening in the world and the influence of this on our own personal situation. Citizens of today have access to a lot of sources to stay updated about global issues and the background of these events. They should be able to form a realistic image on these issues. There are some comments though.

Media Citizens can gather information about global events and processes from the media. However, media sources which offer objective background information about global trends are acquainted with a small amount of readers. For a lot of Dutch citizens the television is the most important source of information. This can cause a distorted image. Information about development, sustainability and human rights which is offered on television is most of the time packed in amusement. Global problems are therefore being simplified. The Internet is an inexhaustible source of information. It struggles with the same problem as television though. Too much information is offered in a light-hearted way.

Social organisations Research shows that the classic membership of churches, trade unions or political parties declines. Membership of idealistic organisations is increasing. This leads to the so-called “check book-solidarity”; or practical idealism. The threat here is that people have to stay tuned to the changes in the international context and be supportive for the cases which really matter.

Children spend most of their time at school; therefore this is the place to get information on global topics. The Dutch education system has a strong tradition in social oriented courses

38 and development education, but the question rises if schools assign a proper image of the international reality to their students. Images on this topic demand constant adjustment, and should be presented in an objective way. This is not always the case in the Netherlands; different researches show that young children often have stereotyped images on international affairs.

Global Citizenship Education

To get involved with global topics and global citizenship, it is important to start as early as possible. In that case, children will more easily adapt an awareness which reaches beyond local or national boundaries, gather knowledge of international affairs and build up a certain empathy with and respect for other people and their culture. Because of this awareness, they will be able to distinguish subjective images of the world and therefore become global citizens with an objective and proper view on the world.

The attention to this international dimension in education is not new. For instance, in the United Kingdom schools work with global citizenship education for years already, and also in Germany ‘das Globales Lernen’ is a well-known term.

Every country which implements citizenship in their educational curriculum has its own way of implementing. While education standards differ in every country this is not a problem, as long as the basic knowledge on spatial issues (environment, resources, economy), the reflection on values and attitude and the development of skills are taken into account.

The Dutch Canon of Global Citizenship

NCDO and Utrecht University launched this Canon and used the following themes:

Diversity This theme is centred on the rich diversity of the world in all kind of ways (historical, cultural, physical). This diversity makes the world an interesting place for students to learn about others and build respect for them. It is also important that they recognize the influence which these differences have on each other. Identity People feel connected to a certain community. This theme emphasizes on social identification; what kind of communities are there, which are the ones people feel connected to? Human Rights In this theme the Universal Declaration of Human Rights gets attention. How can countries contribute to these rights, and what happens in case of violation of these rights? Sustainable development Because of the increasing climate change this is an important matter. How can we behave more sustainable, and therefore operate in a better way for our world? Globalisation The connections between people all over the world are highlighted in this theme. Economic relations, migration movements and cultural exchange; what do these global aspects mean to people, and how do they influence their lives? (North-South) Division

39 The unequal division between North and South is stressed here. Why is there difference in access to nutrition, shelter and healthcare in different parts of the world, and how can we decrease these differences? Peace and Conflict For the global community it is of vital importance that regional conflicts are solved as soon and as peaceful as possible. How do we organize this, and what are the threats of an international army like the UN-army? Global participation How do people cope with the outcomes of global citizenship. How do we get our global information, what is the role of the contemporary media in this case, and what happens to our (global) consumption and lifestyle?

Every theme has 3 ‘windows’, which form examples to use in the classroom. These windows clarify a certain aspect of the theme. When choosing these windows the variety was always kept in mind; there are places, events, organisations and objects; some from the past, some from the present; every part of the world is represented. They are just starting points; teachers can come up with their own ideas.

NCDO and Utrecht University think that with these eight themes all the aspects of being a global citizen are covered. When students work in an active way with these themes they will get acquainted with all aspects of global citizenship.

An example: Globalisation

Let’s take globalisation to clarify the Dutch canon. In this classification globalisation stands for the strong bilateral connection and interdependence of areas and people in the world. The three aspects to exemplify this theme are the following:

1. The shifting economic relations and economic centres of gravity in a world where trade and investments are important. The window for this topic is Shanghai; a global city which can be seen as a symbol of the rising economic significance of China. 2. The major international migration movements which developed as an outcome of the globalisation process. Here the window is Ceuta; the Spanish enclave in Morocco. A lot of African migrants living here have to deal with many political and ethical dilemma’s. 3. The cultural exchange where new patterns and mixtures in food, music and fashion arise from. Djembé is highlighted; a west African instrument which stands for native traditions, but also for an international exchange of music styles.

These windows can be shown and used in class; the questions that will arise or the way in which the teacher presents the windows, highly depend on the context. The age of the students, the school type, the social context of the students, the input of the teachers and the amount of available time are all factors which shape this context.

The role of Geography

As already said, global citizenship and also the Dutch Canon are founded on a certain basic knowledge. This knowledge can be found in Geography: spatial differences, developments in time, visions on important global issues, possible directions of solutions and the notion of links between local and global concerns.

40 Geography offers a wide variety of possibilities to contribute in themes like diversity, sustainability, globalisation and division. The Dutch Canon shows the central task of Geography in education for global citizenship.

Besides gathering basic knowledge, global citizenship also stresses on exploration of different perspectives of value, a reflection on the own values and standards of behaviour. Students need to learn to cope with stereotypes and prejudices, intercultural notion, empathy and a feeling of alliance; devotion to social justice and equality and respect for the environment. Al these matters are imbedded in a social course like Geography. This course has the noble task to prepare adolescents on their awareness to be a global citizen in the society. This concerns the learning of the basic knowledge on processes and issues; a reflection on the thoughts about values and the skills to act like a true global citizen.

The role which Geography can play in global citizenship education is quite clear. The important matter now is that advocates of both geography and global citizenship work together and learn from each other. The Canon is being translated in English, so also other countries can use these windows to work with global citizenship in the classroom.

The Dutch Canon may give rise to a lot of questions; but it also provides possibilities which bring global education, and the role of Geography, in a clearer perspective. An international use of the Canon, isn’t that the best example of global cooperation and citizenship?

References Beneker, T. , Stalborch M. van, Vaart, R. van der (2009), Vensters op de wereld. Rapport van de Commissie Canon voor Wereldburgerschap. NCDO and Faculteit Geowetenschappen Universiteit Utrecht, Amsterdam/Utrecht. Beneker, T. (2009), Vensters op de wereld. Canon voor wereldburgerschap. In : Geografie, 02-09, 6-11 Beneker, T. and Vaart, R. van der (2008), Wereldburgerschap in het onderwijs. NCDO visiedocument. NCDO, Amsterdam

41 Using Problem-Based Learning to teach retailing and consumption geographies Herculano Cachinho University of Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract Problem-based learning (PBL) is a method of teaching and learning, which is being increasingly used in curricula covering a great diversity of subjects worldwide. The literature on PBL is vast and continues to increase considering that it raises an important set of issues ranging from the appraisal of its purposes, benefits and risks, to the accurate description of the technique and the presentation of “sound practices”. By involving a student-centred approach, oriented to foster self-directed learning, small-group learning and decision-making strategies, PBL is particularly appropriate for effectively handling the Bologna Process. This paper provides an overview of a PBL experience that was undertaken in the course Retailing and Consumption Geographies, an optional subject in the Geography undergraduate degree programme at Lisbon University. The learning experience involved 50 students who expressed very different reactions. Some responded well to the challenge, making a peaceful transition from “teach me” to “help me to learn”, and they appreciated the benefits of the method. However, others found the approach confusing and were not able to adapt to the challenges, partly because it was their first PBL experience. When asked to evaluate their learning experience, a significant number of students tended to stress the technique rather than problem-solving, critical thinking, teamwork or communication, skills particularly relevant to their professional future.

Keywords: Problem-based learning, retailing and consumption geography, Bologna Process, teamwork, student-centred learning.

Introduction

Geography in higher education, as in many other subjects, is currently facing an important challenge in Portugal: putting the Bologna Process and the Lisbon Strategy into practice. Crucially shaped by the technical rationale paradigm, politicians and academics have always tried to solve the discipline’s problem of its inadequacy to answer the demands of society and the labour market by overhauling study programmes and syllabuses (Cachinho, 2008). However, the results of these measures have been far from positive. It is true that the subject has changed and in many aspects, syllabus contents are more attractive to students today, but pedagogical practices and teaching strategies insist on remaining fairly similar to what they were before. In fact, modules of different subjects continue to be content centred; the framework of generic and specific competences developed and assessed by the Tuning Project (2003) and the HERODOT Network (Donert, 2007) has been devalued and continues to be unused by almost all teachers, while students are a long way from being placed at the heart of the educational and training process.

In this paper I argue that in order to face the new challenges we do not need new curricula and syllabuses with more fashionable content. Renewing these attributes can help to make study programmes more credible both in terms of the curriculum and in the eyes of students, but teachers’ practices remain untouched, and as Sebarroja (2001) stated, no educational reform

42 can be successful without a change in teachers’ thoughts, routines and attitudes. In contrast to what has be done so far, we believe that in order to tackle new challenges successfully, it is crucial to make a real investment in changing teaching methodologies and strategies capable of altering the traditional role played by teachers and students in the educational process.

To illustrate our perspective on this subject, this paper will present a problem-based learning (PBL) experience in the module Retailing and Consumption Geographies, an elective course in the Geography undergraduate programme at Lisbon University. PBL represents a shift from the traditional approach which focuses on the teaching method, to a perspective that focuses on the students’ learning processes, thus entailing consequences for education as a whole (Dahlgren et al., 1998). Intrinsically linked with the constructivist approaches and discovery learning theories, PBL radically changes the roles played by both teachers and students. Above all, teachers are invited to become excellent observers, talented creators and managers of learning experiences. Freed from performing, they can spend their time observing the students’ performances and using this observation for their own research. On the other hand, in being placed at the heart of the educational process, students are encouraged to take the main role in the learning process. They are invited not only to acquire specific subject knowledge, but also develop many transferable skills, such as critical thinking, problem solving, time management, independent learning, and the art of communication (both verbal and written), teamwork and self-motivation. In fact, all the activities in PBL are designed with the students in mind and are based on the assumption that if well planned, they will have a lasting influence on their thoughts and attitudes.

The paper is organised in three short sections. The first introduces the concept of the PBL approach. This is followed by a brief presentation of the PBL experience applied to the module on Retailing and Consumption Geographies. Finally, the third section provides a first assessment of the learning experience in terms of outcomes, encouraging student self- evaluation, and the tutor’s view.

What is Problem Based Learning?

Even if PBL can take almost as many forms as the places in which it is applied (Macdonald, 2001:1), there is relative agreement about a set of elements that identify this approach involving teaching and learning (Sproken-Smith, 2005). First of all, PBL is a student-centred educational method that uses problem-solving strategies as an anchor for learning (Bligh, 1995; Wood, 2003; Beringer, 2007). Through the use of “triggers” behind problem scenarios, students are placed in the active role of problem-solvers and start off their learning process by defining the goals they need to achieve through a blend of self-directed study and teamwork (Doing, 1993).

As Wood (2003) pointed out, PBL is not about problem-solving per se, but rather, it uses real- life problems with the aim of enhancing knowledge, understanding and skills. Actually, the problems have a dual role in the process: they organize the curriculum in terms of contents, replacing the traditional subjects or topics, and provide the context for learning (Bligh, 1995). Given the key role they play, problems should offer students a rich variety of learning experiences and provide them with transferable skills including: problem solving, self- inquiry, self-confidence, self-discipline, learning how to learn, critical thinking and team work (Roberts and Ousey, 2003). This is why, regardless of the set of variants they may involve, problems tend to be complex and open-ended (Jr Levia and Quiring, 2008). If well conceived and presented through suggestive “triggers” or scenarios, they immediately catch

43 the students’ attention and stimulate group discussion and collaboration. After some time spent brainstorming and exchanging views, students working in small groups identify what they know about the problems and, more crucially, they become aware of what knowledge gaps they need to cover, and what information they have to collect in order to answer questions and solve problems (Dahlgren et al., 1998). Thus, at the end of each tutorial session, each group defines an action plan with clear aims to achieve and sets down tasks for each member to carry out until the next group meeting. Between tutorial sessions, students work independently on tasks bringing back their findings. The group reflects on the new knowledge and decides on further action in order to find a satisfactory answer to the problem. Since making mistakes is a part of real life, the PBL approach allows students take risks and pursue inappropriate avenues. Making mistakes and realizing their errors often reinforces the correct information (Alexson and Kemnitz, 2001). Nevertheless, for effective learning to take place, it is essential that students have the chance to reflect and adapt their work in order to build upon their successes and learn from their mistakes (King, 2001).

While working in small groups assisted by a tutor is a typical attribute of PBL, the use of group work in itself in a course does not make a PBL approach (Spronken-Smith, 2005). The main goal of PBL is to involve students in meaningful learning experiences, taking advantage of the high potential of teamwork and also the role that the teacher plays as a facilitator. Through group work, students have the opportunity not only of investigating real-world problems and building new knowledge accordingly, but also of acquiring a set of intellectual and transferable skills “that can be deployed in a wide variety of social settings” (Bridges, 1993. 50) which have been devalued by the traditional model of teaching. In a PBL approach, the independent student’s work continues to be essential to the learning process, but it is no longer a private activity. After studying by themselves, they need return to the group to discuss and share their findings. In doing so, students have the opportunity to learn how to interpret the group processes and how to convey and receive useful feedback (Dahlgren et al., 1998). Thus, PBL methodology is not about group work for its own sake, but rather it uses tutorial work in small groups to make public, the processes of learning and problem-solving, leading students to higher-order thinking (Beringer, 2007) and comprehension (Rhem, 1998).

The PBL experience of retailing and consumption geographies

The decision to follow a PBL approach in the course was based on a set of pedagogical factors. Firstly, it is relevant to stress the importance of providing undergraduates with learning experiences based on different teaching styles and strategies. Among the innovations introduced by the Bologna Process, widely recognised by the Portuguese government (Decreto-Lei n.o 42/2005), is the call to adopt teaching methods so as to focus on the student him/herself and to plan the curriculum in order to develop knowledge, understanding and transferable skills. In this context, due to its intrinsically constructivist nature, the PBL approach is in a unique position to respond to these goals effectively. Secondly, emphasizing the holistic view of problems, PBL is particularly suited to interdisciplinary subjects, such as geography or the environmental sciences (Spronken-Smith, 2005; Pawson et al., 2006; Chappell, 2006).

In recent years, several geographers have advocated the suitability of this technique for teaching different topics in geography. Its value has been assessed in fieldwork classes namely by Bradbeer and Livingstone (1996), Chappell (2001) and Perkins et al. (2001), in environmental education by Dahlgren et al. (1998), in Environment Sciences by Alexson and Kemitz (2001) and Jr Levia and Quiring (2008); in the world regional geography by Fournier

44 (2002), in the urban planning curriculum by Kotval (2003), in research methods by Spronken- Smith (2005), in earth systems interactions by Beringer (2007) and in GIS by Bednarz (2000). Last but not least, among the reasons for embracing the PBL approach is the opportunity to put theory into practice as well as to make Retailing and Consumption Geographies an example of “good teaching practices”. Investing in renewed teaching methods and learning strategies is justified due to the fact that undergraduate programmes in Geography at Lisbon University are still tightly shaped by a technical rationale. Basically, university teachers have always believed that education and training lie in learning scientific content. It is assumed that a solid scientific education in the subject is enough to become a good professional, and in order to be a good teacher it is enough to know a lot, bearing in mind the fact that transmitting information would occur without any problems.

Considering the above rationale and other factors related with contents, available time and the students’ profile, we will now give a brief outline of the syllabus that was drawn up.

Retailing and Consumption Geographies is an elective course in the Geography undergraduate programme. The course runs for one semester and earns the student 5 ECTS. It has a workload equivalent to about 140 hours of student effort: consisting of 42 hours tutoring and 98 hours private study. Broadly speaking, the course is an introduction to retailing and consumption in an urban space. Through a PBL methodology and case studies, students are invited to develop their knowledge and understanding about the growth of retail-city linkages and the role played by consumption in the contemporary city’s production and experience. Besides content, it is expected that learning experiences contribute actively to the development of a wide range of instrumental, interpersonal and systemic competences, both generic and subject-related, such as: i) applying and understanding geographical concepts, ii) asking geographical questions, iii) collecting, organising and summarising information from different sources, iv) using appropriate geographical representation methods and techniques, v) developing logical arguments vi) thinking critically; vii ) problem-solving; viii) successfully undertaking research; ix) communicating effectively and fluently by written, spoken and visual means; x) working in group; xi) learning to listen and respect others; and xii) taking independent responsibility for one’s own learning. The aims of the course are given in Table 1.

Table 1 – Aims of the course Retailing and Consumption Geographies Make a summary of the main geographical concepts and perspectives about retailing and consumption in an urban setting. Discuss the role of retailing and consumption in the way contemporary urban society is organised and works. Describe the main changes in the urban retail landscape and their underlying processes. Evaluate the potentialities of retailing and consumption in the regeneration of urban centres in order to improve their competitiveness. Develop critical thinking by solving problems connected with consumption and retailing. Develop skills in the field of research and in teamwork by means of devising and drawing up small-scale projects based on retailing and consumption. Enhance spoken and written communicative capacities by means of using different resources, in particular, ICT. Encourage responsibility and autonomy in the learning process through a combination of private study and teamwork.

45 In order to achieve these aims, four problem-solving situations were given to the students, one for each block of topics in the programme. The first problem was aimed at discussing some key concepts (retailing, consumption and city); the second dealt with changes in the retail landscapes of cities; the third question raised the role of consumption in revitalising urban spaces, and the fourth problem, which was optional, took the form of a case study. In the case study, the students were able to choose one of the following three subjects: i) exploring the meaning of urban shopping centres in the consumers’ shopping experiences; ii) analysing the retail dynamics at work in Avenida da Liberdade, and iii) discussing the role of the open-air market, Feira do Relógio, in Lisbon’s retail scene. More than the topic itself, the fourth problem was demarcated from the previous three because it entailed field work as a source of information and it was a pretext seeking to develop competences connected with first-hand data collecting, processing statistical, graphic and cartographical data and giving feedback on the results. Each problem was backed up by a “trigger" / a different scenario that gradually unfolded throughout three weeks of effective work. Owing to the fact that the topics on retailing and consumption in an urban setting were new to the students, each situation was given a framework in the form of the teacher’s lecture. The lectures served a twofold purpose in that they introduced the topic and motivated students to follow through with their own problem solving. Because the students were unfamiliar with the PBL method, two extra 3- hour lessons were included. Their goal was to introduce students to the method, separate the class into working groups and lay down the ground rules, define assessment, make known the intended learning outcomes and celebrate group contracts.

The PBL tutorial approach can be conducted in several ways depending on whether the model adopted is “pure” or “hybrid” (Wood, 2003). In order to implement our learning experience, we adopted the “seven Jump” Maastricht process, composed of seven steps: 1) identify and clarify terms and concepts presented in the scenario; 2) define the problem(s) to be discussed; 3) brainstorming session to discuss the problem(s), suggesting possible explanations on the basis of prior knowledge; 4) discuss and organise ideas and arrange explanations into uncertain solutions; 5) generate learning objectives and outcomes; 6) private study by each member of the group in order to gather information related with learning objectives; 7) report back to the group to share results of private study and discuss the newly acquired information.

To facilitate the enhancement of the student learning experience, special attention was paid to five requisites, which according to Duch (2001), are essential for successful PBL. Thus, 1) all scenarios should be planned to reflect real-life situations, relevant to professional practice in the discipline; 2) in order to solve problems, students should be asked to investigate and base their answers in factual, scientific information; 3) scenarios should be designed in terms of content and complexity bearing in mind the potentialities of group work and the value of talking things over within the group; 4) the problems should be sufficiently open, so that discussion is not curtailed too early in the process; and 5) the set of problems presented to the students should be designed in such a way that they deal with content and call upon prior knowledge gained in other courses, thereby encouraging them to interconnect modules and integrate their knowledge. In the next section, we provide a first assessment of the learning experience conducted with 50 students, using for this purpose a questionnaire completed by the students at the end of the course and designed to determine student satisfaction.

Assessment of the PBL experience: the students’ point of view

In order to ascertain the success of the PBL experience, students undertook to reply to an anonymous survey at the end of the course in 2008, one week before receiving their final

46 marks. The questionnaire, informally administered in class, included a mix of closed- and open-ended questions. In the first group, students described their feelings and thoughts about the PBL experience by rating them on a fixed scale ranging from 1 to 6 (1 = totally agree and 6 = strongly disagree). The questions dealt with the relevance of topics and subject-contents, the quality of scenarios and problems, the suitability of teaching and learning methods, the value of resources used to back up teaching and learning, the tutor profile, and student self- evaluation in terms of knowledge, understanding and skills acquired from the course. In the second group, students were called upon to express their opinions about the organisation and structure of the course; the strengths and weaknesses of the PBL experience; their performance and commitment to learning, in particular in the working group, and what they would change in the course to improve it. Finally, students were actively encouraged to produce written comments about any aspect they considered relevant but which was omitted in the questionnaire. They were invited to express their global level of satisfaction with the course on a scale from 1 to 5 (1 = poor and 5 = excellent). The following assessment is based on the results of the survey and the students’ written comments.

According to the students’ opinion the course was only moderately successful. As for the degree of overall satisfaction, about half the students expressed a relatively neutral opinion (3.1 in a scale ranging from 1 to 6). Only 28% said they were very satisfied, underlining the innovating character of the course in terms of its teaching/learning methods and the interest generated by the topics in view of a geographer's training. At the opposite end of the scale, about 12% of the students said they were very disappointed with the course, alleging that methodology was given undue attention in detriment to content, group work was compulsory, the teacher kept too low a profile in the classroom and topics which they had thought were relevant, were very superficially dealt with. The contrasting opinions of two students are quite revealing regarding this point: Student A: “The subject ended up by influencing my academic career owing to innovative methods and the sense of responsibility I acquired during the semester in which I attended the course". Student B: “The content was very interesting but poorly exploited, which is a pity. The method is excessive, abusive and tiring! This subject is called Retailing and Consumption Geographies and not Geography Methodology”.

Several factors made their appearance in the students’ overall appreciation, which a detailed analysis of the parameters in the survey will allow us to understand better. Generally speaking, the topics, the course contents and the questions that were raised earned the students’ favourable opinion (2.5). 72% of the students thought that they were highly relevant to their education and stressed the course’s innovative character and originality, as well as its usefulness and applicability to real life. More than 50% of the students said the same thing in terms of the competences developed by the course subject. Paradoxically, a substantial number criticised the superficiality with which the contents had been handled.

Satisfaction plunged when it came to class-time and the teaching/learning method (2.9). Although 60% of the students recognised that: (1) the lessons encouraged discovery, critical reflection and discussion; (2) credit was given to active participation; (3) the teaching/learning method encouraged students to acquire competences by working in groups and by speaking/communicating and thinking critically, the truth is that the majority did not agree that the lessons were aimed at: (1) helping the student to develop through meaningful learning; (2) favouring the build-up of knowledge, or (3) encouraging the student to be autonomous. A considerable number of students tended to make a negative assessment of the

47 course when it came to the teaching/learning method and thought that the teacher should have transmitted more; they also thought that there was too little time reserved for problem solving and that they hardly had any time to clear up their doubts.

The least positive assessment of the course was situated in the section dealing with pedagogical resources (3.0). Here, students stressed the fact that the classrooms was not suitable for group work, that there were too few computers connected to the internet and because the class was too large, there were too many teams which made it difficult for the facilitator to follow them up adequately. Some students also pointed out that the course reading matter had a few weak spots. They complained that there was a dearth of material in Portuguese and too many English-language texts, and that some problem-solving situations did not have sufficient coverage. However, most of the students admitted that group work and fieldwork was important for developing competences and a working knowledge of the subject.

The students gave decidedly positive opinions about their teacher’s scientific and pedagogical qualities (2.1). More than 80% stressed his scientific competences, his innovative outlook when dealing with topics and his assiduousness. The students favouring more content-based lessons and lecturer-centred approaches however, would have preferred more lecturing. Some students even suggested adopting a hybrid method. Nevertheless, the fact that students were able to recognise these qualities in their teacher does not invalidate the fact that 28% thought that he not always put the students at their ease, and that his explanations were not always clear to them.

Students’ self-evaluation of their own progress was fairly positive (2.9), although it seemed to be somewhat contradictory. In fact, 50% or more admitted that the subject had allowed them to (1) acquire useful knowledge, (2) develop autonomy and reflect upon their learning, (3) become more interested in topics to do with retailing and consumption, (4) learn new working techniques, (5) develop competences that they were able to use in other course subjects, and (6) have a greater participation in the work. However, only 24% said that the working methodology was well adjusted to their own style of learning and 20% said that apart from having appreciated the methodological approach, they also liked the way it could be applied to other subjects. Regarding these outcomes, the students seemed to be transmitting two signals: they recognised the discipline’s high educational possibilities and its usefulness owing to the knowledge and competences they had acquired, but the changes they had to make in switching over to another kind of working method demanded an investment that many did not care to make.

Concluding Remarks

In this article, reflection was aimed at the PBL experience that was had in 2008 in the Geography module Retailing and Consumption Geographies, taught at Lisbon University. Apart from describing the learning experience in broad lines, an assessment of it was made by analysing the students’ opinions obtained by means of a survey. The Bologna Process and Lisbon Strategy challenge higher education institutions to devise study programmes so as to facilitate the development of knowledge, understanding and skills, and to adopt active teaching methods focusing on the student. Since PBL is “an active learning method that leads to greater understanding and achievement of competences, rather than retention of knowledge for its own sake” (Pawson et al., 2006: 114), this was the method we found to address these challenges. However, students’ feedback varied significantly. Some students passed through

48 stages of shock and resistance, this is typical of those newly exposed to PBL, who become members of effective working groups and can ably answer the challenge. They made a peaceful transition from “teach me” to “help me to learn”, and thought that the PBL was a positive experience that they would like to apply to other courses. At the other extreme, a small group of students totally rejected the methodology and failed to see any interest in it or educational merit. While some students in this category dropped out of the subject, others remained even if they did not like it, asking the teacher why he did not change his teaching method. Because they were angry, they took advantage of the questionnaire to air their grievances. One student went as far as stating: “I don’t understand this obsession with methodology and next year you should go back to the traditional method. Add contents to the programme and go into them. This is the only way to really learn!” Finally, most students found the approach confusing and had many difficulties in overcoming challenges raised by the method. This happened not only because it was their first PBL experience, but it was also due to other factors, such as the large number of students in the class, the scarcity of resources in the classroom, little time available for research - a lack keenly felt by workers-students and some weaknesses on the part of the facilitator. When asked to evaluate their leaning experience, this group tended to stress the technique rather than problem-solving, critical thinking, teamwork or communication, skills particularly relevant to their professional future. We are convinced that in the way they go through other learning experiences, this group of students will come to appreciate the real benefits of PBL.

References Alexson, R.; Kemmnitz (2001), The World Bank Scenario – A Problem-Based Learning Activity in Human Geography and Environmental Science, Planet, Special Issue 2, 25-26. Bednarz, S. (2000), Connecting GIS and Problem Based Learning, in R. H. Audet and V. Ludwing (eds.) Gis in schools, Redlands, ESRI Press, 89-101 Beringer, J. (2007), Application of Problem Based learning through Research Investigation, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31 (3), 445-457. Bligh, J. (1995), Problem based, small group learning, British Medical Journal, 311, 342-343. Bradbeer, J. and Livingstone, I. (1996), Problem-based learning and fieldwork: A better method of preparation?, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 20 (1), 11-18. Bridges, D. (1993), Transferable skills – philosophical perspectives, Studies in Higher Education, 18 (1), 43-52. Cachinho, H. (2008), Geography education in Portugal: discourses and practice, in Donert, K. and Wall, G. (eds.) Future Prospects in Geography, Liverpool Hope University Press, Liverpool, 19-26. Chappell, A. (2001), Challenging the Teaching Convention in Geography Using Problem- Based Learning: the Role of Reflective Practice in Supporting Change, Planet, Special Issue 2, 18-22. Chappell, A. (2006), Using the ‘Grieving’ Process and Learning Journals to Evaluate Students’ Responses to Problem-Based Learning in an Undergraduate Geography Curriculum, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30 (1), 15-31. Dahlgren, M., Castensson, R. and Dahlgren L. (1998), PBL from the teachers’ perspective: Conceptions of the tutor’s role within problem based learning, Higher Education, 36, 437- 447. Doing, K. (1993), Adopting and adapting problem-based learning for laboratory science, Laboratory Medicine, 24 (7), 411-416. Donert, K. (2007), Tuning Geography: a report of findings and outcomes, http://www.HERODOT.net/state/TUNING-Geography-v1.pdf, accessed 23/03/2009.

49 Donert, K. and Wall, G. (eds.) (2008), Future Prospects in Geography, Liverpool Hope University Press, Liverpool. Duch, B. (2001), Writing problems for deeper understanding, in B. Duch, E. Groh , D. Allen (eds.) The Power of Problem-Based Learning, Sterling, Stylus Publishing. Fournier, E. (2002), World regional geography and problem-based learning: using collaborative learning groups in an introductory-level world geography course, Journal of General Education, 51, 293-305. Jr. Levia, D. and Quiring, S. (2008), Assessment of Student Learning in a Hybrid PBL Capstone Seminar, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32 (2), 217-231. King, H. (2001), Editorial: Case Studies in Problem-based Learning from Geography Earth and Environmental Sciences, Planet, Special Issue 2, 3-4. Kotval, Z. (2003), Teaching Experiential Learning in the Urban Planning Curriculum, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 27 (3), 297-308. Macdonald, R. (2001), Problem-based learning: implications for educational developers, Educational Developments, 2 (2), 1-5. Pawson, E., Fournier, E., Haigh, M., Muniz, O., Trafford, J. and Vajoczki, S. (2006), Problem-based Learning in Geography: Towards a Critical Assessment of its Purposes, Benefits and Risks, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 30 (1), 103-116. Perkins, C., Evens, M., Gavin, H., Johns, J. and Moore, J. (2001), Fieldwork and Problem- Based Learning, Planet, special edition Two, 27-28. Spronken-Smith, R. (2005), Implementing a Problem-Based Learning Approach for Teaching Research Methods in Geography, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 29 (2), 203- 221. Rhem, J. (1998). Problem-based learning: an introduction, National Teaching and Learning Forum, 8 (1), 71-88. Roberts, D. and Ousey, K. (2004), Problem based learning: developing the triggers. Experiences from a first wave site, Nurse Education in Practice, 4, 154-158. Sebarroja, J. (2001), A Aventura de Inovar. A mudança na escola, Porto Editora, Porto. Tuning Project (2003): Tuning Education Structures in Europe, Final Report, Pilot Project Phase 1. Wood, D. (2003) ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning, British Medical Journal, 326, 328-330.

50 Diversity of didactic approaches in teaching Geography

Lea Nemec [email protected]

Abstract This paper discusses different didactic approaches in teaching geography as viewed through the prism of Kolb’s experiential learning theory and Kolb’s learning styles inventory. The survey, based on Kolb’s model of a four-stage cycle (concrete, experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation) and a four-type definition of learning styles (diverging, assimilating, converging and accommodating), was carried out in Slovenia. It aimed to define the main preferences and obstacles encountered by teachers and their students towards the process of acquiring information, concepts and skills through the experiential learning and highlight the importance of considering learning styles in the act of choosing teaching and learning methods in geographical education.

Key words: geographical education, learning styles, experiential learning, teaching and learning methods, Slovenia.

Introduction

“Today teaching in most cases serves as a medium for the teaching content on a more abstract level, in form of various theories, laws and concepts, with an intention of students using their knowledge in their future personal or professional life” (Resnik Planinc, 2001).

This manner of teaching, without the integration of abstract conceptualization and an everyday life experience, cannot transform geographic teaching content into permanent knowledge, just into a temporary one. Permanent comprehension is achieved only, if we put life experience in the centre of the teaching-learning process.

Experience is gained from the environment. The environment, more exactly the Earth's surface, is the centre of geographical study. The mentioned parallel shows a tight intertwining of learning based on experiences and of learning geography. With this reason we decided to put experiences in the centre when forming didactical approaches to teaching geography with the purpose of improving the quality of lessons of geography and of achieving educational and pedagogic goals.

Learning Styles and Experiential Learning

Ways of gaining information, concepts and skills are known as learning styles. “A learning style for an individual represents a characteristic combination of learning strategies (a specific combination of mental operations, which are used by a person regarding the demands of a concrete learning situation / task), in the majority of such situations. A part of a specific learning style, along with a combination of strategies, are also emotional and motivational elements (goals and intentions regarding learning) as well as various comprehensions about learning” (Marentič Požarnik, 1995).

A learning style is therefore a collection of learning strategies, which represent a sequence of operations used with learning, for example when learning a text. The student would start learning this text first just by skimming it, noting down some major points and then start linking them together. Another student would start learning the same text with detailed reading and underlining of the text and detailed memorizing of the text right from the start. David Kolb formed a model of learning styles based on his definition of the experiential learning process.

Kolb said that learning is a cyclic process, within which there is constant resolving of dialectic contrasts or better said the tension between two dimensions of perceiving: comprehension and understanding on the one side and active working and inner reflective observing on the other (Kolb, 1984).

Figure 1: Kolb's model of learning styles (www2.plymouth.ac.uk/.../course/cognition3.htm)

With experiential learning everything starts with an experience, followed by observations and analyses and then supplementing the dictionary of abstract concepts and testing it within new circumstances. People give different emphasis on individual dimensions. Kolb formed four main learning styles on the basis of different poles of conception: • the accommodative learning style puts emphasis on the concrete experience and active testing of ideas. People with this learning style are successful in carrying out plans in concrete situations, which demand constant adaptation to alternating circumstances. This also speaks in favour of the term accommodativity. Problems are solved on the principle of experiments and errors; • the divergent learning style combines concrete experience and reflective observing. A person with this learning style is examining every situation from various points of view and can link various relationships together into a logical entity. These kind of people do well in completely new situations, which demand creativity in relation with still unknown / non-researched ideas; • the convergent learning style is based on abstract thinking and active experimenting. People using this learning style are successful in solving closed problems or better said problems with only one single correct/best answer/solution. They always test their results; • the assimilative learning style is based on abstract thinking and reflective observing. Its main distinction is inductive inference, which leads towards forming a theory or a model. People of the assimilative type are not interested in practical usage of their results. They judge their ideas only from the perspective of logic and accuracy (Sternberg, Grigorenko, 2001).

52 The potential of learning from experiences is in studying complex problems based on concrete experience. “If we derive from the definition of geography: Geography is a science about the Earth's surface or even in more detail about the Earth's surface stratum. Geography should research the dispersion, influences and reciprocal interdependence of those natural and social factors, which are an important part of forming the Earth's surface stratum as a whole or just some of its spatial parts” (Vrišer, 1998).

We could say that in general geography is everything around us. An experience, which at first seems unimportant, can be through reflexion transformed into knowledge, which is a result of the transaction between social and personal knowledge within the process of learning. The more experiences a person has, the more flexible is his thinking and easier his searching and understanding of connections and interdependence between natural and social geographical occurrences and factors. The aforementioned capabilities of performing analysis, synthesis and evaluation are goals which are in Bloom's taxonomy the highest and the hardest to achieve, but are with such a strong science as is geography, inevitable. “These complex goals cannot be achieved with learning, which would be based merely on gathering information but mostly with experiential learning, which is based on transforming every new idea, concept or theory in correlation with a personal experience, which means that new knowledge is a result of such reconstruction” (Marentič Požarnik, 1992).

Research Work

Purpose and methodology The purpose of the first part of the research was to get to know different learning styles of students in the 2nd year of secondary school (gymnasium) in Slovenia and to try to find out whether teachers of geography use learning forms and methods adequate with various learning styles (research question). In the first part of the research we set the following: o 1st hypothesis: The type of secondary school influences the learning style in geography lessons. Within the research many methods were employed: the descriptive method, the causal-non- experimental method and the quantitative method. Techniques used were: questionnaires, quantitative analysis of data. The instruments used in the research were: Kolb's questionnaire about learning styles (adapted by Marentič Požarnik) and statistical data (the percentage of answers, χ² test).

A total of 293 Slovenian students of second year secondary school in a gymnasium programme were included in the first part of the research. At the time of the research, which took place between the 12th and 31st of March 2004, 1,5 % of students were 15 years old, 76,8 % 16 years old and 21,5 % 17 years old. The research included 51.9 % of girls and 48.1 % boys. 19.2 % of students included in the research were from the classical gymnasium, 9.6 % from the linguistic course gymnasium, 20.1 % from the technical-course gymnasium and 15.7 % from the secondary school for electronics and computer sciences.

In the second part of the research a didactical experiment was undertaken, in which we checked the usage of various ways of experiential learning within lessons of geography (a

53 selection of learning methods and forms). In the second part of the research we set the following: o 2nd hypothesis: students, who were working on the basis of experiential learning, will have better results than those students who were working on the basis of traditional learning o 3rd hypothesis: students, who were working on the basis of experiential learning, will have better results regarding questions of a higher level than students who were learning on the basis of the traditional model of learning.

In the second part of the research the following methods were employed: the descriptive method, the causal-non-experimental method and the quantitative method. The technique employed was the quantitative analysis of data, with the use of following instruments: test, statistical calculations (t-test, average).

Two classes on the second year of Secondary School of Economics (gymnasium) took part in the experiment. The first class (27 students) discussed the topic (Mexico) on the basis of experiential learning, whereas the second class (23 students) dealt with the topic on the basis of classical, traditional learning. After both lessons were carried out a 10-minute testing about the discussed topic followed. The test was composed of six questions, with each question covering one level of cognitive area on the basis of Bloom's taxonomy.

Results and the interpretation of the first part of the research

In this section the interpretation of the 1st hypothesis and research question are presented. o 1st hypothesis: the type of secondary school influences the learning style with geography as a school subject.

This hypothesis on the basis of all collected data is rejected (χ²0.05<χ²(P=α=0.05, g=15)5.23). The type of secondary school does not influence the learning style of the student with the subject geography. The predominant learning style of students in all schools was the divergent learning style, with the sole exception of the linguistic course gymnasium. The reason for the rejection of the correlation between the type of secondary school and the learning style could be caused by the inexpressive influence of school specialisation in the second year of secondary school.

Figure 2: Learning styles regarding different types of school (Nemec, 2004).

Research question: Do geography teachers use the most suitable teaching forms and methods for different learning styles. “Geography teachers in Slovenia in regards to structuring their lessons take into consideration mostly the teaching content and teaching aims. Students and their needs and interests are only in the third place” (Resnik Planinc, 2001).

A student is the one for whom lessons are organized, as written by Tomić (Tomič, 1997), which means that the ratio among the teaching content, teaching goals and learners' needs should be equal, if the goal is to establish an encouraging learning environment. “Research results show that in 56,9 % of lessons in Slovenia teachers employ verbal and textual methods (the method of oral explaining of the subject, the method of discussion)” (Resnik Planinc, 2001).

For 48.1 % of all students the most adequate methods regarding their learning style would be methods of learning from experience (Nemec, 2004). Geography teachers in 54.9 % of cases used the frontal method of teaching (Resnik Planinc, 2000), whereas 73.4 % of students would, based on their learning style, gain most with group work or paired work (Nemec, 2004). The paired work/group work method was used by teachers only in 29.2 % cases (Resnik Planinc, 2000).

We can conclude that the choice of teaching methods and forms used by the teacher are not in accordance with learners' wishes and anticipations (Resnik Planinc, 2000; Resnik Planinc, 2006; Nemec, 2004). The success rate in teaching geography will rise only, if we will take the needs and interests of learners into consideration, when choosing teaching methods and forms. This can be done only with getting acquainted with various learning styles of learners.

Table 1: Learning methods and learning forms, which are most adequate for various learning styles (Nemec, 2004). Learning style % Learning methods Examples/ Teaching Characteristics of methods teaching methods Divergent 48,1 Methods of experiential Brainstorming, group Group learning dynamics, sensitivity work, pair training, role play work Accommodative 25,3 Methods of experiential Stimulations, case Group learning (Laboratory – studies work, pair experimental methods) work Convergent 13,7 Verbal and textual methods Practical use of Lockstep (the method of oral theoretical knowledge explaining) and process rules in regards to solving tasks with one single solution Assimilative 13,0 Verbal and textual methods A detailed study of Lockstep, (exercises with texts) literature and the individual comparison of starting work points of various authors Results and the interpretation of the second part of the research

In this section the interpretation of the 2nd and 3rd hypotheses are presented. o 2nd hypothesis: Students, who will be learning on the basis of experiential learning, will achieve better results than those who will be learning on the basis of the old, traditional model.

Students, who were learning within the model of experiential learning, achieved better exam results (the average number of points achieved was 17,8) than those who were learning within the traditional model (the average number of points achieved was 14,9). Differences regarding the number of achieved points do exist, but are statistically not important (t=0,890; t0.5 (48) = 2.05). The hypothesis cannot be confirmed.

We should also stress that we made a one-time didactic experiment, for which we are sure, if for a greater sample, multiple repetitions and introduction of experiential learning to students, it would show that the aforementioned differences are actually statistically important. o 3rd hypothesis: Students, who will be learning within the model of experiential learning, will achieve better results regarding questions of a higher level (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) than those students who will be learning within the traditional model.

Students, who were learning through experiences, achieved better results with questions of a higher level (average score 7,6) than those students who were learning in a traditional manner (average score 6.1). 70.9 % of students, who were included in the experiential learning, model, correctly answered all the higher level questions, whereas only 58.1% of students who were learning traditionally, managed the same. Differences in the score achieved do exist, but are statistically not significant (t-test). Reasons for such results have been mentioned before.

Conclusion The summation of all research conclusions brings the following findings: • The type of secondary school does not appear to affect the learning style of learners of geography; • Geography teachers don't use teaching methods and forms which would be most adequate for certain learning styles; • Students, who were learning on the basis of experiences, achieved better results than those who were learning in a more traditional manner, though differences between both are not statistically significant; • Students, who were learning on the basis of experiences, achieved better results regarding questions of a higher level, than those students, who were learning within a more traditional model. Differences between both are not statistically significant.

Only with active research of learning styles will we be able to acknowledge their effects and their importance not only within the school, but also within our everyday lives. In the future it would be reasonable to continue with this sort of research work in the field of school geography in the following manner: • “adapting” of textbooks to learning styles of students • research of effects of experiential learning within the subject of geography • introducing various learning styles to students. From our everyday lives we gain experiences, which are the main factor of experiential learning, which is in a way the basis of all learning styles.

56 References Gregorenko, E. L., Sternberg, R. J (2001), A capsule history of theory and research on styles, in Sternberg, R., J. (ed.), Perspectives on thinking learning and cognitive styles, London, Erlbaum Assciates, 1-23. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Prentice Hall. Marentič Požarnik, B. (1992), Izkustveno učenje - modna muha, skupek tehnik ali alternativni model pomembnega učenja?, Sodobna pedagogika, 43, 1-15. Marentič Požarnik, B. (1995), Učni stili po Kolbu, in Marentič Požarnik, B. (ed.), Izziv raznolikosti, Nova Gorica: Educa, 76-105. Nemec, L. (2004), Didaktični pristopi k poučevanju geografije v srednjih šolah z vidika učnih stilov, oblik in metod, Degree, Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of arts. Resnik Planinc, T. (2001), Zahtevnejše geografske vsebine kot izobraževalni problem, Ph.D. Thesis, Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of arts. Resnik Planinc, T. (2006), Vrednote prostora kot integralni del izobraževanja, Geografski vestnik, 78, 9-24. Tomić, A.(1997), Izbrana poglavja iz didaktike, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of art. Vrišer, I. (1998), Uvod v geografijo, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of arts.

Reading Landscapes – Identity and Citizenship Issues: discovered by students on a fieldwork visit to Belfast

Dr Gerry O’Reilly Geography Department, St. Patrick’s College, Dublin City University, Drumcondra, Dublin [email protected]

Abstract In the sustainable development framework a cardinal element is negotiation between top- down institutions and bottom-up groups and actors. Central to this is the concept of citizenship. However with globalisation, individual citizenship has taken on ever-increasing scales; from the social contract perspective, the citizen has rights and responsibilities at varying community, state and global levels. Geographers are being challenged to translate the desiderata of good citizenship into their everyday practice of educating and working with future generations. In this context, fieldwork is essential in facilitating the process, in comparing and contrasting students’ ‘taken for granted’ known places, and cultures with ‘others’ and their perceptions thereof. While the latter point may be applicable any place, it is very poignant in relation to societies in transition, and in post-conflict locations such as Northern Ireland where 50 students from St. Patrick’s College, DCU, Dublin, carried out fieldwork in 2008 and 2009. On the ground, collaboration with Coiste, (Association of ex- political prisoners) helped ensure that the students heard different voices from post-conflict environments.

Key words; Sustainable development, citizenship, education, fieldwork, post-conflict, Belfast, Northern Ireland.

Conceptual Framework

In the sustainable development framework for long lasting positive change, based on the principle of getting balances and checks between ecology, economy, and society - culture, a cardinal element is negotiation between top-down institutions and bottom-up groups and actors leading to good governance. Central to this is the concept of citizenship, which has evolved alongside the ideals of democracy, and the social contract – with negotiation being based on reciprocal rights and duties at the community and state scales (O’Reilly, 2001). However with growing flows of people and cultures, and the interconnections of globalisation, the concept of individual citizenship has taken on ever-increasing scales: community, state, federal, and global environment, development and human rights concerns (Herod, 2008; O’Reilly, 2005). Hence the citizen has rights and responsibilities at varying community, state and global UN scales, just as states have responsibility as with the United Nations programme R2P (Responsibility to Protect) (UN, 2005). While such an agenda is laudable, its application is not always evident as the citizen finds himself or herself challenged at multiple geographical scales by regulation, de-regulation and self-regulation; and where does the responsibility start or end.

Alongside economic globalisation and the consequent corporatist processes, this is being paralleled in cultural and political procedures, challenging individuals and communities to find ‘their place’ and ‘their citizenship’ in a globalising world. Bottom-up movements such as

58 anti-globalisation groups and a myriad of NGOs manifestly challenge the democratic deficit. The acquisition of rights – human, civil and so forth – as embedded in the evolving concept of citizenship, by its very nature challenges the established power structures. Educators and in particular Geographers are being challenged to translate the ideals of good citizenship, and by association good governance, into their everyday practice of educating and training the future generations (Clarke, 2006; Curriculum: Ireland CSPE, 2009; Patrick, 2009).

The Problematic

In order to make students, lecturers, teachers and trainers more aware of the multifaceted aspects of citizenship, and to counter the democratic deficit even in the more mature democracies, students have to re-discover their own citizenship, and through emotional intelligence or empathy ‘to connect’ with ‘others’ in real places, so enhancing their competencies of critical thinking and skills offered by the discipline of Geography. In this context, fieldtrip - work and research – is essential in facilitating the process, in the voyage of comparing and contrasting their ‘taken for granted citizenships’ and their known places, landscapes and cultures with ‘other places and people’ and the perceptions held thereof; student fieldtrip discoveries and experiences are central to this TandL process. While the latter point may be applicable any place, it is very poignant in relation to societies in transition, and in post-conflict locations such as Northern Ireland where fifty students from St. Patrick’s College, Dublin, carried out fieldwork in 2008 and 2009.

As concepts of citizenship are increasingly expanding, research in this field in Geography is also progressing. This becomes evident when we contrast material in relation to ‘citizenship’ found in The Dictionary of Human Geography in 2004 (Johnson et al., 1994) and the new edition of this publication in 2009 (Gregory et al., 2009). Nonetheless, research falls broadly into two categories, and combinations thereof; analysis-based revealing ‘differences’ in concepts of citizenships; and the normative-based, postulating ‘what should be’ and the ‘direction to be taken’. Of course the prescriptive content is at the heart of the political debate, and hence how this is played out in spatial contexts.

Rather than giving students specific classifications, parameters and discourses on citizenship - Classical, Enlightenment, Nation-State, Post-Modernist, or approaches based on such theorists as Gramsci, Foucault or Chomsky, in relation to power constructs, for instance, they were encouraged to ‘discover’ the different levels of citizenship through their fieldwork. From this, the major categories arose in a more ‘evolutionary’ manner:

Citizenship: a member of a political community, attached to city or state sovereignty; Citizenship: social contract as embodying rights and responsibilities; Active citizenship: people working towards the betterment of their community through participation and service; Global Citizenship: local interests as well as global concerns including issues of human rights, environment and equality, with participatory action being central to this concept.

Methodology

Fifty third level Geography students were provided with resource material on their Moodle site, and asked to complete a pre-trip quiz four weeks before travelling to Northern Ireland (Lynch et al. 2008). While on the fieldwork in Belfast, students were divided into teams - to interrogate the cultural landscape, and look for features that were both familiar to them, and

59 also characteristics that struck them as being different. Each team had a GPS and digital camera, with the task of taking photographs, representing familiarity, and showing differences to their normal experience (Sidaway, 2002). They were asked to take the coordinates at each scene using the GPS and write down a description of the photograph.

In the days following the fieldtrip, students uploaded their work onto the Moodle course management system: photographs, coordinates of the picture, labels signifying ‘familiar or different’, and reasons for choosing that scene. Open-ended questions were also asked. Moodle’s Virtual Learning Environment, acted both as a clearinghouse for the student data and an assessment tool. For a fuller description of the methodology used, see Ruth McManus and Susan Hegarty, Becoming Geographers – promoting skills and citizenship in undergraduate fieldwork, paper in this volume. In the same paper, they also analyse the ‘familiar’ label work of the students, while in this paper the ‘different’ label is presented.

Results

Comparative analyses of student photographs and texts, and open-ended questions revealed that their data fell broadly into four ‘organic’ categories:

(i) Citizenship in relation to the state: states and sovereign jurisdiction expressed as territorial and institutional constructs with the appurtenant iconography; for instance, post boxes being red in Northern Ireland within UK jurisdiction, instead of green as in the Republic of Ireland; distinctive car registration plates; statues such as that of Queen Victoria.

(ii) Citizenship linked to strong community identities and activities, and activists challenging power structures in the pursuit of development, expressed at their community scales, especially in the more economically deprived Falls and Shankill areas. Student photographs here presented images of wall murals expressing ‘divided’ ethno-communitarian identies. For instance, Bobby Sands in relation to the ‘hunger strikes’ of the 1980s and Republican traditions contesting state elites and institutions; the Battle of the Somme (1914) coupled with Unionist and Orange identities perceived as embedded within the defence of UK traditions. However, global citizenship or international issues and perspectives were photographed and commented relating to wall murals within Republican areas - human rights for instance, with images and quotations from the African American Frederick Douglas, abolitionist, champion of women’s rights and supporter of Irish independence in the 19th Century; adaptations of Picasso’s Guernica, and murals of contested areas such as Palestine / Israel and US involvement in Iraq. As one student stated: “All these incredible murals – obviously the communities felt that their voices were not being heard or given a place in the regular media; and so they say what they have to say this way”. Significantly, another student commented: “Those murals dealing with the ‘Troubles’ really mean nothing to me, as I wasn’t even born when all that took place”.

In the Shankill area, where some redevelopment of land is taking place, a large graffiti reads: ‘Local needs ignored over profits’ on one of the building site barriers, emphasising the major historical socio-economic deprivations in the area in contrast to many new developments stimulated by the post-conflict economic recovery so evident in city centre areas.

(iii) Other photographs and texts emphasized the significance of local memorial parks (e.g., Shankill) and gardens of remembrance (e.g., Falls) maintained by local communities referring to the ‘fallen’ heroes, or victims of the ‘troubles’ (1969-1998) which are not state maintained

60 or funded, that reinforce ethno-memory and contested community, national and state citizenships. Issues related to a perceived sense of injustice and grievances that are not addressed by negotiation debilitate good citizenship.

(iv) Citizenship and boundaries within the city: photography and texts often emphasized the spatial and territorial divisions, especially the so called Peace Lines and Walls diving communities and ‘hot spots’ in East and West Belfast, in contrast to the ‘normality’ or indeed normalisation found in Belfast city centre areas. Ruth McManus and Susan Hegarty (2009) discuss what students found as familiar in Belfast, with global images and texts of consumer culture, in their paper in this volume.

Conclusions

In this student fieldwork, issues related to citizenship were ‘discovered’ at the community, national, state and international geographical scales; and juxtaposed with their own lived experience of ‘taken for granted’ citizenship back home. Citizenship at the local scales and in certain areas of Belfast was mostly associated with community development and identities embedded within ethno-religious / Republican-Unionist traditions, loosely linked to national Irish and British cultures. This was in sharp contrast to the cosmopolitan citizenships and familiar discovered in central Belfast areas. Nonetheless, this was presented within the territorial construct of the Northern Ireland state and its iconographic red mailboxes and statues.

The fieldwork got the students out into the field to encounter the lived experiences of citizenship of people in Belfast, including a meeting with members of Coiste, (Association of ex-political prisoners) who told their stories of life in the city. Simultaneously students also had the opportunity to develop their competencies, doing individual and team work, including the use of GPS and digital cameras. The interconnecting linkages made by students between geography, concepts of citizenship, and geographical skills including digital work was positively commented on by students. As one student stated: “I want to do more geography like this”.

Note: I would like to thank Drs. Susan Hegarty and Ruth McManus for their help and support in writing this research paper.

References Clarke, L.M. (2006) A Single Transferable Geography? Teaching Geography in a Contested Landscape, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15:1, 77- 91. Curriculum: Ireland CSPE (Civil, Social and Political Education, Secondary School Level, Junior Cycle) (2009) See http://www.curriculumonline.ie/eng/Post- Primary_Curriculum/Junior_Cycle_Curriculum/Junior_Certificate_Subjects/Civic,_Social_an d_Political_Education/Civic,_Social_and_Political_Education_CSPE_.html (Accessed 18/4/09). Herod, A. (2008) Geographies of Globalization: A Critical Introduction. London: Wiley Blackwell. Johnson, R.; D. Gregory and D. Smith. 1994 The Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Blackwell. Johnson, R.; D. Gregory., G. Pratt, M. Watts., and S. Whatmore. 2009 The Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Wiley.

61 Lynch, K., Bednarz, B., Boxall, J., Chalmers, L., France, D. and Kesby, J. (2008) E-learning for Geography's Teaching and Learning Spaces, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32:1, 135-149. McManus, R. and S. Hegarty, (2009) Becoming Geographers – promoting skills and citizenship in undergraduate fieldwork, paper in this volume O’Reilly, G. 2001 Scaling Democracy and Sustainable Development in the Irish Context: Slieveardagh, Co. Tipperary. in A. Buttimer (ed.). Sustainable Landscapes and Lifestyles. Cork: Cork University Press. Chapter 13. O’Reilly, G. 2005 Ireland and Economic Globalisation: a Two-Way Process in Geographical Viewpoint. 31, pp. 17-28. Patrick, J. (2009) The Concept of Citizenship in Education for Democracy. ERIC Digest. http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-1/democracy.html (Accessed 15/4/09). Sidaway, J.D. (2002) Photography as Geographical Fieldwork, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 26:1, 95-103. UN (2005) Report of the Secretary-General. In larger freedom: towards development, security and human rights for all. UN Doc. A/59/2005. http://www.responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/pages/20 (Accessed 1/4/09)

E-sources: Citizenship through Geography. http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/pdf/secondaryschemes/citsubject_geog.pdf (Accessed 20/4/09). Citizenship through Geography. The Nuffield Foundation. http://www.citizenship.org.uk/resources/citizenship-through-geography,68,NA.html. (Accessed 18/4/09). How can citizenship update geography? http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/how-can- citizenship-update-geography-867. (Accessed 12/4/09). Geography, citizenship and education for sustainable development (ESD). http://www.qca.org.uk/geography/innovating/key3/geography_plus/citizenship.htm. (Accessed 20/4/09).

62 Becoming Geographers – promoting skills and citizenship in undergraduate fieldwork

Dr Ruth McManus and Dr Susan Hegarty St. Patrick’s College, Drumcondra [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract In packed undergraduate programmes, it can sometimes be difficult to integrate critical thinking, ‘deep’ learning and skills acquisition in ways that truly empower the students. This paper explores the approaches adopted in the undergraduate fieldwork programme at St. Patrick’s College, which aim to give students the chance to be geographers, while also providing a set of transferable skills. Digital technologies such as digital photography and the use of GPS, as well as more traditional forms of data collection and categorisation, have been integrated into one-day fieldtrips. In addition to embedding new skills to enhance employability, the activities are designed to challenge student preconceptions and prejudices, encouraging them to engage in critical thinking. Virtual learning environments (in this case Moodle) have been adopted for use both as collecting houses for data and an assessment tool. Student perceptions of these tasks are included, as well as outcomes for learning and teaching.

Keywords: Belfast, citizenship, critical thinking, digital technology, fieldwork, geographical skills, student engagement, urban geography

Introduction

This paper draws on the experience of revising and refining the undergraduate programme of fieldwork and practical classes at St. Patrick’s College, Drumcondra, for students undertaking both BA and BEd degrees. Our aims have been two-fold – to integrate a range of transferable skills which will enhance future employability, while also engaging the students intellectually in terms of critical thinking, using the overarching theme of citizenship.

Conceptualising Fieldwork

Conceptually, our fieldtrip programme aims to move from the traditional ‘look-see’ or ‘taster’ fieldtrip at first year level, to second year level trips which incorporate some fieldwork and, eventually, to third year level field research. Thus, as the student’s understanding of geography advances over their three year course, they are presented with increasing opportunities to apply that understanding in a practical sense.

Fieldwork in the department uses an over-arching conceptual framework, in addition to addressing the practical aspects of skills acquisition. The first year programme, which requires each student to participate in a one-day fieldtrip, including pre-trip reading and a post-trip quiz, focuses on the theme of sustainability. Within that theme, individual lecturers introduce their own specialisms on the day-long trips. For example, one trip takes students on an exploration of Dublin city as a living space, another looks at the Boyne Valley through time, while a third examines the valley of Glendalough in terms of the relationship between the ‘natural’ and ‘altered’ physical landscape. Whichever trip a student undertakes, however, they will be introduced to the sustainability theme. While largely a look-see day (with some

63 lecturers introducing students to a limited amount of field-based work) the students are expected to undertake preparatory reading and online tests utilising the Moodle virtual learning environment.

Figure 1: Students engaging in fieldwork in Belfast

Following on from the first year experience, students deepen their understanding of and engagement with the theme of citizenship in second year. As O’Reilly (paper in this volume) has outlined, citizenship is a central concept within the sustainable development framework, having evolved alongside the ideals of democracy and the social contract. The citizen has both rights and responsibilities at varying scales. If we accept the critical importance of citizenship, the question remains as to how this crucial concept can be translated into the everyday educational experience. One way in which this is done in our department is through students re-discovering their own citizenship, and connecting with ‘others’ in real places, through field activities which challenge them to compare and contrast their known places, landscapes and cultures with other places and people.

The choice of Belfast as a fieldtrip destination was considered appropriate for both practical and philosophical reasons. Within two hours drive from the College, the capital of Northern Ireland nevertheless presents considerable diversity in terms of jurisdiction, political history, and cultural, social and economic evolution. Clarke (2006) has demonstrated the impact of the political situation in Northern Ireland on geography teaching in schools, as the values inherent in Northern Ireland's contested landscape affect classwork, homework and fieldwork in many of these schools. Given that the majority of our students are also future educators, there is added importance to challenging their perceptions of Northern Ireland, within an overall context of discovery of citizenship.

Issues in Devising Appropriate Fieldwork

The need to integrate skill acquisition more fully into fieldwork informed the approach taken with this cohort of students. Geography as a subject at undergraduate level has always been associated with providing students with a set of transferable skills that would better prepare them for a wide range of workplace environments. Owen (2001) points out that key skills are dynamic, so that graduates need to keep pace with ever changing expectations particularly with regard to information technology. Therefore ICT skills have now been added to the list of ‘desirables’ that we aim to give students.

64 In general, key skills have often been transmitted through practical classes in the past. However, one often got the feeling that students did not, perhaps, appreciate the applicability of the skills being acquired. The question that arose was that of how to make skill acquisition central, yet invisible to the students, to enable them to use the skills to investigate the landscape.

Despite being less than 100 miles (c. 160 km) from the College, this was the first trip to Northern Ireland for one-fifth of all of the trip participants, while for a further 21% it was only their second visit. Of those who had been to Northern Ireland previously, almost half stated that shopping was their main reason for travel (due to favourable currency and tax differentials on certain goods). One of the challenges of devising fieldwork to a location which is unfamiliar to such a large proportion of the students is to avoid reinforcing preconceptions of the ‘other’. Based on feedback from the initial fieldtrip to Belfast undertaken in 2008, it was felt that an element of ‘exoticisation’ had occurred, whereby the students focused on the (post) conflict aspects of the city, such as the political murals and peace walls. It was in this context that we decided, therefore, to ask the students to record their own perspectives of what they considered to be both ‘different’ and ‘familiar’ during their day in Belfast. There were no limitations to the challenge, in the sense that the students themselves decided what to record, how to categorise it and then provided a brief explanation of the selections and their rationale. This exercise proved to be very fruitful, with students engaging on a deeper level than anticipated. They showed an ability to interpret their surroundings in multi-faceted ways, contextualising what they saw in terms of their own lived experience and their studies to date.

Practical Solutions

Prior to the field day, students were provided with a range of background reading and resource material on the Moodle site, where they were also required to complete a pre-trip quiz. The use of the Virtual Learning Environment, in addition to providing opportunities for interacting with course material outside of direct contact time, also has the potential to stimulate deeper learning, by encourage students to engage more fully with topics (Pavey and Garland, 2004).

For the purposes of this fieldwork in Belfast, the group of 50 students was divided into teams. Students were asked to interrogate the landscape, and to look for features that were both familiar to them and features that struck them as different. Each team was given a GPS and a digital camera, and were given the task of taking twelve photographs during their day in Belfast, six representing familiarity, and six showing differences to their normal experience. The only further guidelines given were that at each scene, the students were asked to take the coordinates using the GPS and write down a description of the photograph.

During the day itself, we noted that this methodology had created a culture of looking at the landscape with new eyes, with everything being interrogated by the students. This bears out Sidaway’s (2002) findings on ways in which photography lends itself to raise issues of representation evident in human geography.

Fieldwork Results

On arriving back from the fieldwork, the students were asked to upload their observations onto the Moodle course management system. Within Moodle, a database was set up, into

65 which each team uploaded their photograph, along with the coordinates of the picture, whether it represented something that was familiar or different, and their reason for choosing that scene. Students also were asked to complete some open-ended questions within Moodle about their experience of Belfast on the day. The Virtual Learning Environment of Moodle, therefore, acted both as a collecting house for the data collected by the students and an assessment tool.

Latham and McCormack (2007) have pointed out several advantages of digital photography in terms of allowing students to record, manipulate and interpret visual data, to integrate field- based and classroom-based activity, and to expand the range of assessment techniques used. The experience of this exercise, which also incorporated GPS coordinates, corroborates their findings.

In the words of one student, by using this methodology students “were given the chance to be the geographers”. Students were forced to engage with the landscape, and through self- discovery, explored more issues than would have been possible otherwise. The competencies of observation, data collection, analysis and critical thinking were being promoted without students even being aware of it. The results of this exercise were surprising; with students being far more perceptive than we even dared to hope for.

Aspects of the ‘familiar’ which they identified included the city’s modern urban spaces of shopping, leisure, culture and art. All commented on the bustling shopping streets, drawing parallels with Dublin’s main shopping areas (e.g. We chose this street because it is similar to streets in Dublin such as Grafton Street. The buildings on this particular street are familiar to us as there is similar architecture on Grafton Street. Also the shops on this street are very alike the ones found on Grafton street as they are high fashion shops such as Karen Millen and House of Fraser. It is also a focal point of entertainment and dining as there is many restaurants and cafes. This is seen throughout Grafton Street. – Team 2). The everyday details of the streetscape were recorded and noted, showing that the students were honing their observational skills, including signage, phone boxes and public transport.

The impacts of globalisation were identified in terms of familiar shops and fast food franchises (e.g. Both Belfast and Dublin are ideal locations for MNCs such as Burger King. They show the similarities of globalisation in both cities. Other similar companies are also drawn to such thriving cities as Dublin and Belfast. E.g. McDonald’s, KFC – Team 14). In addition, the students drew attention to global processes, including shopping as a leisure activity, urban renewal and docklands redevelopment, and active promotion of heritage tourism.

The teams recorded and commented on a variety of aspects of the urban economy, from the diminishing port activities and historic buildings associated with the textile industry, to urban regeneration, retailing and tourism. They also drew parallels between Dublin and Belfast in terms of architectural heritage, ranging from the Classical architecture of public buildings (e.g. Belfast City Hall and Crumlin Road Courthouse compared to Dublin’s Customs House and Four Courts; Divis Tower and Ballymun high-rise social housing).

Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of the exercise was the way in which students interpreted some aspects of iconography and representation in the landscape (see Figure 2). Rather than ‘othering’ a souvenir shop selling British emblems such as the Union Jack, for example, one group noted how heritage had been commodified for tourism purposes,

66 observing that ‘Belfast puts its heritage on display for its tourists, just like Dublin has the O’Carroll shops, Belfast has its Union Jack shops’ (Team 6).

Whereas some teams chose to classify statues, memorial gardens and cemeteries as ‘different’, other groups interpreted them as ‘familiar’. Whereas different memories were being evoked, the same forms of representation were being used. One example of this is the statue of Queen Victoria in front of City Hall, which some groups saw as being ‘different’, as it represented Belfast’s continuing Imperial heritage. Other groups who photographed this statue considered it to be ‘familiar’: ‘This statue is similar to the many statues on O'Connell street in the middle of Dublin city centre (Team 3); Political statues positioned in prominent places, happens all over the world (Team 5); Culture represented in stone at a key focal point in the city, just like the statue of Daniel O’Connell in O’Connell Street Dublin (Team 8). This is part of the richness of the fieldwork experience - the students were learning and classifying for themselves, rather than a top-down imposition of values by lecturers. Commenting on a gravestone marking the final resting place of some prominent political activists, one group which categorised the image as ‘familiar’ observed: This picture represents the familiar in representing death no matter what your beliefs were in life (Team 1).

Figure 2: Contrasting Iconography and its Interpretation (student photographs)

Feedback and Conclusion

A post-fieldtrip survey asked the students what they enjoyed most and what thought they had learned from the trip. The responses were overwhelmingly positive. Students referred to the ways in which they now saw the political situation in human terms, how history had been brought to life and how they had seen both the differences and similarities with their home place. Their comments reveal a degree of empathy, suggesting that students were engaging with citizenship in very real ways by connecting with Belfast’s residents: ‘I have learned a lot more about the Troubles and why they started… I also learned that most people in Belfast want to live normal lives but this isn’t portrayed in the media’ (Student 1), ‘how the locals actually feel’ (Student 2), ‘That not everyone is looking to start a war – there are people trying to get on with everyday life’ (Student 3). While some commented on enjoying the groupwork and taking photographs, this was not the main focus of the student comments, suggesting that the trip was successful in its aim of integrating skills acquisition invisibly.

To conclude, although this fieldwork programme is in the early stages of its evolution, we feel that it has already been successful in challenging students to think critically, to engage with abstract concepts such as citizenship and to acquire new skills in an enjoyable and worthwhile experience.

References Clarke, L.M. (2006), A Single Transferable Geography? Teaching Geography in a Contested Landscape, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 15:1, 77- 91. Latham, A. and McCormack, D.P. (2007) Digital Photography and Web-based Assignments in an Urban Field Course: Snapshots from Berlin, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31:2, 241-256. Lynch, K., Bednarz, B., Boxall, J., Chalmers, L., France, D. and Kesby, J. (2008) E-learning for Geography's Teaching and Learning Spaces, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32:1, 135-149. O’Reilly, G. (2009) Reading Landscapes: Identity and Citizenship Issues, Donert K et al. (Eds.) Proc. HERODOT Conference, 27-30 May 2009, Ayvalik, Turkey. Owen, E. (2001) What Key Skills do Employers Need?, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 25:1, 121-126. Pavey, J. and Garland, S. (2004) The integration and implementation of a range of ‘e-tivities' to enhance students' interaction and learning, Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 41:3, 305-315. Sidaway, J.D. (2002) Photography as Geographical Fieldwork, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 26:1, 95-103.

68 Geography teacher quality and effectiveness: Lower Secondary School Students’ points of view

Dr. Klonari Aikaterini Lecturer, Department of Geography, University of the Aegean, Greece [email protected]

Abstract Since the middle of the twentieth century the issues of teacher quality and effectiveness have attracted the attention of the educational community. As a result a wide range of studies have focused on this issue and have approached the topic by establishing categories of teacher characteristics, viewed mainly from the perspective of adult-teachers, administrators, teachers educators and educational researchers. There are, however, a limited number of studies that focus on geography teacher effectiveness from the perspective of students. This qualitative research approached and interviewed 8th grade Lower Secondary School students on Lesvos island, in order to explore their understanding of geography teacher effectiveness. Findings suggest that students concentrate on the issues of geography knowledge and pedagogy, while the more technical dimensions of geography teaching also attract their attention. Student perspectives, however, retain a humanistic vision of teaching and learning. Students want teachers who care and respect them, who help them learn and make learning interesting and fun.

Keywords: Geography, Teacher quality, Students perceptions

Introduction

In recent years, one of the most important goals of teachers’ education is to prepare “effective” teachers, who are able to facilitate learning for all students. This issue indeed incorporated in the program of study in every Education Department in the world. The achievement of this goal realised throughout the sufficient knowledge of different subject matters, various course work, field experience and practice in the classroom.

However, in Greece, this world standard for teacher preparation is not a reality as concern as the teachers who are going to teach geography in Primary and Secondary School. Most of them never have been taught geography during their studies; furthermore secondary teachers never have a course for pedagogical or didactical issues. From this point of view, in the 21st century, it is requisite a program studies’ revision in the School of Education and other Departments (e.g. Geography Department, etc) in Higher Education in order to prepare quality teachers able to teach geography in primary and secondary schools in an effective way.

Additionally knowing that geography teacher quality related to students’ achievements it is very important for the educational community and especially for the Program Study designers to know students opinions on geography teacher’s effectiveness in order to take into consideration in the future changes of Program Studies, the content of the courses and the topics that are needed to introduced in these. Thus, all these studies provided my rational for engaging in research with children, while the model of characteristics of effective teachers provided the conceptual frame for the qualitative study reported here.

69 Rational for the study

Teacher effectiveness has become a standard for teacher preparation (Saphier and Gower, 1987; Myers and Myers, 1995; Wong and Wong, 1998), a basis for staff development (Danielson, 1996) and a guideline for teacher evaluation (Flores, 1999). In fact, since the middle of the twentieth century the issues of teacher quality and effectiveness have attracted the attention of the educational community. As a result a wide range of studies (Borich, 1988; Burden and Byrd, 1994; Kauchak and Eggen, 1994; Danielson, 1996; Harris, 1998) have focused on this issue and have approached the topic by establishing categories of teacher characteristics, viewed mainly from the perspective of adult-teachers, administrators, teachers educators and educational researchers. There are, however, a limited number of studies that focus on geography teacher effectiveness and rarely have the perspective of elementary or secondary school students (Klonari and Koutsopoulos, 2005).

Aim of the study and research questions

The aim of this study was to learn what Lower Secondary school students know about effective teachers and what they value in their geography teachers. For this purpose I formulated the following research questions: 1. How do students define an effective teacher? 2. What kind of knowledge do students have about the characteristics of geography teachers’ effectiveness? 3. What qualities do students value in their geography teachers and why? 4. How might student knowledge of effective teacher be infused into the content and experiences of geography teacher education programs?

Method

Primarily, a pilot study was conducted interviewing six students between the ages of eleven and fourteen years old (from 5th grade of primary school to 8th grade of lower secondary school). Students in this pilot have to discuss and express clearly their thoughts of what good teachers had to know, do, and be like as people to help them to learn. I discovered that the 8th grade students who had worked with a number of classroom and special-subject teachers in the course of geography (primary school teachers, teachers of science, literature, geologists, mathematicians, etc.) were able to consider questions seriously and objectively and were able to express their ideas about significant qualities and values that they expected in their teachers.

The sample Four considerations influenced my selection of participants for this study. They were: the initial findings from the pilot study, the location of my Department (on Lesvos island), the school authorities’ permission for several public schools and the relevance of a variety of settings to them. The sample was 16 volunteers’ students of eighth grade (8 boys and 8 girls between the ages of thirteen and fourteen) attended four different Lower Secondary Schools on Lesvos Island. Four students from each school were selected in such a way that the sample appeared to be representative of the population by gender, socio-economical status and school achievement (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1987). From all the participants only three students are ethically diverse (1 has Albanian origin, 1 Moldavian and one from Ukraine) but all of them speak the Greek language very well.

70 Procedures Data were collected over a five-month period through interviews conducted in the schools. Interviews contained both closed and open-ended questions designed to elicit the children’s understanding of effective teachers. The children were asked such questions as: “Over the years, who have been your really good teachers in geography lesson?” “What made them good/” “How do you define a really good/effective geography teacher?” “What advice would you give to future geography teachers about the ways they could become effective teachers?” All the discussions were written by the researcher in protocols (not be recorded on audiotape) and then were written up in new protocols, analysed and placed into categories for teachers’ characteristics of skills, knowledge and attitudes. Initially, each participant was interviewed individually and after each child interview, all of the students in a school were brought together for a group interview where I could clarify and pursue new ideas, respond to comments and questions of the students. I conducted a total of sixteen individual and four group interviews. Students had the opportunity to call me by telephone whenever they wanted to add something to their responses or have me delete something later. Four of the sixteen students (3 girls, 1 boy) contacted me after I had left from their school.

Several checks were carried out while the study was in progress. Additionally, the participating students checked all the findings, interpretations and conclusions.

Limitations of the study

This study has limitations that need to be recognised. First the number of participant was small, they were all the same age, and they come from a limited geographic area. Therefore, the nature of this inquiry raises several questions for future consideration. For example, how do the ideas of students about effective geography teachers change as they proceed through their schooling? What are the perspectives of students with special needs? How might teachers better use students’ notions about effective geography teachers to improve teaching and learning in their classrooms?

Results

The data of this study were analysed by codes and then shaped into categories according to the literature. Findings fell into two distinct groupings: information related to teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes for geography subject and characteristics underlying teachers’ personality.

Teachers’ characteristics Definition The essence of the definitions of effective geography teachers from students across the schools was described in the words of one girl from Mytilene who said, “the most important thing teachers do is to help us learn geography”. Generally, learning was at the heart of students’ explanations about their good geography teachers. For example, they noted that effective teachers like to help students understand and “try to explain, more than once if it is necessary, what we don’t understand”. An effective geography teacher “has to know very well the content of geography can explain everything very well, use photographs, maps and other material (journal’s articles, news from news papers, and media, etc) in teaching geography”. Finally an effective geography teacher is one who “can make teaching geography fun so that students want to learn”. Furthermore is the teacher who “is not bored

71 teaching geography, she makes us be interested on geography and she is fond of teaching geography”. As the conversations continued we discussed what students thought that teachers had to be able to do, know and to be like as people that help them learn geography. Through these questions, students guided to recognise specific knowledge, skills and attitudes that found and valued in their effective “geography teachers”.

Teachers’ knowledge The students named several kinds of knowledge needed by effective teachers in teaching geography: knowledge of geography subject, knowledge of teaching methods and knowledge of students’ abilities. First, as noted by seven students (4 boys and 3 girls), teachers need to know very well all the issues, topics related to geography subject. “An effective teacher has to know a lot about geography themes”, “My teacher does not need to look up the answers and she knows everything we asked”. Also, five of the children (3 boys and 2 girls) repeated that effective teachers in geography has to have studied this subject, “geography have to teach by geographers not by every specialty in the school”, “have to know how to explain and teach the subject”, “have not to ask from students only to learn by heart the content of geography textbook and have to use the appropriate educational material”. But the most important area of knowledge of geography teachers, as defined by these students, is the knowledge of their students’ abilities and interesting. Seven students (4 boys and 3 girls) think that their teachers should know about their abilities, so teachers could help them in learning the difficult geography concepts, should know their interesting and what they like to do, so teachers should make geography a more fascinating subject (not so boring). Almost all students stated that a good teacher “have to take into consideration that usually they have a lot of homework for other school subjects and have to help them to make most of the geography work during school time”. The frequency and the scope of knowledge about students, mentioned by these children, indicate the importance they place on their teachers’ knowledge of them beyond the academic achievements.

Teachers’ skills Students identified a number of teachers’ competences and actions in the classrooms that helped them learn geography. For instance, five students (2 girls and 3 boys) discussed their teachers’ abilities to explain clearly geography textbook information and concepts, and students’ questions, while four (2 girls and 2 boys) others noted their teachers’ willingness to address and answer questions. To be able to explain and help students understand geography activities, they thought (all of them) that teachers needed to have good relationship with their students and communicate effectively with them. Additionally they mentioned that effective geography teachers promote student centred teaching and cooperative learning. The most frequently mentioned skill, cited twelve times in both individual and group interviews, was that effective teachers make geography learning fun. According to these students, teachers make geography learning fun by using a variety of materials and strategies in their teaching. They use interdisciplinary approach, projects, fieldwork, play games, give choices and show tricks to motivate students. Furthermore they give examples from the media (international or national hot news), use songs and caricatures. As five of them said (4 boys and 1 girl) “my teacher made everything exciting...he/she made everything a fun game. He/She made everything very interesting to me”.

Finally, to be good geography teachers need to manage their classrooms effectively. Students explained that teachers must be attentive to behaviour, state clear what they want from

72 students, have rules that all must follow and set a good example. “He/she can’t necessarily be strict. He/she has to state firmly what he/she wants”.

Teachers’ attitudes Students also seem to be aware of their teachers’ personal qualities, what kinds of people they are and how they treat them. This information was extracted from the following questions: “what is effective geography teacher like as people?” and “what adjectives would you use to describe effective teachers?” In these questions students over and over responded the significant behaviours they associated with their effective teachers. Seven students (3 boys and 4 girls) identified their effective geography teachers as respectful of students (they explained that respect of students develops interest and motivation to learn), while nine (4 boys and 5 girls) recognized them as fair and polite. “They don’t have a favourite, they like the students equally” and “they are so kind to the students… they are really nice”. Additionally seven students (3 boys and 4 girls) said that effective teachers are fun with a sense of humour. By the frequency with which these descriptions were mentioned in both individual and group interviews, became evident that students from these four schools care deeply about the kind of people their teachers are and they understood that teachers’ attitudes affected students’ learning and learning was at the heart of the geography education process.

Discussion – Conclusions

The findings of this study demonstrate that students are able to define effective geography teachers by their characteristics and can argue what they value in their geography teachers (Table 1). This research shows that students want teachers who know to teach geography, help them learn geography and make learning fun. Further more students want teachers who care about them, and their interesting, who treat them with respect. Treating students with respect is the basis for the relationship-centred framework that focuses on fulfilling students’ emotional needs to ensure that they want to learn geography.

Additionally students’ interests focus on the human dimensions of their teachers also in geography knowledge and pedagogy, with attention on technical dimensions of teaching geography, as map’s use, field work, geography games, etc. It is also important to note that only 2 students mention in effective geography teachers’ skills the use of new technologies. Finally the knowledge, the skills and attitudes of effective geography teachers identified by the students in this study reveal common elements with the results of research reported by adults in the literature reviewed earlier.

Table 1: Characteristics of the best geography teachers Characteristics Frequency (%) had good content knowledge 75 had good knowledge of innovative methods of teaching 75 made teaching and learning fun 63 had good explaining skills 63 was fair 56 involved students actively in learning – helped them learn 56 had good rapport with students 44 provided help when needed 44 respectful 44 was confident 44 had a sense of humour 44

73 made the geography lessons interesting 31 had well organised and managed classroom skills 31 displayed enthusiasm 25 loved his job and students 25 was polite 25 encouraged interaction 25

Implications for teacher education

The findings from this study encourage us to trust the knowledge of students and learn from it. We see that what these students revealed has potential to inform geography teachers and teacher educators impact teacher preparation programs. Thus, if we would like to achieve the goal of geography teacher education to prepare effective teachers who are able to facilitate learning geography in all students, we must be informed and guided by the voices of students themselves, as they spend their time with teachers and they are the persons to whom teachers addressed in the education process.

References Borich, G.D. (1988), Effective teaching methods, Columbus, OH: Merrill. Burden, P.R. and Byrd, D.M. (1994), Methods effective teaching, Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Danielson, C. (1996), Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching, Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Flores, S. (1999), Classrooms as cultures from a principal’s perspective, Primary Voices K-6, 7(3), 54. Harris, A. (1998), Effective teaching: A review of the literature, School Leadership and Management, 18(2), 169-183. Kauchak, D.P. and Eggen, P.D. (1994), Learning and teaching: Research-based methods, Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Klonari, Aik. and Koutsopoulos K.(2005), Primary and Secondary Educators’ Attitudes on School Geography, in K. Donert and P. Charzynski (Ed.) Changing Horizons in Geography Education, HERODOT Thematic Network, 151-155. Myers, C.B. and Myers, L.K. (1995), Effective teaching practices, in The Professional Educator, Boston: Wadsworth, 82-115. Nachmias, D. and Nachmias, C. (1987), Research methods in the social sciences. New York: St. Martin's Press. Saphier, J. and Gower, R. (1987), The skilful teacher: Building your teaching skills, Carlisle, MA: Research for Better Teaching. Wong, H.K. and Wong, M.T. (1998), How to be an effective teacher: The first days of school, Mountain View, CA: Harry Wong Publications.

74 Scales of European Citizenship: how young European students see their future

Montserrat Oller and Maria Villanueva. Autonomous University of Barcelona. Spain [email protected] [email protected]

"There is something dreadfully wrong with an education system that claims to be personalised and listen to young people, which aspires to be world class, seeking to nurture successful learners, confident individuals and responsible citizens, but which has allowed the curriculum to be so utterly distorted that learning about our place in the world (and its future) is considered to be marginal in comparison to the mundane "learning skills". Let us lift our sights. We need to trust teachers again to engage with the discipline and young people to create a curriculum for the future: exciting, relevant and with a heart,", D. Lambert., 2009

Introduction

The different realities perceived by young people in their daily life, as well as their relationships with the nearest people around them, are basic elements in the construction of their perceptions of the world and the current events in it. This image of their reality is also influenced by the inputs afforded by the mass media. One of the main aims of education is to help the young people to be active citizens in a complex and transforming world, to acquire the needed elements to build a global identity firmly rooted in their local place and making them concerned and active in a changing and diverse society. In this process, geographical education could play a relevant role as geography is present in many of the issues and decisions that affect our society, the environment and the spatial forms. A geographical education which seeks to develop students who will be active in society should aim at raising questions and building confidence and skills in using political judgement. In this sense, to teach geography means to make students competent in interpreting the main global change processes and the decisions taken by local, regional and national policies which affect not only their daily life but also the global ones.

Objectives, methodology and instruments of research

This paper presents the first findings of a European current research5 based on the hypothesis that young people build their own ideas, representations and opinions about social problems and questions and that the influence of family and social environment, as well as their daily experiences, the mass media and the school learning, are fundamental in the construction and conceptualisation of social knowledge. This multidisciplinary research (education, sociology, psychology, communication and social sciences didactics), is being carried out by universities in four different countries (United Kingdom, Turkey, Poland and Spain)

All the research data has been gathered from different instruments and at the three different scales to take into account their worries, feelings and perceptions at these same three levels. The instruments used in the research are of different characteristics. The first one is an

5 Citizens of the future: the concerns and actions of young people around current European and global issues is a European project from the European Collaborative Research Projects (ECRPs) in the Social Sciences, financed by European Research Foundation. The Spanish team is composed by M A. Dooly, E. Collados, A. Luna, M. Oller, C. Vallejo and M. Villanueva

75 individual questionnaire combining open and closed questions, which affords elements for both quantitative and qualitative analysis (ie: indicate three personal fears and hopes on your personal, community and global future). After administering the questionnaires, the students participated in a ‘social role game’ (Ultimatum Game) done in pairs, (boy-boy, girl-girl and boy-girl) to be followed by brief semi-guided interviews about their responses in the game. Finally and based on the respondents’ answers in the questionnaires, small focus groups were chosen for more detailed data recording sessions.

In the case of Spain, two different universities participated in the research, Cordoba and Autonomous of Barcelona. Questionnaires have been collected from a group of 118 pupils, about their perspectives on the future at three different levels – the personal arena, their neighbourhood and the world. The questionnaires were given to three groups of students aged 10-11 (39% of the sample), 13-14 (34 %) and 16-17 (27%). In this paper we present the data collected in different schools of the metropolitan area of Barcelona. The pupils of the youngest group, belong to a public school with direct links to the Faculty of Education of the UAB. This school has a strong academic tradition and is considered one of the more innovative public schools in the area. The socio-economic background of pupils tends to be middle to upper class families. The other groups in the study belong to a combined middle and secondary education public school in a largely industrial area. The socio-economic background of students is mainly working class. approximately 12,5% of the population are immigrants (Serra, 2006).

The project is being developed along the last two years in the framework of citizenship education and the training of young people for democratic and active attitudes for social commitment. As Dekker pointed (1996) this training should not be relegated only to the compulsory schooling because this must be a "shared function" of all social agents aiming to contribute to create democratic values among young people. From this point of view, the teaching of geography in particular, can influence in their perception of reality, the way they assume their life within the community as well as how they adquire the personal values needed to face not only the private sphere of life but also the transformation of the society they will live. The efficiency of Geography lessons will depend on how the pupil’s knowledge and perceptions about their present and future situation in society is taken into account and though, the way they integrate their daily reality and how they use it when constructing their geographical knowledge. “young people are entitled to an education that helps them make sense of these experiences and all this information. Geography can contribute to this: it helps young people make sense of the world and can enrich their experiences of it. It can inform the way they participate in the world as local and global citizens”. (Roberts, 2009)

The aims of the research are can be summarised as follows: • To know how young people understand key concepts as violence, conflict, unemployment, tolerance, environmental protection, health.....at a different spatial scales (local, national, global). • To analyse how the geographical environment, the people around them and what they learn in geography lessons, are affecting the social knowledge of young people. • To evaluate in what amount their perception on the future of social problems in their local sphere is affecting positive vision of their own personal futures (hopes and fears). • To investigate personal attitudes towards an active commitment at local and global scale.

When discussing projected hopes and fears of children and adolescents, there may be several different ways to categorise the objects enumerated by the respondents in relation to the concepts of hope and fear. Boehnke et al (1998) make a distinction between “micro” concerns

76 which place self (or intimates who are seen as extensions of self, such as family) and place at the centre, while “macro” concerns place external entities or space (e.g. society, the world or the universe). The questionnaires used in this research “obliged” the respondents to focus on both micro and macro levels.

The analysis of data was based in two different methodologies, both qualitative and quantitative. The work we present is referred to the qualitative data analysis which was founded in the principle of “grounded theory”, a method consisting of systematic yet flexible guidelines for collecting and analysing qualitative data to construct theories “grounded” in data themselves (Glaser, Strauss, 1967). This meant to start with an inductive approach where data are given from inside and not from outside. Starting from the pupil's answers, a series of categories were obtained, offering a clear image of their wishes, hopes and fears. The categories were not established prior to analysis (profiling) since using grounded theory implies an inductive approach that allows the analysis to ‘emerge’ from the data. Nonetheless, the categories mentioned by Schwartz, et al. (2000): health, safety, environment, social relations, meaning of life, achievement at work and in studies, and economy did prove to coincide quite closely with the predominant themes that emerged and which were related to the fears and hopes of the respondents in a preliminary sampling, thus providing universal parameters or ‘key-words’ to use in the category descriptors.

First results

The results we present are those gathered along the first year and they are reflecting how young people of different ages are thinking about some aspects of their reality as well as their perspectives for the future at a three different scales. In recent years, the concept of scale has opened an intense debate among social sciences, due to the growing globalisation process. In this sense the pioneering work of Taylor (1989) is of great relevance because in it, the Wallerstein's theories on the world system were applied in a brilliant way while affording a new perspective on the impact of economy from the global reality to the daily experience at a local scale, through the national ideologies level. This scale model has generated controversy and it has been re-elaborated by different authors, discussing about how these scales are fermenting, through education, a conception of the reality in scales, which at their turn is conditioning the social mobilisation. (Luna, 2006).

Wishes Concerning to the future of their local environment or “micro level”, the two most recurrent categories were related to physical improvements in the neighbourhood as well as infrastructures (new open areas, sports facilities and equipments, more retailing, less traffic...) and especially among the youngest group. The pupils of the three groups wishes also a better social environment, with the improvement of social relationships ( less conflicts) or, on the contrary, less immigration, associated to the recent conflicts and crime in the neighbourhood. The 10-11 year old students did not mention social relations whereas the other two groups did. These included desires for better integration of immigrants and the more abstract hope for “people in the nearby community to open their minds for greater comprehension between everyone”. On the global level, environmental concerns were predominant, followed closely by concerns for 3rd world problems (economic and social inequalities, poverty, high death rates, economic improvement) and desires for world peace and end of violence in general. Social justice and world peace are especially relevant among the oldest pupils but they appear in a prominent place in the other age groups too.

77 Wishes.Neighbourhood

40 Physical improvement 30 Social Relationship 20 Enviro nment al imp ro vement V io lence/ crime 10

0 Primary Seco ndary (14 Upper Sec. (17 (11years) years) years)

Wishes. World

30 25 20 Physical improvement 15 End of conf lict s 10 Social justice 5 Social relat ionships improvement

0 Primary Secondary Upper Sec. (11years) (14 years) (17 years)

Fears At the “meso” and “macro” levels, fears focus on environmental problems (pollution, lack of water, climatic change, deforestation, world destruction..). One of the most recurrent environmental fears was, at that moment, related to the severe drought in the Catalan area. The answers of pupils were reflecting also, the impact of the mass media, generating news and alarm within the population. Social and economic problems (increasing poverty, high prices, economic crisis) and a growing violence and conflicts were shown as main concerns. The 14 years olds shows clear worries about being a victim ( robbery, kidnapping..) and on social order degrading ( worst conditions in the neighbourhood, properties destruction, school facilities degrading...), quite often associated to the increase of immigration. On the personal level fears of ill health or dying were also a recurrent category, more specifically for the 10-11 year olds who mentioned fear of losing a family member or prolonged illnesses as well as one mention of fear of having handicapped children. This was less prevalent for the older groups who placed more emphasis on fears concerning economic insecurity.

Relevant to these answers, it is significant to note important political and economic changes in the situation of Spain in the last 15 years. At the moment of the collection of data (2008) unemployment was not a major issue (although it is the main problem in Spanish society nowadays). Even in same cases, the younger pupils were asking about the meaning of the word “unemployment”. All the age groups included in this study have lived with continuous economic growth and political stability. In the second phase of the study, which is currently carried out with 90 new pupils, the concern about scarcity of water is replaced by the uncertainty of jobs.

78 Fears. Neighbourhood

20 Disasters & accident s 15 Violence/ crime Communit y problems 10

0 Primary (11years) Secondary (14 years) Upper Sec. (17 years)

It is important to highlight that immigration has been and still is, a relevant issue in the political, social and educational debates along the last years in Spain, which has been emphasised and reinforced by mass media. The public discourse about immigration use to place it as a problem and this is being reflected in social behaviour as an increasing “fear of other” which is clearly reflected in the answers of pupils. All the age groups, but mainly the oldest ones, are in schools with a high percentage of recent immigrant children (12,5%) and the pupils of the study are reflecting this cultural mix. It could be of interest to tell that among those pupils considered as nationals, the majority of them belong to families which, as internal immigration flow, arrived to the metropolitan area of Barcelona from the deep rural areas of the south of Spain in the 60,s of last century. Even this fact, the degree of empathy with “the other” is clearly related to the geographical scale, that means the level of proximity. Values as respect or generosity are bigger when the subject to whom these values is addressed, is at a bigger distance

Personal commitment to be agent of changes Some parts of the enquiry are addressed to know about pupils self-perceptions on their own interest and capacity for improving the social and physical environment and also their willing to be involved in social projects or political actions. At a question as “put an example of things you would like to do in the future, for a better improvement of your neighbourhood or the world in general”, many of them show a clear relation between their fears and worries and their personal perspectives as agents of change. In the face of fears it is important to focus on people's images of preferred futures. If they can be elaborated perhaps they can provide the basis for creating a more just future (Hicks & Holden, 1995).

Many of the pupils are concerned with the environmental issues, and shows a clear disposition for recycling, to save energy, the use of electrical cars, not polluting.....and also, some of them have a positive attitude towards participating in community associations working for change. Some of the answers, mainly among the oldest age group, shows positive attitudes towards a cooperative work: “the improvements in our society are the result of the cooperative work of many persons rather than the outcome of a single one” . The answers to the question “do you think that you can do something for a better future?” show a much more skeptic attitude as the majority thinks that they can do very few things. This negative attitude increases with the age of pupils, as graphic shows.

Geography teaching and society: Some final reflections

This current research must be placed in the framework of recent approaches on the role of Geography in citizenship education, which places geographical knowledge, not only as a school subject but mainly as a context for the general educational activities. In this context, Geography lessons can be a powerful instrument to help pupils in the building of their perception of the

79 world around; it is the subject in which young people learnt and discuss about the issues they believe to be affecting their local area and the wider world: crime and anti-social behaviour, economy and jobs, war and terrorism, the environment and climate change and poverty and hunger (GA 2009). The school system should help pupils to draw alternative scenarios and to discuss how we could move towards the most attractive ones, to give them confidence in the possibility of a future.

In the research, when asked about actions done in the school related to the questionnaire questions, all the groups placed the environmental ones as first, not only as learning contents (greenhouse effect, climate change...), but also as direct actions (recycling, changing some unsustainable consumer habits .....). Other topics mentioned are related to values (respect, empathy) and charity actions (to collect food or clothes for some international action against poverty or crisis). It demonstrates that there is a clear relation between their wishes, fears and actions for change and the topics studied in school lessons. For instance, the 10- 11 year old group’s fears for the future at a global level tended to be more specifically detailed in areas that they had discussed or studied at school. Thus, environmental concerns were labelled: that the ice caps melt; that world pollution worsens; that the drought continues; that there is more climatic change, etc. Equally, problems related to socio-economic inequalities were specifically named: lack of food for 3rd world nations, drought in Africa, world poverty. Other fears – which did not correlate with stated school subjects – were more ambiguously named, such as natural disasters that the world is destroyed or that humans disappear (without stating the cause). At the same time, they are hopeful that there will be more – that they will be able to afford some luxuries such as a big house, to travel around the world, to have a car and many of their worries centre around illness and death in their families.

It is possible to take Watts et al. (2003) theory of socio-political development (SPD) to describe how youth agency and a critical social analysis are directly related to their political action. In their early work, Watts et al. (1999) have shown how the relationship between an educational curriculum that works on increasing critical thinking can serve as the basis for critical consciousness and as a strategy to promote socio-political development. The framework also includes individual youth experiences. The fact that recent political developments (e.g. recent decisions made by the Spanish government; Basque terrorism), environmental issues (e.g. threat of drought in parts of Spain; global warming) coincides with students’ indications in their questionnaires that they had studied and/or discussed social and political issues in their schools. (Dooly et al, 2008).

As mentioned earlier, political awareness was evident in all the age groups, not just in the older group. The emphasis on the need for collaboration in order to achieve social change was also an intriguing aspect that has emerged in this preliminary study. The work of Solem and Klein (2008) emphasised also the impact of international cooperation in the geographical awareness; to communicate about issues with their peers in other countries requires them to reflect on their own perspectives. After this evidences, it can be argued that Geography can fulfil the need for a critical thinking about future. As Massey (2009) stated, learning geography is to be able to apply knowledge and conceptual understanding to new settings; what we need, it seems to me, is a global sense of the local, a global sense of place.

'Never before in history have there been states where people have been able to live so freely, and to have such a good, or better, life... I know that our world is not without its negative side: crime, cruelty, drugs. We make lots of mistakes and even if many of us learn from our mistakes, some remain a prisoner to them. That is how the world is; it sets us tasks. We can live happy and content. But that should be said loud and clear! ...

80 Everyday instead I hear grumbling and complaining about the terrible world we have to live in. In my view, the spreading of such lies is the greatest crime of our age, because it threatens to rob young people of their hope and optimism...' Popper, K. (2002)

References DEKKER, H. (1999). Citizenship Conceptions and Competencies in the Subject Matter “Society” in the Dutch Schools in TORNEY-PURTA, SCHWILLE & AMADEO (eds.). Civic Education Across Countries: twenty-four National Case Studies from the IEA civic education Project. Delft: IEA. DOOLY, M.A (2008) How They See It: Young Children and Youth’s Perspectives about the Future. Proceedings of the CICE Network Conference. London Metropolitan University. GEOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION (2009) A different view. Accessed on March 20th, 2009. http://www.geography.org.uk/aboutus/adifferentview GLASER, B. and STRAUSS, A. (1967). The discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago:Aldine HICKS D.; HOLDEN, C. (1995) Exploring the Future: A Missing Dimension in Environmental Education in Environmental Education Research, v1 n2 p185-93 LAMBERT, D. (2009) Quoted in A different view. http://www.geography.org.uk/aboutus/adifferentview LUNA, A. (2006) Los espacios de la alterglobalización. Geografía y movimientos sociales. MASSEY (2009) Quotation in A different view. Geographical Association. Accessed on March 20th, 2009. http://www.geography.org.uk/aboutus/adifferentview NOGUÉ, J., ROMERO, J. (2006) Las otras Geografias. Valencia: Tirant Lo Blanc POPPER, K (2002) The Lesson of this Century, London: Routledge. SERRA, A. (2006). La dimensió local de la immigració (ppt). IV Seminari immigració i Europa. Immigració i Govern Local: experiències i Repte. (CIDOB i Diputació de Barcelona). ROBERTS, M (2009) Quotation in A different view. Geographical Association. Accessed on March 20th, 2009file://localhost/. http/::www.geography.org.uk:aboutus:adifferentview SOLEM, M.; KLEIN, P. (2008). Evaluating the Impact of International Collaboration on Geography Learning. Journal of Geography in Higher Education 32(2) 245-267. TAYLOR, P.J. (1989). Political Geography: world-economy, nation-state and community. London: Longman WATTS, R., MICHAELS, N., & JAGERS, R. (2003). Sociopolitical development. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(1-2), 185-194.

81 Global Climate Change Education in Turkey

Dr. Elif Aladag, Ass.Prof.Dr. Nihal Baloglu Ugurlu, Adnan Menderes University Faculty of Education, [email protected] Niğde University, Faculty of Education, [email protected]

Abstract Especially in the last century the effect of climate change on people life has been increasing. It is estimated that these effects will grow in future. Education is very important in increasing public consciousness about climate change. In the last decades global climate change has been given greater importance by the Repuclic of Turkey’s Ministry of National Education and non-govrmental organizations in Turkey. In this study, global climate education in Turkey especially in primary schools is examined. Global climate education must be taught through decision-making, critical thinking, researching, discovery and not only as giving information. The place of the subject in the national primary education strategy and some projects that are conducted by Repuclic of Turkish Ministry of National Education are mentioned.

Keywords: Global climate change, education, primary education, projects

Introduction

Climate change is often used to describe any kind of change in climate that may be natural or human-induced. Global warming refers only to the human-induced climate change that is predicted to have an overall warming effect on Earth’s average temperature (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2002). Global change will affect every citizen, every part of the environment and our natural resources, and thus practically every aspect of our lives—our economy, our urban and suburban development patterns, natural areas we protect, and our life styles. While climate change research is evolving rapidly with the growing recognition of the importance and urgency of the topic, teaching about climate change is still in its infancy. For this reason there has recently been great interest in educating pupils, the future citizens, about it.

According to UNESCO (2009) Education needs to take into consideration the following implications of climate change: • All levels and forms of existing educational and teaching and learning programmes need to be reviewed and re-oriented to address the causes and consequences of climate change. • Climate change requires educators to include new content into education, training and public awareness programmes. • Creativity, problem solving and social transformation skills need to be developed and nurtured. • Positive, participatory action and solution-centred approaches to education and learning need to be developed.

Educating students about issues of global climate change is a challenge for educators because the traditional didactic strategies are inappropriate and so new innovative instructional approaches and techniques should be created. Traditional ways of teaching, which are largely based on the transmission of knowledge, are inappropriate as they do not help pupils to use the knowledge learned to understand real issues from everyday life (Papadimitriou, 2004). The challenge of education for global climate change is to make these global issues

82 meaningful to learners by focusing on individual contributions to the problems, and then, using problem-solving, decision-making strategies to develop, refine and redirect the thinking and the learning. For this, instruction in hands-on and computer based classroom activities, field trips, project work can be helpful.

In the last decade a lot of research has been conducted concerning pupils’ and adults’ understanding of global warming and other global environmental problems. These studies uncovered the misconceptions and misunderstandings people, of all ages, hold of many aspects of these issues in terms of causality, possible consequences, and possible cures (Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1992; Dove, 1996; Boyes and Stanisstreet, 1998; Rye et al, 1997; Andersson and Wallin, 2000). Research has shown that misconceptions and misunderstandings about many environmental issues, climate change included, are not only held by pupils but by teachers as well (Fortner and Corney, unpublished; Papadimitriou, 2001). These misconceptions and misunderstandings are probably due to, among other things, the complexity of the science involved, the uncertainties and the controversies surrounding them. By understanding these misconceptions, teachers are in a better position to devise strategies for successfully addressing them in the classroom.

Global Climate Change Education in Turkey

As all in the world, in Turkey some educational studies are being undertaken in the field of changing global climate. The main aims of these studies are to make students conscious of their environment, to improve their environmental attitudes, knowledge and behaviour and to increase consciousness in society. Therefore global climate change became part of curriculum in primary and high schools. The teaching methods and materials are designed again according to these aims.

In Turkey the primary school program changed in 2005. According to the new program students should be “compatible” with the environment. Critical thinking, decision making and problem solving were the main skills of the program. In this framework the subject of global climate change is placed in the primary education curriculum. It is in the 7th grade topic in the unit called “Bridges between Countries”. In this unit the aims of international organisations about environment are dealt with. Students should be made aware of their individual responsibility about environmental problems. Global climate changes are seen in the environmental problems dealty with in this unit (MEB, 2005). Altough the subject is only in the social studies curriculum all lessons give place to global climate change.

In education for global climate change knowledge versus misconceptions are important. Studies show that as in other countries students and teachers do not have enough information available about this topic. Kahraman at al., (2008), explored levels of awareness and knowledge about global warming of primary teacher training students’. To reveal this, a test composed of four open-ended questions was developed and validated by researchers. Data from the test, that is, student written documents, were analysed individually through content analysis. The findings indicated that the majority of the students have a low level of awareness and knowledge about global warming. According to Pekel at al. (2007) teachers should give much more importance to teaching global environmental issues.

83 Projects Conducted by National Ministry of Education and Non- Governmental Organisations

In Turkey, there are many projects being carried out to improve the awareness of global climate change. Some of them are described here.

1. Our Future is Warming Project In 2008 TEMA (Turkish Foundation for Combating Erosion, Reforestation and the Protection of Natural Habitats) and TURMEPA (Turkish Marine Environment Protection Association) carried out a project about global climate change and its reasons, solutions and precautions. This was for the whole of Turkey, with the slogan “Our future is warming”. They will carry out some education studies. Therefore in forests, cultivation fields, pastures, seas there were some hazardous developments and they wanted to find public opinion on decreasing the effects of global climatic change. This work will be done on the land by TEMA and on the seashores by TURMEPA. Turkish Marine Environment Protection Association will travel with their ship to 28 city centers which have seashores. They want to influence public opinion against global climate change and mainly to educate children about it. The project hopes to reach 810.000 people by 2011 in 81 city centers (TEMA, 2008)

2. The Footprints of Tomorrow Project This project seeks to create public consciousness about global climate change in second and third grade primary school students with the help of TOCEV (Turkish Education Association for High-Performing Needy Children) and MEB (National Ministry of Education). The aims of projects are: • To create environmental conscious in the primary school students. • To express the global warming with the view of children. • To make the global climate change current issue with the exhibitions. • To make connection and present information With the help of the “www”.

In the project students will gain knowledge about global climate change with movies, theatre plays and special books prepared for project. They are planning to educate 10.000 students by the end of 2009 (MEB, 2009).

3. GreenPack Project The Greenpack Project is carried out with the association and paticipation of the Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC), REC Turkey and Turkish Bird Research Society and Nature Society, along with Ministry of National Education, Ministry of Environment and Foresty, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and lots of related institutions, foundations and individuals.

The main theme of Greenpack Project is education for primary school students concerning sustainable development. The Project aims at developing a “sustainable development education” capacity which brings along with necessary contrubution and possibilities for getting information about environment, environmental protection, having the ability to cope with the problems and sustainable approach.

Greenpack Project emphasizes on creating new models of behaviours at school, at home and in society and new values as well as a particular information accumulation about the environment. In this sense, students are, first, associated with their teachers in activities, then in argument, in role plays, and decision making. The main messages of the Greenpack Project

84 are effectively transformed via the teachers and the students to other members of their families and to the society.

With the Greenpack Project, a multi-media education pack is prepared and through this, it is hoped to support sustainable development studies in Turkey. This multi-media education pack, in terms of sustainable development and environment issues, consists of syllabuses intended to teachers, studying and information documents for students, a “mutual game” and a VCD/DVD and CD Rom.

Teachers from different disciplines teaching 10-14 year-old students will use Greenpack according to their own needs. After teachers are given a short course on the effective use of the advanced materials, some pilot schools will be determined in order to test the Greenpack. By means of a special web page, the teachers will be provided with information support and and experience sharing (Kolukısa and Baloğlu Uğurlu, 2007).

National Ministry of Education sent a global warming circular letter to all schools in the frame of GreenPack Project. According to this letter, all grades of primary and secondary schools gives place to environmental problems, water problems and water saving, health and environment issues. In these lessons GreenPack Environmental Education set is going to be used.

Conclusion

If some measures are not taken, global climate change will increase. To stop the climate changing, society should be more aware of the facts. Education plays very important role in increasing consciousness. Teaching about the changes in global climate will increase the student’s behaviour and attitudes towards environment in a positive way. So many countries consider it a great importance to global climate change education like Turkey. In Turkey, the subject global climate change is found in social studies lesson. But global climate change is an interdisciplinary subject so it should be found in almost every subject. Beside lessons National Ministry of Education and some non-governmental organizations (NGO) are carrying out projects about global climate change. The aim of these projects is raising students’ and pupils’ awareness of global climate change. Some of these projets are “GreenPack Project”, Our Future is Warming Project” and “Footprints of Tomorrow Project”. In these projects the subject is teached with appropriate methods, techniques and materials. Global climate changing education lectured as decision-making, critical thinking, researching, attendance and some abilities not as only information. Developing an adequate understanding of the global climate change concerns every student. And teaching this issue could aim at providing students with the appropriate problem-solving and decision making skills, inducing positive environmental attitudes, making lessons more popular and topical by connecting them to real world.

References Boyes, E. and Stanisstreet, M. (1992). Students' Perceptions of Global Warming .International Journal of Environmental Studies, Volume 42, Issue 4 December 1992 , pages 287 – 300. Boyes, E. and Stanisstreet, M. (1998). High school students’ perceptions of how major global environmental effects might cause skin cancer. Journal of Environmental Education, 29(2), 31-36.

85 Dove, J. (1996). Student Teacher Understanding of the Greenhouse Effect, Ozone Layer Depletion and Acid Rain. Environmental Education Research, Volume 2, Issue 1, February 1996 , pages 89 - 100 Fortner, R.W. and Corney, J.R. (unpublished data). Great Lakes Teachers’ Knowledge of and Priority for Teaching Global and Regional Environmental Issues. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University. Kolukısa, E. A. and Baloğlu Uğurlu N. (2007). Environment Education Projects for Sustainable Development in Turkey. Plotki (Electronic Journal), http://www.plotki.net/cms/images/stories/updatedrumours/sustainble/sustainable_developmen t_education.pdf, accessed 15/04/2009. Kahraman, S. and Yalçın, M. and Özkan, E. and Aggül, F. (2008). Sınıf Öğretmenliği Öğrencilerinin Küresel Isınma Konusundaki Farkındalıkları ve Bilgi Düzeyleri, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 28, Sayı 3, 249-263. MEB (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı) (2009). Yarının İzleri Projesi. Accessed http://www.meb.gov.tr/haberler/haberayrinti.asp?ID=1490, 15.04.2009. MEB (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı) (2007). Genelege. accessed http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/duyurular/genelge2007_66.pdf, 13/04/2009. MEB (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı). (2005). İlköğretim Sosyal bilgiler Dersi (6-7. Sınıflar) Öğretim Programı. Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü Basımevi. Papadimitriou, V. (2001). Prospective Primary Teachers’ Understanding of Climate Change, Greenhouse Effect, and Ozone Layer Depletion. Journal of Science Education and Technology, Vol. 13, No. 2, June 2004 Pekel F. O. and Kaya, E. and Demir, Y. (2007). Farklı Lise Öğrencilerinin Ozon Tabakasına İlişkin Düşüncelerinin Karşılaştırılması. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi Cilt:15 No:1 169-174. Rye, J. and Rubba, P.and Wiesenmayer, R. (1997). An Investigation of Middle School Students' Alternative Conceptions of Global Warming. International Journal of Science Education, 19(5), 527 - 551. TEMA (2008). Küresel Isınma ve İklim Değişikliğine Karşı El Ele Projesi, https://online.tema.org.tr/bagis/index.asp, accessed 18.04.2009. UNESCO (2009). Education for Sustainable Development and Climate Change. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001791/179122e.pdf, accessed 14/04/2009. Union of Concerned Scientists (2002). Confronting Climate Change in the Gulf Coast Region http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/global_warming/UCS_gulf__curriculum.pdf, accessed 09/04/2008.

86 Do Polish Universities value Geography in the 21st Century

Danuta Piróg Department of Didactics of Geography, Faculty of Geography Pedagogical University in Kraków – Poland ul. Podchorozych 2; 30-084 Krakow [email protected]

Abstract The fact that geography as the scientific discipline and as a school subject has a great meaning for all of us in everyday life is obvious for scientists representing this discipline, for students who have chosen geographical studies, and for many members of the society. We don't need to convince geographers, that the variety and diversity of problems, which geography undertakes, and the multi-pronged applying of research results in various domains of life is one of the most important advantages of modern geography. The question arises how much do scientists from different disciplines value the role of geography in preparing young people for their adult life? Do university authorities show their confidence in geography as the school subject, which favors the education of numerous skills and indispensable competences to studying at an academic level? These questions are important in Poland, where from 2001 to 2005 the system of enrolment for academic education has changed. This paper presents results of research on the enrolment of candidates in all national Polish universities. Analysis of numerous source materials shows both those majors, which require candidates passing a mature exam in geography and those that recommend it. The final result of this research is a ranking, portraying the value of geography as the subject preparing young people for studying at an academic level in Poland. Key words: enrolment, major subject, rank of geography, university

Introduction

The reason why geography as a scientific discipline and as an education subject has great meaning for many of us in our day-to-day lives is obvious for scientists representing this discipline, for people who have chosen geographical studies, and for many other people in society. Geographers do not have to be convinced that the variety of research problems taken by geography, and the multi-pronged applying of research results in various domains of life is one of the most important advantages of contemporary geography. In Poland, however, the importance of geography as a school subject is going down, for example, in 1999 within the framework of the educational system reform, geography was withdrawn from the curriculum of the primary school and replaced by natural science; with geography as a separate subject the student doesn’t encounter it until the level of junior high school (at the age of 14-16 years), with 4 hours per week for 3 years. In secondary school (high school) geography was placed among the subjects included in general education, obligatory for all students and was put aside for 3 hours per week in a 3-year educational cycle. Analyzing the place of geography in the educational framework curriculum, it is necessary to state that it has the same position as other ‘natural’ subjects: chemistry, biology, and physics with astronomy, but considerably lower than history.

From the point of view of the educational values that geography provides, playing a vital part, especially in understanding many phenomena and processes of the modern world, as well as in shaping the national consciousness, the current importance of this subject in the scheme of

87 teaching arouses anxiety in the circle of geographers (Groenwald et al., 2008). Hence there are strenuous efforts to strengthen the place of geography in schools, for instance, by introducing it as the final high school subject, that is the external examination now in Poland, and its results are the foundation for higher studies enrolment. These efforts resulted in success. The high school finals, in such a representation, were first conducted among the students declaring the desire to take it in the new formula in 2001, and since 2005 it has become obligatory for all students. Thereby geography became a subject, which could influence students’ chances of being admitted to the university and was selected by them in large numbers.

It is necessary to emphasize that geography as a separate subject continues to be enjoyed by a large number of students in Poland. Nowadays Polish students may study geography in 14 large academic cities including Cracow, Warsaw, Poznan, Lodz, Lublin, Torun, Wroclaw, Opole, Gdansk, Sosnowiec, Szczecin, Slupsk, Kielce and Bydgoszcz. Since 2003-04, geography has ranked in first thirty of the most popular majors, with 12,745 students (from an total of 1,941,445 students studying in Poland). At every university, which offers geography, this subject is an obligatory condition of the applicants’ recruitment. The position of the applicant in the ranking, was created on the basis of the results of the high school finals of geography, determines the admission. The applicant very often receives an additional 10 points for his/her taking high school finals on an extended level, if he/she received 50% points as the minimum from this examination.

Therefore the question arises, whether geography is currently an important element of the enrolment process for the other higher studies in Poland, and what follows it, to what extent the scholars from other disciplines value the role of geography in the preparation of young people for adult life? Do university authorities give expression of their trust to geography as the school subject, which is conductive to development of numerous abilities and competences in a student, indispensable for studying at third level?

Methodology and Results

In this research, document analysis was used, i.e. information for the applicants for all state higher full-time studies. Collected materials were subjected to grouping, taking into consideration, the type, location of school and kinds of majors taken. As a result of analysis, numerous source materials were selected concerning the majors, which strictly require passing the high school finals for the applicants, as well as those ones, which recommend passing the high school finals and taking their results into account in the enrolment process. The geography major was passed over, where presentation of the results of the high school finals from geography by the student as the fundamental condition for admission to studies is obvious, as well as those majors, which allowed the student to select the final high school subject of his/her choice in the enrolment process.

Geography as a subject of enrolment in the selected schools

Analysis of source material revealed that there is no reputable higher state school in Poland, which would not have in its educational offer at least one major taking geography into consideration in the enrolment. The most majors with geography taken into account in the enrolment are at the universities – it allowed for 156 majors at all universities in total. Analysis showed a few examples of universities, which value geography in the enrolment process, on the selected majors. The following example illustrates this.

Gdansk University offers oceanography, environmental protection and archaeology as those majors, in which geography plays a part in the enrolment process as the subject accompanied by biology and a foreign language. The Jagiellonian University in Cracow, accepts geography in enrolment for the following majors: geology, international economics and applied economics (as the option to select mathematics with history or mathematics with geography, marketing and management (as the option to select along with history and mathematics). UMCS in Lublin (Maria Curie-Skłodowska University) considers the results from geography in the high school finals in the enrolment for archaeology and environmental protection. Lodz University has four majors valuing geography; they include archeology, environmental protection, tourism and recreation (geography is the optional subject together with biology, social studies, and history). Even broader interest in geography in the enrolment process can be observed at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, where aside from the majors of geology and environmental protection; the spatial economy, economics and management, marketing and management take geography into account in the enrolment process as the subject to select among history, mathematics, and foreign language as well. Other majors (apart from archaeology, and environmental protection) are ethnology and European studies at the University of Wroclaw. For these majors, geography appears in the register with Polish language, history, history of art, social studies and foreign language.

The second and third entries to the academies of technology show that geography was allowed in the entry process in 77 majors; and for agriculture, geography was allowed for 27 majors. The other example is the Warsaw School of Economics, where geography is the enrolment subject on the major: economics, European studies, finances and banking, spatial economy, public economy, qualitative methods in economics, international relations, marketing and management. The University of Science and Technology in Cracow takes geography into account as the optional subject almost on every major starting with these majors, which are related to geography, that is environmental engineering, geodesy and cartography, and geology to metallurgy and petroleum engineering. In turn the University of Agriculture in Cracow requires a high school diploma in geography for applicants (optionally with biology, mathematics, chemistry, information technology) on the major in agriculture, marketing and management, environmental protection. The University of Agriculture in Lublin or University of Life Sciences in Lublin, allows for geography in the enrolment process on the major in landscape architecture. The last group concerns the academies of physical education, where geography is taken into consideration on 4 majors, of which all require the submission of a high school diploma in enrolment on the major in tourism and recreation.

Spatial diversity

Analysing the importance of geography in high schools according to provinces, we can remark that the result of the high school finals were most often taken into account in schools of the Mazowieckie province; then Slaskie and Lubelskie. The basic reason for the spatial diversity of the number of majors, in which geography is taken into consideration in the enrolment process, is the size of the academic centre, diversity of the types of higher schools and academic traditions. Those provinces mentioned are the areas, in which many of the universities with a rich educational tradition offer the largest option. These institutions are the largest and oldest, and are regarded as the best universities with an established status in Poland and internationally. (See Figure 1)

Figure 1: The number of majors, in which geography is taken into consideration in the enrolment process by province

The importance of Geography in different majors

Based on source materials, all majors in Poland were compiled and ranked in 10 majors, in which geography most often plays a vital part in the enrolment process (See Table1).

Analysis of the importance of geography to different majors showed that it is the largest in the majors relating to economics and social studies broadly understood. The major, in which geography is the most often taken into account in the enrolment process is management, which offers 38 schools and in each of them geography is the optional subject. The next majors are economics, environmental protection, tourism and recreation. Geography is also valued in the majors: administration, finances and accountancy, and international relations. Somewhat lesser, but of vital importance was geography in the enrolment process on the majors of European studies as well as pedagogy.

Analysis of the role of geography in the enrolment process on different majors at third level doesn’t really due to the linkages between subjects such as tourism, environmental protection and European Studies. This is understandable since geography may prepare the students well for comprehension of economic, social, and political transformations of the modern world; for analyzing, prognostication and searching for ways of resolving multifaceted problems, what are essential competencies while studying on these types of majors.

More significantly the research of Polish institutions revealed was also an appreciation of geography on the majors in economic and educational sciences. Allowing for geography in the enrolment process on these majors may prove that specialists from the domain of economics, more and more intensely take notice of the role of geographical competences in spatial management, marketing analysis and international cooperation. Scholars and pedagogues perceive the major role of geography in the educational process is in building bonds with place, pro-ecological attitudes and in creating desirable patterns of spending leisure time with trips and field activities. However, what is of concern is the relatively low interest in geography by political scientists. We know that historical background is essential

90 to understanding many aspects of this discipline, but social transformations, which are the topic of deliberations during the classes of geography would also be significant in preparation for political science studies.

Table 1: The role of geography in the enrolment for selected majors in Poland No. Types of majors Number of Participation of geography universities in the enrolment (%) 1 Management 39 70 2 Economics 38 90 3 Environmental protection 24 56 4 Tourism and recreation 21 78 5 Administration 19 66 6 Finances and accountancy 17 81 7 International relations 17 74 8 Political science 15 47 9 European studies 13 76 10 Pedagogy 13 29

All of the majors mentioned are important and popular majors in Poland. Therefore we may draw the conclusion that geography is a valued subject in preparing for studying these specialties.

It’s also important to ask to what degree geography may influence whether the applicant is admitted to studies, if geography is one of the subjects considered by the authorities of the academy in the enrolment process. Analysing Table 1, with majors such as economics, tourism and recreation, finances and accountancy, the influence of the result of the high school finals in geography may be decisive for the success of the student (78% - 90%). Similarly geography may also play a vital part on the major: European Studies and management, where the result of the high school finals in geography influences the admission of the student to higher studies in more than 70% of cases.

It is necessary to add that the students see the usefulness of geography in their further education, as illustrated in the poll carried out by Piróg et al. (2007) among high school students from Malopolskie province, who suggested different reasons for the selection of geography as the final high school subject. The answer most often given was “geographical information and skills are easy for me to master” with 26%. The next place in the ranking was geographical interests (17%) and in third place came “usefulness in the enrolment for higher studies” (13%). The high percentage of students taking geography in their high school finals is significant in highlighting the importance of geography in schools. (see: www.agh.edu.pl; www.ar.krakow.pl; www.ar.lublin.pl; www.kierunki.info; www.kierunkistudiów.pl; www.sgh.com.pl; www.uczelnie.pl; www.uj.krakow.pl; www.umk.pl; www.uni.gda.pl; www.uni.lodz.pl; www.uni.wroclaw.pl; www.wsp.krakow.pl)

Conclusion

To sum up, it is necessary to note that research conducted indicates the highly significant place of geography in the enrolment process for higher education studies in Poland. Geography is recognized and appreciated by experts not only in geography, but also in other scientific disciplines, especially management, economics, tourism and recreation as the school subject effectively preparing pupils for education at third level. Competences gained by students in geography lessons, such as analysing, comparing, synthesis, information search,

91 group work, problem solving and so forth, serve both the future students and their academic teachers in the process of specialist training. Unfortunately, while there is a high appreciation of the usefulness of geography at third level - in the preparation of young people for further education in diverse schools and majors, and training, this is not matched with a commensurate profile and resources at secondary level, and as a school subject. The number of teaching hours in geography in junior high school, as well as in higher education, remains at an unsatisfactorily low level, which will probably see a further reduction within the framework of the next planned educational reform in Poland.

Disappointing to many geography teachers and scholars alike is the depreciation of the importance of geography by parents and students, and in consequence the general public, which manifests itself in granting geography the function of being interesting, but not a core actor on the educational scene. Usually from such a perspective, the time and attention in Polish schools should be directed to foreign language learning, the core sciences, and alternatively to biology and history, which clear the way for taking up studies on the majors with high prestige such as medicine and law. Geography, from such a standpoint, should give a break; entertain with the interesting description of exotic sites and not to absorb their kids unduly, immersed in other pursuits. Nonetheless, the author has illustrated with the research results presented above, that geography is ‘taken for granted’ and while being central to education in Poland, this is not always evident in public opinion, nor state planning in education.

References Groenwald M., Plit F., Rodzoś J., Szkurłat E., Tracz M. (2008) Raport o stanie geografii szkolnej w nowym systemie oświaty w Polsce, in: Wiśniewski R., W. Gierańczyk (ed.) Geografia we współczesnym systemie kształcenia, PAN, Dokumentacja Geograficzna nr 38, Warszawa Piróg D., Tracz M., Gurgul B. 2007, Motywy wyboru geografii na maturze a wyniki egzaminu maturalnego, in: XIII Konferencja diagnostyki edukacyjnej. Uczenie się i egzamin w oczach uczniów, Łomża 1. www.agh.edu.pl 2. www.ar.krakow.pl 3. www.ar.lublin.pl 4. www.kierunki.info 5. www.kierunkistudiów.pl 6. www.sgh.com.pl 7. www.uczelnie.pl 8. www.uj.krakow.pl 9. www.umk.pl 10. www.uni.gda.pl 11. www.uni.lodz.pl 12. www.uni.wroclaw.pl 13. www.wsp.krakow.pl (Accessed: 18.04.2009)

92 A Case for Geography and English Integrated Studies

Aleksandra Zaparucha Association of Polish Adult Educators, Toruń Branch, Poland

Abstract Geography is one of most popular subjects taught through foreign languages (CLIL). However, it remains the task of the teacher to make sure the content is not neglected because of the language focus, or that the content delivered is not simplified too much so as to be digested through a foreign language. The article aims at presenting CLIL materials for teaching physical geography. It is prepared on the basis of the e-book by Professor Michael Pidwirny from Canada. Each chapter of the book starts with carefully selected illustrations and questions which are meant to be a stimulus for speaking activities, and which would draw students’ attention to the topic. This is followed by a vocabulary list which also includes pronunciation and, in some cases, words’ explanations and other tasks. The main part of each chapter is a reading exercise accompanied by language exercises, follow-up tasks and extra tasks in ‘Think a while!’ section. As a result, the book is going to deliver both the content and the language in the most user-friendly manner.

Key words: CLIL, Geography and English, subject integration, ELT, CLIL textbook, CLIL materials for Geography

Introduction

Integration of school subjects and foreign languages (CLIL – Content and Language Integrated Learning) is gaining popularity throughout Europe and other continents. Geography is one of the most frequently selected subjects to be taught in such a way. Geographical vocabulary is taught anyway during foreign language classes, as topics such as volcanoes or tourist destinations are popular themes (Zaparucha, 2007). Geography delivers a wide scope of interesting material available through different resources, especially electronic, which can be used for classes. However, teaching Geography through a foreign language is not an easy thing and it remains the task of the teacher to make sure the content is not neglected because of the language focus, or that the content is not simplified too much to be digested through the foreign language.

Tools for CLIL Geography

Teaching school subjects and languages separately needs specific tools, such as a well designed curriculum, specific teacher training, and experienced and dedicated teachers with expertise in modern methodology. Besides, skills practiced during classes, testing methods and the expected outcomes are specific for each study area. Last but not least, textbooks are diverse in both cases.

However, the integration of a subject and a foreign language, e.g. Geography and English, requires purposely designed tools which cannot simply copy what is specific for these subjects taught separately (see Table 1). First of all, it is required that the curriculum followed by CLIL classes is concordant with what the national Geography curriculum states, and not

93 that of foreign languages. As a result, language skills acquired and practiced during CLIL classes are not built up in the same fluent manner that during language classes.

If it comes to CLIL teachers, in numerous cases these are subject teachers with a decent knowledge of the foreign language in use. In many countries there are no specific requirements in terms of such teachers’ training (Szabóné, 2008). As a result, these people often lack language teaching skills and delivering lessons can become a serious issue. Thus, the training should be carefully designed so as to meet the specific needs of such teachers.

Table 1. Specificity of tools for CLIL Geography Geography CLIL Geography English Geography Following a National Geography Curriculum English Curriculum Curriculum in a foreign language (no separate curriculum). Geography Teaching Separate methods of teaching considering the English Teaching Methodology language abilities and needs. Methodology Geography Teacher Teacher Training designed purposely for English Teacher Training CLIL teachers in order to give insight into Training the specificity of the teaching environment. Geographical Skills Both Geography and language skills English Language practiced. Skills Geography Testing Testing both the subject knowledge and the English Language level of the language, but without hyper- Testing correctness expected in terms of the language. Geography Specially designed Geography textbooks English Textbooks Textbooks with language exercises.

Other key problems connected with CLIL-style teaching of Geography include skills practiced during classes. Well-designed CLIL lessons should give the students opportunities to use and develop all language skills. As various studies prove, CLIL students generally outcome non-CLIL students in terms of all language skills (Zarobe, 2008; Loranc-Paszylk, 2009). However, this cannot mean geographical skills are neglected due to lack of time or other obstacles. For instance, the amount of time devoted to fieldwork or map-reading should be at least the same, if not larger due to language difficulties, as in non-CLIL classes. The same refers to lesson preparation, testing and other fields of teaching.

Physical World for Intermediate Students

Among the most difficult issues regarding CLIL-style teaching is how to obtain teaching resources, including textbooks. The simplest thing would be just taking a ready British or American Geography textbook, but the drawbacks of this include inadequate curriculum pattern (i.e. Polish curriculum does not include case studies which are found in British textbooks), inappropriate language level (in most cases too high), and no language-specific exercises which would let students practice both receptive and productive skills. Although using ready Geography material found throughout English textbooks would swiftly include language practice, selecting such material would often mean that the contents is simplified, inadequate or out-dated, while searching for Internet material is time-consuming. As a result,

94 the amount of teacher-produced material can vary from 20 to as much as 70% (own study, unpublished).

All the above pushed the author into writing her own, professionally designed textbook for teaching Geography through CLIL. It is based on the e-book Fundamentals of Physical Geography by Michael Pidwirny (1999-2008). The ready texts, cordially made available by the author, were treated as the basis for the textbook. Following is a sample material from Chapter IV on The Universe, the Earth and the Natural Spheres. Part 2 of this paper deals with The Natural Spheres.

Speaking Carefully selected photos are to deliver stimulus material for speaking and listening activities at the beginning of each lesson unit. Accompanying task (Describe…) and the questions will help practicing language skills, which in this form appear during an oral leaving high school exam for foreign languages. Moreover, the material is to draw students’ attention to the topic covered in the section (Figure 1).

Figure 1: An example of visual aids and speaking tasks.

Vocabulary One of the difficulties in dealing with foreign texts is its complexity caused by specific language in use. Moreover, even a foreign language specialist will have problems in pointing at proper pronunciation in English, as it varies a lot. Thus, each unit is accompanied by pronunciation based on modern vocabularies and presented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (Figure 2). Moreover, some chapters would have definitions or even vocabulary tasks included.

95 VOCABULARY Study the words, practice their pronunciation and find their equivalents in your native language. condensation /ˌkɒndenˈseɪʃ(ə)n/ (n) mineral /ˈmɪn(ə)rəl/ (n) element /ˈelɪmənt/ (n) molten /ˈməʊltən/ (adj) evaporation /ɪˌvæpəˈreɪʃ(ə)n/ (n) organic /ɔː(r)ˈɡænɪk/ (adj) glacier /ˈɡlæsiə(r)/ (n) particle /ˈpɑː(r)tɪk(ə)l/ (n) groundwater /ˈɡraʊndˌwɔːtə(r)/ (n) pressure /ˈpreʃə(r)/ (n) hydrologic cycle /haɪˈdrɒlədʒɪk ˈsaɪk(ə)l/ (n) rock /rɒk/ (n) igneous /ˈɪɡniəs/ (adj) runoff /ˈrʌnɒf/ (n) inorganic /ˌɪnɔː(r)ˈɡænɪk/ (adj) sedimentary /ˌsedɪˈmentəri/ (adj) infiltration /ˌɪnfɪlˈtreɪʃ(ə)n/ (n) sphere /sfɪə(r)/ (n) magma /ˈmæɡmə/ (n) suspended /səˈspendɪd/ (adj) metamorphic /ˌmetəˈmɔːrfɪk/ (adj) Figure 2. An example of vocabulary tasks and pronunciation

Reading Reading poses a vital part of each chapter. Very often the reading passages would include more visuals and would pose a springboard for writing tasks. As the original text is at a much higher level, both linguistically and in terms of the contents, the initial task was to simplify it and adjust to the curriculum. However, as the book is not specially designed for one selected country, the content is more complex than it should be, for instance, for Poland only. This is done deliberately, as these are the teachers who should be able to pick up the parts which they assume important and necessary in their teaching. Figure 3 included a sample text.

READING Read the text below and do the follow-up tasks. The Earth has five basic components called spheres. The Lithosphere is the solid inorganic outer part of the Earth built of rocks and minerals which consist of elements. On its surface the Earth is composed of three main types of rocks: o igneous – rocks formed by solidification of molten rocks called magma, o sedimentary – rocks formed by the deposition and burial of inorganic particles, such as sands, and organic sediments, o metamorphic – rocks formed by alteration of existing rocks by intense heat or pressure. The atmosphere is the vast gaseous envelope of air that surrounds the Earth. Its limits are difficult to define. The atmosphere contains different gases and suspended particles. The hydrosphere includes the waters of the Earth in various stores, including the atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, and groundwater. Water takes part in the hydrological cycle and moves from one store to another by evaporation, condensation, runoff, precipitation, infiltration and groundwater flow. The biosphere includes all living things, i.e. plants and animals. The pedosphere refers to the thin layer of soils. All of these five spheres are linked to each other. Dynamic interactions move and exchange both matter and energy between them. Figure 3: A sample of a reading passage

Follow-up tasks All the units include various tasks which follow the main reading passage. They would often incorporate writing tasks or more speaking opportunities. Figure 4 shows an example of a follow-up task.

96 Summary The number of schools delivering their classes through foreign languages is on the rise. Thus, it cannot go unnoticed among Geographers that their subject is being delivered in this way. Although CLIL is mostly advocated for by foreign language teachers as a way of enhancing students’ progress in these terms, subject teachers not involved in CLIL should not treat this methodology as totally marginal. There is no European now with no knowledge of foreign languages. Geography as a science is also under increasing stress of using English as a lingua franca of the field. As a result, any means leading to achieving this goal are worthwhile, including CLIL. It should remain all Geographers’ goal, however, that once doing this CLIL teachers do not limit geographical knowledge among the population.

The presented samples of the textbook are to show both, the language competencies and the subject-specific skills and knowledge, can be achieved once we give CLIL teachers well- designed tools, including carefully designed textbooks.

FOLLOW-UP TASKS A. Insert the following words into the scheme: animals, biosphere, elements, gases, glaciers, groundwater, lakes, lithosphere, minerals, oceans, particles, pedosphere, plants, rivers, soils, water.

Insert the words given below to the sentences. If necessary, refer to the previous unit. atmosphere expanding light Theory 4.6 billion explosion lithosphere Universe 13.5 billion linked scientists The Big Bang (1) …..…. explains the origin, history, and future of the (2) ………. . Most (3) ………. say matter, energy, space, and time in our Universe were created from a huge (4) ………. about (5) ………… years ago. Ever since this explosion the Universe has been (6) ………. at the speed of (7) ……. . The Earth began forming about (8) ….……….. years ago. The Earth is composed of four spheres: (9) ……………, biosphere, (10) …………., and hydrosphere, which are (11) ……………….. through biogeochemical recycling.

Figure 4: A sample of follow-up tasks

References Loranc-Paszylk, B. (2009), Integrating Reading and Writing into the Context of CLIL Classroom: Some Practical Solutions, International CLIL Research Journal Vol 1 (2), http://www.icrj.eu/index.php?vol=12andpage=744, accessed 25/04/2009. Pidwirny, M. (1999), Fundamentals of Physical Geography, http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html, accessed: January 2008.

97 Szabóné P. (2008), CLIL Teacher Training in Central and Eastern Europe, CLIL Fusion: Multilingual Mindsets in a Multicultural World: Building quality learning communities, International CLIL Conference, Tallinn, Estonia, 24-25 October, http://www.clilconsortium.jyu.fi/images/stories/proposal%20-%20szabone%20pakozdi.pdf, accessed: 25/04/2009. Zaparucha, A. (2007), Everyone is a Geography teacher: on reasons for Geography and English Integrated Teaching, The Teacher, January. Zarobe, Y. R. de (2008), CLIL and Foreign Language Learning: A Longitudinal Study in the Basque Country, International CLIL Research Journal Vol 1 (1), http://www.icrj.eu/index.php?vol=11andpage=744, accessed: 27/04/2009.

98 Environmental study of landscape dynamics

Mgr. Darina Foltynova, Ph.D., Dr. Hana Svatoňová, Ph.D. Faculty of education, Department of Geography, Masaryk university, Poříčí 7, Brno, 603 00, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Students of Geography take part in geographical fieldwork based at the Department of Geography, Masaryk University in the Czech Republic. The fieldwork aims are focused on development of environmental and geographical thought, knowledge integration dealing with human and physical geography and other related disciplines with emphasis on new practical skills achievement. The fieldwork location is situated on the border of the valuable preserve area with unique karst relief just in the Czech Republic. This varied environment enables them to study human impacts on the environment from many points of view, including the monitoring of landscape changes over time.

Intending geography teachers study archive materials for changes of landscape. They work with old maps (maps of the first military mapping around 1870), with archive air photos taken 50 years ago, current air photos and up to date maps. They mark the most significant changes in the landscape during centuries. With teacher´s support they evaluate mainly changes of relief, waters, share of arable land and forests, urban areas spreading or their disappearance, road network, size changes of farm lands as an irreversible human impact caused by the change of economic structure in the half of the 2Oth century (named „collectivization“). Students search relationships and connections and predict future development of the preserve area and explore landscape evolution.

Key words: environmentalism, development of landscape, geographical synthesis, profession preparation of geography teacher

Introduction

For centuries landscape changes documents an interaction of natural forces and human influence (Ruda, 2008). Monitoring of the development of landscape includes the study of actual landscape state, landscape imagine based on historic maps analysis and especially evaluation of landscape changes. Understanding of process of environmental synthesis is serious skill and knowledge.

Future teachers of Geography studying at the Masaryk University use university fieldwork laboratory which is situated on the border of Moravian Karst preserve area. It enables to observe differences between the development of protected landscape with limited economic activity and landscape without higher level of protection.

Students work in the terrain and classroom as well. The fieldwork is mainly aimed at skills connected with primary data collection (orientation in terrain, terrain mapping, observing, material collection and analysing). Their work in the classroom is focused on studying historic documents and old maps, facts synthesis and presentation.

99 Views on the landscape

Landscape is a specific part of earth´s surface which can be observed inside to its outer attributes. These are the result of natural conditions and human activity. Inside image of the landscape comes from its material fundament, dynamics of natural, human and matter-energy process (Kolejka, 1987). Spatial understanding of the real state influenced further development of necessary methodical approaches of many disciplines. Individual possibilities of landscape usage are the result between natural area characteristics and technical opportunities on one side and knowledge and human abilities of a specific period of time on the other side (Kolejka, Marek, 2006).

The state of the landscape can be studied from map, Remote Sensing materials (aerial photos and satellite images) or captured during mobile mapping (Gajdoš, Midriak, 2007). While the mobile mapping captures the real state of the landscape archive materials are necessary for studying the development of landscape. The Czech Republic has many valuable map products and old aerial photos of an ancient landscape. The first military mapping was the first wide area mapping of the current Czech Republic (former it was a part of Austrian Empire). The accomplishment of the mapping is the set of maps in the scale of 1:28 800. The maps are without an accurate mathematic base and have visible signature of cartographer – officer – riding a horse, passing through the landscape a carefully mapping routes, rivers, streams, land use (arable land, meadows, pastures etc.) and various buildings – churches, mills. Maps were manually painted therefore objects can be easily identified (Figure 1). Maps are very valuable because of capturing landscape in its full species richness at the beginning of industrial revolution (Svatoňová, 2008).

Figure 1: Map of the first military mapping, 1780.

Aerial photography of wide areas in the Czech Republic was organized between years 1936 and 1938. Archive aerial photographs are deposited in the Archive of the Army of the Czech Republic from where it is possible to buy them.

100 a)

b) Figure 2: Land use changes: a) Historical aerial photo, 1953 b) Recent aerial photo, 1999

Students´ work with aerial photographs For observation of the development of the landscape students use copies of coloured maps from the first military mapping around 1780, set of aerial photographs from 1953 and 1999 covering study area (Figure 2). They use tourist maps in the scale of 1:50 000 to identify objects in photographs too. Students work with worksheets completed with objectives, recommended methods and procedures, basic theory and requested results (Figure 3).

Sample of working procedure: 1. Preparation of material (to create the sat of images) 2. Calculation of the approximate scale of up-to-date and historical satellite images 3. Identifying elements on Remote Sensing images 4. Identifying elements on the military maps 5. Find out defunct villages, rename of villages 6. Identifying landscape changes a. relief shape variations b. stream network c. distribution of water areas d. change of number of villages – defunct villages, new villages, rename of villages e. residential estate and recreation estate f. ways and roads – the relation between old and new ways and roads

101 g. arable land – more or less, new areas or the decrease of areas benefit of forest, villages, roads; changes in the way of maintenance, agricultural building, influence of agriculture on landscape 7. Synthesis of the results – evaluation of the main changes in land use and their reasons; assessment of revolutionary development of landscape during the relevant eras 8. Prediction of the next development of landscape, way of land use, ecological issues etc., independent work within the drawing and commentary making

Figure 3: Students work

Students survey work during thematic mapping Another task connected to activities mentioned before is thematic mapping of recent land use. Field mapping is useful for the mapping of land use in smaller areas. That is the reason why each group of students map just the area of 20 km2. The scale of the base map is 1:10 000.

Students prepare the legend before mapping, it is based on the purpose of the map. An typical legend will be simplified legend from the European project CORINE (CO-oRdination of INformation on the Environment; this programme was founded by the European Union to acquire up-to-date data about the environment situation, its changes in the future and to monitor reasons of these changes.).

Students work in the field and map homogenous (in case of defining typological elements) territories with the one type land use. They can map the concrete usage of areas that show the results of human activity in the landscape.

Sample of mapping procedure: 1. Create work groups 2. Divide the mapping area (each group maps other part of the area) 3. Go through a CORINE legend 4. Adapt the legend (simplify or complete the legend) for the specific situation of land use in Jedovnice and its neighbourhood. 5. Map selected part of the landscape (without – blind parts). Map individual features into the map within symbolization by colour or pattern. 6. Put map together. 7. Complete all map elements into the legend.

102 8. Present the results.

The completed map of land use can be used in many ways for evaluation in the research, education and practice. In connection with a map of landscape, this map presents relations between parts of nature much better than any other thematic maps. It also explains some of the reflections in anthropogenic influence on the area. The map can be used for other analysis (measurement, evaluation) and synthesis (the possibilities of optimal organization) that students and teacher do together. At the end of this activity, students compare the results obtained with usage of distant ways as well as with the way of field mapping.

Conclusion

Fieldwork practice is helpful in realisation of education aims. They enable abilities and skills to be developed (Knecht, Svatoňová, 2008). Fieldwork is an important part of Geography teaching. Present experiences show that fieldwork has been missing from Geography teaching (Hofmann, 2008). The reasons are that it is time-consuming and teachers are under-prepared to complete fieldwork. Working with students in real situation is helpful in school practice. Young teachers repeat many tasks that they learned at university. Our experiences show that many graduate students come back with their pupils to the “crime scene” and teach them how to study landscapes. This motivates them to examine the environmental issues and solutions and their interest in nature.

References Gajdoš, A. and Midriak, R. (2007), Geografia a krajinná ekológia, FPV UMB Banska Bystrica. Hofmann, E. (2008), Geography and Field Lessons. in Svatoňová et al., Geography in Czechia and Slovakia, Theory and practis on the Onset of 21st Century, Brno: Masaryk University, 431-435. Knecht, P. and Svatoňová, H. (2008), Developing Educational Cartography: Pupils criteria for selecting a school atlas, in Future prospects in Geography, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 325-333. Kolejka, J. (1987), Landscape-historical Synthesis. Materials, Methods and Results, Ecology, 6, 51-62. Kolejka, J. and Marek, D. (2006), Sustainable land use convergence in border area in Central Europe, in Vogtmann, H. (ed.), Environmental Security and Sustainable Land Use – with special reference to Central Asia, Springer, 183-198. Ruda, A. (2008), Hodnocení vlivu cestovního ruchu na krajinu Nízkého Jeseníku metodami GIS, Ph.D. Thesis, Ostrava: University of Ostrava Svatoňová, H (2008), Agricultural landscape and its changes, in Svatoňová et al., Geography in Czechia and Slovakia, Theory and practis on the Onset of 21st Century, Brno: Masaryk University, 133-138.

103 Exploiting Research-based learning Resources Under the new Geography Curriculum in China

Ilhan Turan¹, Duan Yushan², Qiu Hongha³ 1 Rize University,Education Faculty,Turkey 2,3 East China Normal University, Faculty of Resource and Environment Science, Department of Geography, China [email protected],[email protected],[email protected]

Abstract Since the beginning of the 21st century, Chinese basic education has undergone a big transformation. The new curriculum places much emphasis on research-based learning. There are two main ways of implementing research-based learning in the geography curriculum: One is a learning style that runs through the classroom learning; the other is to design and exploit geographical research resources which are mainly about geographical issues or project plans to conduct the study on issues or projects in geography course. These resources are specially designed in accordance with the requirements of the geography curriculum. Leading students to master and apply this new style needs (1) course aims relying on geography, (2) abundant resources that can be used in classroom teaching or encourage the students to develop independent study and (3) exploitation of geography curriculum resources. Based on the above suggestions, this paper proposes an exploitation strategy of the curriculum resources for research-based learning.

Key words: Research-based learning, inquiry study, types of curriculum resources, exploitation strategy

Introduction

The new curriculum system in China makes a great breakthrough and innovates in the following respects: function, structure, content, implementation, evaluation, administration and so on. More and more teachers put it into practice and carry out a series of attempts to develop self-directed, cooperative and research-based learning. For a long time, many schools have adopted a closed-in management style under the pressure of college entrance examinations. And the purpose of schools was to put the students in an isolated environment where they devote themselves to learning, gaining exam success, and preparing for college. Apparently, this education style contributed to the students’ intellectual development in the first place, all teaching and other activities have been provided for exams. In this style, students spent most of their time in schools and had little contact with the outside world. But this education style isolates the students from society and sets a certain distance between students’ development and society’s development. Even under the new curriculum, the ‘sequelae’ of this education style has still restrained the implementation of the development of new teaching methods. Taking into account these conditions of education in China, to bring a new approach for education is necessary (Xiaojian, 2006). It is clear that research-based learning supports an effective platform for students to carry out self-dependent learning and research with creativity and exploiting curriculum resources for research-based learning becomes more important than ever.

104 The types of curriculum resources in research-based learning under the new geography curriculum

From functional aspects, curriculum resources for research-based learning of geography should combine geography curriculum and educational technology to help produce research- based learning. Geography curriculum resources are a vital prerequisite to conducting geography research-based learning. There are some distinctive geographical types of resources used in geography learning activities, including teaching appliances, rock and mineral specimens, geographical substances, globes, geographical models etc. There are many external resources which also help students to conduct research-based learning, for instance the science and technology museum, meteorological stations, geography garden, geography field practice base etc.

Research-based learning with the backing of supporting resources points mainly to resources which help in creating research-based learning activities. These also include computer network technologies and necessary equipment, experimental apparatus and relevant software. Research-based learning also requires a number of public places where students can conduct group study activities and examine geographical issues or geographical research topics or incidents. Web media resources are another very valuable requirement and of course a certain amount of funding might be needed to help conduct research-based learning (Liangfang, 1996). Curriculum resources need to be provided with the aim of stimulating teachers and students to promote the study of geographical issues, guiding the students to independently investigate and deal with them. According to their spatial extent, curriculum resources can be divided into 3 kinds:

1. Curriculum resources inside school: It includes laboratory, library and varies teaching facilities and practice bases; 2. Curriculum resources outside school: It includes a wide range of social resources and abundant natural resources such as public library, museum, exhibition hall science and technology museum, factory, rural area, army, scientific research institutes and so on; 3. Information-based curriculum resources: Intramural information resources and network course resources based on modern information technology. This type of resource could also be classified into the above two types (inside school-outside school).

Exploitation of research-based learning curriculum resources under the new geography curriculum

Construction of geography curriculum resources at a library in school based on the new curriculum The construction of geography curriculum resources at library in school refers to 3 aspects: 1. Establishment of a material resource library for geography research-based learning 2. Creating a resource records library 3. Human Organization Resources library.

1. Establishment of material resource library for research-based learning in geography course The establishment of a material resource library is mainly regarded to the establishment of subject resource library for research-based geography learning. It involves background information resources of varies topics for research-based geography learning (development and utilisation of energy, national project construction, urban agriculture, regional disaster, regional land use etc), technical methods and guidance materials needed in conducting

105 research-based geography learning and geography issues that could be employed in study and students’ model works generated in research-based geography learning and so on.

An “Information package” is a usual and effective way to construct and manage material curriculum resources. The “Information package” usually takes certain topics or subjects as a unit which is used to manage classified resources (such as collections of curriculum resources about volcanoes and earthquakes), which can be assembled as a form of “Information package” and can be easily replenished and updated in time. Relatively mature curriculum resources (such as guidance materials for research-based geography learning, subject resources library, collection of students’ essays and research-based geography curriculum on certain topics) can be further developed on the basis that the “Information package” progresses to a certain extent.

The works in an "information package" are conducive to building and improving the management mechanisms which could enrich and update relevant curriculum resources. The information package form of curriculum resources management is well suited to curriculum resources such as overhead transparency, slides, wall map, teaching aids, learning aids, Picture, literal material etc.

2. Creating a resources records library of geography research-based learning Generally there are 4 forms of geography backing curriculum resources. The first form is resources that don’t require geography teachers to build and manage them; this includes examples such as field practical bases, campus, community etc. The second is large teaching instruments and devices and school facilities that are managed by the school management, such as the library, laboratories and electronic classroom, multi-media classroom, observatory, computer lab and so on. The third is discipline-specific resources such as the geography class, maps, globes, physical aids and development of integrated laboratory for conducting geography experiments and geography research activities. The second and third will be mainly established and managed by geography teachers. The fourth is free resources from which teachers usually get access to information, such as media resources, human resources and so forth. So the construction of the backing curriculum resources should consist of 2 aspects: the development of equipment in school and construction of curriculum resources for teachers and students. And the constructions of discipline-specific resources for teachers and students and free curriculum resources of state are of more importance.

The construction of discipline-specific resources and free curriculum resources from the state is mainly a process about how to make use of the discipline-specific resources efficiently and gain information for research-based learning from the free resources available. So the focus of construction and management is not the resource itself, but how to extract information from it and make an effective use of it (EEDME, 2001). Because there are a large number of free resources and they are wide ranging and rapidly changing, the focus of construction is to improve the use of them and the management mechanisms set up to ensure a better classification system for convenient searching. On the foundation of the investigation of current curriculum resources, schools or geography teachers are requested to set up files (including: name, quantity, source, time, capability (purpose), applicability) for per kind of resources even per one so to manage them by categories.

3. Human resources for research-based learning under new curriculum Geography is a comprehensive discipline. The research-based learning activities will involve knowledge experiences from other disciplines, such as physical knowledge in geotropic bias

106 and atmospheric movement, historical and religious knowledge in population and city and in the shaping of culture landscape. So the professional development of other teachers in school is an important guarantee for research-based learning (EEDMEG, 2001). The exploitation of research-based learning curriculum resources under the new geography curriculum should include an overall development of teacher resources in school, such as establishing instructor mission for research-based geography learning, employ teachers from related disciplines to work as instructors, building a mechanism by which instructors and students can effectively communicate be connected.

The main form of students’ activities besides classroom teaching activities is the the formation of a student association. The ways to take advantage of students’ association to carry out research-based geography learning is very important to the exploitation of curriculum resources under new geography curriculum. Generally teachers should have an instructor role in the development of geographical associations or in the activities of students’ group, such as an environmental protection group and meteorological observatories (Xiaojian, 2006). Associations and groups of all levels are important aspects needed to help develop research-based geography learning. They can spur students to develop research-based geography learning, such as the editing of school newspapers, wall newspapers and window posters as well as working on a radio station, TV station, campus network, popular science lecture series launched by students etc.

Establishing thematic and integrated geographical field practice base A good annotation for geography research-based learning is that study is life or life is study. There are abundant resources outside school for research-based learning under the new geography curriculum. Social-cultural resources such as libraries and museums can provide extensive time or space resources for students undertaking research-based learning. But the issue is how to make effective use of these resources and how to establish efficient connections between the school library and the science and technology museum is vital to the exploitation of geography research-based learning in school. Considering the local library as an example; for one thing, it tends to possess the richest and latest information resources, for another, it has the richest human resources (including schools’ setting up contact with more experts and scholars). The establishment and exploitation of the investigative resource of geography could consider establishing the connection between school and library so that resources could be shared. Network connections can be established between libraries and the school to provide students with convenient and active use of these resources. At the same time, library professionals should be invited to introduce common sense in information retrieval and to cultivate students’ basic skills in accessing information. In other words schools and libraries need to be united to develop websites for example on geography research-based learning (EEDMEG, 2001).

Sufficient use of a science and technology museum can widen the students’ scientific horizons and intensify the students’ intuition and understanding of geography curriculum. It can serve as powerful support to formal classroom teaching. The science and technology museum can display earth science knowledge (such as crustal movement, rock and mineral species) vividly to a large audience via the means of modern information and media technology, and at the same time it provides an information resource for students’ research- based learning. Establishing an effective connection between school and science and technology museum and exploiting science and technology museum as a practice and observation base to conduct geography thematic teaching activities should be a basic method to help develop curriculum resources outside school (Yongjun, 2002).

107

China is a country with a deep accumulation of history and culture and possesses a rich historical background and resources. Various museums across the country are important components of the historical and cultural treasure-house and of great value to develop curriculum resources. Development, on the one hand, should strengthen the connection between school and museum; on the other hand, it should combine the museum with related curricula (such as history and society) in school or to spread museum resources for example which could be stored on CD.

Implementing sharing of research-based geography curriculum resources among schools The power of one school is limited. But if schools in the same area were to share their curriculum resources then there would be many more resources available for geography research-based learning. For instance, an education bureau based on a province or city can bring together curriculum resources by constructing a regional website. Then different counties can share these resources. This allows a focus on implementing the mutual sharing of resources. Different schools in similar areas could also cooperate with one another and make the sharing of research-based geography curriculum resources among schools possible.

Conclusion

Increasingly teachers put the application of research-based learning into practice in geography courses in China. In this way an effective platform for students is provided to carry out self- dependent learning and undertake research with their own creativity.

References Elementary Education Department of Ministry of Education Implementation Guidance (EEDMEG), 2001, (Chinese) "Inquiry Learning "for Regular Senior Schools (Trial Version) [z].Beijing:People's Education Press., China. Elementary Education Department of Ministry of Education, (EEDME), 2001, (Chinese) Abstract of Elementary Education Courses Reformation [z].Beijing:People's Education Press, China. Liangfang, Shi, 1996, (Chinese), Curriculum Theory IM, Educational Science Publishing House, Beijing, China Xiaojian, W., 2006, (Chinese) Briefly Discuss the Integration of Classroom Teaching and Inquiry Learning Course Resources[J]. Elementary Education Studies, 2006, China. Yongjun W., 2002, (Chinese) Rethink about Some Issues in Inquiry Learning [J].Exploring Education Development, China.

108 Place of the interactive whiteboard in higher education of the Polish educational system

M. Nocny Nicolaus Copernicus University, Didactical laboratory, 87-100 Torun,Poland, [email protected]

Abstract The reform of the educational system creates new challenges for the teachers and defines the rules of forming, adaptation and realization of the educational programmes including interdisciplinary programmes at all stages of education. It requires enormous knowledge, creative attitudes towards the educational activities, moreover, the belief concerning the need to modify approaches. The requirements referring to the effects of the didactic and educational work have been constantly increasing, and contents, methods as well as, the organisation of education have been constantly changing. Well prepared teachers play significant role in creation of new quality of education. They need new active methods and techniques on lessons. In Poland one of these is the interactive whiteboard. They are a modern educational tool in creation and realization of the teaching-learning process and increasing their effectiveness.

Key words: education, interactive whiteboard, activation

Introduction

The world constantly undergoes sudden and deep changes that influence life both of individuals as well as society as a whole. The development of technology and science results in numerous new problems that may often make a modern man feel lost and helpless (Kossobucka, 2007).

Schools constantly present new challenges to teachers. Teaching requires vast knowledge, creative approaches to educational tasks and, above all, conviction about the need to develop new methods of work. Currently another feature of this profession is that the knowledge gained during studies quickly becomes outdated. Thus a great emphasis is put both on education and on continuous professional development (Buchcic, 2007). To be a professional means to maintain standards, norms of theoretical and practical knowledge. Thus there is a need for continuous development, which is included in the scope of teacher’s duties (ibid).

A teacher is a fundamental component of the educational system, at every level. The quality of education significantly, or even decisively, depends also on teacher’s personality and his/her good professional preparation. Constant changes that currently take place in the education require increasingly improved substantial and methodological preparation. Constantly creative and innovative work is requested and required from a pedagogue.

Training of a contemporary teacher requires preparing him/her to fulfil simultaneously a role of a guide, manager, diagnostician and creator when passing ready knowledge. Adequate preparation of pedagogues and their continuous multi-directional development is one of many factors, as well as the most important one deciding about quality and effectiveness of education.

109 Interactive Whiteboards

One of the fundamental assumptions of the educational reform that has been implemented in Poland for several years, is increasing effectiveness of teaching through methods activating a pupil. Each teacher has to realise that traditional methods of teaching, based mainly on a word, do not always find recipients and listeners (Pyłka-Gutowska, 2007). In the opinion of experts, by using new techniques and technologies to present information, the process of learning may be facilitated and its results multiplied. Thus use of those tools in education should be the first condition for implementing pedagogical innovations (Strykowski, 2003). Interactive learning becomes an important part of a modern school. To become successful, it requires adequate preparation of teachers and furnishing schools with equipment and didactical materials.

One of these new, multi-functional didactical means is the use of an interactive whiteboard. It is new-generation equipment using wireless technologies. It is characterised by the high quality image and very functional software. As a result of it is considered to offer a breakthrough in use of informative technologies in teaching in many European counties (Nocny, 2006).

The whiteboard is not only a device used to present information in form of text, graphics, sound or animation. This is done by a computer connected to a multimedia projector. Its most important advantage is its interactive software adjusted to efficient communication between a computer and its applications and persons using it. It allows them to freely enter, manage, process and present data in a clear and effective way.

Widespread introduction of the interactive whiteboard into the set of equipment of subject classrooms seems only to be a question of time. Obviously, it is associated with significant financial costs. In Poland, where the role of education as a factor facilitating development is not yet fully understood, means finances allocated to education are still insufficient even for fundamental requirements of a school. Without financial help from the Ministry of National Education, the introduction of interactive whiteboards to schools will probably take a long time. The interactive whiteboard has already found its place in schools of Western Europe. The number of schools in Poland with the interactive whiteboard is still small, but constantly increasing. It is important for methodological centres and universities that train teachers to see a need to introduce into their training programs also issues related to use of the interactive whiteboard. Actions of that type will help to increase the effectiveness of that device and to avoid unnecessary methodological mistakes that can result in decrease in effectiveness of a lesson.

Introduction of widespread use of the interactive whiteboard in schools is related primarily to modification of a teacher’s technique, what was observed in Western Europe. Also at several universities in Poland, including Nicholas Copernicus University in Torun, obligatory classes on use of the interactive whiteboard have been included in teacher training courses. During classes on didactics or information technologies, future teachers get acquainted with the whiteboard software, use of its menu and basic parameters. Then they learn how to use the interactive whiteboard effectively in their lessons and work with applications such as PowerPoint, Word, Excel, without a computer network.

With the interactive whiteboard the students use GIS programs that are still not widely known in Poland, for example to analyse selected elements of the environment, to run simulations

110 and measurements. This way these programs can become an indispensable tool in creation of maps combined with teaching elements of cartography. The students prepare simple presentations, develop their skills and try to integrate use of multimedia resources. Using the Internet resources they search for materials useful in preparing lessons and for websites with ready publications on a given subject. However, the review of Polish educational portals with didactic materials shown that only a few of them can be used by teachers as a source to prepare lessons with the interactive whiteboard. The most useful are Scholaris, Interkl@sa, WSiP and Wiking.

In the 20th century the Internet has became one of the fundamental sources of information. The whiteboard and computer enables a teacher to use the unlimited educational resources of the Internet. By downloading the free application Google Earth a pupil and teacher can reach the farthest areas of our planet. When analysing satellite photos of the settlement network of cities, relief of a volcano, the Mississippi delta or viewing the highest peak of the world from every side, during a geography lesson a pupil becomes an eye-witness of changes taking place on the Earth and thus becomes more interested in the world around.

Computers, interactive whiteboards and related technology attracts the interest of pupils and teachers. This helps to increase effectiveness of teaching through their activation and active participation in the process of teaching and learning of geography. Despite the insufficient base of information and materials for work with the interactive whiteboard, many teachers cannot now imagine their work during their lessons without it.

Information Sources

Information about the whiteboard and possibilities of its use in education is scarce, main sources in this area are educational portals, such as www.scholaris.pl, www.wsip.com.pl. Valuable resources are materials of the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA), supporting the British Ministry of Education in implementation of modern technologies in schools. It has published guidelines for teachers, explaining how to use the interactive whiteboard technology for each subject and level of education. The examples of such publications include Use of interactive whiteboards in geography (2004) or Getting the most from your interactive. A guide for secondary school (2004).

The general information on functioning of the interactive whiteboard can be found in the websites of every whiteboard distributor and producer, f.e., www.ipboard.pl or www2.smarttech.com.

In Poland, educational effectiveness of the whiteboard to visualise selected chemical problems was a subject of the Ph.D dissertation of M. Bartoszewicz (2006), supervised by UAM prof. H. Gulińska, Ph.D (hab.).

Another group of papers and publications concerns results of a number of research projects, aiming at determining how the interactive whiteboard was used by teachers, what was its educational effectiveness and what changes to teaching were introduced with that technology. Those issues were discussed by: G. Bartosiewicz (2006), M. Nocny (2006, 2007) and T. Sojka (2008).

Although much remains to be done in creation of a platform for cooperation and exchange of experience to collect and make available exemplary materials, yet meeting the expectations of

111 future teachers we bear in mind that their training is one of the most important factors influencing development of school. The profession of a teacher is special because it directly includes shaping the most important social value – the human being.

References Bartoszewicz, M. (2006), Skuteczność edukacyjna wizualizacji wybranych zagadnień chemicznych, praca doktorska pod kier. dr hab. H. Gulińskiej, UAM, Poznań. Bucicic, E. (2007), The profesionalism of the current Nature scientist and the ability of the change In his/Her development and additional education..[w:] Janicka-Panek T., Dąbrowska A. Professional qualification of Nature subjects teachers – needs and possibilities . WODN Skierniewice, 277-288. Kossobucka, A. (2007), The Biology teacher as a didactitian and educator. About realization of educational aims of the Bioethical education in secondary schools. ..[w:] Janicka-Panek T., Dąbrowska A. tendencies and priorities in teaching natural subject, WODN Skierniewice, 158 – 169. Nocny, M. ( 2006), Tablica interaktywna- nowy środek dydaktyczny w procesie kształcenia przyrodniczego, Dokumentacja geograficzna Nr 33, PAN, IG i Przestrzennego zagospodarowania, s.334. Nocny, M. (2007), Tablica interaktywna. Nowy środek dydaktyczny w procesie kształcenia przyrodniczego, [w:] Geografia w Szkole, nr 2, s. 39-42. Pyłka-Gutowska, E. (2007), Examples of pupils activisation in the teaching-learning process of Environmental education, Biology and Ecology. ..[w:] Janicka-Panek T., Dąbrowska A. Innovationsand interobjective forms of realizing of natural, biological and ecological education, WODN Skierniewice, 209–223. Sojka, T. (2008), Tablica interaktywna jako nowy środek dydaktyczny w nauczaniu geografii fizycznej w szkole ponadgimnazjalnej, praca magisterska pod kier. dr hab.Podgórskiego, UMK Toruń. Strykowski, W. (2003), Szkoła współczesna i zachodzące w niej procesy. Kompetencje nauczyciela szkoły współczesnej. ..[w:] Janicka-Panek T., Dąbrowska A. Strengthening the quality of the teaching-learning process, WODN Skierniewice,94-98.

112 The Role of Geography in the Primary Schools curriculum: Example of Turkey

Res. Ass. Soner Aladag 1 Dr. Elif Aladag 2 1Gazi University Faculty of Education, [email protected] 2Adnan Menderes University, [email protected]

Abstract The aim of this study is to determine the role of Geography in primary education Life Studies (k1-3) lesson curriculum. This curriculum has been in effect since 2005. The reason of examining the Life Studies curriculum is that geographical skills and knowledge is part of this lesson. Life Studies curriculum is examined in terms of standards and teaching and learning process. In every class levels which geographic skills and knowledge are planning to gain in the curriculum? In Life Studies lessons students recognize their familiar environment. Map skills like plan, scale, perspective, map reading are in Life Studies lesson. Also in this study, while teaching geography, which method, technique and strategies are recommended in the curriculum is determined.

Keywords: Geography education, primary education, curriculum, Life Studies lesson

Introduction

The “Life Studies” lessons are always open to changing with technology. In last decades some developments occurred in the world have affected education. In the information age changes occurred in society and its expectations. The aim of education is to educate the people with the help of science and technology. In education changing human behaviour is very important. Education is an organized and planned process. Because education is aiming to realize planned activities education curricula must also be organized.

In Turkey formal education includes pre-primary education, primary education and secondary education and higher education institutions. The purpose of primary education is to ensure that every Turkish child acquires the basic knowledge, skills, behaviour, and habits to become a good citizen, is raised in line with the national moral concepts and is prepared for life and for the next education level parallel to his/her interests and skills.

Primary education is compulsory for all citizens, boys or girls, and is given free of charge in public schools. Primary education is compulsory for children of ages 6 – 14 and primary education contains k1-8 (MEB, 2009).

The most important aim of primary education is to educate the students as effective and responsible citizens in the society. To reach this aim and give students basic knowledge Life Studies lesson takes part in primary education curriculum at 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades. “Life Studies” lesson is one of the first lessons that students meet at school. In this lesson the main aim is to educate students to become effective citizens and concretize the life. Therefore, new ideas are seen in this lesson. So, the curricula of this lesson must be carefully chosen. In this study, geographical topics in Life Studies lessons will be analyzed.

113 Life Studies Lessons

This lesson can be seen in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades and it is the basic of the social studies and science and technology lessons in the primary school. Çilenti (1998), described Life Studies lessons as basic step of acquiring aspects like creative thinking and problem solving. According to Erden (1993), Life Studies lessons provide the basic steps to be in harmony with the environment and to become a good citizen.

Life Studies lessons have some characteristics based on the student’s age and their development characteristics. Köken (2003) declared some characteristics of these children were the students think concretely, show individual differences, have no concept of time and are active.

In Turkey, Life Studies lessons are a basic and important lesson in primary education. According to Ergun and Özdaş (1997) some aims of the lessons are: • With regard to develop knowledge and skills of being familiar with their environment: Children make sense of natural events in their familiar environment, know the effect of these events, know the environment, love natural beauty and they gain social development conscious. • With regard to developing life skills: They know feeding, health and traffic rules. They try to reach a level better of life. They are interested in cultivation, commerce and industrial activities.

According to Bartt and Demirtaş (1997), the aim of Life Studies lessons is that children know themselves, understand the events in their familiar environment, know social environments and develop themselves. According to Öztürk and Dilek (2003), the primarily aim of Life Studies is to have natural and social environment examined carefully. By this children know environment and live peacefully with the environment. They learn some aspects of behaviour and skills.

Since the beginning of 2005/2006 in the new program collective teaching approach was fulfilled. The vision of the Life Studies curriculum is to educate students: • who like learning • who are at peace with themselves, social environment and nature • who know, preserve and develop their country, nation and themselves • who have some characteristics like life skills and basic information • who are happy individuals (MEB, 2005).

Life Studies Curriculum and Geography

The main aim of these lessons is to help the students in the life for gaining basic life skills. These skills are important skills for students in order to understand their familiar environment and to be young geographers. Some skills aimed in this lesson are critical thinking, research, communication, problem solving, decision making security, self direction, using sources effectively, knowing the basic concepts of science. These skills are very important in learning Geography at the same time. For example in knowing the basic concepts of science skills students realize changing, interaction, cause and effect relation, similarity, mutual dependency concepts. These concepts are also important in learning geographic knowledge and geographic skills.

114

In research skills students gain some acquisitions like asking questions, observation, estimating, data collecting, declaring data and presenting research results. In problem solving skill students also gain these acquisitions. Also, developing environment conscious and using the sources in the environment effectively are other skills aimed to gain in this lesson. With the developing of these skills students will realize that environment and human beings are a part of whole, see the mutual effect between human beings and environment. These skills are also important in learning geography. With the help of Life Studies lessons students gain these skills from the beginning of formal education.

Themes of Life Studies Lesson and Geography

Themes of Life Studies lessons are: “My school excitement”, “My perfect home” and “Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow”. A thematic approach is used in Life Studies lessons because this helps the students see the entire world. These themes can be converted to lots of disciplines and Geography is one of them.

Concepts As a basis of social studies and science and technology lessons many concepts are found in the 2005 Life Studies curriculum. Some of them are geographic concepts. These are: • 1st grade: Natural hazards, resource, environment, seasons, weather conditions, earth, sky, world and day • 2nd grade: Transport wheels, sun, east, west, land, natural environment, cultured environment • 3rd grade: Plan, direction, location, south, north, earthquake, map, globe, nature, graphic, meteorology, weather forecast.

Standards Life Studies lesson are multidisciplinary lessons teaching students about the society that they live in and the world (MEB, 2004). Piaget's mental development model the students who take Life Studies lesson are at concrete operation stage. The average age of this stage is 7-11. Children develop relations, number concepts, process and similarities (Charles,2003). In preparing the Life Studies curriculum, the development characteristics of students are considered. So a spiral program method is selected. In this spiral programs students learn the basic knowledge and skills firstly and then topics get hard in next grades. The topics extend in a way from the simpler concepts to more complex topics, from the known to unknown. Upper grade students learn the subjects in more detail and complexity (Öztürk, 2007). According to this subjects are given from the first grade in expanding way. Also in this lesson standards are connected with other lessons and real life. In Life Studies lessons standards are prepared in order to give knowledge, skill and attitudes. Standards are related to the real world and other lessons.

1st Grade (Table 1) Students learn the concepts which are about location in the first grade. These students are in the concrete operation stage yet. Therefore, to make location concrete firstly they must learn about a familiar environment. For example, the pupils try to express features of their class and desk location. They use basic concepts (right, left, beside, behind, in front of, on, under) for finding their place and desk in the class. At the same time it is an appropriate principle of education: teach from familiar to unfamiliar. Students begin to identify their environment and produce new knowledge about their environment by using their senses.

115

In this grade students learn the effects and reasons of the natural hazards. They get information about natural hazards that may occur in their familiar environment. They learn these both visual and auditory not only by written information. Also, students make research from magazines, newspapers, TV, etc.. Students bring photos to class and examine them. This is very important for active participation of students to lessons.

First grade students observe the daily weather, report on it and make graphics about these reports. In this way student’s observation skills and graphic skills develop. The other subject taught in first grade is earth movements. This area is taught in a practical fashion according to the mental development characteristics of this age of students. Pupils observe earth movements from a model and notice the results.

Table 1: Standards about geography in 1st grade Themes Standards My School Use basic concepts (right, left, beside, behind, in front of, on, under) for finding Excitement their class and desk. Notice the damage of natural hazards using audial and visual materials Notice which sense organ is used knowing school and school environment

Yesterday, Use the calendar for observing daily weather conditions and show the results in Today, the graphics. Tomorrow Notice the results about earth movement from by observing a model. Notice how natural hazards change the environment. Examine and express how people changed the environment and for changing the environment what they do

2nd Grade (Table 2) In the second grade students show their class and their desk by drawing. These drawings are simple drawings. Also, they learn the direction concept in this grade. By observing the sun they learn east and west and explain their home by using directions. On a pictorial map which shows their home and school they explain their home by using basic concepts (right, left, in front of, behind, etc.). In this way their map reading skills develop. Students give examples of hazards that occurred in their country. And they learn preserving methods from natural hazards. Second grade students observe the daily and weekly weather, report them and make graphics about these reports. According to expanding curriculum principles students examine the movement of Earth around itself and around the sun. And notice the result of these movements and the difference and similarities between them.

Table 2: Geography standards in the 2nd grade Themes Standards My School Show their class and their desk by drawing. Excitement My Perfect Learn west and east concept by observing sun return. Home Explain their home by using basic concepts (right, left, in front of, behind, etc.). Give examples of hazards that occurred in their country and learn preserving methods from natural hazards.

Yesterday, Examine the movement of Earth around itself and around the sun and notice the

116 Today, result of these movements and the difference and similarities between them. Tomorrow Observe the daily and weekly weather by using calendar, report them and make graphics about these reports. Examine the precautions against natural hazards taken by other country and compare the precautions taken by our country. Express similarities and differences between natural and cultural environment.

3rd Grade (Table 3) Students draw the plan of their school and class. They learn the bird’s eye view concept. They explore and research materials and methods used for finding their way. Direction concept is taught better than 1st and 2nd grade. They recognize the water and lands on map or globe. Their map and globe skills develop.

3rd grade students observe weather conditions monthly and compare with forecast of meteorology. They report on this information and make graphics about these reports. And also they observe the moon’s phases. They perceive the change and continuity in the seasons.

Table 3: Standards about geography in the 3rd grade Themes Standards My School Draw their school and class plan Excitement My Perfect Explain their home by using basic concepts (right, left, in front of, behind, etc.) Home according to their familiar places. Wonder and examine materials and methods used for way finding. Recognize the water and lands on map or globe. Yesterday, Observe weather conditions monthly and compare with forecast of meteorology. Today, Report them and make graphics about these reports. Tomorrow Observe the moon phases. Perceive the effects of Earth movement. Perceive the change and continuity in the seasons.

Conclusion

Life Studies lessons help students to gain basic life skills. These skills are also necessary to learn and understand Geography. It is important to know their familiar environment and being little geographers. From this point of view Life Studies lessons are important for teaching Geography from a young age. When we analyze the 2005 Life Studies curriculum we see Geography topics in themes, concepts and standards. In the Life Studies curriculum geography is placed in 1st grade in two themes in seven standards; in the 2nd grade in three themes in eight standards and in 3rd grade in three themes, in eight standards. In three classes there are many geographical concepts. Life Studies lessons teach Geography through a multidisciplinary approach.

117 References Barth, J.L. and Demirtaş, A. (1997) İlköğretim Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi. Ankara: YÖK/ Dünya Bankası MEGP Yayınları. Charles, C. M. (2003). Öğretmenler İçin Piaget İlkeleri (Çev. Gülten Ülgen). Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. Çilenti, K. (1998). Özel Öğretim Yöntemleri. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi Eğitim Önlisans Yayınları. Erden, M. (1993). Hayat Bilgisi Materyalleri. Ankara. Ergün, M. and Özdaş, A. (1997). Öğretim İlke ve Yöntemleri. http://www.egitim.aku.edu.tr/metod03.htm., accessed 15.04.2009. Köken, N. (2003). “Çocuk ve Hayat Bilgisi”. G.Ü. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (4) 1, 15-27. MEB (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı) (2009a), National Education At The Beginning of 2002- Availlable: http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2002ing/apage29_48.htm, accessed 13.04.2009. MEB. (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı) (2005). İlköğretim Hayat Bilgisi Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Klavuzu (1,2 ve 3. sınıflar) . Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü Basımevi. MEB. (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı) (2004). İlköğretim Hayat Bilgisi Programı. Ankara: Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayını. Öztürk, C. and Dilek, D. (2004). Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi. Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık. Öztürk, C. (2007). “Sosyal Bilgiler: Toplumsal Yaşama Disiplinlerarası Bir Bakış”. Hayat Bilgisi ve Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi. ( Editör: Cemil Öztürk). Ankara: PegemA Yayınları.

118 Section 3: Environmental Diversity

Possibilities for Environmental Education at the Department of Geography

Aleš Ruda, Eduard Hofmann Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Environmental education has been considered as a necessary requirement for present university education, because it involves an effort to teach about natural environments function and how human activities can manage their behaviour and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. However, the world is rapidly becoming a more complex place. As a result, we must expect greater academic achievement from our students today to be adequately prepared for the challenges of tomorrow. The Faculty of Education offers many subjects dealing with the environment. On one hand they are understood as a tool how to protect the nature – the ecosystem approach – on the other hand it is considered as an environment with human and nature relations – the geosystem approach. Geography subjects are more focused on the landscape synthesis. Nowadays Standards for Environmental Education are being developed at the Department of Geography as a response to curriculum revision.

Key words: environmental education, fieldwork, subject integrity, environmental surveys

Introduction

The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MEYS) has been promoting education for environmental care since 1960’s; it was known as an ecological education in the 1980s, and now it is named environmental education. From the beginning it was aimed to reinforce an interest in organisms and nature and so lead to responsible behaviour to the world, people and nature (MEYS, 2008). Environmental education and enlightenment (EEE) appeared in the Czech legislature in 1992 and since 1998 administrative regions have the duty to create conception of EEE and establish regional integrated systems of EEE. In 2008 the Strategy of education for sustainable development in the Czech Republic was accepted on the basis of the Strategy of European economic commission of UN in the sphere of education for sustainable development (accepted in 2005 in Vilnius). It is among others aimed at an understanding of integrity and the relationships between the economic, social and environmental development of an aspect on local, regional and global level. Simultaneously it differentiates objectives, contents, methods and means of education according to different student ages and degree of individuality. Environmental education is set in many school documents in its form but considering the short period of availability in school education it has unfortunately been split into many subjects isolated from each other. There is also the possibility to create a new subject (Environmental education or Environment) but even this is not a novelty because many schools have already been teaching it for a couple of years.

However it is named and whatever its varied content, it should teach our students to ask questions, search for solutions and alternatives, argue, discuss, communicate and especially

119 be able to choose fundamental information from the number of reports which should be helpful in further action and behaviour (Hynek, 2000). One final question remains. Who other than a geographer could be able to teach subject like this? Especially as geographers gain, through their education, a spatial view of economic, social, environmental and political task handling from the different points of view (physical and human geography). This argument should be sufficient when preparing a new generation of teachers because we should lead them to the development of skills mentioned above. Sometimes the implementation into university education seems to be more difficult in fact that many pieces of knowledge and skills are separated not only in study programmes but even inside one course. Environmental education needs the integrity of all subjects and an approach from many points of view but leading to one common conclusion. So, it should not be separated from information provided by biology, physics, chemistry, history, art education etc. Therefore this paper is dedicated to so necessary subjects’ integrity which are applied in the new study programmes at the Department of Geography.

Subjects Dealing Especially With Environmental Education

Besides geography teaching in geography study programme, the Department of Geography at Masaryk University ensures teaching in subjects in non-geography study programmes where it guarantees teaching of Geographical practicum and an integrated scientific basis. Within geography teaching there is an effort to implement environmental education in all taught subjects. Emphasis is laid especially on following courses: Environmental education Landscape and environment Fieldwork and excursions Integrated fieldwork education

Environmental education This subject is theoretically based and taught as a common basis in all teaching combinations and deals with the fundamental paradigm of current society. It provides information about processes patterns necessary to lead to the understanding of situations as they progress. The teaching is carried out using lectures with the representation of all subjects concerned: biology, geography, physics and chemistry. Lectures consist of following themes: ecology and environmentalism, landscape, chemistry of the environment, energy and vibration in the environment. The subject is completed with a colloquium and written exam and seminar work documenting environmental SWOT analysis of a chosen area. Integrated fieldwork education is undertaken.

Landscape and environment The aim of this subject, taught in geography study programme, is to get an overview of time- spatial integration and relationship among landscape components and elements and the time- spatial sequence of territorial components of nature and current landscape. Emphasis is laid mainly on different landscape types and processes which provoked changes in the landscape. In practical courses students have the opportunity to develop landscape mapping, they construct landscape profiles, identify changes in the landscape and suggest solution about how to avoid landscape change or eliminate the undesirable impacts and retrieve affected parts of the landscape. All mentioned skills are to be developed on specific examples from all over the world.

Integrated fieldwork education

120 This subject spreads a theoretic basis of environmental education. It has been taught in many ways according to a specification of study programme. The fieldwork is situated in the field study laboratories belonging to the Department of Geography, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University in Brno. It is located nearby the Jedovnice village in the beautiful landscape on the border of Moravian Karst and Drahanská vrchovina Highland 35 km north of the city Brno. Purposed integrated fieldwork education is focused especially on environmental education and professional preparation of future teachers using various progressive methods such as observations, centre research, project solving etc. (Hofmann and Kolejka, 2005). The fieldwork is based on work with worksheets which can be used by pupils, students and teachers in the field. In the case of adverse weather conditions, many of them can be completed inside the field centre. They are easily printed and copied. Authors decided to create such worksheets as they will be easily understood by pupils from elementary schools. Some of them are focused on teacher’s work as a preparation before the fieldwork in the terrain. According to this helpful manual, the teacher can assign more difficult tasks individually to more advanced pupils or students. Worksheets can be also modified and used for different age groups (Hofmann et al., 2003).

Though there is a need of complex view on the specific part of the landscape worksheets are distributed to individual participating subjects. It does not mean that these activities stand alone. For example the quest to the village Rudice offers us a look back to the history where we can observe the first human activities affiliated with the environment. The same approach can be illustrated in cognition of biotic and abiotic factors of the nature or the work with different types of nature materials. It depends only on a teacher which of offered variant will be chosen according to offered possibilities. These activities are in modifications (Table 1) offered to elementary and secondary schools, students from other universities take also part in this fieldwork education.

Table 1. Activities offered to elementary and secondary schools Date: Address of the school: Number of children: Age: Teachers: Students (requirement for the number of students-instructors): Number of days: Arrival: at: Departure: at: Activities (tick activities you are interested in) Acquisition and processing of geographic data about the territory from maps, aerial photographs and simple field measurements. (The preparation takes place at school, the measurements and field work continuously during the sojourn). Orientation in the field by orienteering map. Duration: continuously, each morning. (Maps and three trails of different complexity are prepared). Economic activities of humans in the landscape – field exercise. Duration: 7 hours (The entire region was stigmatized by iron ore mining and processing. There are also notable karst phenomena to be observed – combined with a visit to the museum in Rudice. The longer variant includes a visit to iron works in the Josefovské údolí Valley; back from town Adamov by public service bus). Environment perception. Working with the plan – Duration: 3 hours (Work with the plan on a scale 1:1000 in couples. Plotting of the existing situation, assessment of the degree of damage to environment, plotting of illegal landfills, assessment of the quality of objects, easy orientation by chalet numbers). Questionnaire inquiries (traffic density, equipment and availability of service network, environment quality, local traditions, etc.). Duration: continually during the whole day. Meteorological measurements and observations – continually during the sojourn. Arboretum of the Faculty of Forestry, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry – field exercise. Duration: 4 hours (Walk by the map, programme in the Arboretum is prepared for different instructional school levels). Valley of Tranquility – Rakovecký potok Brook Valley – field exercise. Duration: 5 hours (By bus to Račice,

121 then by walk to Jedovnice). Natural environment, geological structure, archaeological finds of remnants of the extinct ancient settlement Bystřec. The settlement can be reached from the place of abode by foot in half-a- day). Traditional manufacture of pearl-shell buttons – Duration: 6 hours (Field exercise. Visit to the museum in Senetářov with exhibits of the way of living and bread winning in this part of the Drahanská vrchovina Upland. Possible visit to a singular chapel). Issue of environment protection on the boundary and in the Protected Landscape Area of Moravian Karst (see recreation and tourism – chalet site, examination of water, soil, observation of negative phenomena during outings, etc.). Examination of water – sampling, laboratory work. Duration: 3 hours (Examination of organoleptic characteristics, filtering of solid particles and establishment of their origin, pH establishment, establishment of salt content by evaporation, conductivity, coarse distinction of hardiness, reference establishment of the degree of pollution, chemical consumption of oxygen, establishment of selected ions and substances). Examination of soil – sampling, laboratory work. Duration: 3 hours (Thumb test, establishment of soil minerals, water permeability, water percolation, establishment of soil extract pH, establishment of selected ions). Fauna in the surrounding – collection, catch, determination, preparation. Duration: 3-7 hours (Possible return for lunch and continuation). Flora in the surrounding – collection, determination, herbarium work. Establishment of the geobiocoenological condition of selected areas. Duration: 3-7 hours. Visit to the Balcarka Cave – on foot, snack along – route length 9 km. Duration: 7 hours. (Study of superficial karst phenomena on the way. The longer variant counts with a visit to the Upper bridge at the Macocha abyss, possible study of the impact of tourism onto the visited area). Visit to the Punkevní Caves or the Sloupsko-šošůvské Caves – on foot, snack along – route length 18 km. Duration: 8 hours (Programme is similar as in the Balcarka Cave)

Future teachers should have developed skills and knowledge necessary for their work with pupils and students. This education goals are to: 1. Learn to describe a geographical characteristic of a small area o find out in a map and write geographical position of the village Jedovnice o find out and mark coordinates of the base camp using GPS o according to a tourist map count an air distance between the village Jedovnice and the border of the city Brno 2. Use geographical skills during the fieldwork in the terrain o work with a compass, different types of maps, aerial photographs and orthophotos maps o map different situations into basic maps at the scale of 1:10 000 o create road profile and path length derived from tourist maps o map tourist path into thematic maps o draw panoramic sketch o observe changes in the landscape using historic and current aerial photographs and remap according to the current situation o observe weather changes, temperature measuring o take and describe pictures o work with nature materials o learn the safety of the movement in the terrain and legal enactment for fieldwork outside the school 3. Find suitable activities which can be used for pupils’ skills development

From student-teacher feedback, integrated fieldwork provides a contribution for their education but their work does not end with completion of worksheets. Cooperation between participating teachers is more valuable than the perfection of worksheets because it is a team- based activity whether they experience collective planning. An important part of the

122 fieldwork is walking through the terrain which contributes also to ideas about a healthy lifestyle.

A virtual part of the textbook for integrated fieldwork has been created within the university development project (Figure 1). It is based on the 3D digital landscape model, showing the area of fieldwork with marked stations of participating subjects linked into individual worksheets and photographs (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Field station for the arts

Figure 1. Navigation panel of the virtual part of the Jedovnice fieldwork textbook

Future Plans for Environmental Education

A common factor which allows the integration of all subjects is landscape study. According to previous experiences from environmental education we suggest following modules which will be the base for further collective discussion: 1. Historic and geographical module o landscape now and before, changes in the landscape, landscape remaking o analysis of historic maps, photographs, aerial photos, rests of the medieval settlements, cultural memories in the region o understanding to genius loci 2. Geographical and historic module with contribution of physics and arts o influence of natural conditions on human activities in the region (SWOT analysis) o legacy to current generation – visible traces o thematic mapping using GPS, distance measuring, data visualization in GIS o impact of recreation and tourism on the landscape (multicriterial analysis) 3. Biological and geographical module with contribution of chemistry o What lives and grows in the water and on the meadow? o movement according to a map, marking information o samples of water and soil taking, chemical analysis, state of the environment 4. Geographical and biological module with contribution of chemistry o What lives and grows in the forest? How people manage the forest resources? o forest reconstruction using historic maps o building nature’s classroom

123 Environmental geography

Environmental geography is a new subject and now it is being prepared as an essential subject for new study programme. It will be aimed at specific themes of human activities and their interaction with the landscape as well as the aspects of the physical geography. Students will have the opportunity to learn how to assess human impacts, decide if the activity is beneficial for the region or adverse. One of the topics will be focused on the importance or harmfulness of the tourism. On one side students will evaluate and present data sets necessary for further assessing such as specific environmental area value, tourism potential and tourism infrastructure load on the other side they will compare each region using geostatistical methods (correlation, regression) and suggest the best solution (Ruda, 2008).

Conclusion

The quality of environmental education takes a long time to develop and depends on the willingness and creative imagination of participating authors. Overloading eco-centricity should not be a part this education, but it should focus on creating outputs from all participating subjects. Fundamental subjects must not be forgotten because they benefit from being part of the complex pieces which can be put together to complete the puzzle. An important part is also represented by the use of information technologies. Nowadays technological innovation is in progress and we are putting our efforts into establishing a mobile laboratory for geoinformatics. This will be another step in improving fieldwork because it enables us to add more tasks for data collecting using pocket computers with GPS and sophisticated programmes such as ArcPad.

References Hofmann, E. et al. (2003), Integrované terénní vyučování. Brno. Hofmann, E., Kolejka, J. (2005), Geographical fieldwork in forests, in Donert, K. (ed.), Changing horizonts in geography education, Torun: HERODOT Network with Association of Polish Adult Educators, 43-47 Hynek, A. (2000): Vzdělávání zeměpisem, http://svp.muni.cz/ukazat.php?docId=226, accessed 15/04/2009 MEYS (2008), Metodický pokyn MŠMT k zajištění environmentálního vzdělávání, výchovy a osvěty, http://www.msmt.cz/vzdelavani/metodicky-pokyn-msmt-k-zajisteni- environmentalniho, accessed 15/04/2009 Ruda, A. (2008), Assessment of tourism impact on landscapes of the Nízký Jeseník Mountains using GIS methods, Ph.D. Thesis, Ostrava: University of Ostrava

124 The role of students as change agents in identifying perceived barriers and gateways to achieving sustainability at a UK university

Carl Larsen*, Cathy Walsh and Damian Parry Faculty of Science and Social Science, Liverpool Hope University, Hope Park, Liverpool, L16 9JD, United Kingdom.

Abstract In order for students to be effective change agents they must possess critical thinking skills. Acting as change agents to conduct an awareness audit of environmental performance using a blend of participatory action research (PAR) and communities of practice (CoP) students were provided with an appropriate setting to develop such critical thinking. A small cohort of third year sustainability students on combined honours degree programs conducted interviews with staff and students over a six week period. The students received minimal support once the audit was under way and were left to encounter and overcome barriers and problems as part of the learning process. Students identified that ‘other priorities’, ‘finance’, ‘time’ and ‘lack of knowledge and awareness’ were perceived to be the most formidable barriers to fostering sustainability amongst staff. Students perceived ‘lack of knowledge and awareness’ and ‘internal discord’ as the main barriers. Students expressed feelings of ‘empowerment’, ‘achievement’, ‘ownership’, ‘enthusiasm’ and ‘responsibility’, and almost collectively felt that they had made a contribution to engendering an atmosphere of positive change. We feel that this approach is applicable to institutions who are in the preliminary stages of fostering sustainability or to those whose initiatives have lost momentum. As problem based learning it is also a useful tool for allowing students to develop critical thinking skills.

Key words: students, change agents, barriers, sustainability, PAR, CoP, critical thinking

Introduction

Liverpool Hope University (LHU) is aiming to improve the universities level of environmental performance. Although it has a range of environmental practices, initiatives and policies in place it aims to make pragmatic and considered improvements towards achieving sustainability. As a liberal arts university with just over 8,000, conceptually we are ideally suited to adopting sustainability when compared to larger, less nimble and conservative universities (Shriberg, 2002; Holmberg and Samuelsson, 2006). This study describes how as part of their degree, final year students were assigned to undertake an audit of the awareness of staff and students of environmental performance with specific reference to their perceptions of barriers and gateways to achieving sustainability.

Existing barriers to transformation to sustainable Universities

It is apparent that after achieving initial success in fostering a more sustainable profile that many institutions were unable to maintain the progress (Shriberg, 2002; Thomas, 2004; Velazquez et al. 2005; Lozano, 2006; Holmberg and Samuelsson, 2006). It seems that the morphology of many universities is not ideally suited to adopting sustainability due to ‘incentive structures’ that do not recognize the value of sustainability, ‘lack of will’ if the need for change is not apparent, and ‘lack of external pressure’. With specific regard to the greening of their curriculae studies on universities have identified: disciplinarity (Moore,

125 2005); academic identity (Hegarty, 2008); inaccessible language of Education for Sustainable Development (Cotton, Warren, Maiboroda, Bailey 2007); incongruence (of sustainability) with existing curriculum (Lidgren et al. 2006); and finally lack of expert knowledge (Lidgren et al. 2006), as tangible barriers to achieving sustainability within their institutions.

Potential of Higher Education as a change agent for sustainability

A detailed description of why universities are such suitable change agents and examples of institutional case studies is beyond this paper (see Holmberg and Samuelsson, 2006). At an institutional level universities can be viewed as places with considerable potential to implement and advocate sustainability. They typically do this on 5 broad fronts by incorporating sustainability into their mission and strategic planning, curricula development, research portfolio, student life, and operations (Ferrer-Balas, 2008; Svanstrom et al. 2008; Sammalsito and Arvidsson, 2005). A less apparent perception of the role of universities is at the societal level, where they can also contribute to a transition towards a sustainable society. Based on the assumption that sustainability should start with oneself and that Universities are a microcosm of society, higher education institutes can model sustainability that society can then emulate and become transformative. There are a dearth of studies that have measured the utility of students as change agents (Korhn etal, 1999) and it is against this backdrop that this study is set.

Method

This study is based on a thematic analysis of an environmental awareness audit conducted by undergraduates at LHU that took place in the autumn of 2008. As part of the assessment for their combined honours degree 55 students studying a 30 credit module entitled, ‘Health, Risk and Sustainability’ undertook elements of participatory action research (PAR) devised by Wadsworth (1984), and a communities of change (CoP) approach (Hegarty, 2008), when conducting a group project to assess the perception of staff and students about the Universities environmental performance.

We anticipated that the University would provide an ideal setting for such an assessment to take place because the campuses are inherently decentralized, facultative, open and supportive of students doing such projects. We used the 10 action points of the Talloires Declaration as a framework in order for the students to structure their approach to data collection (Talloires declaration resource kit, 2006). We recognized the importance of limiting the scale of the audit acknowledging that students would not have sufficient time to investigate all aspects of the Universities level of sustainability and that they would not have all of the skills necessary to do so (Korhn, etal. 1999). We envisaged that by placing constraints on the scope of the audit it would result in a more positive outcome for the students’ experiences and the exercise. To further maximize the positivity of the assessment for the students (and staff) we contacted all of the people that the students had identified and intended to interview in their sample to advise them of the assessment. Even so, we advised the students to be patient and respectful when contacting staff and to be prepared to encounter setbacks and resistance. We emphasized that overcoming them was an important element of the learning experience. Each group were given a specific aspect of environmental performance to assess. These included; ‘procurement’, ‘curriculum’, ‘research’, ‘waste and recycling’, ‘conservation and biodiversity’, ‘utilitiies’, ‘policy’, ‘transport’, ‘building’ and other aspects of the ecological component of environmental sustainability. We did not ask them to assess the broader aspects including economic and social considerations.. The students were deliberately given

126 minimal guidance, because we wanted them to devise how they would gather the information they required, evaluate it and finally report their findings.

The process of participatory action research allowed the students to engage in small groups with the aim of creating a positive social outcome. It’s inherently reflective nature, the need to work co-operatively to plan, execute and reflect was critical to the success of the audit and the assessment. Critically, we wanted the students to be as autonomous as possible and to have a sense of ownership and responsibility for the assessment. Although this may have compromised the academic quality and utility of the submitted audit, as a piece of assessed work, the learning experience and in particular, the opportunity for empowerment took priority.

Before they undertook the assessment, they studied on the module for 6 weeks wherein they looked at the complexity and inter-connectedness of sustainable issues, the philosophy underpinning PAR and the process of critical thinking. They then contacted key staff across the university whom they identified as representative of the hierarchy within the university including academics, careers, library and resources, estates, catering, the pro-Vice Chancellor, the Student Union, Outreach, and arranged interviews. They conducted semi-structured interviews and devised questions that measured: ‘knowledge of sustainable development in general; knowledge of sustainability on campus; attitude towards sustainable development; perception towards achieving sustainability on campus and as an objective of outreach,’ and so on. Interviews lasted between 20 minutes and 2 hours and were recorded using a digital microphone. The students then transcribed and analysed the interviews to identify recurring themes that represented the perceived barriers to, and opportunities for achieving sustainability. We then put the students into focus groups and conducted 1 hour discussions with them. These were transcribed and analysed thematically to identify perceived barriers to achieving sustainability. Finally, the students submitted reflections of their experiences in conducting the audit, which were also analysed using thematic analysis.

Results

The themes The following section summarises the main themes that arose from the interviews with regard to barriers and gateways to achieving sustainability. The general themes are in order of importance as perceived barriers were: ‘other priorities’, ‘cost’; ‘responsibility’; ‘time’, ‘knowledge and awareness’; ‘communication’; ‘internal discord’, ‘acceptability’ and ‘external pressure’ although different groups perceived different barriers to be more formidable than others (figure 1). Gateways to achieving sustainability varied based on order of importance and by the perceptions of each group. In general their order of importance was: ‘acceptability and compliance’; ‘knowledge and awareness’; ‘external pressure’; ‘time’; ‘responsibility’; ‘communication’; ‘cost’ and ‘other priorities’ (Figure 2). The interviews were then analysed based on the perceptions of sustainability of academic and non-academic staff and the students who were interviewed and devolved into percentages of perceived barriers and gateways (this data is summarized by the black bars in figs. 1 and 2.). The emergent themes were then summarized under the sub-heading by which the students conducted the awareness audit and quotes are used as supporting evidence.

127 90 Perceived barriers to achieving sustainability by theme and sample 80

60 Non-academic 50 Academic Students 40 mean

Percentage (%) Percentage 30

0 cost responsibility knowledge communicat ion int ernal d iscord accep t abilit y time external ot her priorit ies awareness compliance pressure THEME

Figure 1

Perceived gateways to achieving sustainability by theme and sample

70 Non-academic 60 Academic

50 Students mean 40

30 Percentage (%)

0 cost responsibility knowledge communication internal discord acceptability t ime ext ernal ot her priorit ies awareness compliance pressure THEME

Figure 2

Discussion

The themes were effective at identifying the general barriers and gateways to achieving sustainability at the university and the context of the assessment allowed for the acquisition and development of critical thinking (Chaplin, 2007). However, each sample group had specific reasons for referring to the theme. For example, with regard to ‘time’, all groups agree, to a degree, that restrictions on time are an important barrier to taking sustainable action. Academic staff viewed time as commodity, “not enough time to incorporate sustainability into curriculum”. However, only the student reflections highlighted that time was a factor when it came to seeing results after implementing an initiative or maintaining the

128 momentum of sustainable initiatives over protracted periods. This resonates in the following quotation:

“we talked to the grounds-man and catering about the possibility of the students running an organic vegetable patch on the campus they thought it was great but asked who would look after it in the summer when the students had left - we instantly felt deflated”

Unsurprisingly, ‘other priorities’ was considered the most critical barrier to initiating sustainability by academics (82%) and non-academic staff (78%). Although it is rather a general term – phrases such as ‘agendas’, ‘financial and time commitments’, and ‘incompatibility with other developments, strategies and goals’ were prevalent in interviews. ‘Cost’ was reported by 68% of non-academic staff who used phrases such as ‘funding’, ‘affordability’, ‘budget constraints’ ‘other priorities’ and ‘expense’. 42% of academic staff reported finance as a barrier. ‘Knowledge and awareness’ were regarded as less of a barrier but this quote shows how academics who are unfamiliar with sustainability might perceive it, ‘I don’t see how it fits into my curriculum”. Incongruence was identified by Lidgren etal., (2006) as a barrier. Phrases such as ‘vagueness of meaning’, and ‘ambiguity’, ‘is it to do with the environment’ demonstrate why this may be the case. ‘Responsibility’, ‘internal discord’ and ‘communication’ were perceived as representing less of a barrier. With notable exceptions, these findings support the quantitative findings of Shriberg (2002) who found the most problematic barriers to be ‘higher priority of other initiatives’ (mean=4.17), ‘lack of funding’ (mean=4.08), and ‘lack of time’ (mean=3.78). Lack of commitment from students (mean=2.53) and faculty (mean=2.71) as well as ‘fear of change’ (mean=2.78) and lack of commitment from staff (mean=2.78) were the least significant barriers to sustainability.

The benefits of PAR and CoP for effecting change

Both the elements of PAR and CoP provided the ideal research methods for this particular scenario because it allowed the students to generate the desired information about respondents’ perceptions of the state of sustainability within their daily place of work and study while simultaneously stimulating action for the change of those very environments, systems and people. Our aim was to overcome the separation of the research and action that is inherent in traditional empirical research and to give the students control and ownership of the assessment thus attempting to make the researchers and the respondents, equal partners (Wadsworth, 1984). Thus, the ethos of the assessment was not simply the acquisition of data and the generation of knowledge but the empowerment of the participating people.

“It has been a rewarding and challenging experience in participating in the sustainability research project. It has definitely made me more aware of the importance of sustainability within the University and at home and how small changes can make a difference. I now see its importance for future generations and I feel a strong sense of empowerment to make a change.”

The reflective process is the essence of PAR and the students and staff hopefully began to formulate intentions and make plans about their future, which they now viewed as transformative, and which in turn will lay the foundation for action. Critically, we feel that most of the students did become empowered within this process and the intended effect of this was manifest in a changed perception of their worldview.

129 “It (the audit) empowered me to focus on the environment and to take notice of how I am affecting the world and how small changes can still be beneficial.”

As the students were not simply collecting information but also proposing changes, they were able to engage cognitive skills and strategies that allowed them to achieve the desired outcome, which was change or at least the realization that change was required. In this sense, their audit became goal-oriented and purposeful. In short, it is this transformation, which allows them to step out of their surroundings, question their reality, evaluate their actions and propose, and make informed changes.

“At first I felt self-conscious questioning the senior staff but as my confidence and understanding grew I felt that I was listened to and when I made suggestions on how the university could become greener I was able to hold my own during discussions.”

“I feel as students that we must act as agents and catalysts towards the ideology of a sustainable university….I have changed my behaviour and actions for the better because I feel one person can make a difference…as students we have a responsibility to change, we owe it to future generations.”

However, some clearly found the experience rather fraught:

“I didn’t feel that I had sufficient depth of knowledge in the subject, therefore I felt incompetent to interview university staff. I felt that I wasn’t really listened to and my views on making the university greener weren’t important as the interviewees had other priorities.”

The students were largely autonomous in the formulation and structuring of their audit and we left them to identify and overcome any problems they encountered. They had to make reasoned and pragmatic choices on the, who, what, why, where and how of the audit and they did this initially by trial and error, but latterly in an intuitive way and without prompting. Ultimately, they had to evaluate their actions and thoughts as they progressed with the audit and most importantly were able to (re)assess the efficacy of their approach or the pragmatism of their decisions (Dawes, 1988).

“Personally, it was interesting hearing the department heads’ views and opinions and helped me to understand how complex and diverse the problem is which had an affect on what I thought about making sustainable changes”

This is also highlighted in the following quotes. Early in the audit process one interviewee said that:

“Students were very passionate and single-minded with regard to sustainability and found it difficult to accept that other factors had to be considered.”

However, the following students emphasize their change in approach and understanding:

130 “…before I did this I had an idealistic view of how improvements could and should be made. I now understand the world is much more complex and that small changes or even simply getting people to think about the issue will have a positive effect.”

Students acknowledged that staff did express an interest in sustainable issues but found evidence that they did not fully understand what sustainability meant. They felt that this was exacerbated by the lack of information about sustainability at the University and that it was not disseminated effectively. The students feel that they may have ameliorated this knowledge deficit:

“At the beginning of the interviews I felt that we were not taken seriously, however, as the interview progressed, and as more staff and students were interviewed, they became aware of the problem and took us seriously.”

The potential of students as environmental change agents is highlighted in this quotation from an academic which emphasis their ability to disarm and elicit honest responses.

“Initially I was rather cagey with them but they managed to get me to say things that were on my mind about…and I felt better for it.”

“Students are in a good position to promote ideas and help people to understand without having to act as an authority figure.”

Finally, during the focus group discussion students learned that their assessment had been discussed at a senior board meeting within the university and we feel that this powerfully demonstrates the depth of ownership and achievement the students held for this assignment.

“We were actually really happy when we found out that our assignment was on the agenda of the Universities main board meeting. This shows that what we did has got through to the people who can makes things happen. We sincerely hope that what we did actually makes a difference…even if the difference is to start people thinking.”

Although universities can be viewed as change agents in their own right, both on an institutional and societal level it is their role as learning communities wherein it may be their students who may prove to be the most important change agents of all. Other studies have identified that students make effective environmental change agents if they possess knowledge of the environmental, economic and social issues related to sustainability, a value system and motivation and other change agent abilities (Korhn, etal. 1999). However, from this study, we identified that students possess many other attributes appropriate for the role of change agent. Rather cynically, besides the ‘free’ element, both in economic and temporal terms, their drive, perspective, intellectual sharpness, irreverence for institutional hierarchies and a disarming charm may help them punch through the protective and ambivalent inertia towards sustainability issues that a change weary sector may have developed.

References Chaplin, M. (2007) A Model of Student Success: Coaching Students to Develop Critical Thinking Skills in Introductory Biology Courses. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Vol. 1, No. 2

131 Cotton, D.R.E. , Warren, M.F. , Maiboroda, O. , and Bailey, I. (2007) Sustainable development, higher education and pedagogy: a study of lecturers’ beliefs and attitudes, Environmental Education Research 13 (5): pp.579–597. Dawes, R. M. (1988) Rational Choice in an Uncertain World. Harcourt Brace. Ferrer-Balas, D., Adachi, J., Banas, S., Davidson, C.I., Hoshikoshi, A., Mishra, A., Motodoa, Y., Onga, M., Ostwald, M. (2008), "An international comparative analysis of sustainability transformation across seven universities", International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 9 No.3, pp.295-316. Hegarty, K. (2008) Shaping the self to sustain the other: mapping impacts of academic identity in education for sustainability. Environmental Education Research, Volume 14, Issue 6 pp 681 - 692 Holmberg, J. and Samuelsson, B. E. (2005) Drivers and Barriers for Implementing Sustainable Development in Higher Education (Göteborg Workshop, December 7-9) Korhn, S. et al. (1999) Students Conduct Environmental Audits for Credit and Public Service ULSF Talloires Publications Vol 3: No 2 Lidgren, A., Rodhe, H., and Huisingh, D. (2006). A systemic approach to incorporate sustainability into university courses and curricula. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14, pp 797–809. Lozano, R. (2006) Collaboration as pathway for Sustainability. Environmental Management for Sustainable Universities 2006. Stevens Point, Wisconsin. Moore, J. (2005) Seven recommendations for creating sustainability education at the university level: A guide for change agents. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education. Vol 6. pp326-339 Sammalisto, K., and Arvidsson, K. (2005). Environmental management in Swedish higher education. Directives, driving forces, hindrances, environmental aspects and environmental co-ordinators in Swedish universities. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 6, pp 18–35 Shriberg, M. (2002). Institutional assessment tools for sustainability in higher education. Strengths, weaknesses, implications for practice and theory. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 3, pp 254–270. Svanström, M., Lozano-García, F.J., Rowe, D. (2008), "Learning outcomes for sustainable development in higher education", International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 9 No.3, pp.339-51. Talloires declaration resource kit, 2006. http://www.studentsenateccc.org/Portals/1/Documents/TD_resourcekit.pdf Velazquez, L., Munguia, N., and Sanchez, M. (2005) Deterring sustainability in higher education institutions: An appraisal of the factors which influence sustainability in higher education institutions. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 383-391. Wadsworth, Yoland (1984) Do It Yourself Social Research, Victorian Council of Social Service and Melbourne Family Care Organisation, Melbourne

132 Between Fear and Fascination: An empirical Study on Risk Perception concerning Global Warming

Christina Grunert and Prof. Dr. Alexander Siegmund University of Education Heidelberg, Germany [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract In connection with the human-induced greenhouse effect our climate is changing and the frequency of extreme events such as storms, heavy rainfalls or periods of droughts are increasing. The topic of global climate change, including all its negative effects, is becoming noticed more and more by the general public. Irrespective of whether it is generated in an academic, a media or a personal context, the multifarious information about risks from natural disasters significantly influences the risk perception and potential environmental fears of people. The study combines results of scientific research on natural disasters with the subjective individual perception of environmental risks.

For different aspects of global change, teaching concepts and materials are developed and published in the form of a “Natural Disaster Kit”. In this manner scientific competencies can be established and potential environmental fears can be attuned to actual conditions. The main focus of the study is concerning how far knowledge can be increased and attitudes changed by working with the “Natural Disaster Kit”. For this purpose a questionnaire in the framework of a pretest-posttest-design has been developed. A pilot test has already been completed with 120 students and first empirical results will be presented.

Key words: Natural disasters, climate change, risk perception, secondary school students

Risk perception and climate change

Climate and weather belong to the oldest, most common and popular topics humans talk about. With the increasing awareness regarding climate change global warming is discussed by a broad public. Almost every week newspapers report on natural disasters in connection with a global climate change: Hurricanes in the USA (e.g. hurricane Kathrina), cyclones and floods in southwest and central Asia or winter storms in Europe (e.g. Kyrill or Lothar). The latest climate report of the European Environment Agency (EEA) points out that the temperature rise in Europe might be stronger as yet supposed.

The warming of the climate system is unequivocal, says the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2006). Observations show increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global mean sea level. All of these topics are handled in a relatively serious manner by the media and are perceived by a broad public. The way people perceive that information is up to various factors such as prior experiences and social conditions. Different surveys show that climate change is one of our greatest environmental, social and economic threats (IPSOS 2006).

133 Material and Methods

Studies in the field of environmental educational research (Grasel 2000), socio-scientific climate research (Rayner and Malone 1998) and constructivist conceptual change (for example Schnotz 2001) do underline that subjective every day life theories do often differ from scientific theories. The basic considerations in the context of the conceptual change theory are that knowledge transfer in schools often meets more or less differentiated pre- concepts. In this case the newly learned topics do not replace the existing knowledge. The learners try to develop synthetic designs that combine both (Renkl 1996). Consequently, the research focuses on the analysis of the every day life theories before and after instruction (Schuler 2005). The project goes a step further in that it not only deals with the knowledge of the students but also their subjective risk perception.

Risks are perceived and evaluated individually and are influenced by socio-cultural and individual factors. In particular, secondary experiences in terms of different types of media such as newspapers or television play an important role. The risks attributes, for example publicity or likelihood, also affect the perception and appraisal of risks.

The study will focus on students of secondary I education (11-15 year olds). In order to detect a change in the knowledge as well as in the perception of different forms of environmental risks a pretest-posttest-design was chosen. The focus is on the question in how far scientific literacy as well as the understanding of ecological correlations can change the perception of risk. The treatment consists of specially developed learning concept with the focus on the topic of “natural disasters and global change”. In this context teaching materials in the form of a “Natural Disaster Kit” are made available to the teachers, consisting of different modules which can be combined in the lesson. For each of the thematic units in the kit (for example hurricanes) the teacher is provided with materials in different modules. The learning kit consists of four different modules that can be combined through education progress: o teacher manual o folder with background information and material for whole class instructions such as overhead transparencies o multimedia platform with animations, film clips etc. o introduction and materials for experiments

With a mixture of group work, the use of new media and experiments, the kit satisfies the new German national educational standards for Geography as well as standards in many other systems (e.g. the International Baccalaureate).

The different modules are connected into a coherent whole but can also be used individually. Within the project it is planned to create five natural disaster boxes and to evaluate these in cooperation with different school classes. After the successful evaluation the boxes can be duplicated as necessary and included into existing media centres which lend the materials to different schools. In this way, students can be better prepared to deal with natural disasters and more realistically assess the effects that disasters may have on their lives.

First results

First results were attained in the context of a pretest in 2008. With a questionnaire, 127 students were asked about their attitudes to and experiences with different natural disasters.

134 The questionnaire was divided into three parts. The first part dealt with natural disasters in general. In the second part the pupil had to answer questions regarding floods as an example of natural disasters. Finally, the third part consisted of questions regarding search for and their perceived authenticity (for example television, newspaper, internet blogs and so on.).

Figure 1: Students knowledge about natural disasters (own enquiry, 2008, n=127)

The analysis showed students were familiar with different types of natural disasters (Figure 1). About 80 per cent know natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes or floods. However students rarely got their knowledge from education at school but rather mostly from secondary information in the form of media such as television.

Figure 2: Geographical location of natural disasters (own enquiry, 2008, n=127)

Natural disasters are not perceived as real threats to the every day life of students. The possibility to be involved in a natural disaster is suppressed by them. A similar tendency is

135 with regard to the question about which countries the students think are most affected by natural disasters (Figure 2). The intention of this question was to find out if there are any geographical differences in the perception. Germany, the home country of the students, came last; only 20 per cent of the students think that natural disasters could happen here. The danger is seen as distant. A possible explanation could be the influences by the media (Figure 3). News as well as various TV-films and cinema movies deal with natural disasters but are usually not set in Germany (for example the movie “The Day after Tomorrow”). This is probably the reason why the USA finds itself in the first place with 74 per cent.

Figure 3: Natural disasters – role of the media (own enquiry, 2008, n=127)

In the survey, students were also asked about their emotions in connection to the term “Climate Change”. The emotion “fear” was in first place for 28 per cent of the students. Feelings of fear normally arise by reason of something unknown or incalculable such as an unknown situation. The implications and consequences of climate change are speculative, unclear and are often hyped by the media.

The second emotion ranked in connection with climate change was “indifference”. The two terms, “fear” and “indifference”, are cursorily seen contradictory. The students do not deal with the subject “climate change” and are not interested in this topic (Figure 4).

136

Figure 4: Feelings concerning climate change (own enquiry, 2008, n=127)

Both emotions signal a need to get more information on the topic “climate change and its consequences”. Within the project, a material and learning kit is developed to foster the scientific literacy and to attune potential environmental fears to actual conditions.

References Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007), Climate Change 2007, Synthesis Report, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-syr.htm IPSOS (2007), Globale Probleme - Januar 2007, http://knowledgecenter.ipsos.de/docdetail.aspx?c=1021andsid=67F6B1C4-CC4A-4636- A948-1860CB7A00B1anddid=b5f6567f-aa19-4feb-9301-235aaf5490a0 ISDR – INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION SECRETARIAT (ed.) (2004), Living with Risk. A global review of disaster reduction initiatives. Geneva. Rayner, S. and Malone, E. (1998), Human Choice and Climate Change, Columbus/Ohio. Renkl, A. (1996), Träges Wissen. Wenn Erlerntes nicht genutzt wird, Psychologische Rundschau, 47, 78-92. Schnotz, W. (2001), Conceptual Change, in ROST, D. H. (ed.) Handwörterbuch Pädagogische Psychologie, Weinheim, 75-80.

137 Natural Resources and Education for Sustainable Development

Nihal Baloglu Ugurlu1 and Elif Aladag2 1 Nigde University Faculty of Education, Department of Social Studies Education, 2 Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Education, Department of Social Studies Education, [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract People depend on natural resources for their survival. The Earth’s ecological cycle cleans the air we breathe, recycles and purifies the water we drink, provides us with food and fuel. The diversity of natural resource also provides enormous economic and community benefits through the use of biological resources in forestry, farming, fishing, recreation and other activities. However, the dimensions of our current resource use are to have access to their fair share of scarce resources are endangered. Thus, sustainable development that dimension of natural resource is important. Sustainable Development is “ability to make development sustainable – to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. One of the most effective ways of ensuring we appreciate the importance of sustainable development is through the environmental education process. The aim of this study is to examine environment and sustainable development concept on the world and environmental education for sustainable development is to provide for sustainability. Key words: Natural Resource and Sustainable Development, Education for Sustainable Development, Environmental Education for Sustainable Development.

Introduction

Human wealth is based on the use and consumption of natural resources, including materials, energy and land. Continued increase in resource use and the related environmental impacts can have a multitude of negative effects leading to ecological crises and security threats. The sustainable use and management of natural resources have therefore come into focus and have been the subject of many policy discussions over more than a decade, beginning with the summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (EEA, 2005). Sustainability concept is recognized and widely accepted by scientist in this summit. As a result, governmental agencies and other stakeholders have increasingly involved science when dealing with the trade-offs associated with the maintenance environmental values involved in the management of natural resources.

Natural Resources and Its Importance in Sustainable Development

Human activities are having an increasing impact on the integrity of ecosystems that provide essential resources and services for human well-being and economic activities. Managing the natural resources base in a sustainable and integrated manner is essential for sustainable development. In this regard, to reverse the current trend in natural resource degradation as soon as possible, it is necessary to implement strategies which should include targets adopted at the national and, where appropriate, regional levels to protect ecosystems and to achieve integrated management of land, water and living resources, while strengthening regional, national and local capacities. This would include actions at all levels as set out below (UN, 2002).

138 The problem with strong sustainability is the implicit suggestion that today’s natural resource base will necessarily be of significant interest to future generations. On the contrary, conserving today’s natural resource base does not ensure that tomorrow’s natural resource base is secure. Likewise, drawing down today’s natural resource base does not necessarily mean that tomorrow’s natural resource base will be put in jeopardy (Taylor, 2002). This problem to try to understand need to examine our common future (WCED, 1987). According to the Brundtland Report, the problems facing the planet are two-fold. Environmental dimension of this problem: failure to manage the natural resource, resulting in desertification, deforestation, acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion and pollution.

This report says “But the results of the present profligacy are rapidly closing the options for future generations. Most of today's decision makers will be dead before the planet feels; the heavier effects of acid precipitation, global warming, ozone depletion, or widespread desertification and species loss. Most of the young voters of today will still be alive. In the Commission's hearings it was the young, those who have the most to lose, who were the harshest critics of the planet's present management.” (WCED, 1987)

This established the idea of global sustainable development through its focus on the integration of thinking about the environment. According to it sustainable development can be defined as a development path along which the maximisation of human well-being for today’s generations does not lead to declines in future well-being. Attaining this path requires eliminating those negative externalities that are responsible for natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. It also requires securing those public goods that are essential for economic development to last, such as those provided by well-functioning ecosystems, a healthy environment and a cohesive society. Sustainable development also stresses the importance of retaining the flexibility to respond to future shocks, even when their probability, and the size and location of their effects, cannot be assessed with certainty (OECD, 2001).

One of the important developments, which support environmental dimensions of sustainable development vision, has come into effect with the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. At this summit conclusions regarding sustainable development were declared in a declaration called “Agenda 21”. In spite of not being legally bounding, with this declaration the countries’ political responsibilities about the environment are defined. In agenda 21, some basic principles about the sustainable development, which focus on the natural resource and environmental dimensions are: (Türkiye Ulusal Jeodezi ve Jeofizik Birliği, 2003): • Humankind is at the centre of the sustainable development. S/he has the right to have a healthy and efficient life in accordance with nature. • On condition that they are not disturbing other countries’ environment, all countries have the right to use their natural resources according to their own politics. • A development right which meets the current and forthcoming generations’ is necessary so that environment and development should be acknowledged. • Environmental protection should be seen as a complementary part of development process. • In terms of ecosystem protection and development, countries shall cooperate in global association spirit. In environmental protection countries have common but different levels of responsibility.

139 • National authorities, in terms of “the one who pollutes pays it” principle, should make the environmental costs international and the use of economic devices improved • As to activities which have effects beyond borders, the activist country should inform the related countries in time and provide them with necessary information.

It is important to emphasise the Johannesburg Earth Summit because it is discussed solution to environmental problems in terms of sustainable development. The conference aimed to emphasise the most important environmental issues and the need to improve environmental management in Africa. It will aim to contribute to the development and implementation of new and innovative environmental management policies and approaches for Africa as well as to provide a platform for discussing and presenting new methods, tools and technologies. The biggest shift that occurred was the explicit acknowledgement of social development (in addition to economic development and environmental protection) as a core component in the Johannesburg Declaration’s definition of sustainable development. Although the Rio Declaration (and other agreements since then) certainly referenced poverty eradication and other aspects of social development, it primarily emphasized the need to balance environment and development (Osofsky, 2003).

Education for Sustainable Development

Education, including formal education, public awareness and training should be recognized as a process by which human beings and societies can reach their fullest potential. Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of the people to address environment and development issues. While basic education provides the underpinning for any environmental and development education, the latter needs to be incorporated as an essential part of learning. Both formal and non-formal education are indispensable to changing people's attitudes so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable development concerns. It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness, values and attitudes, skills and behaviours consistent with sustainable development and for effective public participation in decision-making. To be effective, environment and development education should deal with the dynamics of both the physical/biological and socio-economic environment and human (which may include spiritual) development, should be integrated into all disciplines, and should employ formal and non-formal methods and effective means of communication (CMEC).

Chapter 36 of the Agenda 21 first described education for Sustainable Development. This chapter identified four major thrusts to begin the work of Education for Sustainable Development: (1) improve basic education, (2) reorient existing education to address sustainable development, (3) develop public understanding, awareness, and (4) training. It is look at each of the four components; (McKeown, 2002).

Improve basic education: Simply increasing basic literacy, as it is currently taught in most countries, will not advance sustainable societies. Indeed, if communities and nations hope to identify sustainability goals and work toward them, they must focus on skills, values, and perspectives that encourage and support public participation and community decision-making. To achieve this, basic education must be reoriented to address sustainability and expanded to include critical-thinking skills, skills to organize and interpret data and information, skills to formulate questions, and the ability to analyze issues that confront communities.

140 Reorienting Existing Education: The term "reorienting education" has become a powerful descriptor that helps administrators and educators at every level (i.e., nursery school through university) to understand the changes required for Education for Sustainable Development. An appropriately reoriented basic education includes more principles, skills, perspectives, and values related to sustainability than are currently included in most education systems. Hence, it is not only a question of quantity of education, but also one of appropriateness and relevance. Education for Sustainable Development encompasses a vision that integrates environment, economy, and society. Reorienting education also requires teaching and learning knowledge, skills, perspectives, and values that will guide and motivate people to pursue sustainable livelihoods, to participate in a democratic society, and to live in a sustainable manner.

Public Understanding and Awareness: Sustainability requires a population that is aware of the goals of a sustainable society and has the knowledge and skills to contribute to those goals. The need for an informed voting citizenry becomes ever more important with the increase in the number of democratic governments. An informed voting citizenry, which lends support to enlightened policies and government initiatives, can help governments enact sustainable measures. Citizens also need to be knowledgeable consumers who can see beyond the “green wash” (i.e., public-relations efforts that highlight the activities of corporations that are more environmentally responsible while ignoring or hiding the major activities that are not). In today's world, people are surrounded by media (e.g. television, radio, newspapers, magazines) and advertisements (e.g. bill boards, banners on World Wide Web sites, and logos on clothing). As a result, people must become media literate and able to analyze the messages of corporate advertisers.

Training: Training was also stressed in Chapter 36. The world needs a literate and environmentally aware citizenry and work force to help guide nations in implementing their sustainability plans. All sectors - including business, industry, higher education, governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and community organization – are encouraged to train their leaders in environmental management and to provide training to their workers.

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development’s long history includes the well- known Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002. More recently, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) declared the decade spanning January 2005 to December 2014 to be the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (Combes, 2007). In this declaration, education for sustainable development (ESD) has been established as an offshoot of Environmental Education and is defined by a broader effort encompassing three strands of education: environment, society, and economy. Although Education for Sustainable Development has its own set of goals, a shared objective between Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development is to motivate behaviour change toward more environmentally friendly lifestyles (Darner, 2009).

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development is an imperative of our times. It is a prerequisite for the achievement of sustainable development. It is an important tool for efficient management, democratic and quality decision-making. Environmental Education for Sustainable Development enables individuals, groups and communities to judge in favour of environment and sustainable development based on their critical thinking. This kind of

141 education requires integration of knowledge from all relevant sectors (environment, economy, society) with a special emphasis on applying this knowledge in order to provide all citizens with better quality of living. Hence its other name – education for life and survival (The Republic of Serbia Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2008).

Environmental Education for Sustainable Development teaches individuals how to make decisions that consider the long-term future of ecology and use of natural resource. In 2002, the United Nations declared 2005–2014 the Decade for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and highlighted the difference between environmental education and Education for Sustainable Development. Environmental education “is a well-established discipline, which focuses on humankind’s relationship with the natural environment and on ways to conserve and preserve it and properly steward its resources.” Education for sustainable development, on the other hand, “encompasses environmental education but sets it in the broader context of socio-cultural factors and the socio-political issues of equity, poverty, democracy and quality of life.” (Venkataraman, 2009)

Environmental education for sustainable development needs the following major objectives (Ministry of the Environment Bureau of Education and Public Relations, 2001): 1. Developing full awareness and stimulating public interest in mutually related economic, social, political and ecological issues. 2. Enabling each human being to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to improve the state of the environment. 3. Creating novel behavioural patterns as well as shaping individual, group, and social attitudes, values and beliefs which carry concerns for the quality of the environment.

Conclusion

The environmental dimension of the sustainable development is necessary for the continuation of the living life on the earth. Therefore, all countries in the World should follow a particular environmental policy. However, in this matter people should also be informed. Peoples’ fulfilling of their responsibilities leads to a good deal of development by which the natural life is affected positively like decreasing of energy consumption and preventing environmental pollution. The thing, which is necessary for peoples’ awareness is, to provide them as citizens who are environmentally aware, active and participant about environment beginning from primary school.

References Academy of Finland, (2005), Research Programme on Sustainable Use of Natural Resources (SUNARE) 2001-2004, Evaluation Report, http://www.aka.fi/Tiedostot/Tiedostot/Julkaisut/6_05%20Sunare.pdf, accessed 10/04/2009. Combes, B. (2007), UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, 5th International Seminar and Training Course for Eco-Kids Instructors for Environmental Education for Sustainable Development based on Kids’ ISO 14000 Programme, Paris, France, 6-8 November 2007. Council of Ministers of Education Canada (CMEC), Educating for Sustainability, The Status of Sustainable Development Education in Canada, http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/9/environment.en.pdf, accessed 14/03/2009. Darner, R. (2009), Self-Determination Theory as a Guide to Fostering Environmental Motivation, The Journal of Environmental Education, 40(2), 39-49.

142 European Environment Agency (EEA). (2005), Sustainable use and management of natural resources, EEA Report, No 9, 4-65, ISBN 92-9167-770-1, EEA, Copenhagen. McKeown, R. (2002), Education for Sustainable Development Toolkit, Ph.D. Thesis, Portland: Portland State University, Ministry of the Environment Bureau of Education and Public Relations, (2001). Through Education to Sustainable Development, National Environmental Education Strategy, ISBN 83-86564-51-2, Poland. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2001), Sustainable Development: Critical Issues, Policy Brief, 1-8. Osofsky, H. M. (2003), Defining Sustainable Development After Earth Summit 2002, Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review, 26, 111-125. Republic of Serbia Ministry of Environmental Protection, (2008). First Framework Action Plan Environmental Education For Sustainable Development, Task Force for the Implementation of the UNECE Strategy for Education for Sustainable Development, http://www.unece.org/env/esd/Implementation/NAP/SerbiaDraftNAP.pdf, accessed 17/04/2009. Taylor, J. (2002), Sustainable Development A Dubious Solution in Search of a Problem, Policy Analysis, No:449, 1-49. Türkiye Ulusal Jeodezi ve Jeofizik Birliği (Turkish National Union of Geodesy And Geophysics), (2003). Türkiye Ulusal Meteorolojik ve Hidrolojik Afetler Programı(TUMEHAP), http://www.hgk.mil.tr/uyekurulus/tujjb/tujjb/programlar.htm., accessed 12/04/2009. Union Nations. (2002), World Summit on Sustainable Development, Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. United Nations. (1987), Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-ov.htm, accessed 10/04/2009. Venkataraman, B. (2009), Education for Sustainable Development, Environment, 51(2), 8-10.

143 The Influence of Short-Term Environmental Education on Graduate Students: an example from Kaz Dagi National Park, Turkey

Dr. Yilmaz Ari and Dr. Abdullah Soykan Balikesir University, Department of Geography, Turkey. [email protected]

Abstract In 1999, the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) decided to educate post-graduate students on environmental matters by using protected areas throughout Turkey. The first program was started in 1999 at Termessos National Park in Antalya and spread through 13 other protected areas of Turkey in 2006. One of the programs has been held at Kazdağı (Mount Ida) National Park (KDNP) and managed by the authors since 2004. More than 350 students have attended the program over a six-year period. The broad goals of the program were to provide basic ecological knowledge, to foster responsible environmental behaviour, and to affect long-term changes of students' attitudes toward conservation and nature. The program provided an indoor learning environment through in-class lectures, and an outdoor education through field trips. The field observations were an essential part of the program and they took more than half portion of the program. Students were taken to the field to see and appreciate the natural and cultural resources of the protected area, to learn how to recognize different components of the ecosystem, and to examine how local people have interacted with park’s resources. The results showed that conceptually a positive learning experience took place and the program has increased the awareness significantly in general environmental matters. However, students made less sense of the lectures that were not supported by an outdoor activity. They learn better, even at a later age, if they get a first hand field experience of environmental matters. Probably, the most important influence of the program was that students who were at the beginning stages of their post graduate studies tend to choose environmental issues as their thesis topic, which means a life-long influence.

Key Words: Environmental education, environmental awareness, Kazdagi National Park, Turkey.

Introduction

The main focus of environmental education programs has been to change environmental behaviour through increasing environmental knowledge (Pooley and O’Connor, 2000). Environmental education is “aimed at producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work towards their solution” (Stapp et al., 1969). The main goal of environmental education is to assess environmental issues, find feasible solutions to any problems that are identified, and finally to create pro-environmental behaviour (Magnus, Martinez, and Pedauye, 1997). Therefore, there is a clear assumption in environmental education that we need to give individuals more environmental knowledge to change their environmental behaviour (Hungerford and Volk, 1990).

Keeping these objectives in mind, the Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) decided to educate graduate students on environmental matters by using protected areas throughout Turkey in 1999 (Ozaner, 2005). The first program was started in

144 1999 at Termessos National Park and spread through 13 other protected areas of Turkey in 2006. One of the programs has been held at Kazdağı (Mount Ida) National Park and managed by the authors since 2004. More than 350 students have attended the program over a six-year period. The broad goals of the program were to provide basic ecological knowledge, to foster responsible environmental behaviour, and to affect long-term changes of students' attitudes toward environmental programs, conservation, and nature. The program provided an indoor learning environment through in-class lectures, and an outdoor education through field trips. The field observations and activities were an essential part of the program and they took more than half portion of the program. Students were taken to the field to see and appreciate the natural and cultural resources of the protected area, to learn how to recognize the different components of the ecosystem, and to examine how local people have interacted with park’s resources. They also engaged in hands on activities such as making herbarium and rock collections, measuring water quality, and expressing the ecological and cultural properties of the park through painting (Figures 1 and 2).

The research design consisted of a pre-test post-test comparison of responses. The tests were administered to 30 participants in 2007. A pre-test was administered to measure the environmental awareness and attitude towards protected areas right after the participants arrived, but before the program started. Two other tests were administered after the program: One immediately after the completion of the program, before the participants left; and the other after six months of completion of the program to measure how the participants used the environmental concepts and knowledge gained in the program in their life and own work after the program.

Ecologically-based Environmental Education at Kazdagi National Park

The Ecologically-based Environmental Education at Kazdagi National Park started as an education project and aimed at creating a positive perception of science, arising scientific curiosity, and providing scientific activities by using natural and cultural resources of Kazdağı National Park and surrounding areas. The principal purpose of the project was to provide a framework for participants to develop desire, curiosity, and motivation, which will provide a base for lifelong learning. The purpose was not to provide mass scientific information without individualizing it. The project thought participants the way nature works on the basis of relationships among different parts, provided an opportunity to observe, set the stage for an interrogative learning environment, increased awareness on contemporary environmental problems, and encouraged individuals to think critically and scientifically. The program was called ecologically-based because the teaching and activities formulated around ecosystem properties of KDNP.

The education program covered topics such as the formation and development of geologic and geomorphologic features; the important nature protection areas and their resource bases; flora and fauna of the area; wildlife conservation activities and programs; underwater biological diversity in the Aegean Sea; possible effects of global warming on the area; sustainable use and management of fresh water resources in the Edremit Bay region; wetland management practices; the archeological, historical, natural, and cultural resources of the national park; the effects of contemporary environmental problems on the critical ecosystems in the area; the cultural ecology i.e., human impact and interrelationships between man and the environment; everyday life and local cultures in relation to the natural resource use.

145

Figure1: Participants experiencing the flora of KDNP in an outdoor herbarium activity.

The program consisted of two parts of 12 days. The target group in the first part was school teachers working for the Ministry of Education, scout leaders and others who were thought to help disseminate the knowledge gained during the project such as representatives of Non- Governmental Organizations. The participants of the second period, which is the subject of this paper, were research assistants, masters’ and doctoral students from different universities. While determining the target groups we thought that the participants should be able to perceive the problems as a result of human-environment interaction, the threads towards the targets of sustainable developments and biological diversity and transfer these understandings to the groups they educate. The assessment here covers only the post-graduate students leaving teachers, scout leaders and others out.

In order to create the desired effect the method went beyond the classical teaching methods. A group of experts made decisions about the curriculum of the program. These topics were taught in a non-traditional class setting putting no hierarchy between the teacher and the learner; the theoretical information was thought with a popular setting and supported by fieldwork. Participatory and interrogative approaches were prioritized and participants were expected to actively involve the learning process. Observation and hands-on activities by using different science kits were provided; nature was used as the main laboratory; students found time and occasions to express their ideas and be part of the learning process; they were given opportunities to determine certain problems and to propose solutions for these problems by forming working groups. At the same time, we aimed to develop the ability of masses to embrace science by teaching the participants the language of nature. The teaching method was holistic, covering a vide variety of natural and social sciences.

146

Figure 2: An indoor painting activity from the program.

Effects on Post-Graduate Students

In order to measure the knowledge of environmental matters, a pre-test was administered to measure the level of participants. Considering the fact that participants were coming from a diverse multidisciplinary background, the questions aimed at measuring knowledge of general environmental concepts such as biological diversity, sustainability, global climate change, ecology etc. We wanted to see if the participants were aware of what these and similar terms meant. Although the education program was prepared mostly by geographers and biologists, the participants came from such diverse disciplines as engineering, humanities, natural, and social sciences. Therefore, it was essential to have conceptual understanding of contemporary environmental matters. There were ten questions in this category.

The second set of questions aimed at measuring knowledge of the environment of KDNP. Because KDNP possesses unique environmental qualities, the program aimed at making a connection with general concepts to local environmental properties. The park has natural and cultural values without which some of the concepts might have been difficult to teach such as geomorphologic features and water resources. Therefore, another five questions were asked to measure the knowledge on local environmental properties. These questions included endemic species, geologic and geomorphologic resources, sacred and culturally significant places of the park.

The same test was administered at the beginning of the program and at the end of the program. As a last activity of the program, the participants were asked to answer the same questions again. This is meant to measure if the participants gained knowledge of general concepts and local environmental resources. In order to measure whether or not the program had affected the participants’ attitude in their daily life, another set of questions were asked through electronic list serves that was started right after the group completed the education program in 2007. These questions were aimed at measuring how they used the information

147 they gathered in the education program and if the program has made a significant effect on their academic studies. Answers in this category were expected to show if there were any change in participants’ behaviour concerning environmental behaviour.

When analysed, the answers of the test showed that although the participants, were curious about environmental matters before the course, they did not have enough knowledge about the concepts of contemporary environmental problems. Only 20% of the participants, for example, were able to give a satisfactory answer to the question ‘What is biological diversity?’ At the end of the program this was 82%. Almost none (10%) could identify ecological regions at the beginning. More than half of the participants were able to define and identify these regions after the program. Again only a few of the participants had a solid understanding of nature conservation categories in Turkey at the beginning, but more than 90% were able to name these categories and give examples for each category. The participants were more knowledgeable about global warming and 65% of them answered that question correctly and post-course they increased to almost 90%. The higher percentages for the global warming question were not surprising, giving the fact that the topic has been subject to debate for the last few years in media and academia.

The participants knew even less about environmental properties of KDNP. Most of them, for example, did not know why the area had been declared a national park and what the main ecological properties of the park were. Almost none of the participants, except for a few from the region, knew about different cultural groups living around the park and the ways they have utilised resources. The participants answered questions in this category almost fully in the post-test because they had experienced these resources and the environment almost every day during the fieldwork. Only ten percent of the participants knew about endemic species of the area in pre-test and 90% were considered knowledgeable at the end. The post-test percentages of correct answers were higher in this category compared to the answers in theoretical matters.

Participants were asked another set of questions six months after the completion of the education program. These aimed at measuring three different aspects: the first one was whether the participants had used the knowledge gathered from the program in their daily life; the second one was if the program had any effect on their professional career; the third one was whether the program caused any changes in their environmental behaviour. Almost all participants expressed that they used some knowledge from the program and that their behaviour when changed compared to pre-education period.

Twenty percent of participants said that the education program had a significant effect on their professional career. Some of these mentioned that they had even decided to change their thesis topic after the program. Almost 50% said they were more concerned about and placed an emphasis on environmental matters in their academic studies after the program. Twenty percent of the graduates went on to create their own environmental education courses and projects in their regions and some of them secured funding from national and international institutions for such programs.

Conclusion

The results showed that conceptually a positive learning experience took place and the program has significantly increased awareness in general environmental matters and in the particular features of KDNP. The participants became familiar with theoretical framework of

148 environmental problems. This was a significant result because these participants went back to their own universities and taught about these environmental matters. Some engineers even expressed the view that they would now be more careful about environmental matters in their engineering projects. Probably, the most important influence was that students who were in the early stages of their postgraduate studies tended to choose environmental issues for their thesis topic, which suggests a life-long influence.

Students made less sense of lectures that were not supported by an outdoor activity. They experience better, deeper learning, even at a later stage, if they get a first hand field experience of the matter concerned. Therefore, the curriculum should be designed in a way to link theoretical issues with practical learning.

There were a few concerns raised by the participants: Some expressed the view that the program was too intense leaving no time for other activities. They complained that having an indoor class after a long fieldwork session in the same day was not productive. The interdisciplinary nature of the group was somehow problematic because it was difficult for lecturers and field teachers to find a common language that would be understood by all the participants. Some participants complained that the program made it difficult to develop a holistic understanding because there was too much diversity within it. Despite all of these possible shortcomings, the program was very successful in fulfilling its targets.

References Hungerford, H. R. and Volk, T. L. (1990) Changing learner behaviour through environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 21(3), 8-21. Magnus, V. J., Martinez, P., and Pedauye, R. (1997), Analysis of environmental concepts and attitudes among biology degree students. Journal of Environmental Education, 29(1), 28-33. Ozaner, F. S. 2005. Outdoor Ecology Based Environmental Training in Turkey, 11 th Annual International Sustainable Development Research Conference, Helsinki, Finland, June 6-8. Pooley, J. A. and O’Connor, M, (2000), Environmental Education And Attitudes: Emotions and Beliefs are what is Needed. Environment and Behaviour, Vol. 32 No. 5, September, 711- 723 Stapp, W. B., et al. (1969). The concept of environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education, 1(1), 30-31. Vaughan, C. et al., (2003). The Effect of Environmental Education on school children, Their Parents, and Community Members: A Study of Intergenerational and Intercommunity Learning. Journal of Environmental Education, 34 (3): 12-21.

149 Shades of forested landscape in a megacity of developing world: synthesising structural and functional patterns

Salman Qureshi Research Group for Urban and Landscape Ecology Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg 5010, Austria [email protected]

Abstract Though Karachi is a megacity, the forested landscape has never been studied. Complex land- use, varying climatic conditions, associated topographic situation and a unique geo-strategic location - at the coast of Arabian Sea - makes it a distinctive spatial entity. It needs to be investigated under one of the most basic principles of landscape ecology viz. the continuous interaction of structural and functional patterns of landscapes. In this paper, a conceptual framework is presented for the integrated assessment of structural and functional patterns of urban forest in Karachi. Structural evaluation is conducted by developing a hierarchal typology of forest cover existing in the case study area. This mechanism helped to nail-down the diversity of this human-dominated ecosystem in an urban landscape which is the hub of ecosystem services for the whole region. Moreover, the challenge of functional assessment is complimented by a two-fold methodology. Based on social scientific methods, functional analyses are performed. The ultimate goal is objective and subjective modelling that equates to natural and human systems.

Key Words: Urban forest; Megacities; Structural assessment; Functional analyses; Socio- ecological modelling

Introduction

Landscape ecology has been growing dramatically over the past decade and the contribution of geographers has significantly strengthened the principles and methods in this science. The question that still remains to be addressed is: How landscape ecology research can have a say in addressing the challenges in contemporary forest management and land-based, multi- purpose management in this fast-changing environment; with pluralistic contributions from geographers from all continents? Urban nature and urban forests are of high importance for urban dwellers (Gobster 1995; Coles and Bussey, 2000) and the studies in multidisciplinary framework are of high importance for urban planning and urban environmental management. A basic landscape ecological principle is the continuous interaction between structure and functions (Forman and Godron, 1986) and the main force behind change is the reorganization of existing structures to optimize their functioning (Antrop, 1998). Functional attributes of distinct urban structure is defined by the utilisation by the dwellers. Though, the structures are the characterised by shape, size, area, proximity etc. The coupling of structure and function in urban settings derives the dynamics of landscape – ultimately resulting in the global environmental changes – because urban areas are the hub of controlling global dynamics’ indicators.

Karachi, the megacity of Pakistan, is the selected study area (Figure 1). It is a city with 16 million people and considered to be the economic and transportation hub of Pakistan. New administrative structures in 2001 brought several changes to the city including numerous

150 development projects, but at the same time convey several challenges to the environment of this megacity. The main objective of this paper is to validate the principle using classical geographical techniques. Out of several distinct urban land uses, urban forest has been selected for analysing its structural and functional pattern. It is mainly because of the reason that the forest structure of the city suffered variety of pressures, not only because of the urban development process but also urban regeneration – legitimately ongoing for more than seven years.

Figure 1: Study area: Karachi, Pakistan

Figure 2: Trees affected by cyclones (left) which resulted in the further cutback of trees (right) by the local authorities.

Methodology

Urban forest in this study refers to major urban green areas e.g. urban parks, playgrounds, street trees and the major classified green elements of urban environment as reported by Qureshi and Breuste (2009). Furthermore, other open spaces that have the potential to be converted into a green space are also under investigation. It broadens the horizon of the knowledge that is generated with this study.

A multi-fold methodology has been developed to address the problem and attain the objectives of the study. Urban forest structures, though being the physical elements of our environment, are needed to be investigated quantitatively. On the other hand, functional characteristics of urban forest are under the strong influence of human beings and could

151 appropriately be characterised by qualitative analysis. Hence, the nature of study demands an approach where objective (structure) and subjective (function) components of the study are fulfilled and appropriate datasets are developed.

In the first phase of the study, preliminary structural analysis was conducted using 15-years time series data of LULC in the study site, produced from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) imagery. It was done using an expert system approach (Stefanov et al., 2001). Areas with major degradation were identified and the field surveys (using GPS) were conducted to update the classified satellite images. GPS data integration helped to minimize the error in the image classification process. Furthermore, a generalized purview of land use and land cover in Karachi is presented so as to understand the development pattern of other land use indicators.

During the second phase of the study, a questionnaire survey was conducted for the functional assessment of the urban green areas. Structured questionnaire was developed having several indicators of socio-economic, ecological and design aspects of urban green. A sample of 175 respondents was executed at selected locations of Karachi; where 169 (96.5%) interviews were completed. 6 remaining questionnaires were not appropriately filled and were unusable for the analysis. Data tabulation was conducted for parametric data mining, where simple charts were developed to understand the pattern of public perception about the subject and the utilization of urban green areas.

Results and Discussion

Selected results are presented herewith generalized conclusions presenting the outlook from the study. Remote sensing results revealed a negative redundancy in the green cover of Karachi. A ground-truth survey helped to envisage the real problem where it was observed that the major degradation is due to reckless cut-down of street trees. Ultimate results of remote sensing analysis are clearly indicating a downward trend in the urban green (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Classified land use/land cover of Karachi. Change detection with Landsat images: 1986 (left) and 2003 (right).

In urban areas, the rate of deterioration of green cover was enormous after 2000 when gigantic development activities started especially in the communication sector. Nevertheless, in river valleys and mangrove areas the rate was not that alarming as the human intervention is not so great. A general trend of decreasing green spaces was obvious on the time series

152 (1986-2003). The trend was quite noticeable in highly developed areas like Defence Housing Authority, Karachi. Though old green areas are vanishing but new areas are not adding-up at satisfactory pace. They social survey data reveal contrary results where the people of the city were not very aware of the deterioration of the green spaces. Most of the respondents were quite satisfied with the changes observed during recent years. It also contradicts with Qureshi et al. (2007).

The people mostly liked to walk in urban green spaces and they like to accompany their families at such areas (Figure 4 - left). This does not conform to the European experience where people frequently visit green areas alone. A large number of respondents mentioned that they like to visit green spaces for relaxing because of the heavily crowded localities in cities. Mostly the people have to face the heavy traffic everyday where the air quality is getting worse with the passage of time. The most important result of the study is the response of around 40 percent respondents who do not visit any green area (Figure 5 – right). It is mostly because they do not have access or do not have leisure time to perform such activities. They prefer to stay at home whenever they find some holiday or a day-off.

Figure 4: Activity (left) and frequency of visit (right)

Figure 5: A newly built park near the core area of the city with comprehensive landscape design and considered as the main attraction of the city dwellers.

This study presents a simplified framework showing the interaction of physical and social processes and how they affect the urban environment in general. It has been revealed from

153 this study that waxing and waning of the human well being is always being associated with the green areas. Remote sensing analysis could easily be monitor the change in green areas but the ground reality could only be addressed with the help of ground surveys and taking in the account of the local perception. There is strong need to interpret the remote sensing data in the light of the local information and priorities. Both physical and social investigations should be performed in integrated platform and multi-attribute data modelling techniques should integrated into decision making process, which could help to resolve the problems faced by the inhabitants of the cities in developing countries.

References Antrop, M. (1998), Landscape change: Plan or chaos?, Landscape and Urban Planning, 41, 155-161. .(BBC Urdu Karachi. (In Urdu .درﺧﺖ ﮐﻢ، دهﻮاں زﻳﺎدﮦ، ﮔﻬﭩﺘﺎ دم ,(Azad, M. (2007 http://www.bbc.co.uk/urdu/pakistan/story/2007/06/070620_karchi_trees_sq.shtml, accessed 01/01/Oct 2007 Coles, R.W. and Bussey, S. C. (2000), Urban forest landscapes in the UK—progressing the social agenda. Landscape and Urban Planing 52, 181-188. Forman, R.T.T. and Godron, M. (1986), Landscape Ecology. John Wiley, New York. Gobster, P.H. (1995), Perception and use of a metropolitan greenway system for recreation. Landscape and Urban Planing 33, 401-413. Qureshi, S. and Breuste, J.H. (2009), Prospects of biodiversity in the mega city Karachi, Pakistan: Potentials, constraints and implications, in Müller, N., Werner, P. and Kelcey, J. (eds.), Urban Biodiversity and Design - Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity in Towns and Cities. Blackwell Academic Publishing, Berlin, Germany. (In press) Qureshi, S., Arsalan, M.H. and Coles, R. (2007), Simulating the sociometric analysis of landscape changes in GIS framework: An example of the selected town of Karachi metropolis. In: Bunce, R.G.H., Jongman, R.H.G., Hojas L. and Weel S. (Eds.) 25 Years of Landscape Ecology: Scientific Principles in Practice. Proceedings of 7th IALE World Congress. 8-12 July 2007, Wageningen, The Netherlands. IALE Publication Series 4(2), pp: 799-800. Stefanov W. L., Ramsey M.S. and Christensen P.R. (2001), Monitoring urban land cover change: an expert system approach to land cover classification of semiarid to arid urban centers. Remote Sensing of Environment 77, 173-185.

154 Geography of Energy in the higher education – the point of view of young geographers

Vita Valiūnaitė Department of Geography and Land Management, Vilnius University, M.K. Čiurlionio g. 21/27, LT-03101 Vilnius, Lithuania Environmental Policy Research Centre, Department of Political and Social Sciences, Berlin Free University Ihnestr. 22, D-14195 Berlin, Germany [email protected]

Abstract The paper aims to describe different practices of teaching energy issues in Geography in selected European universities. The discipline Geography of Energy integrates wide geographical topics starting with geopolitics, international security, natural resources and followed by environmental challenges, sustainable development and spatial planning. The discipline also contents questions regarding climate change and air quality, renewable energy, opportunities for small and medium enterprises and private households in renewable energy sector, increasing energy prices and its influence on different social groups, global rival of bio-energy and food, etc.

The research made on the content of the Geography of Energy shows the great diversity of teaching practices in different universities. The integrated discipline would help geography students to participate more in public policy while using geographical tools and methods.

Key words: Teaching, Geography of Energy

Introduction

Global, regional and local energy issues play a big role in current world policy and economy. The big challenge for geographers is to incorporate these issues in the Geography curriculum not only at schools but also in higher education. As the author of the paper is also European Geographers Association for Students and Young Geographers (EGEA) representative, the attitude of graduating geography students and young researchers about energy issues teaching at the universities is presented. Global challenges and local solutions are on nowadays geographers focus and the importance of the energy issues integration in Geography studies in higher education should be taken in a big consideration. The need for an integrated course, which would provide geography students with the tools for dealing with existing and upcoming challenges using geographical understanding and methods, is emerging from the replies of interrogated geography students and young researchers.

The State of Energy Issues Teaching in Geography

To get an overview on energy issues teaching in geography 22 universities from 16 different European countries were surveyed. The survey aimed to cover more or less equally all parts of Europe, the map of countries together with the table of the universities that participated in the survey provided (Figure 1, Table 1). To represent students and young researchers’

155 attitudes 1-2 graduate students, PhD students or young postgraduate students from each university were questioned.

Figure 1: Surveyed countries with location of the universities

Table 1: The list of surveyed universities Name of the university Name of the university University of Amsterdam Charles University in Prague Harokopio University of Athens Paris Lodron University of Salzburg University of the Aegean Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje Russian State Hydrometeorology University, St. University of Bern Petesburg University of Bologna West University of Timisoara Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun University of Primorska, Koper University of Vienna Catholic University Leuven Vilnius University Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz Wageningen University Lomonossov Moscow State University Warsaw University Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich Zagreb University

Except Wageningen University which offers a course in Sustainable Energy, all other surveyed universities do not offer Geography students any courses devoted to geographical approaches on energy issues. Some energy topics are incorporated in other subjects (e.g. Environment – Nature – Society and Development and Management of European territory at Harokopio University of Athens, Environment at Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Economics in ecology and meteorology at Russian State Hydrometeorology

156 University, St. Petersburg, Economic geography, Sustainable regional development, Regional geography at University of Bern, Economic geography at West University of Timisoara and Zagreb University, Geography of industry and transport, Socio-economic geography of Poland, Political and economical geography at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Physical geography and Spatial planning at University of Vienna, Economics of nature resources and environment at Vilnius University, Socio-economic geography at Warsaw University). These examples show that the topic is very widely spread among several geographic disciplines, mainly concentrated in Economic Geography but also included in Physical Geography, Spatial Planning, Environmental and Political disciplines.

To construct a new discipline, the respondents were asked to provide details about different aspects of energy issues which are in focus at their universities. The results are described here and show that a great diversity of energy issues are taught at different Geography departments. The results of the survey also clearly states that there is nothing like a complete and common attitude on this problematic issue.

There are universities witch offer a basic understanding about the energy issues and focus mainly on the overview of the energy issues in the world and in the particular country, they limit themselves with teaching the main definitions and describing natural resources (e.g. Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv). Different energy sources and their spatial distribution, trends in consumption and questions concerning sustainability, traditional and modern concepts of economic geography, theoretical approach and models are taught at Zagreb University.

In Greek universities (Harokopio University of Athens, University of the Aegean) the main content is the alternative energy resources that exist in Greece (aeolian, water, sun) and their usage, the main focus is on the most popular and effective ones which could provide the benefit to the country. A discipline like Environmental and Urban Planning deals with the applications of different energy sources. Natural resources management, renewable energy, EU energy policy, climate change, energy waste management, trans-European networks of energy are also taken in consideration.

In another southern European country – Slovenia – geographers (University of Primorska, Koper) also pay a lot of attention to energy issues. The main topics are renewable energy sources in the country (especially wind power plants - still a big topic of dispute between scientists, land managers and politicians), nuclear power plant efficiency (concerning Krško nuclear power plant) and problems with disposal of radioactive waste, reducing oil consumption by using public transport.

In the Czech Republic, at Charles University in Prague there are two main aspects taken by geographers concerning this field: energy and peak oil (within human geography, focused on relation between industry, energy consumption, development, peak oil) and renewable energy sources (within physical geography, dealing with possibilities of using wind, water, solar energy).

Mainly sustainable development and climate change, followed by geopolitics, natural resources, renewable energy, planning are in focus at University of Bologna. Natural resources, renewable energy also are in focus at Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich. Implementation of renewable energy sources in existing cities are taught at Wageningen University.

157

The main topics covered at Lomonossov Moscow State University are the principles of energy production (power plants of different types, hydropower plants, nuclear plants of different types, other types of plants), spatial distribution of oil, natural gas, coal supply and oil, natural gas, coal demand, production and distribution of energy throughout the world, the role of main energy companies in different regions, natural resources, geopolitics and renewable energy as well. Brief description of sources of renewable energy, summer/winter time switching (daylight time saving), meteorology and winter time energy usage, energy production related to marine polar regions (prevailingly engineering point of view): oil, gas, gas hydrate, tidal, wave, wind energy, peat and coal energy are taught at Russian State Hydrometeorology University, St. Petersburg. Many physical geography topics like natural resources, renewable energy and also planning deal with energy issues as well.

Romanian geographers at West University of Timisoara mainly deal with a distribution of natural resources worldwide, their location, quantity and use; they also analyze economic activity worldwide, taking into consideration all economic sectors – agriculture, industry, services. The spatial dimension of economic activities, economic flows, main economic actors, markets, economic growth, the evolution of the world economic system, sustainable development, resources issue together with natural resources, their use and their location are in focus there. Energy issues are also included in teaching geopolitics and planning.

Energy sources, energy distribution directions, “green energy” sources and geopolitics (e.g. Russian – Germany Nord Stream pipe project, gas conflicts) are in focus at Warsaw University. Influence of natural resources on industry localization and development, energetic system of Poland, the role of energy in international politics at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun.

At the University of Vienna most attention is on spatial planning: issues of land zoning e.g. for wind-power-stations or similar things. In physical geography attention is paid to the climate issues. In some universities it’s more technical aspects of renewable energy and research in (new) energy sources are in focus (e.g. Catholic University Leuven). GIS, local and regional models for energy supply and demand, climate change, spatial planning, usage of Information and Communication Technology in energy-related issues, green IT are in focus at Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg.

The answers provided by the questioned geographers show a great diversity and very wide scope of the energy issues in Geography teaching. The next part of the paper deals with the needs, expressed by young geographers, of an integrated discipline and some possible teaching methods.

The need FOR a discipline of geography of energy

The purpose of creation of the course Geography of Energy was to fill the teaching, integrated knowledge and skills gaps stated by young European geographers from various universities. The topic “Geography of Energy” should be included in the programs of Geography studies at universities. Its role shouldn’t be restricted only with providing general knowledge but it should also play a significant role in dealing with current environmental, economical and political challenges. It is a very wide and important topic and geographers should not ignore it. Energy topics are currently divided between many geographical disciplines and there is a lack of common and integrated point of view. Topics regarding energy, its political, economic

158 and environmental aspects should be put together as a separate discipline or at least a group of topics in the boundary of an existing discipline.

The course would also provide geographers with a major opportunity to enter and help to shape the public policy debate as

“the impact of geography on the policy realm has been limited. Other social, political and environmental scientists, and even media pundits, shape public perception and government policy in areas where we as geographers could – indeed should – be having much greater influence“. (Martin, 2001).

The integration of economic geography and environmental issues plays very important role in understanding complex energy issues in Geography. Special analytic approaches can link economics, environmental analysis and geography (Hanink, 1995). To integrate all energy issues means to integrate also many other geographic topics together. The response to the emerged need to have an integrated discipline would also contribute to the education of the next generation global change in local places researchers. The discipline should foster a holistic, integrated approach to the energy issues in geography science also include regional geographic research.

Several teaching methods could be applied for this discipline. Collaborative learning, an alternative to traditional independent learning could be one of very appropriate methods to teach Geography of Energy. Students which work in small groups reach a common goal and beside factual knowledge and comprehend concepts also develop higher-order critical thinking skills by synthesizing information and applying factual knowledge and concepts to complex, real-world situations (Yarnal and Neff, 2007).

Another well known teaching method - Problem Based Learning – could also be used to teach Geography of Energy. It is a student-centered educational method that uses problem solving as the starting point for learning and it is designed to develop disciplinary knowledge bases and other skills like creation of problem-solving strategies. This is achieved by confronting students with problems typical of the real world (Beringer, 2007) and simultaneously by placing students in the active role of problem-solvers.

To further concepts and content of the discipline, other possible methods are a subject of another paper. The discipline Geography of Energy is being prepared for Vilnius University, Natural Science Faculty, Geography and Land Management Department. The important task is to find and keep a balance among field, laboratory and library research; among human geography, physical geography and geographic information science; and between quantitative and qualitative research.

Conclusions and Discussion

The importance of the integration of energy issues into geography studies at universities were expressed by young geographers from 22 European universities. The need to fill in existing gaps in Geography curriculum and to provide students with important and up to day courses concerning nowadays world challenges: limited natural resources, climate change, international security should be taken into the big consideration. The topic, the Geography of Energy is a response to the needs and expectations of young geographers and should be offered to geography students at universities.

159

Different teaching methods could be used during the lectures and seminars. The course of Geography of Energy could be provided for undergraduate or graduate students and using of different teaching methods could be applied. The content of the course is still under preparation and any contribution is very welcome.

References Beringer, J. (2007), Application of Problem Based Learning through Research Investigation, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31 (3), 445–457. Hanink, D.M. (1995), The economic geography in environmental issues: a spatial-analytic approach, Progress in Human Geography, 19 (3), 372-387. Martin, R. (2001), Geography and public policy: the case of the missing agenda, Progress in Human Geography, 25 (2),189-210. Yarnal, B. and Neff, R. (2007), Teaching Global Change in Local Places: The HERO Research Experiences for Undergraduates Program, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 31 (3), 413–426.

160 Section 4: Geographical Diversity

Austria and Turkey: their burden of histories

Christian Matzka University of Vienna, University of Education in Vienna [email protected]

Abstract This paper focuses on the current situation of Turkish people in Austria and the position of many Austrians concerning Turkish immigrants. Opinion polls published in Eurobarometer say that only 16 percent of the Austrians support the EU-membership of Turkey. Austria holds the last position in the ranking of the 27 EU member states. Since 1964 when the Austrian office for recruiting “guestworkers” was opened in Istanbul many Turks have migrated to Austria. After building the mosque and the Islamic centre in Vienna in the 1970s the current Islamic population mostly of Turkish origin wants to create and build Islamic amenities like mosques, schools, cultural centres or cemeteries. This is the reason of discussions, demonstrations and political campaigns against the Islamic population and the EU membership of Turkey. These anti Turkish and anti Islamic attitudes have a long tradition and are determined by the long mutual history. Many Austrians and Austrian politicians mix the historically determined prejudices with current Anti Islamic attitudes and Turks in Austria and Turkey as a part of Europe and the European Union.

Keywords: Austria, Turkey, history, migration, citizenship, politics

EU Membership of Turkey and Austrian Politics

Opinion polls, like the Eurobarometer, in November 2008 said that only 16 percent of Austrians support Turkish EU membership. Thus Austria holds the last position in the ranking of the EU-27. The average support for Turkey’s EU-membership of the EU-27 was 45 percent. In contrast to this situation, many Austrians spend their holidays in Turkey. In 2007 Turkey ranked as the fifth main holiday destination of Austrians (www.statistik.at, accessed 29/03/2009). Why do only a few Austrians support Turkey’s EU-membership? What is the reason, that many Austrian politicians can gain votes with anti-Islamic and anti-Turkish campaigns? On a poster the campaign for the right wing party (FPÖ) shows on the left side the EU-flag and the Turkish flag on the right side. Between the two is a cross, which could be the sign for the no vote in a demanded plebiscite or the Christian cross. The FPÖ argues that Turkey is not part of Europe and therefore it is impossible to support their EU-membership. The FPÖ is opposed to any negotiations between Turkey and the European Union (http://www.fpoe.at/index.php?id=7304, accessed 29/03/2009). Maybe a look at the mutual history may help to understand the Austrian situation.

Austria and Turkey – Historical Framework

From the 14th-19th centuries, Austrian-Turkish (Ottoman) relationships were dominated by war and mutual prejudices which were transported from generation to generation. Two dates are well known even today in Austria: the sieges of Vienna in 1529 and 1683. After the battle of Mohacs in 1526 large parts of the Hungarian kingdom became part of the Ottoman Empire.

161 The Viennese felt like the defenders of Europe and thought that without their courage Europe would have become an Islamic region. After the Viennese victory in 1683 and the following triumphs until 1718 the border between Austrian and Ottoman spheres became a military zone with soldiers who settled as peasants along the boundary; the Danube near Belgrade was the limit. The Berlin Congress (1878) after the Turkish-Russian War brought an end to the military boundary. Due to the common interests in Balkan politics the Ottoman and Austrian Empires became allies against Russia, France and Great Britain in World War I. The Austrian government started a campaign to promote the ‘new situation’ but the Austrian population did not really understand the geopolitics due to their experiences in previous times.

Remembrance of History - Place Names and Monuments

Since the victory against the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 18th century the memories of the Austrian-Turkish wars have been kept alive in many places and regions. Place names and monuments show us the collective remembrance of this era. Pupils in elementary schools especially in Vienna and Lower Austria are taught about Austrian Turkish history. Especially in Lower Austria in villages and towns surrounding Vienna the remembrance of the siege of Vienna (1683) is still alive. Local museums show the history, for example in Perchtoldsdorf – the massacre of Perchtoldsdorf in 1683 - in the south of Vienna where the entire population was killed by Turkish troops. The Battle of Vienna seems to be so important that it is a question in the Austrian citizenship exam. The questions- When was the second siege of Vienna warded off? - Who attacked Austria hard in 1529, 1532 and 1683? have to be answered (BMI 2008). Significantly, the Austrian place name directory shows the following names: Türkei, Türkenbichl, Türkengraben, Türkenreith, Türkensturz, Türkstetten. In these places battles or other events concerning Turks took place.

After the Battle of Vienna in 1529 Ottoman troops approached the outskirts of Vienna once again in 1532. Many stories and tales are told about this time and have been passed on over generations. One of these is the tale about the Purbacher Türke. In 1532 a Turkish soldier hid in the chimney of a house in Purbach. The inhabitants fired the oven and the poor soldier had to climb through the chimney to survive. He was sentenced to working in this house after converting to Christianity and being baptised. Still today the monument of the Turkish soldier can be seen on the top of the chimney in Purbach.

Many monuments in Vienna were erected to the memory of the battle in 1683. For example the monument of the Lord Mayor Liebenberg opposite the University of Vienna was erected on the Ringstraße. Türkenschanzpark, Türkenstraße, Zentagasse remember the battle and the heavy battles between Austrians and Turks. Streets and lanes are named after famous men like King Sobieski of Poland who led the army to rescue Vienna or the Earl of Starhemberg who was the Figure 1: Monument of the battle defender of Vienna. The Pummerin – destroyed in 1945 of Zenta, 1697, Photo: Ch. Matzka - which is the big bell in St. Stephen’s Cathedral, was made from Turkish cannons symbolising victory of Christianity over Islam. Since that time

162 Islam and Turkey have been used as synonyms by many Austrians. The slogan in the election campaigns in 2006 of the FPÖ – Pummerin instead of Muezzin – should maybe remind the Viennese of the history.

Two hundred years after the battle of Zenta in 1897 a monument for the Austrian regiment Deutschmeister was erected. One relief on this monument on the Ringstraße shows the killing of Turkish soldiers by Austrian soldiers in a dramatically realistic manner. Mutual history is still alive and everybody in Austria knows some parts of it.

Spatial distribution of the Turkish population and society

The office of the Austrian government for recruiting ‘guest workers’ was opened in 1964 in Istanbul and existed until 1993. This was the beginning of migration of people from Turkey to Austria intended by the government and the economy. After 1964 the ‘guest workers’ were brought to Austria by enterprises which sought workers. Many Turkish immigrants settled in Vienna and Vorarlberg as well as in industrial centres in the Tyrol, Lower and Upper Austria (Lichtenberger 2000). Due to high unemployment rates in the 1970s in Styria only a few Turkish people found employment there.

Today approximately 30 percent of the Viennese population were born th Figure 2: Vienna 16 district, Turkish supermarket abroad, and twelve percent of these Photo: Ch. Matzka people were born in Turkey. In Vorarlberg, 27 percent of people who were born abroad are from Turkey and in Telfs in Tyrol near Innsbruck 16 percent of the population are from Turkey. In Vienna more than 70,000 people use the Turkish language. In modern multicultural Vienna this is the most important foreign language after Serb which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people (Fassmann, Hatz, Patrouch 2006).

Table 1: Turkish citizens in Austria 1971 1981 1991 2001 Austria 16.423 59.900 118.579 127.226 Burgenland 33 238 630 1.280 Carinthia 23 173 595 1.192 Lower Austria 3.479 10.125 18.129 19.911 Upper Austria 1.261 5.665 13.233 17.226 Salzburg 951 2.986 6.558 8.800 Styria 140 401 1.560 4.793 Tyrol 1.664 6.890 13.652 16.017 Vorarlberg 5.049 13.712 20.346 18.838 Vienna 3.823 19.710 43.876 39.119 Source: www.statistik.at, accessed 28. 3. 2009

163

Table2: Colloquial Languages in Vienna (persons) in 2007 Serbian 97 824 Turkish 71 000 Croatian 37 654 Polish 21 000 Czech 7 769 Hungarian 15 435 African languages 12 000 Asian languages 30 000 Source: http://www.migranten.at/umgangssprache.html, accessed 29. 3. 2009

Many Austrian-Turks came from rural and poor regions of Turkey. Because of low levels of education – illiteracy being a problem especially for women – they came to Austria as unskilled workers to do jobs which Austrians didn’t want to do. Due to Austrian immigration policies immigrants have quickly become part of the lower and underprivileged social classes (Lichtenberger 2000). Results of Austrian migration researchers say that the lack in education and illiteracy is inherited by the children. Many children of Turkish Austrians are brought up in Turkey by their grandparents. The result is that the children do not learn the German language. When they attend primary schools at the age of six they are often not able to speak German. This is the reason for many problems in reading, writing and understanding. Therefore only small numbers of migrants especially of Turks attend secondary schools or universities. Many of them are part of a new Viennese underprivileged class with little chance of social improvement. In 1999 a private organisation founded an Islamic secondary school in Vienna. There it is possible to pass the final exam and to take the A-levels. The aims of this organisation are to ensure the education of children of immigrants, the integration into Austrian society and the contribution to Islamic culture and identity. In the future it will be necessary to integrate more students with migration background in secondary schools as well as in third level education programs.

Is Austria a Contested Space?

In recent years discussions about amenities for Turkish and Islamic organisations took place. Turkish people have lived and worked in Austria for more than forty years. They did not return to Turkey as many Austrians thought they would. Therefore it was necessary to found organisations and institutions like the Turkish cultural community to represent the Turkish ethnic and religious minority in Austria (Gürses, Kogoj, Mattl (ed.) 2004). Due to the immigration after 1964, in today’s Austria Muslims - most of them of Turkish origin - hold the third position in the ranking of denominations.

Table 3: Religions in Austria Catholic 5 917 274 Orthodox 179 472 Protestants 376 150 Other Christian churches 69 227 Jews 8 140 Muslims 338 988 Without denomination 1 123 925 Source: www.statistik.at , accessed 10. 04. 2008.

164 In 1979 the first Mosque in Vienna was opened. Now more than 2000 mosques and prayer rooms exist throughout Austria which was no problem and no reason for political discussions for a long time because Islam has been in Austria an officially recognized Religion since 1912. In recent years similar to international discussions about the Islamic world in Austria discussions about Islamic amenities are main topics in regional and local politics.

In 2005 a minaret was built in Telfs in the Tyrol. This should be 20 meters high but a petition of 2,500 signatures was collected against the minaret. A compromise between the Turkish community and town council finally agreed on 15 meters height for the minaret. The same problem can be recognized in Vienna. In 2007, 700 people demonstrated against a planned mosque and an Islamic Centre in Vienna’s 20th district. The decision of the town council allows only a building without a minaret. It should not be recognized as a mosque at first sight. This can be compared with the situation of synagogues in the later 18th and early 19th century in Austria. The Jewish Centre in the First District in Vienna was built in the 19th century in the style of an apartment house similar to other buildings in the neighbourhood. This concept was also used in Bad Vöslau in Lower Austria. There a mosque with a dome and two minarets, each 15m high was planned. Many people in Bad Vöslau opposed against the planned mosque. After discussions and mediation between the Islamic community, anti Islamic activists and the town council the mosque will be realized without minarets and dome. No Muezzin is allowed and the building has to be lower than the neighbouring buildings. The Mosque has to be located in the rear part of the building in which a school, a youth centre and a cafe will be integrated. The mosque was built in 2008 under control of the town council.

A law to prevent Islamic buildings was passed in the regional parliament in Vorarlberg. In §16a the regional planning law says that event locations for many expected spectators (for example buildings for cult activities with 150 visitors) are only allowed on specially dedicated estates. So each community has the right to prohibit such buildings by the local development plans based on the regional planning law.

It took more than twenty years for the Islamic community to negotiate with the Viennese Town Council the building of an Islamic cemetery at the edge of the City in the 23rd district. Many people do not accept the construction of the cemetery. Thus in 2006 anti Islamic activists desecrated the cemetery which was under construction. The cemetery was opened for the public in 2008.

Figure 3: Islamic cemetery in Vienna, Figure 4: Islamic Centre Vienna, Photo: Ch. Matzka Photo: Ch. Matzka

References Begusch, S. (2006), Die Verbreitung von Vorurteilen gegenüber Türken durch österreichische Wochenzeitschriften, Wien: Diplomarbeit Universität Wien.

165 Bundesministerium für Inneres (2008): Skriptum zur Vorbereitung für die Prüfung gemäß §10a des Staatbürgerschaftsgesetzes 1985, Wien: BMI. (http://www.noe.gv.at/bilder/d7/Stbg- Brosch%FCre%20V20070702.pdf?2938, accessed 11/07/2008) Eurobarometer 64 (2005), Public Opinion in the European Union December 2005, in http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb64/eb64_en.htm, accessed 25/12/2005 Fassmann, H., Hatz, G. Patrouch, J. F. (2006), Understanding Vienna, Vienna: LIT Verlag. Fassmann, H. (ed.) (2007), Österreichischer Migrations- und Integrationsbericht. Rechtliche Rahmenbedingungen, demographische Entwicklungen, sozioökonomische Strukturen, Klagenfurt: Drava Verlag. Giannakopoulos, Angelos (ed.) (2005), Die Türkei-Debatte in Europa, Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Gürses, H., Kogoj, C., Mattl, S. (ed.) (2004), Gastarbajteri, Wien: Mandelbaum Verlag. Haslinger, J. (1987), Politik der Gefühle, Darmstadt und Neuwied: Sammlung Luchterhand. Lichtenberger, E. (2000), Austria, Society and Regions, Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. Matzka, Ch. (2008), Further education of Geography teachers in Austria – prospects. In: Donert, Karl, Wall, Glenda (ed.), Future Prospects in Geography, Liverpool: Liverpool Hope University Press, 83-91. (= Geography in European higher education 7). Matzka, Ch. (2008), Politische Bildung im schulischen Alltag. Beiträge zu einem politisch orientierten Unterricht, ide 4, 47-55. Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt (1965), Ortsverzeichnis von Österreich, Wien: Österreichische Staatsdruckerei. Smith, A. D. (1991), National Identity, Reno/Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press. Toft, M. D. (2003), The Geography of Ethnic Violence, Princeton: Princeton University Press. Vocelka, K. (2002), Geschichte Österreichs, München: Wilhelm Heyne Verlag.

Internet: http://www.derislam.at/islam.php?name=Themenandpa=showpageandpid=101, accessed 05/08/ 2008 http://www.europaforum.or.at/data/media/med_binary/original/1144306505.pdf 19, accessed 10/01/2008 http://www.gemeindebund.gv.at/content.php?m=2andsm=5, accessed 9/07/2008 http://www.HERODOT.net/conferences/london2007/ppt/21-christian-matska.pdf, accessed 19/01/2008 http://www.noe.gv.at/bilder/d7/Stbg-Brosch%FCre%20V20070702.pdf?2938, accessed 11/07/2008 http://www.redline-wirtschaft.de/redline/shop/artikeldetail.php?isbn=3-636- 01334andorder_nr=636013340 accessed 9/07/2008 http://www.sagen.at/texte/sagen/oesterreich/burgenland/petzoldt/purbacher_tuerke.htm accessed 30/07/2008 http://www.shortnews.de/start_ppp.cfm?id=581860andfree_id=1andrubrik1=Politik, accessed 16/06/2008 http://www.vienna.at/news/wien/bezirk/liesing/23-bezirk/artikel/islamischer-friedhof-in-wien- geschaendet/cn/news-20061201-10463119, accessed 05/08/2008 http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb69/eb69_part3_en.pdf, accessed 12/01/2009 http://diepresse.com/home/panorama/oesterreich/442741/index.do?from=suche.extern.google. at, accessed 22/03/2009

166 http://www.tuerkischegemeinde.at/Aktuelles/Tuerkische-Gemeinde-in-Oesterreich.html, accessed 22/03/2009 http://voris.vorarlberg.at/VorisDownload/9/9000.pdf, accessed 22/03/2009 http://www.okay- line.at/php/ausgabe/index.php?urlid=4andebene2_aktiv=1213andebene3_aktiv=1215andmenu e_themensort=andokayportal=927329c9a9c4fcff496da310cb0850a1 accessed 29/03/2009 http://gast.adaxas.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2006/11/bar44gs-moscheeplan-4spx.jpg, accessed 12/01/2009 http://www.fpoe.at, accessed 29/03/2009 http://tirol.orf.at/stories/115837/, accessed 05/08/2008 http://wien.orf.at/stories/221582, accessed 05/08/2008 http://www.statistik.at, accessed 05/08/2008 http://noe.orf.at/stories/202129, accessed 12/01/2009 http://www.igwien.com, accessed 29/03/2009 http://www.derislam.at accessed 29/03/2009 http://www.migranten.at/umgangssprache.html, accessed 31/07/2008

167 Consumption and City Fragmentation

Teresa Barata Salgueiro University of Lisbon, Portugal [email protected]

Abstract The majority of the world population now lives in cities, a very dynamic socio-spatial reality with hubs of communication networks, large concentrations of finance and other economic activities, serving as arrival points for populations of different origins, composed of multicultural societies, and simultaneously the domain of freedom and wealth as well as the homeland of exclusion and despair. Diversity and change characterise urban regions portraying the dynamics that affect society from all points of view (whether its technology, economy, demography or culture). This paper focuses on recent changes in urban landscapes and urban structures related to new forms of space appropriation and production both for residence and consumption. In analysing gated communities and shopping centres, evidence shows trends leading to the fragmentation of contemporary urban regions. I have adopted a process approach, focusing on the main actors in order to understand the change that is transforming cities from sites of production to sites of consumption. In the context of increasing global competitiveness and mobility, my intention is to underline the role of consumption in individual and group identification in terms of geographical space, choosing examples from the Lisbon metropolitan area.

Key words: gated communities; shopping centres; fragmentation; consumption

Cities, Diversity and Change

Diversity and change are important features in urban regions. Diversity may be witnessed in three main dimensions: social, functional and morphological. Cities are highly diversified societies because they are composed of concentrations of people who come from various origins and have different cultures. Large numbers allow a great range of individual variation, while density reinforces the effect of numbers in diversifying people and their activities and increasing the complexity of the social structure, as the classical texts from the Chicago School have explained.

Urban settings are sites for heterogeneity and interdependence where people are specialised in different activities. But they also are places of innovation and life experiences; here, new values and life styles emerge which are very often the products of interaction with strangers who are different. The anonymity associated with urban life, partly due to the concentration of large numbers, tolerance and sense of independence which people experience in cities, as well as the emergence of new values and life styles with the ability to include the “other”, underpin the classical idea that cities are the domains of freedom. They also lie behind the new ideas of creative cities (Hall, 2000, Landry, 2000, Florida, 2002) which stress the ability the urban population has for innovation and the importance culture and creativeness now have in the urban economy.

In functional terms, the diversity of cities can be assessed by the offer of a wide range of services, jobs and activities that make cities places of opportunities. From the industrial

168 revolution onwards, cities have concentrated an increasing percent of employment and this serves as a magnet attracting people. Even today, the members of the creative class prefer to concentrate in the cities because “people don’t look for a job but for a place that offers lots of jobs” to quote Florida (2005, 31). They have also become the preferential sites for shopping, leisure, culture and excitement because of the diversified character of their offer.

The last dimension of diversity is the morphological aspect, which is very obviously present in the urban scene. In opposition to the village where most, if not all, buildings look the same, in the cities we find an enormous variety of styles, sizes, building materials, functionalities, and so on. The buildings’ diversity makes for the wealth of the cityscape, its identity, and they create different environments, transporting people back to the old days or into the future. Nowadays, the past inscribed in the cityscape is another important asset for cities to compete for the attention of tourists, residents or firms. But it is not only based on past heritage since, within marketing strategies, many cities invest in new iconic buildings, designed by famous star-quality architects designing real contemporary landmarks.

Change is also particularly patent in cities due the important concentration of the population and investment in places where innovation grows because of this concentration. At the same time cities are open to external influences exercised through several networks (transport, information, production, services), which have the cities as their nodes.

Even if internally originated owing to a special creative milieu, innovation spreads all around and often arises as a response to a problem that has been imposed from the outside. As matter of fact, cities are not isolated spaces and globalisation has strengthened both the competitiveness among regions and the importance of networking in order to deal with it. Therefore, a complex interplay of external and internal forces (economic, technological and cultural) helps to bring about change in urban settings. Several authors have pointed out the large-scale transformation of cities during the last quarter of 20th century that warrant the metaphors or new expressions coined to describe the urban regions (the galactic metropolis, the 100-mile city, the metapolis). They reveal that a new reality has emerged which is opposed to or, at least, differentiated from the modern industrial city.

Cities are different from the past, in first place owing to their size, not only their demographic dimension but also the size of the geographical area occupied and the way this is done. The net limits of compact cities have given way to large spaces with sparse, diffused occupation extending over a wide range of functions, from housing and retailing to factories and business parks, from amusement parks to technopoles, from parking lots to airports, from golf courses to shopping centres. Tim Hall (1998) talks about a set of spectacular complexes of apartments, office and retail buildings separated by economically - or environmentally - depressed areas, which have the merit of underlining the fact that contemporary change has not solved problems of uneven development. On the contrary, social and economic polarization, along with the contrast in built-up environmental conditions, has increased.

Another feature of change has to do with the increasing number of nodes (polarities or centralities) throughout the urbanised areas. The structure of the metropolis has changed from a monocentric model, a coherent unit polarised by centres organised according to rank and overseen by a principal major centre which is the core, the downtown area or the central business district in the bigger agglomerations, to a polycentric one (Graham and Amin, 1997, Hall, 2003, Barata-Salgueiro 1997 and 2001), as a consequence, offering alternatives for location and consumption.

169

The recent transformation of the city landscape and structure is a result of many factors working worldwide. In this text I stress the change in consumer values in relation to the production of the built environment because they eloquently express the action of global trends at local level. The variety of buildings has increased to meet the new functions one can find in the cities. Actually, diversification has also brought real estate new products, ones that are not new in form or main function, but new primary due to their role in the capital market, and in production conditions, and the set of functions they support, including at the symbolic level, and in their appropriation by users.

The new products have taken the shape of mixed-use complexes, regional shopping centres, office complexes, business and entertainment parks, gated communities, large-scale developments, very often mixing their uses and becoming anchored as new centralities. In terms of process, they may be associated with large-scale redevelopments, sometimes in the regeneration of brown fields or waterfronts.

New real estate products also translate the strength of real-estate capital in contemporary economies and cities. David Harvey (1978), following Marx’s arguments, justifies investment in real estate with the difficulty of making further profits in the primary circuit of capital accumulation due to over production (or over accumulation); surplus value created in the production process is then channelled via capital markets into the secondary (or tertiary) circuit which is the built environment. Neil Smith (1996, 267), writing about the gentrification of the inner city’s districts, develops the theory of the rent gap (“gap between the actual ground rent capitalized from the present (depressed) land use and the potential rent that could be capitalized from the highest and best use”), an explanation for recentralising capital and once again making the highest profitable use of the land. For Milton Santos (1996) growing investments in building production are the main cause of the obsolescence of existing structures, which are not yet old enough. As matter of fact, the process involving built- environment production implies devaluating the old structures whilst favouring new buildings and locations that are presented to companies as the best sites for doing business in, and to families as localities offering the highest quality of life.

Many authors stress the fact that the on-going transformation of cityscapes displays the replacement of production sites such as factories and wholesale districts which have been razed to make way for consumer sites in the shape of shopping centres, convention halls, entertainment sites, hotels, restaurants and so on. This process has sometimes been called the speculative production of places. Often, this change comes by means of a regeneration project resorting to public engagement and funding and its success is sometimes associated with an occasional, cultural, sports or commercial event. The north-east part of Lisbon close to the river front was redeveloped because of the 1998 international exhibition. This is a common example of property conversion from industrial use to residential, offices, and consumer activities, taking advantage of a good location in the central city close to the waterfront.

Jayne (2006) sees the contemporary city defined by and acting through consumption because it is the product of a post-industrial consumer economy affected through a fundamental shift involving production and consumption. There are many definitions of consumption, but one should keep in mind the idea put forward by this author (Jayne 2006,5) that consumption is about the purchase and use of goods and services, although these practices help us to construct our identities, understand our place in the world and mark our attachment to social

170 groups, spaces and places. Moreover, goods and services and places are imbued with symbolic meanings that help us to communicate and interpret via consumption.

Our identities are determined by our access to and use of an increasing number of goods. Some time ago, T. Veblen (1899) already talked about consumption in relation to the growing importance of goods as markers of social status. People show others their wealth and who they are by means of consumer signs, by means of the objects they have (clothing and style, cars, apartments and furniture, and so on), but place increasingly enters the shopping-basket of identification signs. It implies a natural process in a period of intense change and increasing mobility in which even identities are disturbed. Going to the same places where people display the same type of attitudes and behavioural patterns helps to strengthen (bonds within) communities or tribes, as Maffesoli (1996) calls them.

New Forms of Residence

A sign of distinction for the middle and upper classes is now associated with living in an enclosed or gated community, a new form of residence that offers a set of services besides housing. Gated communities are enclosed residential spaces, with material boundaries, such as walls or fences, gates and restricted entry, and they offer residents’ services and facilities, namely safety and leisure facilities, and sometimes also cleaning services. In these new residential formats there is a collective use of open spaces that provide most of the leisure facilities. These spaces and their dimension vary with the size of the community and its location, and can range from a garden and swimming-pool in the smaller ones, to tennis or golf courts and woodlands in the larger ones located mostly on the outer fringe. Gated communities may be seen as a sign of embedding housing in a consumer rationale: the transaction entails much more than the real product, i.e., the dwelling. Besides the house’s features and its location, it is also awarded a status symbol whereby the neighbours have certain characteristics and safety, leisure facilities, and clubs, greenery and open spaces are part of the package.

Gated communities appear almost in every big city, functioning as a global product for wealthy social groups with international life styles. They originally came from USA, or at least their present versions did. They first appeared in Portugal in the 1980s but spread very fast from the 1990s on. The largest concentrations are found in the two metropolitan areas Lisbon and Oporto; and the Algarve, the southern coastal region, which is an important tourist destination, although we can also find them along the coastal resorts and in some inland vicinities close to dams, for instance.

As new forms of housing for the upper and upper-middle classes, gated communities reflect changes in the socio-economic structure that has impacted on land use. Their growth is related to the economic restructuring and social changes of the last few decades and the emergence of wealthy new upwardly-mobile social groups. These groups need to express themselves and affirm their position signposting their distance from other groups, underlining their success in material and symbolic terms, along with an infill of consumer values in all spheres of life. Their upwardly-mobile situation implies some fragility, which makes them afraid of the less- affluent groups perceived as potentially dangerous or even a threat in a society showing traits of fragmentation and less solidarity. It is this need to signalise distance, both physically and symbolically, that helps us to understand the importance of walls, fences, controlled entry, rather than as a defence against crime, at least in Portugal which is not a very dangerous society at all.

171

Besides this reason, changes in life styles and cultural patterns should also be considered. Gated communities answer the wealthy urban population’s growing demand for outdoor activities and sports, as well as a measure of fascination with nature and greenery. Studies on the publicity advertising these developments (Raposo 2001) show the importance of sports facilities and safety measures to attract residents, whilst interviews with residents indicate that the most important factors leading to their choice lay in safety against burglary and road traffic, namely for children to play out of harm’s way, and leisure/sports facilities, along with quietness.

In Portugal, gated communities are different owing to their size, location and use (first or second homes). As the resident almost always owns his own property, such communities can be located in the inner city, in the suburbs or on the fringe, but also in the rural areas or in holiday spots. In the inner city, they are made up of apartment buildings, sometimes as result of restoring old structures but also of rebuilding in the place of the old one. Developers look for prestigious neighbourhoods that are either stable owing to the value of their charming buildings and environment, and the residents’ status, or the pleasant panoramas overlooking the Tagus River in Lisbon. Occasionally they may appear in districts, which are not so highly considered, and even have a negative industrial image. In these cases, publicity campaigns ignore this setting to valorise the neighbourhood’s centrality or accessibility, the building’s modern conditions or the residents’ status. There are also enclosed inner-city communities composed of semi-detached (or terraced) housing but this type of dwelling is more common in the suburbs or on the fringe. Here large villas and large estates are much more frequent.

The construction of gated communities in old neighbourhoods either assures the continuity of wealthy people in certain districts or brings the wealthy into places where they were non- existent, thus allowing for gentrification. In central Lisbon, enclosed communities and other luxury housing present a scattered pattern. In the inner city, therefore, gentrification and high-status housing has advanced punctually making the social geography of cities much more complex. Gated communities and other forms of luxury housing in the inner city show evidence of the (re)valorisation of centrality by high-income groups and the socio-spatial fragmentation of the metropolitan areas, owing to the fact that the residents in these kinds of enclaves do not interact with their neighbours living in the vicinity outside the condominium. Residents come home by car through the garage door and carry out most of their social activities in several places that are located far from one another, and are not in the neighbourhood. They shop in one place, meet friends at the club or restaurant in another, go to the theatre in yet another, interact on the internet, travel not only around the city or the country, but frequently go abroad.

Free from distance constraints in their daily lives, today’s people display more complex spatiality in that they articulate their lives in specific personal configurations. This ability to become network connectors similar to words in a hypertext, has led Ascher (2001) to talk about a hypertext society.

Shopping Centres and Status Signs

The impact of new patterns of time organisation in shopping behaviour no longer implies the relationship between the frequency with which goods are used and the distance travelled to buy them, i.e., the basic assumption in hierarchical models such as that of Christaller. At the same time, centrality acquires new meanings, and the travel patterns for shopping have

172 become more complex. Several combinations that meet changing needs in terms of stock provisions, leisure and culture oppose the rigidity of the stepwise travelling choice from the convenience corner shop to the CBD. The appropriation of retail spaces is no longer decided upon by continuity and proximity, which is the bases of speciality founded on distance, but rather, follows a spatial rationale close to that of the networks, where the tunnel effect is growing, thus favouring the punctual, fragmented appropriation of territories.

Studies carried out on medium-sized cities in Portugal have shown that people associate retail formats with distinct values of consumption, so that the frequency of one or the other is conditioned by different interests. If they want general food provisions they go to a hypermarket, for cheap bulky housing goods the retail park is chosen, but if they need assistance and professional advice they prefer the high street store. The local market is associated with fresh fruit and vegetables, tradition and nostalgia or memory, while the regional shopping centre is the place of modernity, comfort and safety; it has a good atmosphere for consumer displays where people like walking around seeing and being seen.

Shopping centres and other forms of new retailing appeared in Portugal in the 1970s and have registered a great increase since the mid-1980s. They are carefully planned, aiming at creating an atmosphere and offering consumers experiences. Sometimes they reproduce pleasant indoor plazas with terraces, old neighbourhood streets, with pictures of building facades that have little to do with the real world. Fountains and palm trees are added in an attempt to display their own variety of city streets conducive to shopping and entertainment. Often through simulacra of the old days or city districts that do not exist anymore, the mise en scène is facilitated, allowing consumers to migrate to hyper reality where time is suspended and space is a collage of fragments enabling consumers to role play surrounded by merchandise, the basis for creating their own identities (Cachinho 2002 and 2006).

Shopping centres and gated communities show some common features. Both bank on safety, a pleasant environment, a certain social homogeneity and both behave like enclaves which means the absence of continuity with their social and physical environments, something that is vigorously affirmed by their closed characters and by the boundaries that separate the inside world from the outside, restricting entry by means of doors. The design of shopping centres and gated communities seeks to make a contrast with the outside streets that are either freezing or too hot, dirty, rain-soaked, traffic-congested and noisy, where consumers can be disturbed by burglars or beggars. In contrast, shopping centres have a clean pleasant environment with corridors like streets, only lined with flowers or trees, fountains, benches to sit on and, most of all, at a nice temperature. It never rains; there is music and lights that favour shop window displays and a carefree promenade in suspended time. In these environments, one never finds clocks, and people easily lose their sense of time.

In gated communities the contrast with the outside is not in the controlled weather conditions but mainly in terms of the absence of traffic, a cleaner, more pleasant environment with natural components like greenery, trees and flowers, and the prevention of intruders. In shopping centres, security is also ensured by the presence of security guards, and by restricting the entry of undesirables like the poor.

In terms of homogeneity it is important to note that both forms allow one to be among one’s equals, a situation that is more common in gated communities than in shopping centres, at least in Portugal. Normally, these retail formats aim at specific consumer targets and the tenant mix is organised in accordance with goal so that people of the same income level visit

173 them. Even if there are some shopping centres in Lisbon and Oporto that are more sophisticated and preferred by upper-income groups, in general, they are relatively democratic attracting a wide range of consumers. In the metropolitan area of Lisbon, suburban shopping centres receive different groups from several neighbourhoods and when they are the centres of a new real estate development, they help to fix identities and local images (Cachinho, 2006).

I have mentioned that shopping centres can be simulacra of outside streets. In the USA there are many examples of thematic gated communities (Soja, 2000), which are imitations of Italian towns, Mexican villages and so on. In Portugal there are some developments (thematic resorts based on vineyards, for instance) that sustain specific ways of life (agro friendly, sportive and so on) but they are not very common yet.

Both regional shopping centres and gated communities have become enclaves because there is contiguity without continuity with their vicinity. P. Hall (2003, 146) has noted that “the new forms of segregation has at least two dimensions as it can be coarse-grained and also be fine- grained such where disadvantaged social housing is found next door to affluent villas”. Shopping centres may display the same pattern when located in lower income suburban districts. Thus, the morphological contiguity is not followed by social and economic continuity. Although they are side by side, they are like distinct worlds placed far apart.

Besides enclave characteristics, regional shopping centres also become the core of new centralities because they attract large numbers of consumers, sometimes people travelling long distances. Enclave features and centrality make these new landscape forms into the pillars of the new fragmented, polycentric city.

References Amin, A. and Graham, S. (1997), The ordinary city, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 22(4), 411-429. Ascher, F. (2001), Les nouveaux principes de l’urbanisme, Editions de l’Aube, Paris. (2004.Ed. de Poche). Ascher, F. (1995), Metapolis ou l’avenir des villes Ed. Odile Jacob, Paris. (Port. Transl. Celta, 1998). Barata Salgueiro, T. (2001), Lisboa. Periferia e Centralidades, Celta, Oeiras. Barata Salgueiro,T. (1997), Lisboa metrópole policêntrica e fragmentada, Finisterra, Rev. Portuguesa de Geografia, 32(63), 179-190. Florida, R. (2002), The Rise of the Creative Class. Basic Books, New York. Hall, P. (2000), Creative cities and economic development, Urban Studies 37(4), 639-649. Hall, P. (2003), “The end of the city? The report of my death was an exaggeration” City 7(2), 141-152. Hall, T. (1998), Urban Geography. London: Routledge. Harvey, D. (1978), The urban process under capitalism, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 2(1), 101-131. Jayne, M. (2006), Cities and Consumption. London: Routledge. Landry, Ch. (2000), The Creative City. A toolkit for Urban Innovators. London: Earthscan. Maffesoli, M. (1988), Le temps des Tribus. Le déclin de l’individualisme dans les sóciétés postmodernes, Poche, Paris. (Port. Transl. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 1998). Santos, M. (1996), A Natureza do Espaço. Técnica e Tempo. Razão e Emoção. São Paulo. Hucitec. Cachinho, H. (2002), O Comércio retalhista português. Pós-Modernidade, Consumidores e Espaço, GEPE, Lisboa.

174 Cachinho, H. (2006), O Comércio retalhista: da oferta de bens às experiências de vida, in C.A. Medeiros, Geografia de Portugal: Actividades Económicas e Espaço geográfico, Circulo de Leitores, Lisboa, 265-321. Raposo, R. (2002), Novas paisagens. A produção social de condomínios fechados na AML. Lisboa, ISEG/UTL (mimeo). Smith, N. (1996), Gentrification, the Frontier, and the Restructuring of Urban space, in S. Fainstein; S. Campbell (eds.) Readings in Urban Theory. Blackwell, Oxford, 147-168. Soja, E. (2000), Postmetropolis. Critical Studies of Cities and Regions. Blackwell, Oxford. Veblen, T. (1899), The Theory of the Leisure Class (French Transl. Ed. Gallimard, Paris, 1970).

175 Making Representations of Diversity in Vilnius – Capital of the most peripheral central region in Europe

Donatas Burneika

Abstract One of the most characteristic permanent features of Vilnius city is its multiculturalism. This is the outcome both of its history and geography. The city is located in the conjunction of peripheral zones of Western and Eastern European civilizations, and perhaps can be regarded as one of most peripheral capital cities in Europe, notwithstanding that it is located just 20 km from one of several geographical centres of Europe. The possibility to understand and explain spatial processes shaping the space inside the city during last decades depends on understanding the wider context surrounding the city. This is hardly possible without knowing the history of the city, country and region, without understanding diverse geography of the city and the role it plays in surrounding region. It’s very difficult to reveal these processes not witnessing them. All this make huge limitations on possible research methods and suggests that once again the best way to understand the processes is to participate in these processes.

Introduction

Every city is unique. Every city is the same. Both statements have their rationality. Author of this article claims that Vilnius, as a capital city of an EU member state presents a unique field for geographical researches. This uniqueness derives both from its historical and geographical features. The city, which is located in transitional zone of Western and Eastern European civilisations, experienced plenty of political, economic and social changes, all of which left noticeable marks on its physical and social structure. Such complicated history, which of course is very much related to its geographical location, used to form quite complex societies, which created and still creates very different spaces. The ability to understand these processes of creation directly depends on knowledge of the city and cannot be achieved purely by the use of statistical information, which on the other hand is quite poor in this field. The question, “what schemes and methods of study of this city are the best ones?”, is of major importance, because usual positivistic approaches based on “reliable” data very often cannot be useful in these circumstances.

Representation of the city is quite complicated, when one seeks not only to describe studied phenomena (what also is not easy) but tries to reveal main actors shaping these phenomena as well. The logic scheme: context – actors – spatial outcomes is quite simple on the paper, but actually very few researches of post Soviet cities were made using post positivistic approaches. Usual methodological approaches, based on analysis of statistical data, prevail in many areas starting from student bachelor thesis. The aim of this article is neither related to the deep geographical analysis of the structure of the Vilnius nor to detailed presentation of possible methods of such analysis. On the contrary – it is related to the relations between these two fields. Author tries to reveal how the main features of geography – its diversity and accents on context instead of an object, could help understand this and of course other cities.

176 Diversity of the city - tracing influence of processes of wider scale

One of the main exceptional features of Geography is its emphasis on the context. Various phenomena studied in geographical researches are also an object of studies of other disciplines, whereas geography should see them in the time-space continuum emphasising interconnectedness of all processes and space. Such a holistic approach is the most appropriate in geography and contextual theory, developed by Swedish geographer T. Hagerstrand also stresses this just using different terminology (Hagerstrand, T.1974). That’s why analysis of a city should start from its position in the wider regions. And that’s the place, where Vilnius is becoming an exceptional city of Europe.

Two main cultural centres or civilisations used to make major impact on the development of European regions and finally formed two major western and eastern Europeans cultural regions. At present, formally rather strict line, separating dominant areas of these cultures, is an eastern boundary of EU. So Lithuania, being located in the centre of Europe appeared right in the centre of “battle” field of these two “forces” and consequently in the periphery of both cultural regions. Though, perhaps purely incidentally, the influence from the west dominates, the impact of Eastern European civilisation can always be felt here too. In fact one could call Vilnius the capital of the most peripheral central region in Europe (Figure 1). All other peripheral regions are located on the edges of the continent. Such situation has made huge impact on the societies that occupied the city and consequently on the spaces Figure 1: The peripheral central European region in the they created. area of clash of main European civilisations.

Though from the first sight of an ordinary visitor Vilnius does not seem be very multicultural city, because racial differences of its residents are very small, but in fact, it was never throughout the centuries dominated by a single ethnical or religion group. This is not a proper place to discuss complicated history of the city but one analysing its spaces should have in mind this context, which has always shaped and still is shaping the space of the city. The mixture of eastern and western European cultures is evident everywhere in the city both in its historical and modern parts. This mosaic wouldn’t be complete without mentioning the influence from Jewish and in lesser scale Muslim cultures, which lasted for around 6 centuries. Different groups have different priorities and try to produce different spaces, though quite similar constrains often reduces these differences in practice. Understanding this mutual dependence between actors and space or structures, which limits their choices, is always of major importance in geographical researches. One can’t understand processes ignoring space and vice versus, though it is quite common even to geographers to loose this focus in their representations. This need to escape from the dualism, which almost always exists, when one analysis human activities or structures, which make influence on them, separately, was the main goal of structuration theory, developed originally by T. Giddens

177 (1979). Later, the famous geographer Gregory emphasised that this is the most appropriate approach, when social systems are seen together as milieu and as a consequence of activities, which form them. (Gregory, 1987). This is important both when analysing phenomena at wider scale (for example the city as a part of wider region) and researching phenomena inside the city.

Such a clash of these two cultures in central Europe made remarkable footprints in Vilnius architecture, when different parts of the city have different dominant features. The Middle Ages created the downtown of the city. In many cases guides of the city proudly state that Vilnius has the largest downtown in Eastern Europe, but in fact it was formed mostly under the influence of the western civilisation. Notwithstanding dominating influence of western culture, the Russian Orthodox churches are located between the oldest buildings of Vilnius landscape situated in the downtown for centuries. But once again, very seldom, if ever, Russian orthodox churches are built with the elements of “gothic” style as one can find in Vilnius (Figure 2).

The second major part – so called “Newtown” was formed during the Russian empire period mainly in 19th century and is dominated by the structures, styles and forms common for the Russian empire, though the main catholic cathedral church of Lithuania was built during this period. The third major part of the city – Soviet areas. The growth of the city was fastest during that era and consequently vast territories of boring soviet towers of blocks dominate here as in majority of soviet cities. But on the other hand, planning structure, green spaces and even a Figure 2: Sent-Nicolas Orthodox style of the blocks are different Church with gothic elements, built in from those in Russian cities, 1350. cause they are created by local architects. Though it may sound strange, but Vilnius was being presented as a case of good planning for Soviet architects. The forth, the newest part of the city, was formed during last 2 decades of deep economic depressions and especially fast growths. City gained structures common for western civilization – dominating centre (Figure 3) and suburbs. Commercial, Figure 3: Part of new centre of Vilnius developed in entertainment centres appeared the 21st century instead of factures in the central parts of the city. On the other hand, chaotic style, infill developments, lack of planning and social infrastructure is more common for post-soviet Russian cities than for western ones.

178

The long lasting multiculturalism is a one dominant feature, which was shaping Vilnius city throughout the ages. Its location inside the area of clash of European civilisations is responsible for this. Another similar force, which was always shaping the processes inside the city, is its location in peripheral. There are many different definitions describing the meaning of the word “periphery”. The most common and wide meaning of the term ‘periphery’ is distant from the centre, edge territory. In some cases the concept of periphery is linked to the concepts of province and provinciality – periphery and province are being understood as synonyms. However, the meaning of these words differs a lot. Province should also be understood as a distant from a centre territory, but main idea of the term – economic and especially cultural backwardness. The encyclopaedia Encarta describes a peripheral region as a territory located outside boundaries of economic centre, which is dominating territory in the country (Encarta.msn.com). Such popular definition and understanding is most widespread. The concept of periphery is often linked to the dependence from the centre – centre creates and periphery accepts. Consequence of such relations are permanent conservativeness, lagging behind, slow development, passiveness, closeness. The marginal zone of transition is unimportant, a bad place to live and do business, though sometimes periphery is even romanticized and becomes a cultural category. On the other hand features of traditional culture survive in the periphery, while centre looses them and periphery of traditional culture appears. A researcher trying to develop representations of the city must have these things in mind.

The fact, which always used to make influence on this city, is its location in the periphery of the Europe or in fact in the peripheries of two “Europes”. This central and peripheral location inevitably has a big influence on whole surrounding region, which, stretches far beyond the boundaries of Lithuania. It’s a very big probability that this big trans-national problem region appeared due to such location. The eastern parts of Lithuania, Latvia, northeastern Poland, and western Belarus together forms big problem region, with slow economy, high mortality rates, low density of population, slow growth of GDP etc. The paradoxical situation when Lithuanian core Vilnius region is located in countries biggest periphery can be related to the fact that causes of this peripherisation are linked to the processes of higher rank that Lithuania. Its is hard to believe, but according to the official data of statistics, the density of rural tourism enterprises in near Vilnius region was one of the lowest in Lithuania notwithstanding that Vilnius was the richest potential market, which waits nearby and picturesque landscape, which gives fantastic opportunities to attract tourists. This quite exactly illustrates the backwardness and conservativeness of local population. And in the middle of this region stand Vilnius, the fastest growing and the richest city in the Lithuania. This huge contrast also makes influence on the city and its development. The migrations, commuting scales between the city and the city region expands. This once again changes residential structure of the city. Perhaps this location is a reason why huge spaces of cultural and natural heritage were preserved in the city, while they were demolished in many other cities. There were simply no need for fast changes – city grew wider, while inner transformations were small. So peripheral location is one of the reasons, why Vilnius became perhaps the greenest European capital city.

Its peripheral location is a reason, why many cultural processes, making huge impact on the development of the space of the city, used to reach Vilnius later than many other cities. Almost all architectural styles came here with a substantial delay, the same as city planning ideology. At present, when the world becomes much smaller place, this delay is not so evident. On the other hand always exists some exceptions. For example an opera was put on

179 the stage in Vilnius earlier than in France or England. This, of course, only once again proves that sometimes personal factors are more important than structural ones and one studying social processes must have this in mind. Somehow many cultural phenomena, which depends more on personalities than on economy (for example theatre, classic music or some other arts) tend to evolve differently. Notwithstanding poor economy, cultural life in Vilnius has always was very active. That’s probably why (together with great historical heritage) Vilnius became a cultural capital of Europe in 2009.

Notwithstanding new geopolitical, economic and even cultural processes, which started after collapse of Soviet Union, the main geographical features of location of Lithuania and Vilnius city remains the same. Its located in the middle of transition zone of western European and Eastern European civilisation. This transitional location marks and determines development of Vilnius city throughout the centuries making the inevitable impact on the inner structure of the city in various ways.

But all these major processes of higher scale only permits us to create a generalised picture of the development of the spatial processes inside Vilnius. It connects major cultural influences, “major structure” and the main trends of city development and permits to create only very generalised representation of the city. One, trying to understand more precise phenomena needs to go into more detailed scale (though keeping in mind these “global” forces).

Closer analysis – creating representations of present changes inside the city

As it was stated earlier, classical positivistic approaches are not fully suitable for researching phenomena taking place in Vilnius, at least for the reason, that there is no reliable information about inner diversity of the city. There are no data illustrating spatial pattern of cultural and social variety of the city. There is no data about differences of income between citizens in different parts of the city. Data about ethnic mosaic in the city doesn’t exist also. Making very sincere efforts author was able to receive only information about permissions for construction of new buildings in different districts of city but this information also is not widely available. This could help understand where main changes in the city are taking place but could only very little help to explain them or to find out who are responsible for these changes, what actors play decisive roles (Burneika, 2008).

The best way to track these processes, from the point of view of author, is to employ actor network approach combined with the case-study approach. The latter becomes more and more popular in geography at the beginning of XXI century. Social scientist Flyjberg considers that case studies useful both for empirical and theoretical sciences (Flyjberg, 2006). Finish geographer Jauhianen demonstrated its suitability for tracing actor networks in Baltic Sea region (Jauhiainen, 2007). The author of this article considers, that this kind of method is especially effective in the times of such crisis, which are taking place at present. Bankruptcy problems in banking and the construction sectors receive a lot of attention from the media and reveal a lot of actors who are involved both in city creation and consumption. Roles that these actors play also become evident. Representation, as states Jauhiainen (2007) is about networks, how humans and non humans come together as hybrids in networks. Trying to stress the importance of both types of these actors, their combination sometimes is called “actants” (Latour, 2005). In fact its much easier to expect that space creation processes would be understood much more correctly if one does not exclude from them such objects as buildings, money, equipments, machinery or elements of landscape. Most important for a researcher is to “open” these networks so that these “actants” would be visible.

180

A part of an old residential building in downtown of Vilnius collapsed in 2005. Later it seemed that this happened because of another company, which was building a new residential development nearby. All the mess that started afterwards presented a good opportunity for a researcher to draw a picture illustrating complexity of city creation processes. It become clear who gave a permission for a new building in protected downtown area, who invested money, what role legal institutions play here, how can geologists help to establish who is guilty, how people can or cannot protect their interests concerning new developments near their homes, how the loan was received and even what probable profit the company would have had if the project was successfully fulfilled. The same situation appeared due to the crisis in real estate market. The huge demand for residential property raised the volumes of construction very high, cause this was the most profitable investment area, but it wasn’t completely evident why these new development received such a strange spatial characteristics. For example the most densely many-storey buildings were constructed on the edge of the city (Figure 4).

It is very hard to expect that ordinary people would prefer to live in such new buildings of a poor quality on the outskirt of the city, when the prices of older ones located closer to the centre are similar. When this system of making fast profit started to collapse, and banks started to suffer from bad loans, it appeared the role city managers, as they were called by R. Pahl (1970), played Figure 4: New dense residential developments on the edge here. Banks, trying to earn as of the city – potential zone of phenomena of social much money as possible exclusion created a rules, permitting to receive a loan up to 95 % of flats price if it is a newly built house. If it’s an old building (notwithstanding that quality of these buildings was higher in much cases) you could only expect 50 % loan. Very seldom a young family, which presented the biggest segment in the market, could find some 50 thousands euro, so they had to buy a cheap new one. So the system of fast construction on a cheap land at the edge, loaning of big loans, selling of poor quality houses and further construction was created. The city planners gave permission for this type of developments though probability that these areas very soon will become a zones of social exclusion is very high. Well, who holds money, holds power and one may state that these developments are standing evidence of uneven distribution of power in the city. Anyway, it is evident that at least in some cases not a demand or preferences of population is driving force determining spatial structure of transformation of city space but supply side factors. In this case these are managers that hold one or another kind of power. None of these networks and processes could be found in usual statistical data. Even most evident changes in the city could be easier noticed simply going with camera through it than analysing cold statistical figures.

A simple visit to Vilnius central market place gives better understanding of variety of cultures in the city and surrounding region than long work behind your computer or with statistical books, what also sometimes is inevitable and in some cases even more effective. One could

181 very seldom expect to meet an ordinary elder women or man without any higher education speaking fluently in four different languages as most of sellers of Vilnius market place do. Very often they can’t tell exactly, which one of these languages is their native, but this only once again illustrates the actual spirit of the city.

Conclusions

There are many ways to create representations of the city, but its inner diversity often could be best understood using actor network and case study approaches having in mind the complex context in which they are taking place. The location of the city in peripheral zone of several civilisations makes both negative and positive impacts on its development cause beside of lagging behind it helps to create interesting variety of spaces, preserve natural and cultural heritage. The location of the city creates multicultural society and is responsible for complicated history, what creates variety of various structures and phenomena in the city. Actual processes shaping the city at present depend on structures, which exists throughout the ages. One, trying to research these phenomena, should take into account not only context in which they are taking place but also all human and non-human actors involved. The best way to notice complexity of these networks or “open” them is to involve oneself in them, to participate as a actor of the network. When it is not possible, cases study approach is the best one in many cases, especially when things are starting not to go in their ordinary ways. References Burneika D. (2008). Post-communist transformations of urban space in Vilnius. Annales Geographicae 42 (1-2). Vilnius. Giddens, A. (1979). Central problem in sociological theory: action, structure and consideration in social analysis. London: Macmillan Gregory, D. (1981) Human agency and human geography. Transactions of the institute of British Geographers 19 (2). Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12. Jauhiainen, J. (2007). Smoking fish – tracing representations and actor networks in the Baltic Sea region. Gegrafiski raksti XIII. Riga. Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the Social. An Introduction to Actor-Network_Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pahl, R. (1970). Whose city? London: Longman.

182 Indicators of sustainable urban development: A review of urban regeneration projects in Karachi, Pakistan

Amna Salman and Salman Qureshi Research Group for Urban and Landscape Ecology Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg 5020, Austria [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract The notion of sustainability is widely used from micro to macro scale studies but only few approaches deal with its measurement. Increased global interest in sustainability has triggered attention in indicators as a means of achieving a more sustainable world. Although the search for indicators has led to the development of criteria for good indicators, it has also been dominated by scientific elites. After the implementation of new devolution plan, last six years have seen significant changes in the mega city of Karachi, Pakistan; both in terms of environment and physical landscape. Recent modifications in the landscape of this mega city has produced diversified impacts on the dwellers who have to suffered major problems in shape of poor air and noise quality, ultimately destructing the human as well overall ecological health. The concept of urban renewal has been legitimately applied but the impact assessment of interim effects has not been conducted. In this paper, a set of indicators have been developed which could be useful for the interim evaluation of the alleged urban regeneration process. An attempt is also made to answer the question about the possible involvement of the common public as the evaluator during the urban development activities. Mostly, these questions are recommended to be asked more objectively for the quantitative analyses. The approach proved to be quite appropriate for achieving sustainability where the people’s choices and satisfaction has been taken into consideration.

Keywords: Urban renewal; Sustainability science; Environmental planning; Urban ecosystem; Urban geography

Background

Urbanization is occurring on a staggering scale. The urban population of the world is estimated to increase from three billion in 2000 to five billion in 2030, with almost all of the growth occurring in developing countries. Therefore, it is obvious that environmental problems as well as social and economic problems characterizing cities in developing cities will remain a challenge for authorities. Urban planning is a fundamental tool for urban development and management. It is understood to refer to the planning of the physical structure of the development or land-use planning through the implementation of different types of plans: structure plan, local strategic plan, action or informal plans and masters’ plans. Nevertheless, in recent years it has been much less effective than it could be.

Sustainable Urban development has become a widely recognized and acknowledged goal for human society ever since deterioration of environmental and social conditions in many urban areas of the world has taken place. Which indicates that its sustainability is may be at risk. Sustainability is not an absolute, independent of human conceptual frameworks. Rather it is always set in the context of decisions about what type of system is to be sustained and over

183 what spatio-temporal scale (Allen and Hoekstra, 1994). A definition of sustainable development from an ASCE/UNESCO working group on developing sustainability criteria for water resources systems is put forth here as “… systems designed and managed to fully contribute to the objectives of society, now and in the future, while maintaining their ecological, environmental and [engineering] integrity” (ASCE/UNESCO, 1998).

Sustainable development is truly about achieving a balance between several objectives (environmental, economic and social) over dynamic time and spatial horizons. Holism versus reductionism is advocated (Haimes, 1992; Hellströmet et al., 2000). Sustainable urban development means different things to different people. While there is a general consensus that “sustainable urban development” is a good and desirable state of development that countries should commit to, considerable confusion remains on how to translate this broad objective into national and local strategies or plans of actions for achieving it. (UN, 2001)

After the implementation of the new devolution plan, the last six years have seen significant changes in the mega city of Karachi, Pakistan; both in terms of environment and physical landscape. Recent modifications in the landscape of this mega city has produced diversified impacts on the dwellers who have to suffered major problems in shape of poor air and noise quality, ultimately destructing the human as well overall ecological health. The concept of urban renewal has been legitimately applied but the impact assessment of interim effects has not been conducted. In this paper, a conceptual framework has been developed which could assist in selecting and filtering a set of sustainability indicators of urban regeneration projects. The set of indicators has been implemented on Karachi and recent development activities have been assessed.

Methodological Framework

The literature review is the first step of the methodological process. Primary readings of books, papers articles and reviews from academics, professionals and from institutions and organisations have been made. The purpose of primary readings is to have a broad understanding of the issue of the concern within a theoretical framework; and also to get more understandings firstly, about urban sustainable development and its indicators and secondly about the urban regeneration process.

Following the primary readings secondary readings have been made regarding assessment frameworks with the intent to figure out more appropriate assessment techniques regarding the time limit but also concerning to the current thesis topic. The conception of the matrix through data collection and questionnaires is the second step of this methodological process. The purpose of conceiving this matrix is to have at the end, a list of sustainable urban development indicators as complete as possible, with their description while providing some measurement techniques as well. Therefore, thanks to the data collection from the readings, an indicative complete list of sustainable urban development indicators has been provided, joined to a questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of “yes or no” questions, asking experts to agree or not with each sustainable urban development indicator according to urban planning process and according to three fundamental issues which are environmental, economic and social issues. People of this target group are mainly experts in this field of study and practitioners. Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework that has been used for the development of the set of indicators.

184

Source: Siko, 2007 adapted from Hemphill (2004)

Results and Discussion

The last few years under new administration, the mega city of Karachi has carried out different development projects on a large scale thus courting foreign investment, encouraging international ties and boosting the city’s tourism. Its goal is to turn Karachi into the next Dubai and its Green Karachi projects aims to plant thousands of trees in the mega city. But all this development is somehow deteriorating the overall ecological environment. To overcome this damage we need smart and innovative urban planning and must look upon the appropriate indicators. Table 1 presents the selected indicators (out of dozens), which helps to assess the urban regeneration process.

One of the major indicators is traffic congestion. At the heart of our urban mess is a paradigm which is geared towards making a city suitable for cars rather than people. Recent efforts are made to ease Karachi’s traffic congestion, for instance, by building wider roads, flyovers, elevated expressways, and a much-talked about rail-based mass transit system are unlikely to ease traffic congestion in the long run because these initiatives are de-linked from social and environmental land-use planning (particularly, housing development), and transport needs of the non-car owning majority. Experiences from around the world shows that traffic jams create demand for new road infrastructure which in turn stimulates development around major

185 roads which leads to further increases in traffic congestion and yet more demand for infrastructure. The vicious circle continues, more jams, more pollution and more poverty.

Table 1 Selected indicators of urban regeneration General Criteria Sub Criteria Indicators Buildings Construction material, energy and land usage Noise No. of noise complaints Transportation Construction material, energy Environmental and land usage Water Construction material use, energy use, land use, chemical usage, contaminants Air Number of air pollution complaints Buildings Capital and operation and maintenance costs, Affordability Economic of housing, Expenditures in research and development Transportation Capital and operation and maintenance costs, Expenditures in research and development; Choice of mode, time of travel Water Capital and operation and maintenance costs, service fees Safety Feeling of insecurity Social Mobility No of people injured in traffic accidents Buildings Supply of housing, Health Indoor air quality, Public satisfaction Water Access to portable water and sanitation services, quality of water

Conclusion

If we say that the sustainability of the world is at stake, then we need appropriate indicators because ‘we measure what we value, and we value what we measure’. Indicators provide crucial guidance for decision making in a different ways. These translate physical and social science knowledge into manageable units of information which helps in decision making. Moreover these can warn us in time to prevent lasting social, economic and environmental damage.

The study conducted here shows that the presented framework is able to produce reliable and valid assessment results for evaluation of sustainability performance of local urban regeneration projects. In addition to the assessment of the overall performance, the model also helps to identify the deficiencies of the renewal projects, and the level of satisfaction of the affected persons and the concerned parties to the renewal projects being assessed.

186 References Allen, T.F.H. Hoekstra, T.W. (1992), Towards a unified ecology. Columbia University press, 384 pp ASCE/UNESCO (1998), Sustainability criteria for water resource systems. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), Task Committee on Sustainability Criteria and Working Group of UNESCO/IHP-IV Project M-4.3. Haimes, Y.Y. (1992), Sustainable development: a holistic approach to natural resource management. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 22, 413–417. Hellström, D., Jeppsson, U., Kärrman, E. (2000), A framework for systems analysis of sustainable urban water management. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 20, 311– 321. Lesley, H., Jim, B., Stanley M.G., (2004), An Indicator-based Approach to Measuring Sustainable Urban Regeneration Performance: Part 1, Conceptual Foundations and Methodological Framework” Urban Studies 41, 725–755. Maclaren, V. M. (1996), Developing indicators of urban sustainability: a focus on the Canadian experience. ICURR Press, Toronto. Siko, Y. (2007), Development of indicator system for sustainable urban planning. MS Thesis, National Centeral University, Taiwan. United Nations (2001), Sustainable urban development: A regional perspective on good urban governance. Economic and Social commission for Western Asia. District General. New York.

187 Diverse Approaches to the Importance of Geography: the Death of Geography or Geography Matters in the Information Age!

Ákos Jakobi Eötvös Loránd University, Department of Regional Science Budapest, Hungary [email protected]

Abstract A new form of diversity appears nowadays when theoretical geographers rethink the importance of geographical space, place, distance or other principal notions. This paper aims to introduce how geographical approaches to the phenomena, which evolved in the so-called information age, got diffused in everyday life. Statements considering spatiality or geography of information economy and society are basically influenced by the type of space being applied in examinations, such as physical, network, or web space, or virtual realities. This diversity primarily influences the discussions on modern interpretations of geography. The traditional concept of place will be revalorised: it actually dissolves in virtual space, meanwhile the role of discrete place disappears by the possibility of spatial independency, while on the other hand, spatial dependency differentiates space again, and appreciates selected places. The importance of physical distance has unambiguously decreased, instead of that the role of network distance and social distance can be emphasised. The paper tries to call attention on those numerous different ways in which geography is being revaluated in the 21st century.

Keywords: information and communication technologies, geography of information society, virtual space, death of geography, geography matters

The End of Geography or Geography Matters!

The extreme wordings of “the end of geography” and “death of distance”, as well as formulas of “geography matters”, together with the same content appearing is an expression of “the revenge of distance” and “geography returns” and calls attention to recent geographical diversity in the research of the information economy and society. These seemingly funny, or on the other hand gruesome phrases are undoubtedly extreme, trying to emphasise empirical considerations; mentioning remarkable novelties in the information age. Behind this terminology, actually the alteration of the aspect of traditional geography is hidden, as well as the concealed notice, or simply the recognition that one should be cautious concerning recent usage of geographical terms.

The simple definition of distance used in the everyday sense, or other accentuated notions of geography such as space, place or mobility have gone through significant changes with reference to their interpretation, irrespectively of which above-mentioned phrase has been chosen. According to extreme opinions, it is not about just the revaluation and content changes of terms, but also about their fundamental novelty, or else about the emergence of new forms of interpretations radically different from the foregoing. On the contrary modulated and more rational aspects prefer to see the new interpretations as complements and enrichments of the foregoing, while in certain systems of connections they support the existence of traditional approaches.

188

The big “battle” is to be discovered between the two most comprehensive reactions; the aspects advertising the end of geography and those emphasising the reconsidered (or rediscovered) importance of geography. One of them has the starting point that in the aura of the possibilities ensured by new information and communication technologies, the everyday troubles originated from spatiality disappearing, namely the ardently wished dream, the overcoming of space may become reality. The other aspect, to the contrary sees the reshaping for the justification of geographical theories and notions in the age of information and communication networks. This opinion – in a sense – does not say anything in particular, only that social processes and spatial relations of differences are still decisive parts of our life.

The opposition of these two standpoints seems hardly soluble at the first attempt. But do these approaches really conflict with each other? Can any of the statements be refuted or confirmed? Is it possible that proponents of both aspects are in the right, and consequently can these opposite statements coexist at the same time?

Before the 1990s, a reconciliation of ideas did not emerge, the ignorance of geography or spatiality in the world, discounted the utopian, perhaps futuristic, but no way empiric concepts of science. Looking at the traditions of the last decades, however, the theories of advertising geography’s turning to weightlessness appeared partly independently from the examination problems of the information society in several different contexts. One should only think of certain findings of the global world economic or political geography (Ohmae, 1990, O’Brien, 1992). From time to time, certain economic theories sound the discontinuance of the role of the nation states, because of the emergence of multinational companies, and on the contrary due to the increase of global market systems, the geographical location of countries on the planet is not an important question any more.

Later the altered possibilities of interactions generated by the information and communication technologies were obviously superposed on everyday life, making previous considerations of geography unimportant in the space of information economy. In connection with the seemingly immediate appearance of communication possibilities of ICT and particularly the internet and intranet technologies, the radical compress of space-time relations was often supposed; which may result in the complete “destruction” of space through time (Atkinson, 1998; Brunn – Leinbach, 1991; Cairncross, 1997; Morgan, 2001). In certain compositions this new digital and globalized world is similar to a pinhead, or at least to its “sense” (Negroponte, 1995). The fast diffusion of information and communication technologies obviously offered new, and so far unobtainable opportunities to restructure enterprise activities; for example in form of shaping up new balances between centralised and decentralised functions, or in connection with distant control of the production of goods and services. This could result in many service industries, which were in the past obviously location-specific and relatively sheltered from effects of international competition became less independent from the location of consumption, since it became possible to be directed from the other side of the Globe (Cairncross, 1997). All these made it generally a ‘rational thought’ in the economy to ignore geographical space in decision-making.

Similarly, the appearance of ICT instruments can be deemed important regarding their social consequences. In the specific information space of interconnected worldwide networks, namely in cyberspace, the emergence of social spaces could have been observed, which completely liberate the users from physical bounds of the human body. Virtual space is a social space, where people meet each other, henceforward personally, but besides new

189 definitions of “meeting” and “personalisation” (Stone, 1991). The collapse of space-time relations and the evolution of new “space-less and placeless” social spaces lead to the query of the importance of geographical places (Benedikt, 1991) to such a pitch that some believe geography and time do not constitute boundaries any more (Hauben, 1996).

The early work of William Mitchell (1995) titled “City of bits” expressively formulates the breaking of geographical traditions: Cyberspace is profoundly anti-spatial, you cannot say where it is, or describe its memorable shape and proportions, or tell a stranger how to get there. But you can find things in it, without knowing where they are. The Net is ambient – nowhere in particular, but everywhere at once. You do not go to it, you log in from wherever you physically happen to be. The Net’s de-spatialisation of interaction destroys the geocode’s key (Mitchell, 1995).

Theories representing “the death” of geography are basically arguing with wider interpreted influences of globalisation, as well as with the consequences of digitalisation; of these however, neither seems to be of considerable depth. According to Kevin Morgan (2001) the representatives of this opinion largely overestimate the “distance-dissolving” effects of information and communication technologies. While the key problems with these claims are that they conflate spatial reach with social depth, and they forget that the rapid diffusion of information and codified knowledge does not mean that tacit knowledge and understanding are also so freely available. Morgan (2001) is of the opinion that the above-mentioned approaches treat geography as simple physical space, when it needs to be understood rather as relational space.

Researchers, who stand against the radical transformation of spatial relations, or in opposition to geography’s re-evaluation and decreasing importance, are representing the other end of the discussion, arguing with the importance of geography itself. In their opinion the theory of “geography matters” actually just rediscovered basic terms of geography. They respectively realised that previous geographical principles are also standing their ground in a brand new environment; the rules are exactly the same, only the comprehension needs some mental twists. As if we reordered the elements of the contents of our recent geographical terms, while having the substantive meaning unchanged.

Although there isn’t any “terra incognita” on recent map of the World, some still designate nowadays the second age of geographical discoveries (e.g. Johansson, 2000). Development theories of innovation and technology recognise and rediscover the importance of geography in ever-wider circles. In contrast, with radical standpoints it is getting more accepted that although the Internet and virtual space have essential corrective effects on time-space relations, geographical aspects have important roles henceforward in many ways.

It is important that possibilities of information communication network connections and infrastructural grounds of bandwidth, which determine the speed of communication connections, are still unequally distributed in space. This new form of communication is dependent on real world spatial bounds, on geographical position of access points, materiality of cables, as well as on other infrastructural phenomena, influences outside the world of wires. One should not forget that global infrastructural advantages and disadvantages will exist in some way also in the future, since international differences are keept up in the digital age also, besides new e-services (Huws, 2002). Also when information takes online form it becomes (seemingly) geographically delocalised, and turns out to be useful only in the

190 locality, where it is interpretable and expendable, which also certifies the importance of geographical position and location.

The statement that virtual space can never be a real copy, or substitute for geographical space is at best doubtful (Morgan, 2001). Beside the many reasons, a fundamental one is that it’s hard to imagine in virtual space the similarly rich diversity of physical distance, where nuances of body talk and different forms of personal (face-to-face) communication mediate at least as many, if not more information than verbal communication.

The material character of the Internet and other elements of the technical infrastructure were always of great importance for those who argued for the significance of geography. According to Brian Hayes (1997) the Internet cannot exist independently of conventional geography. No bit can proceed via the Net without passing through kilometres of wires and optical fibres or tons of computer hardware, which are all in physical space indeed. All the cables and routers have well defined and with coordinates described places on the surface of the Earth, even when users of the Internet do not take into consideration where their information package is actually travelling. In this sense geography can be discovered in the background of all telecommunication interactions.

In the discussion of the ignorance, or the importance of geography, not only the opposition of virtuality and materiality is to be seen. Representatives of the free choice of geographical location have the additional argument that communication technologies already make it possible for the population and economic activity to ‘twitter’ with geographical ‘places’, thanks to fact that it is possible for telecommunications to link up to the network and peripheral places far from nodal centres. These perspectives treat Internet as a great equalising power of the business world since it makes it possible for distant places to compete even with metropolitan areas (Gorman, 2002). The Internet and the intranet, or as Robert M. Kitchin (1998) says the “cyberspace technologies” may cause sharpening of differences, or the intensifying of competition between geographical places by making it possible in the organisation of production to access places with lower wages or better labour force. By and large Krugman’s new economic geography has the same conclusion about the role of information and communication technologies in the settlement strategies of companies (Krugman, 1999). In many cases information technologies foster centralisation tendencies by being connected to telecommunication infrastructure and social milieu of large cities. Similarly services that can be decentralised, are settling rather in regions with suitable labour market and transport conditions (Castells, 1996).

To better understand and be able to compare statements of different interpretations about the importance of geography in the information age, the following table can be created (Table 1).

Table 1. Comparison of interpretations of the importance of geography in the information age Concept of Concept of “the end of geography” “geography matters” Substance of the Interpretations radically different Interpretations as complements interpretations from the foregoing and enrichments of the foregoing Space Overcoming of space may become Justification of geographical reality, liberation from the bounds theories, spatiality and geography of physical space, instead of that are still decisive, physical space is web space or virtual space is important important

191 Place The role of discrete place Spatial dependency differentiates disappears by the possibility of space and appreciates selected spatial independency places Distance Physical distance is not important, Distance is a major constraint. The only network distance and social roles of physical and social distance can be emphasised distance are both important. Geographical Global, accessible networks Unequally distributed of infra- differences everywhere may cause global structural and other capabilities equalisation still results in geographical differences Character of the Utopian Empirical concept

Detailing of standpoints announcing the end, or the importance of geography can obviously be continued, however, it is already observable that many arguments can be found alongside both approaches. As a matter of fact, to keep off the sterile polarisation between the two concepts, the physical and virtual proximity, or geography and cyberspace, the best defensible solution is to recognise that they cross, intersect and pervade each other. It can be declared that virtual space is not a province separated from geographical space, but empirical continuation of people’s everyday life (Dodge – Kitchin, 2001). Virtual proximity can be a good substitute for geographical distance at connections of standardised interactions, but not if complexity, ambiguousness and tacit character play a great role in communication (Morgan, 2001).

The statement that the above-mentioned radically different narratives exist parallel is unwarrantable until it is recognised that in reality it is about different aspects of the same thing. The concept professing the “end of geography” is focusing on equalising effects of globalisation; while proponents of the concept of “geography matters” accept the standpoint of spatial differences, which appear in national, regional and local frames. These two tendencies – equalisation and differentiation – form a permanent dialectic in regional economies, comparing geography to a two-way street between localisation and diffusion, in contrast to a one-way highway of spreading (Storper, 1997). After all, currently geographers have the task to call public attention to the existence of both concepts, and to declare that geography is still important but in different aspects.

References Atkinson, R. (1998) Technological change and cities. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research, 3, 129-171. Benedikt, M. (1991) Introduction, in Benedikt, M (ed.) Cyberspace: first steps. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., USA, 1-25. Brunn, S. D. – Leinbach, T. R. (eds) (1991) Collapsing space and time: Geographic Aspects of Communication and Information. Harper Collins Academic, New York, USA. Cairncross, F. (1997) The death of distance. How the communication revolution will change our lives. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, USA. Castells, M. (1996) The Rise of the Network Society. The Information Age: economy, society and culture. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Dodge, M. – Kitchin, R. (2001) Mapping cyberspace. Routledge, London. Gorman, S. P. (2002) Where are the web factories: The urban bias of e-business location. Tijdschrifts voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 5, 522-536.

192 Hauben, M. (1996) The Net and the Netizens: The Impact the Net has on People's Lives. http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/ch106.x01, accessed 03.31.2009 Hayes, B. (1997) The Infrastructure of the Information Infrastructure. American Scientist, 3, 214-218. Huws, U. (2002) The Persistence of National Differences in the New Global Division of Labour in eServices’. Globalisation, Innovation and Human Development for Competitive Advantage, Asia Institute of Technology, Bangkok. Johansson, T. D. (2000) Visualization in cybergeography: Reconsidering cartography’s concept of visulization in current usercentric cybergeographic cosmologies. Working Paper Series 17., Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, London. Kitchin, R. M. (1998) Towards geographies of cyberspace. Progress in Human Geography, 3, 385-406. Krugman, P. (1999) The Role of Geography in Development. International Regional Science Review, 2, 142-161 Mitchell, W. (1995) City of bits: Space, place, and the Infobahn. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., USA. Morgan, K. (2001) The exaggerated death of geography: localised learning, innovation and uneven development. The Future of Innovation Studies Conference, The Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies, Eindhoven University of Technology. Negroponte, N. (1995) Being digital. Coronet, London. O’Brien, R. (1992) Global Financial Integration: The End of Geography. Council of Foreign Relations, New York. Ohmae, K. (1990) The borderless world. Harper, New York. Stone, A. R. (1991) Will the real body please stand up? Boundary stories about virtual cultures. In: Benedikt, M (ed.) Cyberspace: first steps. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., USA, pp. 81-118. Storper, M. (1997) The Regional World. Guilford Press, New York, USA.

193 Field Project: Crossing the Czech and Austrian Border

Alois Hynek Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic [email protected]

Abstract The trans-border region investigated by geography students from Masaryk University is delimited by the physical landscape between two rivers - the Danube and the Dyje/Thaya, and two basins, that is the Wiener Becken (Vienna basin) and the Brno basin (the Dyje-Sratka rivers Vale). The region is known in Austria as Nieder Österreich–Mährische Inselbergschwelle and in the Czechlands as the Lower Austria-South Moravia Carpathians. The field of interest is the spatiality of the Pálava landscape in examining the cultural landscape-ecosystem patterns whilst looking at the continuing ribbon between the villages of Klentnice (Czech) and Drasenhofen (Austrian). Interestingly, while the approach of the Czech side is enforced in a bottom-up fashion, the Austrian approach is quite the opposite, with grassroots approaches in place. Our understanding of spatiality follows Cloke, Crang and Goodwin (2005:611) that is the production of social space (Lefebvre, Soja). That, from a human geography point of view means that space is socially experienced rather than being an innate backdrop to the social life. Spatiality thus ought to be used in plural as spatialities, in order to stress the many different ways in which space can be constructed and experienced.

Key words: physical and cultural landscape change; trans-border Czech/Austrian region; field survey; historical milestones

Klentnice-Drasenhofen: General Landscape Spatiality and Early Temporality

The trans-border region investigated is delimited by the physical landscape between two rivers - the Danube and the Dyje/Thaya, and two basins, that is the Wiener Becken (Vienna basin) and the Brno basin (the Dyje-Sratka River Valley) .The region is known in Austria as Nieder Österreich–Mährische Inselbergschwelle and in the Czechlands as the Lower Austria- South Moravia Carpathians. Its other term is geological: The Waschberg Zone situated north of the Danube River which is essentially an external (leading edge) Alpine-Carpathian orogenic unit consisting of strongly deformed older Tertiary Molasse beds and limestone klippen sheared off from the Mesozoic-Paleogene Molasse base.

The Klentnice-Drasenhofen area is part of the Pavlov Hills. This name does, however, portray generic rather than specific terrain features. The landforms of three surface levels include the highest oblique limestone ridge of nappe overthrusts: rocky klippen chain of crests/scarps between the Dyje and Danube Rivers reaching up to 550m a.s.l. (Děvín in the Pálava Crest). Děvín stands out in the middle of an undulating surface of claystones/sandstones hills covered with loess deposits and lower valley floor with alluvial floodplains and higher terraces. The physical landscape called the Pálava consists of main crest/scarp and its piedmont is composed of two step-like levels as mentioned above. The climate is warm and dry and can be classified as Pannonian. The former vegetation of Pannonian oak forests changed into cultural forest-steppes with rich soils known as mollisols.

194 Contemporary cultural landscape forms spatially a palimpsest with relics of former phases starting with the Liechtenstein family’s (13th-16th century) effort to meliorate swampy tracks into a system of ponds and meadows between Mikulov and Drasenhofen. Subsequently the rulling Dietrichstein family was active in late mannerism of renaissance and introduced baroque park cultural landscape of fields, vineyards, orchards, gardens, game preserves, peasantries, follies, mills, ponds, columns of crucifixion, calvary statues, manors, chapels, altars etc. In the centre of such composed landscape was the town of Mikulov, serving the function of an urbanized segment with a suburban fringe encircled by rural landscape.

In the 19th century when the corvée (1848) was abolished, the farmers got hold of strips of fields and the landscape changed into ´stripped landscape´. While the look of the landscape remained the same in the Drasenhofen area, it was completely changed in the Klentnice area during the 1950s and 1960s. There were two main political and social events that changed the cultural landscape here. These were the end of the Second World War (WW2) with ensuing transfer of ethnic Germans from then Czechoslovakia according to the Potsdam Agreement (1945) and also the fall of the Iron Curtain.

There was a new concept of sustainability introduced in the 1970s, resulting in the declaration of the Pálava Protected Landscape Area (1976) on the Czech side. Ten years later, it became the third place in the today’s Czech Republic to be listed as a UNESCO biosphere reserve, part of the Man and Biosphere Programme. Subsequently it was included into a Special Protected Area category based on the Birds Directive within Natura 2000. Between July 8–11, 2003, the Committee of the International Coordination Council of UNESCO's "Man and Biosphere" program in Paris approved the extension of the Pálava Biosphere Reserve to include the Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape and associated floodplain forests at the confluence of the Morava and Dyje rivers. The newly designated area was renamed as the Lower Moravia Biosphere Reserve (BR).

Following a description of the characteristics of the area, the study looked at the spatiality of the Pálava landscape in examining the cultural landscape-ecosystem patterns and the continuing ribbon between the villages of Klentnice and Drasenhofen. Whilst the Czech approach is enforced in a bottom-up fashion, the Austrian approach is quite the opposite, with grassroots approaches in place. Our understanding of spatiality follows Cloke, Crang and Goodwin (2005:611), that is spatiality as a socially produced space. That, from a human geography point of view means that space is socially experienced rather than being an innate backdrop to the social life. Spatiality thus ought to be used in plural as spatialities, in order to stress the many different ways in which space can be constructed and experienced.

The Transfer of Ethnic Germans after WW2 and the Countervailing Slavic Immigration

After they lost the WW2 to the Allies and in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement, Germany and Austria had to take back ethnic Germans, Hungarians and other enemies who were not able to prove active fight against Nazi regime and lived within the then Czechoslovakia. The decree of the Czechoslovak president Beneš from July the 20, 1945, referred to their land property confiscation in favour of Czech, Slovak and other Slavic peasants.

The above policy also concerned the village of Klentnice where almost all inhabitants were ethnic Germans. The village was populated after the transfer of Germans in 1945 mainly from

195 five districts: Uherské Hradiště, Uherský Brod, Kyjov, Hodonín and Šternberk and, additionally, from various places in west, east and middle Moravia. Soldiers from the former Czechoslovak army fighting in the war, especially the Volhynian Czechs, took also part in populating the South Moravian borderland. The process of transition was organized by national legal guardians who were supposed to redistribute the land of transferred ethnic Germans. Small farmers and workers, allowance labourers, resistance fighters, soldiers, captives, partisans were also included.

Table 1 indicates the degree of loss of residents within the Mikulov-town district lost during the post-WW2 transfer and transition:

Table 1: Demographic Changes in the Mikulov-town District after the WW2 (1947) Population Decrease Population density (km -2) 1930 1946/47 absolute relative 1930 1946/47 53,563 37,662 - 15,901 - 30% 95 67

Over 50 per cent of residents in the administrative district of the Mikulov-town were engaged in agriculture, fishery and forestry. The process of transfer and transition was simultaneous so as to continue the process of agricultural production and acquisition of skills. Those coming from similar climatic conditions and soil areas were preferred for allotment. Interestingly, both the transferred and the newcomers stayed for a certain time together, developing personal bonds. For instance, one Czech family asked special benefit for a German family and only later was quite unpleasantly surprised by its former deep Nazi blindness. It can be said that land-use patterns after 1948 in the area were similar to those pre- 1938.

Divergent Course of Events in the former Czechoslovakia and Austria in 1948-1989

While Czechoslovakia became part of the Soviet Bloc in 1948, Austria, until 1955 under the Soviet administration and going through a difficult period of denazification and economic reconstruction, emerged eventually as one the Western democracies. This political divergence produced very different effects on both sides of the common border.

Fassmann (quoted in Lichtenberger 2000: 340-352) recognizes the following periods of economic development in Austria: 1945-1952: Reconstruction according to the Marshall Plan with industry as the engine of growth The 1950s: The Austrian economic miracle The 1960s: integration into the world economy and improved technical infrastructure 1970-83: ´Austro-Keynesianism´ After 1983: More monetarist policies

Drawing on Fassmann´s criteria, one can distinguish between the following periods with respect of the Czechoslovak side: 1947-1948: General reconstruction and the Sovietization of economy and society 1949-1953: The creation of heavy industry including weapon production, the collectivization of agriculture and installation of politically authoritative regime – (´dictatorship of proletariat´, Marxist-Leninist ideology) The 1960s: integration only within the Soviet bloc, extensive development, economically loosing compared with Austria; the Prague Spring and Soviet/Warsaw Pact Armies invasion

196 The 1970s-80s: Extensive command and the retardation of economy, politico-social ´normalization´ and the dullness of life.

As the timelines above point out, Czechoslovak agriculture changed in a completely different way than Austria’s. Perlín (1998) distinguishes between two processes which took place in rural areas: the collectivization in 1949-1953 and socialization in 1952-1970. With respect to Lichtenberger (2000), the Czechoslovak agriculture was governed as command economy in the form of cooperative and state farms. Cooperative farms were founded by ruthless procedures as collectives of producers from previously private-owned farms. In respect of the Mikulov district, there was a cooperative farm in the village of Klentnice and a state farm in Mikulov. While the proprietor of all agricultural land in state farms became the state, in cooperative farms the proprietors were the former farmers. A general trend during the period in question tended to embrace agricultural large-scale production which was ideologically based on Soviet concepts of kolkhoz and sovkhoz. The only intermezzo in this occurred shortly during the 1960s and was associated with political thaw accompanying the Prague spring: Some inspiration from the US agriculture was accepted. Gradually, small-scale agricultural production was transformed into large-scale one, with a peak of organisational concentration of production during the 1980s.

1938 1976

Vojenský topografický ústav, Dobruška Vojenský topografický ústav, Dobruška

Figure 1: Changes in the Land-Use Patter of the Village of Klentnice 1938, 1976

The resistance of farmers whose land was expropriated eventually weakened and cooperative farms were not only respected economically but began to be accepted socially due to strong local political control by the Communist party. Interestingly, in many cooperative farms former kulaks (i.e. former great private farm-owners) were reinstated as chairmen after their earlier oppression or even incarceration. Nevertheless, it needs to be emphasized that Czechoslovakia became self-reliant in food production during this period. State farm workers were paid in salaries regularly and cooperative farmers were dependent on their own production, though this has been subsidized by state. An important point is the agricultural effect on the environment during the Communist Era. There were existing active scientists and activists warning against the deterioration of the state of environment. In fact, the landscape was worsening and they partially succeeded in nature/landscape conservation. In

197 the borderland area, the town of Mikulov was declared a city monument preserve and the surrounding Pálava landscape a protected landscape area (see Table 2 and Figure 1).

Table 2: Breakdown of Land-Use in the Klentnice Area (in %) Land use/Years 1939 1966 2004

Arable 66 48 45 Grassland 11 7 4 Orchards/vineyards 2 2 4 Gardens 1 1 2 Woods/shrubs 11 31 31 Settlement 1 1 1 Others 8 10 13

Conclusion: Dismantling the Iron Curtain in 1989 and development after the Velvet Revolution

Dismantling the structure of the Iron Curtain in 1989 brought with it millions of tourists from central-eastern Europe crossing the bottleneck border between Mikulov and Drasenhofen in their trips to previously unreachable Austria. Also, the Austrians were curious neighbours and began to explore the other side of the border. Curiosity was thus a driving force of tourist exchange and the Austrians had many advantages over Czechs in the promotion of their region for tourism, starting with their hard currency, social and economic experiences, images, media and so on. Emergent economic transition in Czechoslovakia/the Czechlands after 1989 looked rather meagre when compared with rich Austria. This difference has been however narrowed as Austria entered the phase of stagflation in 1996 and has remained in it up to this date.

As for agricultural production with high added value, both sides strive to achieve natural organic quality of wine production by the use of bio-control and the introduction of resistant sorts of viticulture. Moravian wines are produced in private cooperatives, a change from former strong state farms. The Czech Wine Act was accepted in the 1990s and was appreciated by producers and consumers. This has been one of a few successful examples of Czech governance. Both Klentnice and Drasenhofen have changed after 1989 into more residential, wine-producing and recreational villages with newer buildings (see Figure 2). The village of Klentnice is a part of the self-governed microregion of the Mikulov-town, which comprises 17 municipalities and is primarily intended to attract EU funds (for example in projects such as LEADER).

198

Figure 2: Klentnice-Mikulov-Drasenhofen, 2007

Acknowledgements I acknowledge my son Nik and students: B.Svozil, J.Travnicek, J.Trojan, O. Herzan, L. Patockova, D. Strnadova and J. Janura for their active participation in this field project.

199 References Cloke P., Crang P., Goodwin, P. 2005 (eds.) Introducing Human Geographies. 2nd ed. Hodder Arnold, London, 2005 Crampton, J., Elden, S. 2007 (eds.) Space, Knowledge and Power: Foucault and Geography. Aldershot: Ashgate. Ed.Hölzel Österreichischer Oberstuffen-Atlas (1981), Wien, 2007. Foucault, M. 1978 The History of Sexuality. Volume I: An Introduction, New York: Vintage Books. Foucault, M. 2003 Society Must Be Defended. New York: Picador, 2003. Johansson, R. 1982 Boundary Conflict in a Comparative Perspective: A Theoretical Framework. In Strassoldo, R. and Zotti Delli, G. (eds.) Cooperation and Conflict in Border Areas. Franco Angeli Editore, Milano. Kucera, P., Salasova, A. 2005 (eds.) The town of Mikulov composed landscape study. Lednice, Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno Faculty of Horticulture. 2005. (in Czech) Lichtenberger, E. 2000 Austria – Society and Regions. Austrian Academy of Science Press, Vienna, 2000. Outline of Sedimentation, Tectonic Framework and Hydrocarbon Occurrence in Eastern Lower Austria Mitt. Osterr. Geol. Ges. 85 (1992) Guidebook Part I: Outline of Sedimentation, Tectonic Framework and Hydrocarbon Occurrence in Eastern Lower Austria : http://www.uibk.ac.at/downloads/oegg/Band_85_5_96.pdf ( 24.8.2007) Perlin R. 1998 The Typology of the Czech Country, Agricultural Economy 44, 1998. (8), Czech Agricultural Academy of Sciences, Praha,(in Czech). Poul I., Melichar R. 2005 The new structural model of the Pavlov Hills (Western Carpathians, Czech Republic. Geolines, Praha: Institute of Geology, Academy of Science, 19, 2005. Rokkan, S., Urwin, D. 1983 Economy, Territory, Identity. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Slezak L. 1978 Agricultural settlement of the Czechlands borderland after second World War. Blok, Brno, 1978. ( in Czech). http://www.palava.ochranaprirody.cz/index.php?lang=en

200 On the origins of cities in the Near East and their implications today

Per Lindsborg Linköping University [email protected]

Abstract As long as humans were hunters and gatherers, the means of production were collectively owned. Societies and people did not accumulate personal wealth and storage of food merely aimed to ensure survival during seasonal shortages. However, this changed when the first humans around 12 000 years ago started other activities than hunting and gathering, like agriculture. A few millennia later, the first urban settlements gradually appeared, originally possibly in the Near East, as a result of a number of factors like a surplus of agricultural production. This allowed some people to become specialized in non-agrarian activities. Other conditions which promoted the appearance of the first cities were innovations and new technologies, especially in relation to agricultural production, transport both over land as well as on water, as well as the appearance of administrative and political structures. This paper reviews the evidence whether urban bias in human development may be as old as the first urban settlements themselves. Further, the paper aims to review whether attitudes and values by the early urban residents were value laden negatively towards rural people.

Keywords: Urban and rural development, Cities, City origins, Near East, Urban bias

Introduction

As long as humans were hunters and gatherers, the means of production were collectively owned. Groups of the population living together could get reciprocal rights to the resources of other groups by asking permission. Societies and people did not accumulate personal wealth and storage of food merely aimed to ensure survival during seasonal shortages. However, this changed when the first humans around 12 000 years ago started other activities than hunting and gathering, like agriculture (Salamini et al, 2002). Until a few decades ago, it was the general opinion that plants and/or animals were domesticated before the population became sedentary. However, during the last decades, some research has suggested that at least in some places people started some form of sedentary life before plants and animals were domesticated. It was probably a long and interactive process over many hundreds, if not thousands, of years before sedentary forms of life became common. Some 3 000 to 4 000 years later, the first people started to live in more densely structured settlements, which however probably for many centuries if not millennia still retained much of the properties of rural areas. Cities and urban settlements therefore started to appear very gradually indeed, originally possibly in the Near East, as a result of many interrelated factors, e. g. a surplus of agricultural production which permitted some people to become specialized in non-agrarian activities like smiths, masons, commerce, trade and transport-related activities etc Other conditions which promoted the first cities were innovations and new technologies, especially in relation to agricultural production, transport both over land and on water, as well as the first appearance of administrative, political and religious structures.

Documentation on the origins of the first urban settlements is scanty to say the best. No firm evidence has yet been produced as to where urban settlements might first have appeared.

201 Many claim that Mesopotamia would have been the origin of cities. Certainly, urban settlements like Eridu, Ur and Uruk were well established by 3 000 B.C. and may have had their first origins at least one or two thousand years earlier. Another very early urban settlement was Halaf, in the extreme northern river basin of Euphrates in present day Syria on the border to Turkey. Other Near Eastern regions with cities more than 5 000 years ago are, of course, Egypt, while Jericho has been assumed to be a city by 6 000 years B.C. Catalhöyuk in Anatolia (Turkey) may have been as old as, if not older than, Jericho, as estimates of the former indicates that it flourished due to its rich obsidian deposits from around 6 500 to 5 550 B. C. E. Catalhöyuk thus demonstrates that cities may have developed outside the so-called Fertile Crescent, for long thought to have provided a unique environment for the creation of the first Near Eastern cities (Cessford, 2005; Hodder, 2007; Jacobsen, 1981; Maisels, 1990; Maisels 1999; Yoffee, 2005). In addition, other regions of the world like the Indus valley with Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, eastern China and Meso-America may have provided hearths for urban settlements as early as those mentioned in the Near or Middle East. Thus the arguments will certainly continue for years and decennia if they ever will be settled.

Although sources, which deal with the origins and development are legio (plentiful), their scientific value are generally very doubtful indeed. Among the best, or less unreliable, are the cuneiforms, Bible and other religious scriptures, while there are many other ancient writings as well. Written records, appearing in several regions of the Near East around 3 000 B.C. are generally considered to be the most reliable of source materials, although they also often have to be treated with suspicions, as many authors of texts, of course, had other reasons than attempting to document as correctly as possible their society and its characteristics. Archaeological evidences therefore often contribute with decisive clues where other evidences are lacking or weak. Other developments of crucial importance were inventions like irrigation as well as inventions in improved modes of transport like the wheel and the ox-cart as well as the domestication of animals like horses, donkeys and oxen as animals for transport all provided the basis for societies which produced an increasing surplus to became specialized in economic activities and could thus move away from subsistence to a barter economy. In addition, improved skills in water transport, like the construction of boats which were sufficiently strong and stable to sail on big seas like the Mediterranean, the Black and the Red Sea and on the oceans, as well as in navigation greatly enhanced the appearance and increasing role of trade and exchange of all sorts and thus contributed to specialization of economic activities between humans and societies.

In addition, other factors of importance for the establishment of the first non-agricultural settlements, i. e. factors based upon the production out of what the land could produce, were related to the appearance of the first non-agricultural activities like salt production, iron production, the appearance of smiths and iron making, as well as craft-skills like making weapons, tools and utensils, horse-shoes etc, leather-works, as well as the first appearance of hierarchies in society with chiefs, with or without religious and/or administrative functions. Over several millennia, a slow and gradual process of specialization among different groups of human population thus took place in different forms of agricultural activities like various forms of cereal production, vegetable production wherever climate and other conditions so allowed as well as domestication of animals and plants apart from what had been since time immemorial the basis for human life, hunting, fishing and gathering. Probably most people did several of these activities at the same time and specialization thus appeared only after many generations, maybe over millennia.

202 These processes resulted in some people producing a surplus of some products while others produced surpluses of other products, which thus created the basis for exchange. Originally not organized, such exchange with time started to become more and more organized. Barter and trade started to appear. Other phenomena of importance were inventions of all sorts from the simplest household utensils to relatively advanced means of land and water transport. Further, religion and worship with time became more and more structured. They certainly have their origins back into times when all humans were hunter-gatherers. Developments in the leadership of communities of course equally go way back to times when all humans were hunter-gatherers, as some people already then were more skilled than others in leading their communities and therefore took the leadership of their neighbors. As a result of these slow processes over thousands of years, increasing specialization of livelihoods between human beings gradually developed. Everyone somehow started not to do everything as they had done (although most certainly, most people were still skilled in and continued to do many activities). This, together with many other conditions like geomorphologic features, soils, hydrology, climate etc (probably) laid the basis for some places to start to grow more than others. The specific causes and contributions of each of these numerous factors may have varied, at least to some extent, from one place to another. In many settlements, an increasing number of people therefore started to earn their living from other activities than the land, including handicrafts, trade, transport, administration and leadership, religious activities etc. All these developments laid the foundations for the appearance of settlements in which the inhabitants to a greater or lesser degree were specialized in their economic activities and thus did not all produce (all) their own food-supply but instead started to exchange some products and services with each other. The first signs of trade and markets thus appeared at the same or at different times as the appearance of the first non-agricultural settlements, what would be called towns, cities and the first urban settlements had been created.

Purpose

This introduction to human history aims to stress the necessity to search the roots of urban settlements and cities for human development. It should have been the purpose of this paper to determine the origins of urban settlements and of rural-urban divide as well as of an urban bias in society. However, this might be an arduous task and may rather require several studies over a lengthy period. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is limited to show that there are strong indications that urban bias in human development is as old as urban settlements themselves. Further, lack of proof that there was not an urban bias in early urbanizing societies may be used as one indication of the existence of an urban bias. Further, it is the purpose of this paper to demonstrate that there are also strong indications that sometimes attitudes and values by urban residents early during the process of urbanization turned out to become value laden negatively towards rural people. Finally, a basic condition which determines when events do occur is how those events are defined. Thus, definitions do constitute crucial steps in all research activities.

The Origins of Cities: a rural-urban divide and an urban bias

The genesis of studies on rural-urban interrelationships and sometimes a rural-urban divide which may result in an urban bias in society and in scientific research was traced back more than 200 years by Mick Moore (1984) with the emergence of the classical political economy in the latter part of the 18th century. Moore noted that the Minister for Overseas Development Judith Hart in her review of Michael Lipton’s seminal book on urban bias (Lipton, 1977)

203 “complained at the allocation of excessive space to discussion of ideologies of urban bias in the work of classical and early Marxian political economists. Their world was too different from the contemporary Third World for their ideas to have any current relevance, while the real task was to get on and do something about urban bias today. Impatience with what might appear as purely academic indulgence is at the very least understandable in a Minister for Overseas Development. One might easily agree with Judith Hart that the classical political economists provide no guide to action in the modern world. Yet it would be a mistake to believe that the works of the classicals can safely be ignored by those attempting to understand and evaluate the kinds of ideas about urban (or rural) bias propounded by Michael Lipton and other contemporary scholars whose work is discussed below.” (Moore, 1984, 5).

The impatience in addressing the urban bias in development projects of the poor part of the world may thus have neglected the importance of taking into account the heritage of the first human civilizations also upon the society of the third millennia. Michael Lipton, Mick Moore and others thus traced the origins of the rural-urban divide and of urban (or rural) bias in contemporary society and in scientific research back two centuries to the classical political economists like Sir James Steuart (1767) and Adam Smith (1776). However, neither they nor any other contemporary researchers of development appear to have considered searching for the origins of rural-urban divide and of urban bias in society at large (as well as in research) further back in history than to the industrial revolution and the growth of modern sciences some 200 years ago.

The search for the origins of urban settlements and of an rural-urban divide as well as for the origins of an urban bias in human life and human development at large should therefore not be limited to the appearance of the industrial revolution two or three centuries ago, nor to the scientific revolution one or two centuries earlier but should be searched/linked to the origins of human non-agricultural production as well as the numerous inventions which provided the foundation for specialization of economic activities away from land- and natural resource- related economic activities which, all together and/or in various combinations allowed the subsequent appearance of the first non-agricultural settlements. Whether first towns, cities and urban settlements were created in the Near or Middle East, the Fertile Crescent, the Indus valley, eastern China, in North, Meso- or South America, still remains debatable. Numerous publications have been devoted to this topic over the last 50 or 100 years and advancing this topic is such a huge task that it might require teams of several researchers.

For this paper crucial assumption to the subject is that these processes of specialization of human economic activities also brought with them attitudes towards their own proper society as well as other societies. – It is our hypothesis that the transition away from societies which made their survival on the land and its natural resources of various kinds towards societies in which its inhabitants to a smaller or larger degree were not earning their (direct) living from land and its natural resources at the same time produced attitudes of superiority and inferiority regarding their own society as well as toward the other societies. – The origins of a rural-urban divide and of an urban bias in all human development must be searched in these processes which are crucial for all subsequent development of human societies.

In his seminal work, Origins. The Ancient Near Eastern background of some modern Western institution (1996), William Hallo notes,

204 By contrast the nomadic or semi-nomadic mode of life that continued to coexist side by side with urban agglomerations seemed a rude throwback to more primitive ways, or at best an occasional test of manly virtues and martial strengths to offset the debilitating ease of the urban setting. An Akkadian poem of the late second millennium B.C. sums up the latter aspect in the context of seven irresistible weapons presented to the divine Erra and urging him into battle in the following words: “Arise, get up! Are you perhaps going to stay in the city like a paralyzed old man? ...... Are we to fear and tremble as if we did not know battle? Taking the field of manhood is like a holiday! The city-dweller, though he be a prince, can never eat enough. He is despised and slandered in the talk of his own people. How is he to match his strength with him who takes the field? Let the prowess of him who stays in the city be ever so enormous- How is he to overpower the one who takes the field? The finest city food cannot compare with field rations. The sweetest light beer cannot compare with water from the goatskin. The palace (erected on) a high terrace cannot compare with the warrior’s pallet. Warlike Erra, take the field, brandish your weapon!” (Hallo, 1996, 1-2)

Hallo further notes that the unanimity of designation in cuneiform contrasts with the situation in other ancient Near Eastern traditions, where there are many terms for ‘city’ and few for ‘countryside’ … Suffice it to summarize the lexical evidence in its own right: on the one side a diffuse, (p. 4) subjective, functional diversity of descriptive terms for the country-side, reflecting the urban point of view and a succession of different linguistic strata; on the other, a single term for the city, reflecting a common distinctiveness that apparently out-weighted whatever external differences that apparently outweighed whatever external differences divided the cities of one age or place from another.” (Hallo, 1996, 3-4). Concerning the city in Sumer it had its aetiology, though as it happens the mythical version of urban origins as preserved in the ‘Sumerian Flood Story’ seems to refer to the first cities as ‘capitals’ in Civil’s translation (op cit, 5)

Hallo further quotes the “Sumerian Flood Story”, the Mesopotamian versions of the deluge, dated by Hallo to have occurred about 2 900 B. C. E.: The firstlings of those cities, Eridu, she (Nintur) gave to the leader Nudimmud, the second, Badtibira, she gave to the Prince and Sacred One, the third, Larak, she gave to Pabilsag, the fourth, Sippar, she gave to the gallant Ulu. The fifth, Shuruppak, she gave to Sud.

Moving some three thousands years ahead to the height of the times of the Roman empire, a decisive step in human movement towards creating the ‘modern’ cities of the third millennium C. E. was taken with the expansion of the main ‘missionary’ movements, Christianity and Islam. These religions, especially the first, provided decisive stimulus for the growth of the cities. The former, which originated with Jesus preaching in virtually exclusively rural environments, got a crucial ‘turn-around’ when Paul, Barnabas and others

205 started to address urban communities all over especially the north-eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The urban world might today have had a dramatically different, minor, appearance had it not been for the efficiency as missionaries of Paul and his associates. Wayne Meeks was among the first to write about the almost exclusively urban character of the Pauline missionary activities, e. g. “Pauline Christianity …. was entirely urban.” (Meeks, 1983, 8), “the mission of the Pauline circle was conceived from start to finish as an urban movement”, (op cit, 10). Meeks throughout this volume thus underscores the urban character of the Paul’s mission: “This life as an artisan distinguished him [Paul] both from the workers of the farms, who, slave or free, were perhaps at the very bottom of the social pyramid in antiquity, and from the lucky few whose wealth and status depended on their agricultural estates.” (op cit, 9)

“ … it was the ethnarch of Nabataean king Aretas IV who tried to have Paul arrested in Damascus (2 Cor. 11:32). It is evident that Paul had stirred up this official hostility not by meditating in the desert nor by wandering from village to village, but by preaching in flourishing Hellenistic cities such as Petra, Gerasa, Philadelphia, and Bostra, …” (op cit, 10)

“… within a decade of the crucification of Jesus, the village culture of Palestine had been left behind, and the Greco-Roman city became the dominant environment of the Christian movement. So it remained, from the dispersion of the ‘Hellenists’ from Jerusalem until well after the time of Constantine.10 The movement had crossed the most fundamental division in the society of the Roman Empire, that between rural people and city dwellers, and the results were to proved momentous.” (op cit, 11)

Many authors have since then repeated the message of Wayne Meeks, e.g. Rodney Stark (1996; 2005; 2007) who among other topics deals with the rise of Christianity from originally very insignificant dimensions in Galilee and in Judea to become a major religion only a few centuries later. Stark relates his research on the origins of Christianity to its relationship with the society at large. He argues for Christianity to have its origins not in the poor and marginalized but in the middle and upper classes, especially in the cities and among converted Jews. Stark concludes that “(e)arly Christianity was primarily an urban movement” (Stark, 2006, 2) and notes that the word pagan (in latin paganus) originally meant “ ‘rural person’, or more colloquially ‘country hick’ “ (ibid). Christianity quickly advanced in the cities of the eastern part of the Mediterranean while rural people mostly remained unconverted. The word pagan therefore quickly became synonymous with a rural, unconverted person and became negatively loaded. Stark further notes, that “many factors were involved in the triumph of Christianity” (Stark, 2006, 8). Critiques by classicists have also contributed significantly to our understanding how we humans look upon ourselves and upon other societies. Value- loaded expressions like rural people as poor, uneducated, even vulgar, stupid and brutish, are not uncommon in both Greek and Roman texts as papers to a conference in 2004 demonstrated. The editors of the papers published in 2006 noted that in “the heyday of structuralism, scholars would have felt no discomfort at thinking about city and country as a binary opposition. City and countryside could be considered structural devices to organize opposing values: if the city is good, educated and refined, the countryside is boorish, stupid and vulgar. If the countryside is pure, authentic and truthful, the city will be polluted, corrupt and deceitful." (Rosen & Sluiter, 2006, 3-4).

206

Today, such values are more common in poorer societies, whereas it has sometimes though far from always disappeared or has been suppressed in western societies. The interaction and interdependence of cities and countryside of the city-states in the antiquity is well documented. These interrelationships sometimes were positively loaded but also frequently characterized by negative attitudes by urban people upon rural people. It should for example be noted that the word urban and the name Urban signify “well-educated”. These attitudes sometimes persist also today in the 21st century, as seen in publicity campaigns of fashion houses with smartly dressed women called “urban girl” or a young couple with the heading “urban love”. No company has yet headed such campaigns “rural girl” or “rural love”.

Conclusion

The origins of cities and urban settlements (certainly not appearing within a few decades but during several millennia) still remain obscured in the societies of the past some 6 000 to 10 000 years ago, possibly in the Ancient Near East of Egypt, Mesopotamia and other parts of the so-called Fertile Crescent as well as in neighbouring regions like in Anatolia as well as in the Indus valley, eastern China and the Americas. The interrelationships and interdependences of urban settlements upon their surrounding countryside frequently have created value-loaded attitudes, both positive and negative. The inherited past with its attitudes and values is frequently not observed or understood by people today, including educated people in Western societies, which therefore merits further studies in order to better get to know ourselves and our heritage.

References Cessford C (2005) Absolute dating at Çatalhöyük, in I. Hodder (ed.), Inhabiting Çatalhöyük: Reports from the 1995-99 seasons. Cambridge, UK: McDonald Inst. Arch. Res./Br. Inst. Archaeol. Ankara Monogr. No. 38 Hallo William W. (1996) Origins. The Ancient Near Eastern background of some modern Western institutions. Leiden: E.J. Brill Hodder, Ian (2007) Çatalhöyük in the context of the Middle Eastern Neolithic. Annual Review of Anthropology, 2007, 36, 105-120 Jacobsen, Thorkild (1981) The Eridu genesis, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1981, 100, 4, 513-529 Lipton, Michael (1977) Why poor people stay poor. A study of urban bias in world development. London : Temple Smith Maisels, Charles Keith (1990) The emergence of civilization. From hunting and gathering to agriculture, cities and the state in the Near East. London & New York: Routledge Maisels, Charles Keith (1999) Early civilizations of the old world : the formative histories of Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China. London : Routledge, 1999 Meeks, Wayne A. (1983) The first urban Christians : the social world of the Apostle Paul. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press Moore, Mick (1984) Political economy and the rural-urban divide, 1767-1981. Journal of Development Studies, April 1984, 20, 3, 5-27 Rosen, Ralph M. & Ineke Sluiter (eds) (2006) City, countryside and the spatial organization of value in classical antiquity. Leiden and Boston: Brill Salamini F, Ozkan H, Brandolini A, Schafer-Pregl R, Martin W (2002) Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East. Nature Reviews Genetics, 3, 6, June 2002, 429-441

207 Smith, Adam (1776) The wealth of nations (Reprinted with an Introduction by A. S. Skinner, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970) Stark, Rodney (1996) The rise of Christianity: a sociologist reconsiders history. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press Stark, Rodney (2005) The victory of reason. How Christianity led to freedom, capitalism, and Western success. New York: Random House Stark, Rodney (2007) Cities of God: the real story of how Christianity became an urban movement and conquered Rome. New York, NY: HarperOne Steuart, Sir James (1767) An enquiry into the principles of political economy (Reprinted in two volumes with an Introduction by A. S. Skinner, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1966) Yoffee, Norman (2005) Myths of the archaic state. Evolution of the earliest cities, states and civilizations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

208 Cross-Border Co-operationbetween Bulgaria and Turkey (Cultural and and Historical Heritage Diversity – Opportunities for Tourism)

Petar Slaveykov and Kliment Naydenov Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” Faculty of Geology and Geography [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract Cross-border co-operation aims at strengthening relations between the border regions of Bulgaria and Turkey by promoting joint activities for achieving economic and social development and protection of the environment. The common cultural heritage on the territory of the Border Region can help in realising joint cross-border programmes in the field of scientific research, excavation, preservation, rehabilitation and exploitation of antique settlements for the benefit of local communities and external visitors. There already are exchanges across the border, partly led by public institutions, partly by other associations. These contacts can however be intensified thus creating a basis for a more active cross-border co-operation.

Key words: Tourism, cultural heritage, historical heritage, cross-border co-operation

Cross-border co-operation aims at strengthening relations between the border regions of Bulgaria and Turkey by promoting joint activities for achieving economic and social development and for overcoming problems deriving from the specific conditions of these regions, in a manner compatible with the protection of the environment. (Bulgaria- Turkey CBC 2004-2006) (Figure 1). The investigate region between these two countries comprises all the Bulgarian districts and Turkish provinces along the border. It comprises the districts of Burgas, Yambol and Haskovo in Bulgaria and the provinces of Edirne and Kırklareli in Turkey. Tourism is travel for recreation. On other hand tourism is travel for leisure and for business purposes. Last, but not least tourism is a travel for Figure 1: Source: (Bulgaria-Turkey learning. CBC 2004-2006)

The tourist industry is very important for the economic development of the cross-border region. There are two parts with more develop tourist sector. Te first is the North East part of the Region (in Bulgaria) and the second one is Edirne (Turkey). On the Bulgarian Black Sea there are towns and villages, which are very attractive, but they are not very attractive outside the summer months. The main attractions of city of Edirne are: its historical past, numerous monuments and tradition. Tourism is one of the main economic opportunities for this region. Today it is not well developed. The district of Bugras is the only exception. There are opportunities for the other parts to develop alternative forms of tourism - cultural, historical and ecotourism. The nex sections describes the conditions for that.

209 The Black Sea coastal areas and beaches with fine golden sand together with thermal mineral springs provide favourable conditions for relaxation and recreation and for the development of sea and coastal tourism. In Bulgaria the most developed part for tourism is the district of Burgas. There are big seaside resorts such as “Sunny Beach”, “Elenite” and “Dyuni”. They are organised to receive mass tourism as well as the coastal towns and villages of Nesebar, Sozopol, Pomorie, Primorsko, Ravda and St. Vlas. All of them are connected by a panoramic seaside road. Most of the tour operators here are family firms. White and soft sands and warm waters from June to September go together with a marvellous nature and hundreds of places of interest along the coast, ranging from old pagan sanctuaries to remains of ancient Roman and Greek civilisations, and authentic cultural and historical monuments of the Bulgarian state. Archaeological, architectural and historic monuments in the region are favourable for development of cultural tourism.

The Old Nesebar is a unique monument of culture and is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In the Strandzha Mountains can be seen some of the most ancient structures made by humans – the dolmens. Thracian mounds, ancient Greek poleis, remains of ancient and medieval fortresses have been found here. The region is widely known for its vine- growing and wine production traditions. The wines of Sungurlare are very famous. The dense riparian forests with overgrowth along the rivers of Ropotamo and Veleka, the beauty of the rivers of Dyavolska and Fakiiska, the diverse wildlife in the Strandzha and Sakar Mountains and the nature reserves are a prerequisite for the development of ecotourism and hunting. Apart from the Silkosia, the oldest reserve in Bulgaria (1933), here one can visit the Ropotamo and Strandzha National Parks, the Duni (the Dunes) and Vodnite Lilii (the White Lilies) reserves, the fiords and the seals cave on Maslen Nos Cape and other sites. One can immerse in the unique atmosphere created by the seaside houses from the National Revival period in Nesebar and Sozopol and the preserved samples of the Strandzha house in the villages of Fakia, Kasti, Brashlyan, Bulgari etc. The region still preserves in their purest form the fire-dances on live coals, which are performed on the holidays of the Saints Constantine and Helena.

The territory of Haskovo district includes the southwestern ridges of the Sakar Mountains and the northernmost spurs of the eastern Rhodopes. The rivers that flow through the area are the Maritza, the Arda and the Sazliika. There are hot mineral water springs in the balneological resorts of Mineralni Bani. Mineralni bani is a national balneotherapy centre, with natural attractions and 14 mineral springs. There are mineral springs in Merichleri, Simeonovgrad and Dolno Botevo village, too. It has good prospects for attracting foreign investments, being suitable for the development of balneotherapy, rural and ecological tourism. As many as 100 Thracian mounds were excavated in the region – near the villages of Mezek (the 4th century BC), Alexandrovo, Simeonovgrad and on the land of the villages of Madzharovo, Voivodino, Gorski Izvor, Tatarevo etc. In the district of Haskovo, traces of the historical past like the remains of a Roman villa at Armyra near Ivaylovgrad and the mediaeval fortress in Mezek can help promoting tourism. The municipalities of Madjarovo, Stambolovo, Ivaylovgrad and Lyubimetz, along the river valley of Dolna Arda, have good potential for rural, ecological tourism and water sports.

In Yambol district there are good conditions for developing of ecotourism. In the nature reserves of Gorna Topchiya, Dolna Topchiya and Balabana, and in the protected areas of the Ormana and the Swamp (Blatoto) there are many rare animal and herbaceous species. The valley of the Tundzha River offers good conditions for hunting tourism, and boat sightseeing cruises in picturesque areas amidst the lush vegetation. There are more than 270 ancient

210 villages and approximately 1000 burial mounds in the region. Several important archaeological landmarks are present in the district as well as remains of Thracian and Roman settlements (Kabyle and Dianopolis). There are good conditions for developing of cultural and historical tourism. In Yambol district, within the area of Sakar Mountains, there is the highest concentration of megaliths and dolmens.

Tourism is not highly developed in the Turkish part of the Region. The coastal areas on both the Aegean and Black Seas are not well known and developed. Many of natural, archaeological and cultural sites are interesting. They have good tourism potential, but there is no good advertising. Edirne is the most visited place on this side of the Border Region. The main problem is that the tourists are transit. They are coming for one day excursions from Istanbul. The most interesting tourism resources are: Selimiye Mosque, Arasta, Old Mosque (Eski Cami), Üç Şerefeli (Three Minaret) Mosque, the last tower of Edirne’s city walls (Makedonya Kulesi “Macedonian Tower”), Saraçlar Caddesi (Street), Maarif Caddesi, historical wooden houses, Jewish Synagogue, Muradiye Mosque, Beyazit Complex, Medical Museum, Balkan Wars Martyrdom, Museum of Archeology, Museum of Islamic Arts, Justice Court (Adalet Kasrı), Kırkpınar Pasture, Old Bridges, Karaağaç, historical building of Presidency of Trakya University, Lausanne Monument etc. In the Edirne province, there are 29 resorts, with a total of 2,037 beds, and one camping site. Outside the biggest city, there are other beautiful sites that are of high archaeological and historical interest, but they are not advertised well.

Kırklareli province has a natural beauty. It offers many possibilities for sea and cultural tourism. The main tourism resources of city of Kirklareli are: Hizirbey complex (Hizirbey mosque, Hizirbay bath, Arasta) and Dupnica cave. On the Black Sea coast the lake of Saka, the Longoz forest, Kastros, Kiyiköy and its surroundings, Iğneada and its neighbourhood have beautiful natural features.

There are good opportunities for developing of different kinds of tourism. The cultural and historical heritage of the region is one of the possibilities. They need good advertising and common travel agencies.

References Bulgaria-Turkey CBC 2004-2006 Slaveykov P., Kl. Naydenov (2005) Tourism: This is Bulgaria (2005)

211 Parallels in nature and culture diversity of the European and Asian Southern Peninsulas

Darijus Veteikis Vilnius University [email protected]

Abstract The paper deals with interesting parallels noted between three pairs of the southern peninsulas in Europe and Asia. The similarities in natural features (e.g., relief structure, climate, land and sea distribution) and cultural particularities (such as parallels in history, cultural character and religion) have been observed between Iberian and Arabian, Apennine and Hindustan, Balkan and Indochina peninsulas. The example of parallels could include: Iberian and Arabian peninsulas both have the most continental, even arid climate, Apennine and Indian peninsulas both are situated between the highest continental mountains (Alps and Himalaya) and “hitched” large island (Sicily and Ceylon), Balkan and Indochina peninsulas both end with large archipelagos in the south (Aegean and Malay). Research was aimed at discovering as many as possible parallels in the afore-mentioned fields of these geographical regions, to present them and find the limit of the similarities as well as to discuss the possible reasons for such an inter-reflection or duplication.

Keywords: Iberian, Apennine, Balkan, Arabian, Indian, and Indochina peninsulas, parallels in nature and culture diversity.

Introduction

This paper is based on the observation of analogous features belonging to a pair of peninsular triplets (Iberian, Apennine, and Balkan, Arabian, Hindustan, and Indochina peninsulas). The author noticed this some 20 years ago in a science popularization book, written by a Russian geographer. In the course of time, the author of this paper lost all the information about this book and its author, with only one idea left in his mind – the analogies between peninsulas mentioned. This paper is an attempt to test the idea as well as to present some additional developments of it.

Going deeper into this matter can reveal some unexpected points of view about the regions in our planet that have often played such an important role in developing our civilizations that it cannot be overestimated. To start, there are several places that can be called cradles of civilizations. This is of course, an object of many discussions but generally the six peninsulas mentioned are very important regions in forming the civilization of our world.

Some parallels are noticed when comparing the six peninsulas by pairs: Iberian and Arabian, Apennine and Hindustan, Balkan and Indochina. These parallels or analogies belong to the sphere of geology, orography, climate, biodiversity, hydrography, culture, religions, history, people characters, political map, urbanization and so forth. Though not all the points correspond identically, multitude of congruities creates a quite curious view of inter-reflection or duplication of European and Asian “souths”.

212 The aim of the paper is to draw at least an outline of the reflective or symmetric diversities of the southern peninsulas in Europe and Asia. Being quite an amateur in these matters the author thinks that this could be a good start for going deeper into research of this phenomenon of geographical “cloning”, possibly finding more examples in the world.

Natural Analogies

The six southern peninsulas of Eurasia are among the largest peninsulas in their respective subcontinents. Their size according to various sources (internet, Concise Atlas of the World, 2005) are approximately the following (in thousands of km2): Iberian – 582, Apennine – 149, Balkan – 505, Arabian – 3500, Hindustan – 2000, Indochina – 2000. The largest peninsulas in Europe and Asia respectively are Iberian and Arabian. All six peninsulas are surrounded by a large number of seas and bays, and generally the Indian Ocean in Asia has an analogue in the Mediterranean Sea in Europe. Due to the specific distribution of land and sea, the six peninsulas have interesting parallels in regard to geological, climate, and hydrographical data.

Geology and shape The most obvious similarities of the two peninsular triplets belong to the orographic structure or land construction elements of these. Iberian and Arabian peninsulas both are bulk, sqare- shaped and consist of a number of plateaus. It must be specified that physically or tectonically the Arabian Peninsula includes the Mesopotamian plain and reaches the Zagros Mountains in the northeast, like the Iberian Peninsula ends at the Pyrenees. Though angles between the peninsulas’ shape sides are different, shape elements and coast arches are almost the same. Southern parts of both peninsulas end with quite sharp capes forming narrow straits between Europe and Africa (both peninsulas have close contact with Africa but only through sharp capes). The north-eastern parts of both peninsulas lean to the continental mainland through orogenic depressions with the Aragon plain in Spain, and the Mesopotamian plain in Iraq, and the Pyrenees and Zagros mountain ridges.

Figure 1: Relief of Iberian and Arabian peninsulas (NB: the Arabian Peninsula is about six times larger).

The Apennine and Hindustan peninsulas have several geological and shape features in common. They both end with sharp capes (the Calabrian in Italy and Adams Bridge in India) in the southern parts separated by narrow straits (Messina and Palk) from extensive islands, respectively Sicily (25.5 thousand km2) and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) (65.6 thousand km2). Sicily and Sri Lanka are both islands with medium high mountains, similar in height but somewhat different in origin, though both having endured (Sicily is still in process) volcanism. The places of the peninsula contact with the continental mainland are marked by deep depressions

213 (Po and Indo-Gang plains) at the base of the geologically young and highest mountains of the region, or even world (Alps and Himalaya).

Figure 2: Relief of Apennine and Hindustan peninsulas (NB: The Hindustan peninsula is about 13 times larger)

The southern parts of the Balkan and Indochina peninsulas have a specific combination of land and water: large peninsulas, almost semi-islands (Peloponnesus and Malay), separated from the main bodies of the Balkans and Indochina by narrow isthmuses – Corinth in Greece and Kra in Thailand-Burma. Mountains in both peninsulas extend from the northerlies to the southerlies. Besides that, the peninsulas have continuation to the south-eastern direction as large archipelagos – Aegean and Malay, both bend in a southerly arch. Crete and Java islands are almost identical in their shape with difference in area (Java is 15 times larger), having also a similar orographic structure. One more small detail – each archipelago hosts the remnants of ferociously erupted (in historical times) volcanoes – Santorini (~1625 years BC) in the Aegean (Santorini, 2009), and Krakatao (in 1883) in Malay.

Figure 3: Relief of Balkan and Indochina peninsulas (NB: Indochina is about 4 times larger)

Climate Climatic features of the three pairs also have some interesting consonance. European peninsulas have similar climatic differentiation as in Asian, only in smaller amplitudes. For example, the Iberian Peninsula is marked by the most continental and arid climate of the three European peninsulas (with the Sierra de los Filabres semi-desert in the south-eastern part, with precipitation about 200 mm per year), while the Arabian Peninsula is practically a solid desert (with precipitation less than 100 mm per year). The Apennine and Indian peninsulas have a semi-humid/semi-arid climate, Italy – mild, India – hot. Two seasons – rainy and dry – are distinguished in these peninsulas, with different cause for this regime: the Apennines are influenced by subtropical weather fluctuations (rains from Atlantic in winter, heats from Sahara in summer), Hindustan is influenced by monsoon (bringing rains from the Indian Ocean in summer, and dry air from the Iranian plateaus in winter). The Balkan and Indochina

214 peninsulas both being in warm climate areas have one interesting feature, that the western parts of both receive the highest amount of annual precipitation in the region: about 4,000- 5,000 mm in Kotor Bay (Bay of Kotor, 2009), Montenegro and (that’s not quite in Indochina, but in the neighbourhood) more than 10,000 mm in the Khasi Hills, Cherrapunji Place, Assam (Cherrapunji, 2009).

Hydrographical elements Rivers and lakes depend mostly on climatic features of the region and relief and rock composition. The Arabia Peninsula doesn’t have any constant water streams – Iberia in this regard is a close follower due to many creeks that go dry in summer. At the same time, the Apennine and Hindustan peninsulas have the Po and the Ganges in their northern plains (actually the Ebro in Spain and the Euphrates-Tigris in Iraq are analogous too), as well as, cross-peninsula rivers like the Tevere in Italy and the Krishna, and Godavari in India. River networks in the Balkans and Indochina are complicated similarly. Though the Balkans doesn’t have such grand rivers as the Mekong or the Irrawaddi, the Maritsa-Ervos (Bulgarian-Greek- Turkish river) and the Lumi-i-Drinit (Albanian river) with its extensive delta could be proportional analogs. Natural lakes are relatively large in the Balkans like Scutari (Shkoder), Ohrid, and Prespa. Indochina cannot boast having proportional analogues, but many artificial ponds constructed on rivers are common there.

Cultural Analogies

When we look at the socio-geographical features of the six peninsulas, parallels and even interrelations manifest themselves again in pairs: Iberia and Arabia, Italy and India. Direct relations between Balkan and Indochina peoples are not so obvious, but here we can find some other parallels concerning religion distribution, political structure, and so forth. Of course, to comprise all the facts of so many countries (about 10 in each – Balkans and Indochina) is too wide in so short a paper.

Historical parallels and heritage It is a well-known fact that Spain was heavily influenced by Arabic culture for a large parts its history (8th to 15th centuries) while under the control of Arab-Berber rulers, the Muslims were called Moors by the Spanish. Most of the peninsula was invaded and occupied for about 750 years, when the Christian Reconquista finally dislodged the Muslim from Iberia in 1492. From then on, the Spanish Empire began to get stronger, leading the Great Geographical Discoveries, initiating the Inquisition, and so forth (History of Spain, 2009). Arab culture left so much monumental architectural heritage in Spain that still can be seen in Cordoba, Toledo, Granada and many other Spanish places.

Italy and India have impressive parallels in their history, as well as the interrelations between each other. These countries centuries ago were the centres of vast empires that were separated by Persia. Therefore they had many contacts, comprising of culture, architecture, religion and trade. It is known that India had trade relations with the Roman Empire since 77 AD, and that in Kerala there were 1,200 Roman troops located in defence of trade. Coins with the image of Augustus were found in numbers parts of southern India, indicating a large amount of money flowing from Rome to purchase many Indian goods that eventually constituted part of the luxury and ornaments of the Romans. An interesting parallel is that the Indus Valley Civilization influenced primarily India; the Aryans later overruled the Harappans. Similarly, in Italy, the Italic tribes later assimilated the original Etruscans. History hides many riddles:

215 who were the Aryans, who were the Etruscans (History of India, 2009; Etruscan Civilization, 2009; India and Italy, 2009).

In the multinational peninsulas of the Balkans and Indochina it is difficult to distinguish any particular parallels except, maybe, religious history – but religions will be dealt with later. History of the two regions is full of international wars. Thailand was the only country that remained unoccupied by European colonialists; the French, Dutch, and other European cultures influenced the other countries (History of Thailand, 2009).

Nations, States and religions National composition of the Iberian and Arabian peninsulas is not very diverse, comprising quite few nations and countries. More states are on the Arabian side, though the national composition is quite homogeneous. But here again are some analogs: Basques and Kurds are two nations (proportionally large – Basques are only 1.25 million, Kurds are an estimated 35 million people) that live in the northern parts of the regions and both don’t have their own independent state, both have a long story of struggle for it, both are exceptional and unique nations in the region (Basque people, 2009; Kurdish people, 2009).

From the six peninsulas, the Apennine and Hindustan are the only ones that are quite homogeneous politically. Italy has only two micro-states inside – Vatican and San Marino, while India is totally united. Only Sri Lanka is a separate country, something that doesn’t quite correspond to the analogy with Sicily, although Sicily in its turn is quite different from the whole of Italy by culture and nature, and it is the largest autonomous region of Italy itself. However this situation is rather new as Italy and India are quite young as states – Italy was united only in 1861, and India regained its sovereignty in 1947. In the Indian Parliament there is one important political figure, Italian by origin – Sonia Gandhi, wife of Rajiv Gandhi. Italy and India are the countries of the largest ‘religions thrones’ in the world – Christianity and Hinduism. According to the number of followers Islam stands between both of the latter religions. Analysts of the religions see many similarities between Indian pantheon and ancient Roman religion (Neptune and Shiva with tridents and snakes, Heracles and Krishna, Romulus and Remus, and Rama, etc., Jupiter and Indra). It is known that the Romans even imported many religious details from India like the worshiping of the God Mithras (in India Mitra was the patron of honesty, friendship, contracts and meetings), using the suffix “-dev” at the end of a ruler’s name, tilak (“U” shaped) the sign on the forehead or the ruler (like Pompey), and so forth. On the other hand, Christianity largely spread in India, Jesus and Mary being accepted even by many Hindus as new members of their pantheon. Generally, both Italy and India throughout their history were open to various cultural influences from other regions (India and Italy, 2009).

The Balkan and Indochina regions endured much turmoil during their history due to the rather mixed national and religion composition. About ten countries on each side intermingled in culture, customs, and religions. There are some parallels between them. First of all, they hosted a kind of “splinter” religion like Orthodox Christianity in the Balkans (Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, partly Bosnia and Herzegovina) and Theravada Buddhism in Indochina (Thailand, Burma, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia). Both regions have large inclusions of Islamic states (Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Balkans and Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia in Indochina) or separate Muslim communities in non-Muslim countries. Some countries (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Albania, Vietnam, Laos, Burma, Cambodia) in both regions endured a certain (in many places – just inhuman) impact from various types of

216 communist regimes, still influencing the lives of the people (Cambodia, 2009; Burma, 2009; Indochina, 2009).

Discussion – Cause of the parallelism

Overall, parallels between two triplets of peninsulas are relative, not strictly scientific, and not precise, but yet quite obvious. The regularity is that analogies are expressed rather as free, unrestricted recurrence than identical proportional copying: one can find the same elements repeated in a distance of several thousands kilometres, but these elements are different in their shape, inner composition and spatial distribution at a local scale. For example, the Po plain and Alps are quite different in their inner composition and shape compared to the Indus- Ganga plain and Himalayas, but their principle scheme is the same. Not only the physical, but also the cultural elements can be characterized by this regularity, like the Basque and Kurd nations that are different in size, culture, religion, and origin, but both are struggling for their independence. The same is observable with processes like historical civilization shifts (Etruscans – Italians, Harappans – Aryans), regime changes (like communist movements in Balkans and Indochina).

The other rule that could be premised basing on many facts is that most active cultural (and perhaps natural also) interchanges take place between respective peninsulas (counting from the West, for example), i.e. Iberian and Arabian, Apennine and Hindustan, Balkan and Indochina. For example, according to quite recent news Spain and Saudi Arabia are cooperating in the fight against terrorism, and Italy and India are wildly intensifying their trade relations (Kamal Nath, 2006). At the same time international relations between the Balkans and Indochina seem not to be as well expressed as the relations inside the region, among the immediate neighbours, and this applies to the first regularity of structural similarity between corresponding peninsulas.

However, the most important question is what causes such a parallelism? It is too early to answer this question because of lack of research. Analogous physical features of the peninsulas can be easily attributed to natural coincidence, but cultural parallels following the same regularities need some further explanation. The situation reminds us that analogical ecosystems and species diversity exists (occupying analogical ecological niches) in different continents, but also in the same climatic zones like it is in Africa, South America, and Australia. But the latter fact is well equipped with modern theories of ecosystem and species evolution, plate tectonic, and so forth (Lekevičius, 2000).

What is the cause of parallelism in geological structures and cultural features? The only supposition coming to mind at this point of time, is that some kind of waves exist on our planet that repeat at some distance the initiation of similar if not the same processes. The rest – the interrelation between the corresponding parts (like Spain-Arabia, Italy-India, etc.) – is the secondary regularity, known in social psychology as the law of “attraction of the similarities”. Of course, for effective cooperation, some space should be left for complementarities too (Interpersonal attraction, 2009).

Further investigations should include full analysis of parallels, and their correlations in the six peninsulas. Quantitative and statistical data could give quite different views of the situation and even reduce or enhance (both are possible) the rate of similarity. If parallelism keeps its position here why not look for it elsewhere in the world? This could be the next step, together with trials to find the cause of such a parallelism.

217

Conclusions

Firstly, the similarities of physical geographical features of the Iberian and Arabian, Apennine and Hindustan, Balkan and Indochina peninsulas are related to the orographic and tectonic fields (corresponding mountain and plain distribution, land and sea mosaics); climate (especially distribution of humidity), hydrographical (more or less dependent on tectonic and climate factors). However, the parallels mentioned are rather free interpretations of each other rather than precise copies.

Secondly, cultural parallels are related to nation interrelations in historical times, distribution of religions, and political regimes, and so forth. Some analogies resemble the physical similarities and they too are but unrestricted modifications of each other (like the Basques and Kurds in the northern parts of the Iberian and Arabian regions), while pair interrelations (like Spain – Saudi Arabia, Italy – India, etc.) are a reflection of the “similarities attraction” law. Thirdly, there are no causes of parallelism between two peninsular triplets known so far, as well as no statistical or other quantitative analysis performed to prove that parallelism is not a coincidence. These problems imply tasks for future investigations, as well.

References Basque people. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_people. Accessed 08/04/2009. Bay of Kotor. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Kotor. Accessed 08/04/2009. Burma. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma. Accessed 08/04/2009. Cambodia. ( 2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia. Accessed 08/04/2009. Cherrapunji. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherrapunji. Accessed 08/04/2009. Concise Atlas of the World. (2005). Dorling Kindersley, London. Etruscan Civilization. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscans. Accessed 08/04/2009. History of India. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India. Accessed 08/04/2009. History of Spain. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Spain. Accessed 08/04/2009. History of Thailand. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Thailand. Accessed 08/04/2009. Kamal Nath to lead largest-ever FICCI delegation to Italy to woo FDI. ( 2006) http://www.ficci.com/press/151/lARGEST.doc. Accessed 08/04/2009. India and Italy. ( 2009) http://www.lifeinitaly.com/culture/india-italy.asp. Accessed 08/04/2009. Indochina. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indochina. Accessed 08/04/2009. Interpersonal attraction. (2009). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_attraction. Accessed 08/04/2009. Kurdish people. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_people. Accessed 08/04/2009. Lekevičius E. (2000). Gyva tik ekosistema: ne visai tradicinis požiūris į gyvybės evoliuciją [Only ecosystem is alive: not quite traditional outlook to life evolution]. 108 p. Vilnius university. Santorini. (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorini. Accessed 08/04/2009.

218 Regional Development and Spatial Planning in Bulgaria: geographical perspectives

Assist. Prof. Kosyo Stoychev, PhD Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, Faculty of Geology and Geography [email protected]

Abstract In the recent years the development process in Bulgaria came into a very controversial manner of functioning. On the one hand there has been macroeconomic progress and stabilization but on the other side the regional disparities and differentiation has deepened. The regions that have been influenced in the main by direct foreign investments were marked by the high growth rates, such as in the construction sector. The last five years have been a period characterized by public investments in infrastructure and facilities and private in investments in residential buildings, office space and tourist infrastructure (Hotels and vacation houses). As a result many agglomeration cores, vacation sites and environmental sites have been “polluted” by new buildings but with a lack of public infrastructure and utilities. The objective of this article is to investigate the correlation between regional development objectives and the “regulative” regime of the spatial planning in Bulgaria. However, the final practical result shows some negative examples of vulnerable urban, social and environmental impact. Keywords: Regional development, spatial planning, planning regions plans, general structure plan

Introduction

In the countries that we often mark as developed, spatial planning is a result not only of policy created by market forces, but also a specific type of planning that reflects the stage of socio- economic development and collaboration between the private and public interests. However, these interests should follow-up the modern principle for sustainable spatial development through which the stakeholders – politicians, administration, business associations, entrepreneurs and nongovernmental civil organizations are able to influences the spatial planning process. The stakeholders have many different points of view and different approaches to the process, that we as geographers call “location decisions”. As a result of the strong market dependence, location decisions of private and the public authorities always depend on the different land use and their price rates. The specific situation in this case is that the prices reflects the relative individual demand and needs of the stakeholders, their desire to enlarge as well in the business, as well in the space, but on the other side are the real physical and environmental restrictions caused by the different territories and the controversial business and public interests. On the other side these location decisions depend by the spatial planning, that must maintain the good development of all types of territories.

This initial discussion aims to underline the significance of the basic factors and conditions, which determine the political framework in conduction to the spatial planning policy – aiming sustainable development of all territory types. On the other side of the spatial planning is the socio-political task that shapes the different intensity and activity of the economic cycle by sectors, that is why we need absolutely precise, clear and on time statistical information and

219 forecasts, concerning the territories status. In accordance with this, Bulgaria has made efforts to create a new more effective system for spatial planning and regional development associated with the market needs and municipal self-government administration level. Another factor that plays key role in the spatial planning policy is the necessity to integrate the ecological policies equally to social and economic effects that will shape the future development of space. The result is that spatial planning is being initiated, which is part of the initial environment for achievement of sustainable development and further growth.

In fact, the citizens and the economy create the requirements for spatial structures, which often are controversial. Usually, people expect to be provided with good residential places and prefer the “open space” residences with garden and low intensity and density of constructions, green area and naturally protected landscapes. In addition, people expect work places that are having locations with high level for services supply and vast commodity goods, which could be reached in short time and low transport expenses. Society needs transport connections, but also low noise levels and polluters. However, the creation of spatial planning that ensures and guarantees all the needs of Figure 1: Adapted from: Spatial planning and spatial development citizens are a high priority in Germany, Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning, government objective. This is not a prerequisite for further economic development, but it is important for the future competitiveness in relation to the world markets. Such kinds of policy will ensure future social peace and sustainability of the political system. This is why spatial planning should be considered as a high priority political objective. Spatial planning policy should divide several important levels – territory types (urbanised and rural regions), as well as the close located different types of towns which are having the potential to execute the role of spatial cores.

Economic and social changes expose this desired spatial structure to danger. When the agglomeration cores expand to include the surrounding territories, this urban growth in territory and traffic can lead to an overload of the urban areas and finally threaten their vitality and attractiveness for more migrants – people and businesses. As a result, the decline of employment rates in the some of the so called “old industrial regions”, some agglomerations lag behind in their economic rates, so their space is less profitable. At the same time, rural regions are in an unequal position because of unfavourable economic structures and weak transport accessibility. As a result, these regions have very few development opportunities.

Bulgaria is a specific case of a country in the South-East Europe in which the so called transition period has been taking too much time. Finally Bulgarian society has experienced some positive development trends. The crucial factors for this success have been accession to NATO and the EU membership. These were the geopolitical strengths that labelled Bulgaria as a stable zone of Europe. This indicator and the international development trends caused

220 unprecedented interest to invest in real estates and properties by people and corporations from all around the world. Fortunately, this possible reaction of international markets coincided with the economy stabilisation of Bulgaria, low bank credit interest rates and lighted credit procedures. In all these processes the state regulation regime should play a key role.

Spatial Planning in Bulgaria

In Bulgaria self-government level is immature, in a retrospective context, as well as in administrative capacity and management tradition. For less than 50 years the country has suffered nationalisation and denationalisation of the corporations, arable lands, the forests, and finally the opposite process, mass privatization of the state property corporations. The new owners and stakeholders acquired the gained property with quite different information and expectations for their future development and finally they acted in accordance with their corporate interests.

For a long period of time farming in Bulgaria has had few development perspectives. This caused significant migrations of people of fertile ages and a decrease of farming outputs. This was the reason that real estate had very low price rates. However, the urban agglomerations due to the restitution processes that took place there and created a class of property owners, created another line of development – a real estate price “balloon”.

After 2000, the municipalities which were a self-government level of administration, began to use municipal real estate properties as an instrument for investment attraction. This caused changes in the land use of many regulated lands, in zones vitally important for transport infrastructure for the urban centres. As a result of these new economic conditions in 2001 Bulgaria adopted a new Act regulates the interrelations between public and the private needs (the Spatial Planning Act). This Act replaced the Act for Territorial and Settlement Development of Bulgaria. In accordance with the new Act, the requirements for spatial planning in the Republic of Bulgaria are defined by structure, frame schemes and structure plans. The structure frame schemes are two types – national one and regional ones. In accordance to their content they could be divided in two types – complex areas and specialised ones. All the regional schemes reflect the predictions of the National structure scheme. Actually, these regional schemes are the connection with the programming of the regional development.

There are only two types of structure plans, the General Structure Plan – which defines the predominant and structure pattern of the separate parts of the territories, and the Detailed Structure Plan – they make concrete the structure of the territory, its construction regimes and the functions of each land.

Regional Development in Bulgaria

Regional development and regional policy have been a very important part of the policy in Bulgaria for a long period of time, but as a legal imperative of the state it is having very short history. The Regional Development Act was adopted in 1999. For the geography scientific society in Bulgaria it was very important fact. Many geographical researches for decades has “alarmed” for the negative demographic, economic and social changes, which are having strong spatial differentiation among the regions. (Karastoyanov and Popov, 2000; Dimov et al., 2005). More or less, this Act can be considered as a consequence of the scientific

221 discussions and the public expectations, so that development problems can be managed or mitigated.

One of the first results was the initiation of the regional development plans. These plans were created following the “bottom-up” principle. In the first variant some of the levels were missing but the final structure is shown in Figure 2. This planned system was based on a completely new for Bulgaria. It is too early to discuss the results because their actions are planned up to 2013, but I suppose Figure 2: Planning Structures in Bulgaria that they will reach at maximum 30 % of its objectives.

My view is that the main problem of the development process in Bulgaria is the changes and the regional differentiation of the population (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Population in Bulgaria for the period 1980-2007, Source: www.stat.bg

External migrations to the EU countries and USA increased the relative number of older people and the median age reached 42 years. Some regions experienced a situation of rapid depopulation, which caused the liquidation of hundreds villages. On the other side the internal migrations caused unprecedented concentration of population in the South-West region and especially the capital city Sofia. Hence, the North-west region and the South-East regions decreased their relative weight and caused the changes in the spatial configuration of the NUTS II system in 2006, only 7 years after its initial adoption. (See Figures 4, 5 and 6)

222 Figure 4 Figure 5

Source: National strategy for demographic development 2006-2020

Figure 6

Conclusion

The spatial planning process and regional development in Bulgaria are facing many problems. The above mentioned structure plans apparently do not have any other normative and functional connections. Hence, the spatial planning and regional development are activities programmed by authorities with different competencies and what is more important the financial resources about these activities are not in reciprocal action. Because of this reason, spatial planning and its instruments is getting much more finance when compared with the regional development. The corporations and the municipal authorities prefer to invest on their structure plans because these plans are able to legalise their investment intentions. However, here comes the lack of connections with the long term objectives that regional development has to guarantee. Bulgaria has to overcome this disintegration of the both systems, otherwise the regional development system could become an instrument that is “capturing” the negative socio-economic trends but having no power to manage these negatives. One of the approaches for the decision of this problem is the initiation of wide scale public discussion, the initiation

223 of many scientific projects that have to create new regionalisation of the country and new future for its regions.

References Закон за устройство на територията, 31.08.2008 г. Обн. ДВ. бр.50 от 30 Май 2008г. Закон за регионалното развитие, ДВ. бр.1 от 2 Януари 2001г., Димов Н., И. Марков, К. Стойчев, Балансирано развитие на районите в България – същност и главни инструменти. – В: Сборник доклади СУБ и развитието на науката и висшето образование том ІІ, В. Търново 2005г. с. 53 – 58 Карастоянов, С., А. Попов. Регионалната политика и икономиката на България. – В: Обучението по география, кн. 4-5, 1997 Карастоянов, С., П. Славейков, Регионална география на България (райони за планиране – кратка характеристика), Университетско издателство “Св. Кл. Охридски”, София, 2000 Национална стратегия за регионално развитие на Република България за периода 2005- 2015г., НЦТР, София, 2005 Национална стратегическа референтна рамка, програмен период 2007-2013, София, 2006 National strategy for demographic development 2006-2020, Ministry council, 2005 Spatial planning and spatial development in Germany, Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning, Bonn, March 2001

224 The Main GeotourIsm Resources of Turkey

Assistant Professor Gülpınar Akbulut

Abstract The main aim of this paper is to determine “The Main Geotourism Resources of Turkey”. Defined as all kinds of travel and accommodation causing to consumption for purposes including relaxation, entertainment, seeing new places and people, health, education and culture, tourism today is one of the biggest industries of the world. Nowadays this industry has also been adding geoturism, which is a new trend and it’s a new dimension. Geotourism is able to define to the utilization of geological and geomorphology heritage resources, as (including) mountain ranges, rift valley, volconoes, karst landscapes and arid enviroments in context education-based tourism.

Turkey is a country with immense tourism potential thanks to its rich natural and cultural landscape unique among Mediterranean countries and its location connecting Asia, Europe and Africa. Moreover, it has an important richness in terms of archaeological, cultural and natural attractions which are an excellent basis for developing geotourism. In this study the author tried to determination geological and geomorphology heritage resources of Turkey and submitted proposals, future plans and applications for developing geotourism.

Key Words: Geology Heritage, Geotourism, Geopark and tourist

Introduction

Tourism has an important socio-cultural and economic place in Turkey. In 2007, 23,340,911 tourists have visited Turkey with an income of $13,990bn. Turkey is one of the most tourist visited countries in the world, it has a rich culture and beautiful natural environment. However it must not use this resource too much. The main type of tourism in Turkey is beach- based tourism.

One of the new tourism developments is geotourism. Geotourism is rapidly being recognized as an exciting new direction for tourism surrounding geological and geomorphology attractions and destinations. Geotourism is concerned with sustaining or enhancing a destination’s geographic character (Wartiti et al., 2007: 2). This tourism has some differences compared to the other types of tourism. Geotourism depends on scientific value, geotourism appeal, educational and historical values, international significance, cultural, social structure, biodiversity and appearance. Thus the types of tourist who are visiting these places are also differrent.

Geotourism sits within a spectrum of definitions. Because of this, it can be considered to be a part of concepts of sustainable tourism and ecotourism. Geotourism is a sustainable tourism activity and has contributed more economically than other tourism to local people who are taken the place in tourism (Newsome, 2006; Efe et al., 2008: 323).6 Turkey has an important potential for geotourism. It is essential to determine this potential.

6 The National Geographic Society has drawn up a "Geotourism Charter" based on 13 principles: 1. Integrity of place: Enhance geographical character by developing and improving it in ways distinctive to the local, reflective of its natural and cultural heritage, so as to encourage market differentiation and cultural pride.

225

Turkey is a Eurasian country that stretches across the Anatolian peninsula in western Asia and Thrace in the Balkan region of southestern Europe. Turkey is a peninsula which is bordered the Black Sea, the Mediterranean and the Aegean. It has a total coastline of 8,333 km including the Marmara Sea. Turkey also shares borders of 269 km with Bulgaria and 203 km with Greece to the northwest; 276 km with Georgia, 325 km with Armenia, 18 km with Azerbaijan (Nahjivan) to the northeast; 529 km with Iran to the east; 378 km with Iraq to the southeast and 877 km with Syria to the south. Turkey is a large country with the area of 814,578 km2 and has a population of over 70 million people. The highest mountain in Turkey is Ağrı Mountain with 5,137 m followed by Buzul Mountain (4,116 m), Uludoruk (4,135 m), Süphan Mountain (4,058 m), Erciyes Mountain (3,917 m) and Small Mount Ararat (3,896 m). Its biggest lake is Lake Van with 3,712 km2. This is followed by Lake Tuz with 1,500 km2. Its

2. International codes: Adhere to the principles embodied in the World Tourism Organization’s Global Code of Ethics for Tourism and the Principles of the Cultural Tourism Charter established by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). 3. Market selectivity: Encourage growth in tourism market segments most likely to appreciate, respect, and disseminate information about the distinctive assets of the locale. 4. Market diversity: Encourage a full range of appropriate food and lodging facilities, so as to appeal to the entire demographic spectrum of the geotourism market and so maximize economic resiliency over both the short and long term. 5. Tourist satisfaction: Ensure that satisfied, excited geotourists bring new vacation stories home and send friends off to experience the same thing, thus providing continuing demand for the destination. 6. Community involvement: Base tourism on community resources to the extent possible, encouraging local small businesses and civic groups to build partnerships to promote and provide a distinctive, honest visitor experience and market their locales effectively. Help businesses develop approaches to tourism that build on the area’s nature, history and culture, including food and drink, artisanry, performance arts, etc. 7. Community benefit: Encourage micro- to medium-size enterprises and tourism business strategies that emphasize economic and social benefits to involved communities, especially poverty alleviation, with clear communication of the destination stewardship policies required to maintain those benefits. 8. Protection and enhancement of destination appeal: Encourage businesses to sustain natural habitats, heritage sites, aesthetic appeal, and local culture. Prevent degradation by keeping volumes of tourists within maximum acceptable limits. Seek business models that can operate profitably within those limits. Use persuasion, incentives, and legal enforcement as needed. 9. Land use: Anticipate development pressures and apply techniques to prevent undesired overdevelopment and degradation. Contain resort and vacation-home sprawl, especially on coasts and islands, so as to retain a diversity of natural and scenic environments and ensure continued resident access to waterfronts. Encourage major self-contained tourism attractions, such as large-scale theme parks and convention centers unrelated to character of place, to be sited in needier locations with no significant ecological, scenic, or cultural assets. 10. Conservation of resources: Encourage businesses to minimize water pollution, solid waste, energy consumption, water usage, landscaping chemicals, and overly bright nighttime lighting. Advertise these measures in a way that attracts the large, environmentally sympathetic tourist market. 11. Planning: Recognize and respect immediate economic needs without sacrificing long-term character and the geotourism potential of the destination. Where tourism attracts in-migration of workers, develop new communities that constitute themselves a destination enhancement. Strive to diversify the economy and limit population influx to sustainable levels. Adopt public strategies for mitigating practices that are incompatible with geotourism and damaging to the image of the destination. 12. Interactive interpretation: Engage both visitors and hosts in learning about the place. Encourage residents to show off the natural and cultural heritage of their communities, so that tourists gain a richer experience and residents develop pride in their locales. 13. Evaluation: Establish an evaluation process to be conducted on a regular basis by an independent panel representing all stakeholder interests, and publicize evaluation results (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotourism 12.03.2009).

226 longest river is Kızılırmak with 1,355 km. and after its 1,263 km of the Euphrates River and 523 km of the Tigris, both of which originate in Turkey, are located within the country’s borders.

The coastal areas of Turkey, bordering the Mediteranean Sea, have a temperate Mediteranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, wet and cold winters. Interior of Turkey, called central Anatolian plateau, has a continental climate with dry summers and cold winters. Annual temperature averages changes according to regions because of the effect of mountains, altitude and inclination, so at the different regions are occurred the different climate at the same time. Annual precipition averages about 500 millimetres (Doğanay, 1994; Atalay, 1994). This paper tries to present general information about Turkey’s geology and geomorphology and places where it occurs, as well as some examples of geotourism products. However, it is clear that the future development of geotourism requires a comprehensive inventory and detailed planning.

Geotourısm Resources of Turkey

Turkey, which is located Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, has a very rugged and high topographic structure. The geological structure in Turkey is complex. Main causes of these situations are related to orogenic movements that occurred during the Tertiary era and epirogenic and volcanic activities took places between the Tertiary and Quaternary eras (Atalay, 2002: 12), so Turkey has an important richness from geological and geomorphology heritage resources points of view.

The mountains in Turkey can be divided into three groups in terms of their formations: Orogenic, volcanic mountains and horst. Orogenic mountains extend both in the northern and southern section of Anatolia. The northern ranges are called Northern Anatolia Mountains and the southern ranges are named the Taurus Mountains. Horsts, which occurred to uplifted blocks along the normal faults, are common in the western part of Anatolia. Volcanic mountains in Anatolia have formed with the accumulation of lavas and fine and coarse materials such as tuffs, volcanic sands, ash and gravels. Between the highest volconic mountains in Turkey can be show Ağrı Mountain, Süphan and Erciyes (Atalay, 2002: 12). Mountain areas in Turkey lead to the altitude ecological belts and have very big potential from endemic or relic animal and plants points of view. At the same time, these areas provides for the irrigation of the agricultural lands and drinking water of the urban centers. Mountains cover above half of Turkey are also important resources for geotourism because of nature structures, local architecture, culturel characteristic and mountains sports such as mountain biking and parachute of slope.

Some examples about areas, which have geotourism potential are: 1. Ağrı Mountain (Ararat). 7 Located appropximately 65 % in the Igdır Province and 35 % in the Ağrı Province in the northeast of country, Ağrı Mountain is a young stratovolcano that formed in the Pliyosen. It is the highest mountain of Turkey with its peak of 5,137 m and above the height of 4,200 m. The mountain mostly consists of rocks covered by an ice sheet (Güner, 2000: 385). Agrı Mountain is important for both national and international dimensions. The mountain is sacred by three big religion, so many people has been believed

7 Ağrı Mountain, which is called Kuh-i Nus by Iranians, is stil known as “Ararat” in the Western world. Ararat is not a concept from Armenian language, it is the name given to Urartu Country by Asurians. It is highly probable that the name “Ağrı” came from Turkish of Shamanizm period. For in the Dictionary of Yakut Language written by Pekarsky, “Ağr” or “Ağrı” means “Huge” or “God” (Güner , 2000: 386).

227 that there is Noah ark, which a large wooden ship built by Noah in order to save his family and a male and female of every type of animal when the world was covered by a flood, in the Ağrı Mountain. Some researchers have come to examine about this subject to Ağrı Mountain (Arınç and Kaya, 2004: 438). Ağrı Mountain has nature attractives such as Cehennem Valley, which is the greatest and the most famous of these and caves. Located on the northeastern slope of the mountain, in this valley, there is an iceberg, which is 6-7 km long. On the northern part of the valley there are two small caves in a place about 2500 m. One of them is called “Lawrence Cave”. Lawrence, an English spy, was said to have stayed in this cave and launced the revolt of Ağrı. The other cave is also called “the Fountain of Prophet”. It is said that Prophet Jacob came there and took ablution and prayed (Güner, 2000: 386). Except these caves, there are various caves at the feet of the Great Ağrı Mountain, which is named “Cow Valley” by the local people. These caves which can hold hundreds of animals have been used as mountain pasture by people. Ağrı Mountain is able to do various sports such as nature sports, camping, mountain biking and parachute of slope (Güner, 2000: 386). There are also touristic attractive such as Fish Lake, Ice Cave, meteor depression, İshak Paşa Palace and Bayezit Mosque in the near of Ağrı Mountain (Arınç and Kaya, 2004: 439).

2. Mountain areas in Anatolia, Nemrut Volcanic Mountain. The volcano is called after King Nimrod who lived this area in about 2100 BC. Nemrut Mountain is on the west coast of Van Lake, a soda lake covering a surface of 3574 km2, in the East Anatolia Region of Turkey. This mountain is a stratovolcano and continued to be active until 1597 A.D (Aydar et al., 2003: 302). There is caldera, lakes, mineral spring and trees such as oak and brich in the Nemrut Mountain. The Nemrut Caldera, which is one of the largest calderas in the world, is on the Nemrut Mountain. The caldera was formed by the collapse of the peak of the cone of the volcano. It can be seen that emmissions from several outlets took place in the caldera. There is still one outlet from where emission of gas continues. The depth of the caldera is appropximately 450-500 m. There are two lakes in the caldera. One of them is located the western part of the caldera. The other is also a small warm lake which tempature reaches 60°C (Gürbüz, 1995: 255). This tempature show that it’s continuing volcanic activity. The Nemrut Caldera is very interesting with its natural and beautiful look. This sitution makes it very important from the touristic point of view. Except for this mountains, there are many mountains which have important touristic attractive in Turkey such as Süphan, Erciyes, Tendürek and Hasan mountains. It is important to use in the best manner of mountain in tourism.

3. Cappadocia, which is unique in the world, including local open air museums, and is a miraculous natural wonder. It is the common name for the field covered by the provinces of Aksaray, Nevsehir, Nigde, Kayseri and Kirsehir in the Inner Anatolia region (Tosun, 1998: 598). In the upper Myosen period in the Cappadocia region as a result of the volcanic eruptions occurred in Erciyes, Hasandag and Gulludag, in the region was formed a large tableland from the volcanic tufas and together with the erosion of the Kizilirmak river. There are geological structures of volcanic origin that are as the “fairy chimneys” Fairy Chimneys are quite a rare landform all over the world. These landforms have been evaluated in visual respect in geotourism constitute an attractive force of high values in Ürgüp-Göreme district in regarding form, color, intensity and dimensions (Doğaner, 1995: 25). The geological history of the region is based on volcanicity from Oligocene times, approximately 38 million years ago (Bowen, 1990: 35). Göreme, Zelve, Kızıl, Güllüdere, Bağlıdere, Killik, Görkün creek, Zemi creek, Pancarlık and Halaç creek valleys between Göreme, Ürgüp and Avonos and in their near surounding are mostly attractive points for tourism (Doğaner, 1995: 25).

228 In the old Bronze Age the Cappadocia, which was the population zone of the Assyrian civilization later has hosted the Hittite, Frig, Pers, Byzantine, Seljuk and Ottoman civilizations (Tosun, 1998: 598). Cappadocia, where there were many underground cities, used by early Christians escaped from the persecution of the Roman Empire times, as hiding places. Due that they had live in the underground cities for long duration without being able to go out they have developed these underground cities by making provisions rooms, ventilation chimneys, wine production places, churches, abbeys, water wells, toilets and meeting rooms (Doğaner, 1995: 34-35). There are many touristic attractive places in the Cappadocia. Today, these areas are a famous and popular tourist destinations, as it has many areas with unique geological, historic and cultural features. Cappadocia is visited every year by hundred thousands of tourists coming from every part of the world.

4. A further example is Pamukkale. Pamukkale is located in Denizli province. The famous carbonate terraces are in the world heritage list of UNESCO. Pamukkale has a large white limestone formations which are occured because of the hot spring and the high of its is appropximately 160 m and long 2700 m. Pamukkale also used as a spa. This area has the natural and archaeological site of Pamukkale-Hierapolis. It is possible to see Antique Pool, Antique Theather, and Archaeology Museum there (Doğaner, 1997; http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamukkale 23.03.2009). Pamukkale has got some problems. There are only a few hotels. These hotels were using the hot water from the spa. In a short time, Pamukkale began to lose its white limestone formations. At the same time, many tourists walked on its and it was spoilt and began to changed its colour. Enviromental conditions related Pamukkale heritage didn’t plan this very carefully and not take into account a sustainability tourism dimension and did daily practises, whereas enviromental performance is very important to improve of geotourism.

In addition to these heritage areas, there are many other unique landforms with geotourism potential in Turkey. They include lakes, waterfalls, mineral springs, canyon valleys, wind features and caves. We can give some example such as Meke maar where are located in Konya Province and Red happiness valley which is a very important sample for yardang, Pliocene era red coloured sandstones are located South of Narman of Erzurum province and Lake Tuz in Inner Anatolia and Lake Van in East Anatolia and Karapınar which is sand dunes and travertine cones lies within the city boundaries of Konya and Asarlık Hills where are located in Ankara and Cehennem Canyon where are located Artvin, Botan River Valley where is located in Siirt Karain Cave where is located in Antalya and Sivas Karst features and Kula volcanics, which can be an area of interest for geotourism with its volcanic formations and structures and meet the expectations of people with its cultural values has an important for tourism of Turkey (Garipağaoğlu, 1996; Yaşar, 1995; Koçmanand Koçman, 2006). For example the karstic lands in the Sivas, which is not known in Turkey very much, could be provided for geotourism. There are many karstic lakes such as Lota lakes, Dipsiz, Hafik and Tödürge and interesting features. Formation in here is called karst of gypsum. The geological history of the karst of gypsum is based on Oligocene times. Many tourism activities such as water sports, ornitology, lake camping, discovered new karstic features, fauna and flora (Akpınar and Akbulut, 2007: 1).

Conclusions

Today, geotourism is less significant compared to coastal tourism in Turkey, but geological and geomorphology heritage resources are an important tourism development resource, so in order to determine the potential of geotourism of Turkey local people’s situations, flora and

229 fauna, tradional land use as well as geological and geomorphology heritage resources all need to be taken into consideration as a whole. Based on this information Turkey’s geotourism properties can be assessed. Hence, it is possible to draw some general conclusions from this study.

First, there are many geoheritages in Turkey. These resources are not used for tourism. Turkey has to determine geotourism policies, where it can establish geotourism resources and preserve their geoheritage for present and future generations. National Park Laws should be used to protect geological and geomorphology heritage resources.

Second, geotourism ensure sustainable socio-economic and culturel development for local people. Geological heritage sites, properly managed can generate employment and new economic activities, especially in regions in need of new or additional sources of income (Tosun, 1998: 559). Local people need to be educated about subjects such as geography, geological sciences and their relation to environmental matters. They also serve a sustainable development and for illustrating methods of site conservation as well as remembering that rocks, minerals, fossils, soils, landforms form an integral part of the natural world. Education and training courses should be open. Children must be given enviromental education.

Third, while geotourism provides business for local people, it also brings negative environmental consequences. In particular, accommodation, including hotels, resorts and campgrounds continue to be developed as the most criticised tourism component because of their potential negative impacts on the natural and cultural environmental (Erdoğan and Tosun, 2009: 407). Investments must be considered in the long term for tourism locations. Environmental conditions meed to be considered including the natural, cultural and economic properties of tourist heritage as a whole. Tourists should be kept at a minimum distance from fragile geoheritage sites in order to protect them.

Fourth, local goverment must advertise these heritages in Turkey. They can use modern information technology such as Internet and documentaries. Cultural ambassadors must provide iformation to other countries.

Finally, if Turkey can use its potential geotourism sites and the geological and geomorphology attractions can be protected, it can contribute successful to sustainable Turkish tourism.

References Akpınar, E. andAkbulut, G., (2007), Hafik Gölü ve Yakın Çevresinin Turizm Olanakları, Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı:9, pp.1-24. Arınç, K. and Kaya, F., (2004), Doğubayazıt İlçesi’nin Turizm Potansiyeli, Güneşin Doğduğu Yer: Doğubayazıt Sempozyumu, Çekül Vakfı, s. 433-450. Atalay, İ., (1994), Türkiye Coğrafyası, Ege Üniversitesi Basımevi, İzmir. Atalay, İ., (2002), Türkiye’deki Dağlık Alanların Oluşumu, Yapısal ve Ekolojik Özellikleri, Türkiye Dağları I. Ulusal Sempozyumu (25-27 Haziran 2002), Orman Bakanlığı Yayınları No: 183, s. 12-23. Aydar, E. and Gourgaud, A. and Ulusoy, I. and Digonnet, F. and Labazuy, P. and Sen, E. and Bayhan, H. and Kurttaş, H. and Tolluoglu, A.Ü., (2003), Morphological analysis of active Mount Nemrut stratovolcano, eastern Turkey: evidences and possible impact areas of future eruption, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 123, pp. 301–312.

230 Bowen, R., (1990), The Future of the past at Göreme in Turkey, Environmental Geology and Water Sciences, 16, pp.35-41. Doğanay, H., (1994), Türkiye Beşeri Coğrafyası, Gazi Büro Kitapevi, İstanbul. Doğaner, S., (1995), Peribacalarının Turizm Bakımından Önemi, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 30, s. 25-39. Doğaner, S., (1997), A Heritage of Anatolia : Pamukkale, Review, No: 4, s.99-116. Efe, R. and Sönmez, S. and Cürebal, İ. and Soykan, A., (2008), Balıkesir İli Geoturizm Yöreleri: Marmara Geoturizm Yöresi Örneği, III. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi (17-19 Nisan 2008), Nobel Yayıncılık, s. 323-330. Erdoğan, N. and Tosun, C., (2009), Environmental performance of tourism accommadations in the protected areas: Case of Goreme Historical National Park, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, pp. 406-414. Garipağaoğlu, N., (1996), Doğal Bir Anıt Olarak Narman Havzası'nda Kuesta Reliefi, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 31, ss.291-304. Güner, İ., (2000), Touristic Potential of Ağrı Mountain, Eastern Geographical Review, Number: 4, pp. 385-387. Gürbüz, O., (1995), Turizm Coğrafyası Açısından Nemrut Kalderası, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 30, ss. 255-265. Koçman, A. and Koçman Ö., (2006), “Burnt Land (Katakekaumene)”: Evaluations on Geotourism in Kula Volcanic Area, 'Geçmişten Geleceğe Köprü: Yanık Ülke Kula' sempozyumu. Newsome, D., (2006), Geotourism: Sustainability, impacts and management (Ed.: Rose Dowling), Elsevier Publish, Great Britian. Tosun, C., (1998), Roots of unsustainable tourism development at the local level: the case of Urgup in Turkey, Tourism Management, Vol: 19, No: 6, p. 595-610. Wartiti, M. and Malaki, A. and Zahraoui, M. and Ghannouchi, A. and Gregorio, F. (2007), Geosites inventory of the northwestern Tabular Middle Atlas of Morocco, Environment Geology, p.2-7. Yaşar, O., (2000), Ülkemizde Milli Park ve Benzer Statüdeki Alanların Dağılımı, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 30, s. 181-201. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamukkale 23.03.2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotourism 12.03.2009

231 Celebrating Linguistic Diversity or accepting an `English-Only’ Europe?

Mark Wise Jean Monnet Professor of European Integration Studies, School of Geography, University of Plymouth [email protected]

Abstract One of the `fundamental rights’ of the European Union (EU) is `respect for linguistic diversity’. This diversity is celebrated as a major element of a Èuropean identity’ and is perceived as conforming to the confederal EU concept of seeking Ùnity in Diversity’. To a remarkable extent the EU puts this principle of respect for linguistic diversity into practice; thus, Maltese and Irish (spoken by relatively few people who generally speak English as well in bilingual states) are legally recognised as òfficial’ and `working’ languages of the EU. The EU also proclaims ambitious aims to create a multilingual EU citizenry within which everyone would be able to speak àt least’ two languages in addition to their mother-tongue. However, such ambitions confront the geolinguistic reality that English becomes increasingly dominant as the second language of continental Europeans, while the learning of foreign languages continues its steep decline in the United Kingdom. Moreover, notwithstanding its 23 official de jure languages, English is now, de facto, the dominant `working language’ within the EU. Some welcome this trend and advocate that English is officially adopted as the EU’s common (not single) transnational language. However others fear that this will lead to the `linguistic exclusion’ of numerous citizens (many of whom do not speak English) from transnational European affairs and continue to insist on a highly multilingual regime within EU institutions. The author concludes that, although the geographical spread of English at the expense of other languages appears unstoppable, the EU must continue to do all in its power to respect linguistic diversity in its official activities. It also argues that Member States continue to insist on the use of national languages within national territories and that, in giving official status to languages such as Maltese and Irish, the EU is strengthening such `minority’ languages and resisting trends towards an Ènglish-only’ Europe.

Keywords: European Union, geolinguistic diversity, respect for diversity, unity in diversity, dominance of English language, linguistic exclusion, multilingualism.

The European Union’s Celebration of Geolinguistic Diversity

The `The Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union’ requires `respect for linguistic diversity’ (OJEC 2000). This principle is embedded in various EU treaties, regulations and policies (references). Thus the European Commission, echoing the demands of the EU Member States, proclaims that: `Linguistic diversity is one of the EU’s defining features. Respect for the diversity of the Union’s languages is a founding feature of the European Union’ (Commission of the EC 2003: 12)

Reflecting the EU’s confederal motto of `Unity in Diversity’, this commitment proposes integration though a shared value of respect for cultural differences. This strategy contrasts with traditional approaches to state- and nation-building where governments have usually sought to reduce cultural diversities in their search for political unity. Thus, most European states historically adopted a single official `national language’ to facilitate the construction of

232 a shared `national identity’ designed to bring their diverse regions together into a cohesive political-geographical entity. France, originally composed of linguistically diverse regions, provides a classic example of this òne state - one nation - one language’ strategy of integration (Judge, 2000), but many others adopted a similar strategy of eradicating geolinguistic diversity. Thus, despite recent concessions to official multilingualism in some of its regions, the historical architects of the United Kingdom imposed the `King’s English’ across the state territory to replace its various `minority’ languages and dialects. The `melting- pot’ integration strategy of the United States of America also requires linguistic homogenisation through the adoption of English by its multilingual immigrants. Today the Ènglish-only’ movement in the USA remains determined to maintain this strategy faced with the influx of immigrants, notably from Spanish-speaking Latin America. It thus remains committed to the USA motto è pluribus unum’(one out of many…unity out of diversity) whereas the EU has adopted the ideal of ìn uno, plures’(many in one…unity in diversity).

But how far is the EU ideal of respect for linguistic diversity put into practice? In many ways, it has been to an extraordinary extent. The six founding states of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 established the practice of making all the official languages of Member States the official languages of European institutions as well. In 1958, the first EEC regulation (no. 1/58) adopted by signatories of the Treaty of Rome (Article 217) reinforced this principle by allowing Member States to exercise what is effectively a `national veto’ on matters of language policy both at EU and national level. Thus, following the 2007 enlargement, these EU law regulations now require that: ‘The official languages and the working languages of the institutions of the Union shall be Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish & Swedish.’ In addition, `regional-national’ languages such as Catalan, Basque, Galician and Welsh may be used in EU institutions in certain situations

This remarkable degree of official multilingualism requires that all EU legislation is translated into all 23 `official languages’ of the EU. There is also interpretation and translation amongst all of these languages in major public debates in the European Parliament and within the Council of Ministers (although lack of trained personnel still makes this ideal impossible for Irish and Maltese); furthermore, all EU citizens have right to communicate with all the EU institutions in their national language. Thus, respect for linguistic diversity is greater within the EU more than in any other multinational body such as the U.N. Also, while the Indian Federation is broadly comparable in size and linguistic diversity to Europe, only English & Hindi are officially used to facilitate communication amongst its diverse states with their many languages.

The EU also promotes multilingualism beyond its supranational institutions through programmes including Lingua and Socrates. Moreover, its leaders articulate ambitious multilingual aims; thus, the European Council (EU Heads of Government) held in Barcelona in March 2002 expressed the desire that `…all (higher education) students should study abroad, preferably in a foreign language, for at least one term, and should gain an accepted language qualification as part of their degree course’ and the need to take

233 ‘...further action to teach at least two foreign languages to all (EU citizens) from a very early age’ (Commission 2003:4-8)

The European Commission produced an `An Action Plan’ designed to put these multilingual ideals into practice (Commission 2003). There is also EU support for minority languages, including ones as fragile as Cornish, which ceased to be passed naturally between generations over 200 years ago and which, at best, can claim only a few hundred speakers today (Morris, 2008). In particular, it finances the work of the European Bureau for Lesser Known Languages (Ó Riagáin 2001:22-24). All this leads to the conclusion that EU really does `celebrate’ its linguistic diversity and takes multiple measures to both protect and promote it.

Respect for Linguistic Diversity in thr EU: Ideals and Realities

But how justified is it to celebrate this EU `respect for linguistic diversity’? Is there a cosmetic element in these policies which disguises a reality where such diversity is diminishing rather than flourishing? Is it really possible to create multilingual Europeans in a `language market’ where the overwhelming majority of non-native Anglophones choose to learn English as their second language? While European rhetoric may be `celebrating diversity’, are `linguistic market forces’ leading inexorably to what a prominent linguist has termed an `English-only Europe’ (Phillipson 2003)

In reality, notwithstanding its 23 de jure `official’ and `working’ languages, some languages are de facto `more equal than others’ within in the workings of the EU. English, French and German enjoy a privileged status as genuine `working languages’ in the hidden `corridors of power’ of the EU beyond the public view of plenary sessions of the European Parliament. Gradually, English has emerged as the most dominant working language of all, having overtaken French. For example, it increasingly dominates as the original drafting language for EU legislation; EU laws are ultimately translated into 23 languages but, on the lengthy and complex path to this final form, much of the negotiating work often takes place in English. Before the UK’s entry into the European Community in 1973, some 60% of `original’ EU texts were written in French and about 40% in German. Following EU enlargement into eastern Europe in 2004, more than 60%+ of such working texts are now in English and proportion continues to rise at the expense of French (about 30%) and German (less that 5%). The European Central Bank based in Frankfurt, and EUROPOL, based in The Hague are just two examples of European bodies which use English as their `working language’. Moreover, there is some evidence of the beginnings of a more profound linguistic shift to English in that some non-native speakers of the language (notably some Dutch and Scandinavian MEPs) ignore the interpretation facilities available to them in EU meetings and speak directly in English to other participants (Wise 2004).

A striking example of a `linguistic shift’ to English in EU affairs occurred in 2006 when a prominent French business leader, Ernest-Antoine Seillière (President of the EU employers' association UNICE, now significantly renamed BusinessEurope), addressed a major EU meeting in English despite the availability of excellent interpretation facilities. In response, President Chirac of France left the meeting with his ministers in protest against what he perceived as Seillière’s lack of respect for `linguistic diversity’. Nevertheless, Seillière continued in English, which he described as `the accepted business language of Europe today’ (BBC News, 2006). It is not only from France that such protests emanate. In 2001, the German Minister of Foreign Affairs joined his French counterpart in formally protesting to the European Commission about growing dominance of English in EU affairs. This followed

234 threats from the German government to boycott EU meetings where language facilities were not provided for German-speakers (Independent, 1999).

Among the wider general public, the EU’s `1+2’ language policy (see above) makes little progress confronted with the ever widening geographical diffusion of English. School students in continental Europe increasingly opt for English in the `language market’ (Calvet 2002) in order to obtain what they perceive to be the `linguistic capital’ necessary to obtain access to: • employment (the need to speak English in a globalised economy); • many elements of higher education (academic texts in English, exchange programmes, post-graduate courses in English, international conferences, etc); • prestige (a sense, however misconceived, that a `modern’ person must speak English).

Thus, between 2002 and 2006, the average percentage of secondary-school students within the EU-27 choosing English as their foreign language rose from 73.6% to 85.7% (Eurydice 2008). In most countries, the percentage is higher than 90% and increasing; see Table 1. English is also the language most known by Europeans across the widest geographical area (Eurobarometer 2005). Overall within the EU-27 (plus Croatia and Turkey) in 2005, some 34% claimed an ability to `converse’ in English as a foreign language, a proportion way ahead of its nearest competitors in the European `language market’, namely German (12%), French (11%), and Spanish (5%) and Russian (5%); see Table 2. But it is important to note that a substantial majority of continental Europeans do NOT speak English and that the ability to speak this so-called `international’ language varies geographically, with the northern European peoples noticeably more proficient than those speaking Latin languages in southern Europe; see Table 3.

Table 1: Percentage of secondary school children studying English, French and German as a foreign languages in EU-27 and Turkey 2002-2006 (Source: Eurydice 2008) ENGLISH ENGLISH FRENCH GERMAN 2002 2006 + / - 2006 2006 Norway 100.0 100.0 18.6 29.3 Sweden 100.0 100.0 17.6- 25.6 Denmark 98.1 100.0 + (increase) 15.3+ 84.0+ Netherlands 98.0 n.a. n.a. n.a. Finland 99.0 99.3+ (increase) 11.6- 22.0- Austria 98.6 98.8+ (increase) 12.9+ …. Spain 97.1 97.5+ (increase) 35.6- 2.1+ France 96.0 97.5+ (increase) …. 17.1- Greece 97.6 96.9+ (increase) 38.1- 23.1+ Latvia 92.6 96.5+ (increase) 1.9+ 22.4- Slovenia 90.5 96.4+ (increase) 5.1+ 47.8+ Italy 84.3 96.3+ (increase) 35.9+ 7.2+ Germany 93.9 96.0+ (increase) 25.1+ ,,,, Estonia 90.0 95.0+ (increase) 66.3- 30.0- Romania 86.4 95.0+ (increase) 86.5 - 10.9- Cyprus 99.8 93.9- (decrease) 67.6- 1.6+ Malta 96.8 93.9- (decrease) 37.1- 8.2+ Lithuania 78.6 90.1+ (increase) 4.3- 24.3- Iceland 82.4 87.3+ (increase) 9.4+ 17.9- Czech Republic 67.4 81.4+ (increase) 6.2+ 34.5- Poland 77.8 80.3+ (increase) 5.0- 42.8-

235 Portugal 52.9 80.2+ (increase) 63.1+ 0.9+ Bulgaria 64.8 75.4+ (increase) 12.2- 25.9+ Slovakia 68.1 74.2+ (increase) 4.5+ 42.6- Belgium (Dutch-speaking) 70.6 70.7+ (increase) 96.8- 23.3- Turkey 66.1 (2004) 67.3+ (increase) 0.7- 6.5+ Belgium (French-speaking) 68.2 67.1+ (decrease) …. ….. Hungary 51.2 64.2+ (increase) 3.2- 4.0- Luxembourg 62.5 64.0+ (increase) 99.2+ 99.2+ EU-27 (+Turkey & Iceland) 73.6 85.7+ (increase) 23.8+ 15.4+

Table 2: Languages spoken in addition to mother-tongue in 2005 Table 3: Ability to converse in English in different (EU-27 plus Croatia and Turkey), European countries, 2005, (Source : Eurobarometer : 2005) (Source : Eurobarometer : 2005) 83-87% Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark English 34% 71% Cyprus German 12% 60-66% Luxembourg, Finland French 11% 51-56% Slovenia, Austria, Germany, Belgium Spanish 5% 41-44% Estonia, Croatia, Greece Russian 5% 34% France, Latvia Italian 2% 25-29% Italy, Romania, Portugal, Lithuania, Poland Polish 1% 20-24% Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Spain Dutch 1% 16-18% Hungary, Turkey Others 3%

In sharp contrast to these geolinguistic trends in continental Europe, the learning of languages continues to decline sharply in British schools and universities (Garner, 2002 & 2008). Students in England are no longer compelled to study a foreign language beyond the age of 14 and the great majority abandon the effort completely in the latter stages of secondary school. Clearly, most native English-speakers perceive little or no interest in learning a foreign- language in an international world dominated by their mother tongue. Such trends have led Juliane House, among others, to argue that the EU policy of respect for linguistic diversity `... is both ineffective and hypocritical, and its ideas of linguistic equality and multilingualism are costly and cumbersome illusions’ (House, 2001). A Professor of Applied Linguistics in Germany, she maintains that that English has become a` stateless’ and `de-nativised’ language that `Europe must embrace’ as a `useful tool’ for transnational communication. Professor Norbert Walter, Chief Economist of the Deutsche Bank Group, agrees: `To ensure that the new Europe continues to make headway and people understand each other, they must have a common (second) language. English must be taught everywhere.’ (Walter, N (2002)

Some prominent French intellectuals express similar arguments; thus Alexandre Adler accepts that : `English, spoken by Europeans will become the single (sic) language of (transnational) communication, alongside of which national languages will also be used.

236 (`L’anglais, parlé par les Européens deviendra une langue unique de communication, à côté de laquelle les langues nationales garderont leur utilisation’) (Adler 2000)

In similar vein, Alain Minc, a liberal French intellectual bluntly states that: `English is « the natural language » of Europe’ `L’anglais est `la langue naturelle’ de l’Europe’ (Minc 1989)

Larry Siedentop, a political scientist from Oxford University, develops the argument in political terms as follows: `If a truly European political class is to develop… (there must be)…the formal acknowledgement that English has an indispensable role to play as the second language of Europe.’ (Siedentop 2000: 146; see also 132-4))

Thus, English is the most valued `commodity’ in the EU’s `linguistic market’ in that it provides its speakers with ‘linguistic capital’ facilitating access to: ‘economic capital’ (jobs): ‘cultural capital’ (common language of intellectual elites and much transnational popular culture); and symbolic capital’ (use it to display one’s prestige, status, modernity in the modern international world, etc) (Bourdieu 1982 & 1991).

But is this reality a threat to `respect for linguistic diversity’ within the EU? In some ways it undoubtedly is, as demonstrated by the language used in this European conference and the fact that applications for EU funding often necessitate knowledge of English. There is no way that all the 23 EU languages are respected in such activities and processes. Thus, those who master English, whether or not they are native speakers of the language enjoy a great advantage in many domains of European activity. The dangers of non-English-speakers (still a majority of Europeans) being `linguistically excluded’ from diverse transnational European activities are real and should not be ignored.

However, despite this de facto dominance of English in the international sphere, Europeans will be still be celebrating the geolinguistic diversity of their continent far into the foreseeable future. There are several reasons for this conclusion. First and foremost, EU Member States keep a firm national grip on language policy both within their separate national territories and within the EU institutions. This enables them to defend a complex set of different monolingual and multilingual spaces within which Europe’s diverse languages retain both their utility and prestige. Recent developments concerning two of the EU’s smallest and most fragile national languages –Maltese and Irish- illustrate the point. When joining the EU, Malta insisted that Maltese become a full EU ‘official and working language’, despite the fact that it is spoken by less than 400,000 people and that most of its population also speak English, which also remains an official language of this mini-state. Consequently, EU membership has strengthened Maltese by creating a new `linguistic niche market’ for the `national’ language in which a new `industry’ is flourishing; namely the one needed to translate the mass of EU legislation into Maltese and simultaneously interpret debates in the European Parliament and elsewhere. Thus, not only has Maltese gained in prestige, but it generates new jobs for those who speak the language well. In this way, the EU is strengthening `minor’ languages rather than eroding linguistic diversity. Similarly, the Ireland’s belated decision to insist that Irish become an official EU language since 2007 (for three decades it had been content to accept English alone as its official EU language) has added another support the revival of its `national’ language which, with less than 100,000 mother-tongue speakers scattered mainly in

237 isolated and fragmented geographical zones (Gaeltacht) on its western periphery, is struggling to survive (Hindley 1990).

The continuing importance of national languages within national territories can also be noted in the Netherlands whose multilingual inhabitants are noted for their openness to English and other languages. While some native Dutch speakers (not the Flemish) may ignore interpretation facilities in some EU meetings and speak directly in English (see above), within the Netherlands itself demands that immigrants learn the national language have become more insistent (Timmermans & Myers 2009). This mirrors a situation across the whole of the EU. English may be spreading ever wider as Europe’s de facto common language (although strong doubts remain about the degree to which most people in most regions will master Basic English) but, within the geographical territories of its diverse nation-states, national languages will de jure continue to flourish and be defended.

References Adler, A. (2000), cited in; Cassen, B., La langue dollar, Le Monde Diplomatique, mai 2000, p.32 BBC News. (2006), Chirac upset by English address. Accessed on: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4840160.stm Bourdieu, P. (1982), Ce que parler veut dire: l’économie des échanges linguistiques, Fayard, Paris. Bourdieu, P. (1991), Language and Symbolic Power, Polity Press, Cambridge. Calvet, L-J. (2002), Le Marché aux Langues ; les effets linguistiques de la mondialisation, Plon, Paris. Commission of the European Communities (2003), Promoting Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity : an Action Plan 2004-2006, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM (2003)449 final, 24/07/2003, Brussels. Eurobarometer (2005), Europeans and Languages. Special Eurobarometer 237 –Wave 63.4 , September 2005, European Commission, Brussels. Eurydice (2008), Chiffres clés de l’enseignement des langues à l’école en Europe. Edition 2008, Commission européenne, Eurostat, Luxembourg, ISSN 1830-2084. Garner, R. & Cassidy S. (2002), Teachers predict big decline in pupils taking foreign languages, The Independent, 22/08/2002. Accessed on: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/education-news/teachers-predict-big-decline- in-pupils-taking-foreign-languages-606951.html Garner, R. (2008), Dramatic decline in foreign languages studied at university. The Independent, 19/08/2008. Accessed on: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/dramatic-decline-in-foreign-languages- studied-at-university-901855.html Hindley, R. (1990), Death of the Irish Language, Routledge, London. House, J. (2001), `The Global English debate’, Guardian Weekly, 18 April 2001 (accessed on: http://www.gaurdian.co.uk/GWeekly/Global-English/0,8458,400340,00.html) Independent, The (1999), Germans outraged their language is ruled out at EU. Accessed on: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/germans-outraged-their-language-is-ruled-out-at- eu-1105964.html Judge, A. (2000), France: one state, one nation, one language? In: Barbour, S., Carmichael, C. (Eds.) Language and Nationalism in Europe, pp. 44-82, Oxford University Press, Oxford, Minc, A. (1989), La Grande Illusion. Grasset, Paris.

238 Morris, J. (2008), Breakthrough for Cornish language. BBC News, 19/05/08: Accessed on: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/7074487.stm OJEC (2000), The Charter of the Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Official Journal of the European Communities, C364/21 O Riagáin. M. (2001), Many tongues but One voice: a personal overview of the Role of the European Bureau for Lesser used Languages in Promoting Europe’s Regional and Minority Languages, ch. 2 in O’Reilly, C. Language, Ethnicity and the State: vol. 1 Minority languages in the European Union, Palgrave, Basingstoke. Phillipson, R. (2003), English-Only Europe? Challenging Language Policy, Routledge, London. Siedentop, L. (2000), Democracy in Europe, Allen Lane, London. Timmermans, F & Myers, J.J. (2009), From Tolerance to Integration: The Dutch Experience, Carnegie Council, http://www.cceia.org/resources/transcripts/0145.html, Accessed on 07/04/2009 Walter, N. (2002), Disgraceful Debate, Deutsche Bank Research, EurActivcom Portal Analysis, 19/07/2002 accessed on: http://www.euractiv.com, on 24/01/03 Wise, M (2004), Observations and interviews in European Parliament, European Commission and Council of Ministers, May-June 2004

239 Turkish Political History and Geographical Context

Ilhan Kayan

Introduction

This paper analyses the political history of the Turkish Republic and the construction of Turkish national identity in its time and space contexts. The paper argues that many social and political problems that modern Turkey faces are in fact embedded in its complex history and conflicting identities. Therefore, without a deep understanding of Turkish history, it is very difficult to map out its social and political geography. The paper focuses on nationalism and secularism, two crucial principals for the formation of modern Turkey. It finally concludes that these two principles have been major sources of identity struggles and cultural clashes in Turkey.

Breaking away from the Past

The modern Turkish nation state emerged out of the ashes of the multi-ethnic and multi- religious Ottoman Empire. The most disruptive ideology that threatened and later tore the Empire apart was nationalism. Influenced by the French Revolution and ideas of nationalism, peoples of different ethnic and religious groups struggled to carve new nation states out of the Ottoman Empire throughout the 19th century and early 20th centuries. The outcome was many new states in the Balkans, North Africa and the Middle East. Turkish nationalism was a product of a context in which battles with insurgent nationalities within the Empire encouraged a sense of cohesion among the remaining peoples, as the Ottoman Empire was reduced to Turks and Muslim groups such as Arabs and Kurds. However, as more and more Muslim ethnic groups abandoned the Ottomans, the only practical alternative left for the Ottoman Turks to follow was Turkish nationalism. In the Ottoman Millet system, different groups were organized on the basis of religion rather than ethnicity, regardless of the diversity within each religious tradition. With the collapse of Ottoman Empire, Turkey lost its cosmopolitan character and vast chunks of territory, which left important imprints on Turkish political culture. The fear of division and rebellion continually disturbed the Turkish elite and caused increasing suspicion of outsiders, who were suspected of harboring the intention of dividing up the country.

The founding elite of the Turkish Republic consisted of the young military and civilian officers of the Ottoman administration. Among this elite group were the Young Turks who were actively participating in the politics of the Ottoman Empire in its later years. The Young Turks challenged the absolutism of Ottoman rule and built a rich tradition of opposition that shaped late Ottoman life both intellectually and politically. This tradition of opposition laid the foundation for Atatürk's revolution. These elites had very strong centralist tendencies and a great desire to break totally away from the dynastic and religious past, with the intention of creating a country based on national and secular values, which then let them legitimize their position as the new ruling elite (Ergil, 2000). This intention of disassociation from the past became the elite group’s main policy, allowing them to see the Turkish people as an entity ready to be shaped consistent with their vision of what a society and nation should be (Ergil, 2000).

240 The years following Turkey’s independence (1923) were the times of reformation and recreation of Turkey and Turkishness. History was re-written, language reforms were implemented, and social life was engineered. The Arabic alphabet was replaced with the Latin alphabet and Arabic and Persian words were eliminated from the daily language. The Ottoman legal and civil laws were diminished and replaced by Swiss, French and Italian ones. As Anderson states (1983, p. 48), “to heighten Turkish-Turkey’s national identity consciousness at the expense of any wider Islamic identification, Ataturk imposed compulsory romantization.” For the quest for a new unifying identity, long forgotten pre- Ottoman and pre-Islamic roots were re-introduced to provide an ideological glue for national unity (Ergil, 2000).

The new regime cut ties with the past and religion. This was done in a number of ways such as abolishing the Sultanate, the Ottoman dynasty, and the Caliphate, the spiritual pinnacle of Sunni Muslims. These kinds of reforms not only served to break from the past but also from the Islamic world as the Ottoman sultan had been recognized by Muslims as the head of the Islamic world. The secularization of the educational system and the encouragement of modern clothing were other revolutions for the formation of new identities of Turkishness (Lewis, 1961).

Equally important, the new government took control over all religious institutions and their financial resources. This was, in a way, nationalization and appropriation of religion for the purpose of creating national unity among different ethnic Muslim groups whose commonality was Islam (Yavuz, 2000). This in and of itself was paradoxical because the Turkish establishment (the ruling elite) strictly enforced secularism. In fact, they have gradually transformed secularism (or laicism) to a religion-like political ideology called “Kemalism” (Guvenc, 1998). The majority of these policies were enforced mainly in urban Turkey, while traditional life in rural areas, which made up about 80 percent of the population during the second quarter of the 20th century, remained very much the same. As Ergil (2000, 47) puts it, “this change created a volatile social fabric where the new and old, the modern and the traditional, East and West, the secular and the anti-secular, and the rich and the poor lived side by side with few points of contact.”

Like modernists elsewhere, the Turkish ruling elite believed that the new Turkish identity would make ethnic and cultural differences disappear and all groups would become alike under the same secular laws (Hennayake, 1992). Islam was appropriated for creating unity among Turkish citizens including minorities because Turkishness was not accepted by all the ethnic groups in Turkey. For instance, the Kurds were called “Mountain Turks,” implying that the Kurds were not actually a separate ethnic group but were people of Turkish origin who lived in the mountainous areas of Turkey (Olson, 1998). As Yavuz (2001, 7) puts it,

Turkish national identity was modeled on the Islamic conception of community and was disseminated through Islamic terms. The incorporation of religious vocabulary helped to nationalize Islamic identity. Examples of this include the incorporation of words, such as millet (referring to a religious community in the Ottoman empire, appropriated by the Republic to mean "nation"), vatan (homeland), gazi (the title of Mustafa Kemal, referring to those who fought in the name of Islam) and sehid (those who died for the protection and dissemination of Islam), into the nationalist lexicon.

241 What all this suggests is that while the new Turkish state claimed a secular Turkish identity, it did not hesitate to appropriate Islam as the glue for forming unity among its peoples with different ethnic backgrounds.

The ruling elite implemented reforms and policies to erase differences for the purpose of creating a homogeneous “nation state.” While most Armenians were deported during the last few years of the Ottoman rule, population exchanges of Turks (or rather Muslims) in the Balkans with the remaining Greeks during the early years of the Republic helped this homogenization process. Nevertheless, while differences could not be erased, the new Turkish identity did not fully replace the Ottoman identity, which was ethnically neutral. With the processes of urbanization, migration and globalization, people from these different segments and classes of Turkish society came into contact, and in these contacts there were clashes of identities.

The Struggle for Power and Clash of Identities

While the mentality of the ruling elite, Kemalism, an authoritarian Westernization project, has not changed much, Turkey as a nation has changed greatly both socially and politically since it was founded in 1923. With the impacts of globalization, rising educational levels, and the introduction of new ideas, ordinary people demand more democracy and freedoms. Turkey’s candidacy for EU membership and integration has increased such demands. The official Turkish identity has often been challenged and questioned. Turkey has become confused and hesitant in terms of what it is and what it wants to be as the demands of the ruling elite and ordinary people differ. Turks have mainly embraced modernity and want less government involvement in their lives.

The people’s identity claims, which emphasize freedom of speech, thought, religion, and expression, do not overlap with the official identity that the ruling elite stresses (Ozdalga, 1998). Such conflicting identity demands and negotiations threaten the privileged status of the establishment, which causes constant tensions and crises in Turkey. Former New York Times correspondent Stephen Kinzer (2001, 10), who lived in Turkey for four years, writes: “In the generations that have passed since then (since Ataturk), Turkey has become an entirely different nation. It is as vigorous and as thirsty for democracy as any on earth. But its leaders, who fancy themselves Atatürk's heirs, fiercely resist change. They believe that Turks cannot yet be trusted with the fate of their nation that an elite must continue to make all important decisions because the people are not mature enough to do so.”

Groups such as Leftists, Kurds, and Islamic activists have challenged Kemalism since the beginning of Turkey. They have confronted the policies and practices of the ruling elite, the ultimate power holder (Ozdalga, 1998). During the 1960s, vibrant leftist movements shaped politics for the following two decades as they pushed for more freedoms. Although the state held strong control over politics, there was also a rise of populist nationalism and religious revivalism during this period. Religious organizations grew rapidly in the 1970s as they helped those of lesser means cope with the problems of modernization and became clubs for excluded groups seeking solidarity in a changing world. These were also times when the Nationalist Action Party, with an emphasis on Turkish nationalism, and the Nationalist Order Party, with its Islamist emphasis, came into existence to play a role in Turkish politics. While the Nationalist Action party was closed after the 1980 military coup, four parties from the Nationalist Order Party tradition, including the Welfare Party, whose leader became prime minister after 1995 elections, have been banned from politics (Yavuz, 2000). Although Prime

242 Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi=AKP), which won last to general elections with great victories, also comes from the same political tradition, its political direction has been towards the West and its economic and social policies have been liberal.

After the 1980 military coup, all political parties were banned. In the following years, the head of the Turkish military became president and new parties were established. However, Turgut Ozal founded the Motherland Party in 1983. Ozal, the future president of Turkey, was able to incorporate different political and ideological trends into the party structure, which helped to ease existing political tensions as the years of polarization created tensions of all kinds among different groups. Ozal implemented a series of economic and social reforms that led to an economic boom and opened the country to the outside world despite high inflation, low productivity, and a skewed income distribution. Regardless of Ozal’s efforts for social reforms, the issues of modernization, change management and legal and political liberalisation remained unresolved. Ozal suddenly died in 1993, and his reforms did not continue.

Today, large segments of the Turkish society do not accept what is being imposed on them and are unhappy with elitist practices. Ethnic, religious and ideological identities are polarized and room for reconciliation is lacking. The official nationalism is seen as isolationist and statist as it puts the state in the center of social life as the provider and protector, as well as the source of political power (Kinzer, 2001).

This process of othering and exclusion by the ruling elite, or what some call “White Turks” or “deep state,” has marginalized the Muslim Turkish masses and minorities such as the Kurds. Islam and minority politics have been the oppositional identity for the marginalized and excluded segments of the Turkish society. While over 90 percent of Kurds do not want an independent state, their desire for cultural recognition is viewed as separatist (Ergil, 2000). Broadcasting and education in Kurdish was only allowed in August 2002, when the parliament passed a series of laws as part of their plans for European integration. Even then, the state has not yet allowed private parties to broadcast in Kurdish and a government television channel is preparing for this purpose. The state’s fears and desires for control are not helping the democratization process in this venue.

Expressions of Islamic identity (e.g., headscarves) are banned from public space such as government offices and universities. Regardless of all bans and restrictions, the Islamic movement has managed to be a source of power for the marginalized and excluded (Ozdalga, 1998). The religious-based Welfare Party finished first in the 1995 elections, with 21.7 percent of the vote, gaining the largest number of seats in the parliament. The leader of the party was later forced to leave the office, and the party was closed with the claims that it did not comply with the secular rule of the country. The party’s leader, Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan was banned from politics by the constitutional court influenced by the establishment. However, just before the 2002 elections, a new conservative party, AK Party (Justice and Development Party) emerged. The former mayor of Istanbul and charismatic leader of the AK Party, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, was a former member of the Welfare Party. His AK Party won 363 seats in the 550-seat Turkish parliament (Time, 2002). Erdogan became Prime Minister regardless of the large media campaign against him and his party. AK Party’s poplarity did not decrease since 2002 election, as it increases its votes %13 in July elections 2007. Tayyip Erdogan’s foreign minister Abdullah Gul has also been elected as the new Turkish president after months of political debates, controversies and tensions.

243

Today, most Islamic and Kurdish groups support the EU membership for economic, political and social reasons regardless of the EU’s undecided position on Turkey’s membership. The belief is that if Turkey becomes a member of the EU, it will not only help economic prosperity, but also normalize the country politically and socially, as they see Western practices of secularism and pluralism as being more democratic and inclusive (Kosebalaban, 2002). The 1997 coup had the greatest influence on political Islam as it forced its proponents to reexamine their political agendas as well as their language of discourse. They have framed their discussions of democracy, law, and justice in more universal terms, consistently emphasized the virtues of secularism and identified themselves as Muslim democrats, an Islamic form of the Christian Democratic movement in Europe.

According to Kinzer (2001), the position of the Turkish ruling elite along with its Kemalist ideology has been viewed by the public as the source of the contemporary crisis and the main obstacle for Turkey’s democratization, economic and social development because it refuses to accept the changes in the Turkish society. The ruling elite including bureaucrats such as military commanders and prosecutors, and “loyal” newspaper editors are trapped in the 1920s of Turkey. They resist increasing pressure from worldly Turks who want their country to break free of its chains to become more democratic (Kinzer, 2001).

The problems of state and political authoritarianism have haunted Turkey for almost 80 years. Regardless of all the efforts of state institutions, particularly educational institutions at all levels, and the media, an ideal homogenous national identity has never been achieved. As a result, the least integrated segments of society have been ethnic groups such as the Kurds and religious groups who have not found the identity being imposed on them as being inclusive, but rather as being exclusive. The lack of clear definitions of separatism (boluculuk) and fundamentalism (irtica) makes it difficult to discriminate separatists from cultural rights defender and fundamentalists from devout Muslims. It is all subjective and arbitrary. Today, the most sensitive issues of discussion in Turkey are the issues of secularization and ethnic nationalism as the hegemonic power of the ruling elite still remains unchallenged. As Ergil (2001, 54) puts it,

All of these elements demonstrate the potency and significance of the debate around the nature of the regime in Turkey. Can we come to a consensus on the regime to reconcile and to include all groups, opinions and convictions? The lack of such a consensus has not served the interest of society and has failed to bring the prominence and prosperity for which the nation yearns so much. It remains to be seen if Turkey perpetuates its anti-democratic secularist policy; or decides to create a new democratic constitution where traditional groups with religious sensitivities, as well as citizens with other ethnic backgrounds, can feel included. If the official policy of laicism has failed to secularize society because it has not been supported by commercialization, industrialization, modern education and urbanization, then religious affairs should be taken from state control and left to civil society. Only then can the sociological process of secularization proceed.

Turkey’s modernization project started with revolutions and success; but Kinzer (2001, 21) argues that “something about the concept of diversity frightens Turkey's ruling elite. It triggers the deep insecurity that has gripped Turkish rulers ever since the Republic was founded in 1923.”

244 Closing Thoughts

In this paper, I provided a brief political history of Turkey and its role in the creation of multiple identities. The role of institutions (e.g., state, media) in the creation and reconstruction of identities has been highlighted, as Giddens (1991) argues that modernity and identity must be understood at institutional levels. Turkish political history provides a great example in terms of the fluidity, complexity, and temporality of identity (Keith & Pile, 1993). Turkey has not been able to create a system that includes all segments of society with all of its diversity (Kinzer, 2001). In fact, since politics have been so much polarized and social life has been disrupted, there has been a clash of identities. The clash is between the ruling elite and ordinary Turks, and it is the central fact and dilemma of this state striving to be more modern. The Kemalist coalition (White Turks or what some call the deep state) that includes wealthy businessmen, eagerly supportive media forces, powerful military, and state courts and prosecutors has taken part in this process of exclusion or polarization. The lack of dialogue and negotiation, which are fundamental for democracy, has left little space for differences (Ergil, 2000). Fears and lack of understanding determine the nature of conversation.

References Ergil, D. (2000). Indentity crises and political instability in turkey. Journal of International Affairs, 54, 43. Guvenc, B. (1998). Secular trends and turkish identity. Journal of International Affairs, II(4). Hennayake, S. K. (1992). Interactive ethnonationalism - an alternative explanation of minority ethnonationalism. Political Geography, 11(6), 526-549. Karpat, K. H. (1974). The ottoman state and its place in world history. Leiden: Brill. Keith, M., & Pile, S. (1993). Place and the politics of identity. London; New York: Routledge. Kinzer, S. (2001). Crescent & star: Turkey between two worlds. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Kosebalaban, H. (2002). Turkey - turkey's eu membership: A clash of security cultures. Middle East Policy, 9(2), 17. Lewis, B. (1961). The emergence of modern turkey. London, New York: Oxford University Press. Olson, R. W. (1998). The kurdish question and turkish-iranian relations:From world war i to 1998. Costa Mesa, Calif.: Mazda Publishers. Ozdalga, E. (1998). The veiling issue: Official secularism, and popular islam in modern turkey. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. Time. (2002, November 18). Hollow victory - turkish twist: Last week's other election. Time, p. 1. Yavuz, M. H. (2000). Cleansing islam from the public sphere. Journal of International Affairs, 54(1), 21-42.

245 Water Reservoir Management and Nature Reserve Functioning – Jeziorsko Reservoir (Central Poland)

Halina Kaczmarek Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization Polish Academy of Sciences Department of Geomorphology and Hydrology of Lowland Kopernika 19, 87-100 Toruń [email protected]

Abstract Wetlands, which develop around water reservoirs, are home to a large variety of wildlife. These areas are often legally protected because of their natural values. New ecosystems need many years to create the natural environment in the littoral zone. A different situation can be observed around the Central Poland Jeziorsko Reservoir on the Warta River, the second largest, regarding the surface area, water reservoir in Poland. Built in the years 1986-1992, the reservoir is of a retention type with large water level fluctuations, up to 5 m in a year. More than a half of its bottom area is drained periodically each year. During minimum water level periods dried out parts of the bottom which is rich in food turn into bird feeding areas. Since 1998 this part of the reservoir has been protected as the Jeziorsko Bird Protected Area. It is one of the most important bird sanctuaries in Poland, where 150 bird species hatch every year. Another 100 bird species appear in the area periodically during spring and autumn. The Jeziorsko Reservoir is an example of the successful coexistence of a man-made lake and a legally protected environment.

Key Words: bird sanctuary, water reservoir, water management.

Problem Outline

The reason for creation of artificial water reservoirs is the flooding of the area they occupy. The shore zones of the up-lifted rivers and lakes including the surrounding valley areas undergo partial or complete flooding. Frequently the flooded territories are of a high nature value and constitute homes, often under legal protection, for rich flora and fauna. The up- lifting gives rise to the development of a new shore zone in a morphological sense, for its development takes place on higher ordinates as well as biological one – the littoral vegetation is transformed or annihilated (Kajak, 1998) including the existing fauna. The shore zone is formed as a result of the wind wave and abrasion, which is provoked by the wind itself, as well as segregation, transport and sediment accumulation. Its development constitutes a long- lasting process. Under constant hydrodynamic conditions, which occur on lakes, the zone is stable and almost completely covered with plants. On artificial reservoirs, however, the shore zone remains active for many years. That is the result of both its young age, measured in years, as well as significantly higher than under natural conditions water level fluctuations that are provoked by the functions of artificial water reservoirs. Sediment movements as well as water level and water layer thickness changes make vegetation growth (Figure 1), which is characteristic and integral element of the natural lake shore zones, difficult not to say impossible.

The length of the reservoir shore zone activity period depends mainly on the height of water level fluctuations that oscillates from a couple of centimetres to a few metres. Together with

246 the fluctuation growth, the shore zone stabilization process lengthens, whereas the vegetation entrance is retarded (Ovčinnikov, 2003; Grobelska, 2005). In consequence, for many years the reservoir is deprived of the littoral that constitutes a natural home for fauna. Furthermore, the water level fluctuations in the reservoir also cause the periodic drainage of its bottom. The area grows together with the water level fluctuations. If minimal water level occurs on the reservoir during the vegetation period, the periodically drained bottom part of the reservoir is successively covered with plants following the lowering water table. The composition of vegetation species, their number and sizes depend on the distinctive features of individual objects, current humidity conditions and the length of the development period (Hellsten, 2000).

In general, the territories are dominated by reed rushes and willow tussocks that indicate high immunity to radical humidity condition changes and periodic, even a few-month near-flooding. The plant development period on that area is usually shorter than the vegetation period itself. When low water level is kept on the reservoir for longer periods, lasting up to 2- 3 years, trees and bushes grow on the given territories. Because of the dependence of the retention reservoir water levels on the reservoir functions and hydrological situation in the basin one can observe quite a reverse situation. For one to two years high water levels on the reservoir may remain for a long time and low water levels may never be reached. This causes the vegetation extinction on the given area. Such a situation was observed at the beginning of the present century on the Pakoski Reservoir (The Western Noteć River). At low water levels, however, the reservoir bottom area is uncovered which Figure 1. Shore zone of Jeziorsko Reservoir, favours vegetation and avifauna development. The Jeziorsko Reservoir, on the Warta (Central Poland) is the example of such a territory (Figure 2).

The Jeziorsko Reservoir

The Jeziorsko Reservoir has been created as the result of the up-lifting of the Warta waters. The dam locked the 9021.8 km2 basin. Here the average annual flow equals 49.8 m3s-1 (Stachý, 1986). The preliminary reservoir filling commenced in 1986, yet the full up-lifting range was not achieved until 1992 (Orłowski, 1999; Szewczyk, 2007). It is fourth in terms of capacity and second in terms of area artificial water reservoir in Poland.

The Jeziorsko Reservoir lies within the Sieradz Basin and occupies the meridionally running section of the Warta valley. The direct surrounding of the basin includes up to 150 m ASL (above sea level) - quaternary uplands (Banach and Grobelska 2003). The territory lies in the

247 edge zone of the Łódź Basin and the Przedsudecka Monoklin (Klatkowa and Załoba, 1992). Here the oldest formations include severely crushed upper-cretaceous marls which remain 5- 40 m, locally two to three meters, underneath. Cretaceous formations constitute a direct basis of Pleistocene formations that cover the area. They mainly include glacial and fluvioglacial forms of the Warta stadial Middle-Polish glaciations. Their thickness reaches 20 m. The forms remain under older fluvioglacial formations or directly on the clay of the maximum range of the stadial. The formations are frequently disturbed glaciotectonically. Only the maximum stadial local clays occur directly on the surface of the territory (Klatkowa and Załoba 1992; Załoba 1996).

The flat moraine upland in the reservoir surrounding is divided by two river valleys. First, running from southern- east to northern-west, is called the Vistulianska Pra-Warta valley (Baranowski and Mańkowska, 1972). It is Figure 2: Jeziorsko Reservoir currently used by the Pichna 1 – reservoir area in period of maximum water level, 2 - River, which branches from reservoir area in period of minimum water level, 3 – bird the Jeziorsko Reservoir, and protected area “Jeziorsko”, 4 - part of reservoir with cute the Teleszyna River in the trees and scrubs, 5 – main and side dams, 6 – stream. further section of the valley. At present it constitutes a depression area protected by dams. The decline is crossed by the meridionally running contemporary Warta valley. The Vistulianska valley is filled with sand and river silts creating approx. four to seven metres slats in the direct neighbourhood of the Warta River. The bottom of the second, younger, valley used by the Warta and currently occupied by the Jeziorsko Reservoir is filled with Holocene formations. The forms mainly include sands and average two metre-thick river alluvial soils locally changing into aggregate mud. The edge of the Warta valley, which embraced the reservoir before its formation, had an erosion character on its significant sections. It is cut by numerous erosion-denudation valleys partly used by little watercourses. Slides occurred here locally in the past. The reservoir shore zone consists mainly of boulder clays and middle-polish glaciation fluvioglacial forms as well as Vistulian river silts. Locally they are accompanied with glaciolimnic sediments, clay slope washes and active slide colluviums. At low water levels on the reservoir the Warta slope are washed away by the waves. The process occurs in the top and middle part of the reservoir (Banach and Grobelska; 2003).

248 The Jeziorsko Reservoir is characterised by high water level fluctuations which are the result of the reservoir ani-flood and retention functions. Permanent, approx. five-metre high, water level fluctuations occur on the reservoir in every annual cycle. Maximum levels are recorded in the spring-summertime, when the reservoir filling takes place, and minimal ones occur in the autumn-wintertime, after the reservoir gradually emptying, which lasts from July until the end of November. From the half of April till the end of June, a stable up-lifting level, no higher than normal (120.5 m above sea level) is kept on the reservoir. Such a situation is favourable for the maintenance of the stable home conditions for water birds in the reservoir upper section.

The Jeziorsko Reservoir occupies the entire flat plain of the Warta. Depending on the water level the reservoir length varies from 16 to 7 m given the 2.5 km width; the average depth equals 1.7 up to 5.2 m. At maximum up-lifting coordinate the reservoir area reaches 42.3 km2, whereas its capacity comes to 202.3 mln m3. At minimum levels the area reaches 19.6 km2 (at absolute minimum 17.6 km2) and the capacity equals merely 36,4 mln m3 (at absolute minimum 30.2 mln m3), (Szewczyk, 2007). This causes that, at allowed minimum water levels, over half of the basin area is periodically uncovered and serves as the „Jeziorsko” bird sanctuary.

“Jeziorsko” Bird Sanctuary

The „Jeziorsko” bird sanctuary was created in the southern part of the Jeziorsko Reservoir pursuant to the Minister of Environmental Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry Regulation from 23.12.1998. (Decree-low, 1998). The aim of the protection is the preservation for the sake of science, education and landscape sanctuaries for water-marsh birds including rare protected bird species.

The nature reserve occupies the area between the bridge on the Warta, which indicates the reservoir backflow range, and the line connecting Jeziorsko and Brodnica towns, which overlaps the water table range at the minimum water level on the reservoir (Figure 2). Its area equals 2350.6 ha. In the summertime, at low water level on the reservoir, the territory is uncovered and the marsh bottom periodically deprived of water constitutes an excellent source of food for preying birds. The territory is mainly grown by reed rushes and willow tussocks. The plants tolerate the interchangeably occurring water-land conditions including a few-month flooding quite well. The vegetation creates exquisite conditions for bird nesting.

The reserve, as well as the whole Jeziorsko Reservoir, is the water and water-marsh bird sanctuary. Living here for the whole year or only periodically during passages, the birds regard the area as their brooding place. There nest approx. 150 bird species, and for another 100 the territory constitutes a haven during spring and autumn passages. Periodically, about 10 000 birds stay on the reservoir area (Szewczyk, 2007). The dominant species include black-headed gulls (Larus ridibundus); common terns (Sterno hirundo), great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) and grey herons (Ardea cinerea). Among rare species one can find the greylag goose (Anser anser), the little gull (Larus minuus) and herring gull (Larus argentatus), the ruff (Philomachus pugbax), the bluethroat (Luscinia svecica) and ducks: the mallard (Anas plathynchos) and shoveler (Anas clypeata); the tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), the pochard (Aythya Felina) and grebes: the great crested (Podiceps cristatus) and the red- necked (Podiceps griseigena). Among species staying here periodically the worth mentioning ones include: the black stork (Ciconia nogra), the American crow (Nicticorax nucticorax), the great white heron (Casmerodius albus), the common crane (Grus grus) and the Eurasian

249 oystercatcher (Haematopuss ostralegus). A great variety of birds and fish attracts the osprey (Pandion haliaetus), the greater spotted eagle (Aquila Langa), the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinusa) and the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) (Environmental Map, 2006).

In result the willow tussocks, occurring in the Jeziorsko Reservoir upper part, tolerate well the reservoir water fluctuations and caused by the fluctuations periodic near-floodings. Their growth is so intensive that, for fear of preserving good conditions of nesting and bird development on the reservoir, the Voivode of Łódź, supervising the nature reserve, pursuant to the Disposition no. 190/2005 from 14 September 2005 imposed the obligation of the annual tree-clearing on the host of the object. From 1 October until 31 March, in 2005-2009, the bushes covering altogether 150 ha within the reservoir backflow must be cut out.

Conclusion

The existence and operation of both - the nature reserve and artificial water reservoir appears to be the enterprise doomed to failure, for the objects serve completely distinctive functions. Artificial reservoirs are subjected to human economic activity, whereas the function of the reserves involves the protection and preservation of the nature intact. The situation occurring on the Jeziorsko Reservoir, however, proves that such a compromise is plausible. The artificial water reservoir creation on the middle course of the Warta has provided exquisite home conditions for the water-marsh birds. Especially favourable for their development is the annual uncover of over the half of the reservoir bottom resulting from the reservoir water level lowering in the autumn-wintertime.

References Banach, M. and Grobelska, H. (2003), The dynamics of Jeziorsko Reservoir shore zone (in Polish) Słupskie Prace Geograficzne, 1, 91-106. Buraczyński, Z. (1986), Geology and engineer researches (on Jeziorsko Reservoir) (in Polish), Gospodarka Wodna, 8, 185–187. Grobelska, H. (2006), Evolution of the Pakość Reservoir shore zone (Gniezno Lakeland) (in Polish), Warsaw: Geographical Studies, 205. Hellsten, S. (2000), Environmental factors and aquatic macrophytes in the littoral zone of regulated lakes – causes, consequences and possibilities to alleviate harmful effects, in, Environmental factors and aquatic macrophytes in the littoral zone of regulated lakes – causes, consequences and possibilities to alleviate harmful effects, Oulu: Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, A, 348, 1-46. Kajak, Z. (1998), Hydrology-limnology. Ecosystems of inland waters (in Polish), Warszawa: Polish Scientific Publishers. Klatkowa, H. and Załoba, M. (1992), Comments for Detailed Geological Map of Poland 1:50 000, Sheet Warta (in Polish), Warszawa. Geological Map of Poland (1972), 1:200 000. Orłowski, W. (1999), Enginery description of Jeziorsko Reservoir on Warta River, (in Polish), in, Exploitation and influences of big size lowland water reservoirs base on Jeziorsko Reservoir, Research and engineering conference, Uniejów, 7–17. Ovčinnikov G.I. (2003), The dynamics of shore zone of Angara River reservoirs (in Russian) Aftoreferat, Irkuck Decree-low of Environmental Ministry Act 23.12.1998 y (in Polish), 166: 1219. Stachý, J. (ed.) (1986), The Hodrology Atlas of Poland (in Polish), 2, 1, Warsaw: Geology Press, Szewczyk, G. (2007), Jeziorsko Reservoir, Poznań: RZGW.

250 Biger man-made water reservoir (in Polish) (2007), in Grzesiak, M. and Domańska W. (ed.) Environmental Protection, Information’s and statistically study, Central Statistical Office of Poland, 97. Załoba, M. (1996), Treces of oscilations of glacial Warta Stage…, Acta Geographica Lodzensia, 71, 275 – 287. Disposition of the Lodz Voivode, 14 September 2005, 190.

251 A New Proposal for Environmental Safeguarding of the Coastal Zone

Francesco Marabini Marine Geology Institute, via Gobetti 101 – Bologna Italy

Abstract This paper considers the problems of the evolution of coastal areas and safeguarding their environment, utilising the control of some parameters to prevent the erosive phenomena. It is quite evident, from the studies made, the possibility of a preventive action to avoid erosive phenomena which, to day, are very dangerous and very difficult to solve. In many countries coastal protective structures are built only after the setting in motion of the erosive process, and in many cases when it is irreversible. A tardy intervention is, of course, more expensive and more difficult. The comparison among changes of bathymetry and consequently shoreline regression shows that it would have been possible to predict the present situation and a correct protective action, made some years ago, could have had better chances of maintaining the environmental equilibrium.

Key Words: Coastal geomorphology, human impact, erosive phenomena.

Introduction

Since the beginning of the 20th century, everywhere in the world, the coastal areas have been affected by a widespread regression which reached the critical stage after 1950. This situation is in contrast with the general trend of accretion that has affected the coastal zone in the XIX century.

The Mediterranean Sea coast shows a large variety of shoreline. Today about forty percent of the Mediterranean coast is threatened by a progressive and general degradation which mainly is manifested as beach erosion. This phenomenon seemed to worsen in the '50s after a long period of general beach stability.

If one considers the intense interventions of man on its coasts for touristic purposes, by demolishing the dunes to create beach areas, summer residential and marine areas; the diminished fluvial sediment load to the sea by haphazard removal of riverbed material; the increased subsidence caused by groundwater, gas and oil extractions in areas too close to the sea; one obtains a picture which easily explains the rapid instability of this coastal environment. This situation is present not only along the Mediterranean Sea coast but, in a greater or lesser degree, includes the coastlines of many other countries.

This increased economic development, without worrying about what would be the future impact on the environment, tends to worsen the already precarious situation even more. From the end of the 1950s, up to the present day, the coastal area was used as an inexhaustible and indestructible property on which it would be possible to burden an infinite number of works without this feeling. An improper exploitation was used in this fragile region, without taking into account the consequences, instead of managing it as a precious commodity which must last in time to permit better economic management.

252 The consequences of the concentration of economic activity in the coastal zone involve not only the shoreline area but even the territory on the back for a band of 50 Km wide. This event is evidenced by a continuing migration and increasing of the population during the last 50 years every where in the world.

The irrational overuse, considering the coastal area as an endless commodity, has made the construction of massive defence works more and more necessary. Many interventions were made as an emergency solution without prevention of the phenomena to face. This is a great error depending from the absence of prediction to permit prevention. The comparison of the geomorphologic parameters, mainly the changes of bathymetry, during the past 60 years in the Adriatic Sea (Italy) permits to point out a very simple methodology with the possibility of a preventive action based on the prediction of the regression of the shoreline.

The Adriatic Coast Situation

The upper Adriatic coast of Italy, from the Venice Lagoon to the Ancona promontory, is a good example of the above mentioned state of environment destabilization. Going from North to South, one first meets the thin Venetian littoral, with the lagoon at its back; the Po River Delta follows, continuously developing into the sea. From here to the Gabicce promontory a continuous shallow littoral, with the Po Plain at its back, extends.

The only factor common to such a morphologically diverse coast is erosion. To make up for the increasing erosive processes, many kinds of defence works have been put into operation. The sea walls («Murazzi») associated with groins to protect the Venice lagoon; dikes to defend the lowland behind the shoreline and longard tubes in the River Delta; breakwaters from the Po Delta to the Ancona promontory lie here and there along coastal stretches mainly protected by groins, or star-shaped concrete elements established on piles or by underwater barriers, constructed of synthetic sacks filled with sand and laid down in a cell-like system where cell is artificially replenished with sand.

All these protective works, constructed at different times and impelled by necessity, involve the coast without guaranteeing its future stability. Moreover, since they were built in the course of erosive process, their cost was astronomical.

If one considers the evolutional trend of the whole Northern Adriatic coastal area, it is possible to show some significant parameters derived from the numerous, preceding studies. Along the Venetian littoral, both an apparent stability of the shoreline and anomalous accretions near the jetties have been occurring. The former situation is due to the «Murazzi» that, from ancient times, have protected the beach stopping any shoreline change, but did not prevent the sea bottom slope from increasing. An increase in bottom slope is also noted in the Po delta area from the 1960s on, in connection with the diminished fluvial sediment yield to the sea which allowed the submersion of the more external sandy barriers of the deltaic system. The same situation of a continuing increase of the bottom slope between the shoreline up to the 5 m isobaths is also noted along the coastal area between the Po river delta and the Gabicce promontory from the 1960s up to the present time.

From the comparison among the diagrams plotted utilising the adopted parameters one can see that erosion gradually developed in time through a continual increase in the near shore bottom slope which in turn led to a shoreline regression, often achieving irreversible situations.

253

In particular, if the bottom slope from shoreline to 5m isobaths is % <0,50, the littoral is stable, the interval % 0,50-0,75 shows an unstable situation, the; interval % 0,75-1 means a danger situation for the shoreline stability and with a bottom slope % >1we are sure that the storms waves attack the backshore with regression of the shoreline. These parameters have validity, of course, only for the considered coastal area. This fact clearly demonstrated how it would be possible to predict beforehand the final step of the general degrading of the coastal strip (present situation).

Conclusions

It is quite evident, from the studies made, the possibility of a preventive action to avoid erosive phenomena which, to day, are very dangerous and very difficult to solve. Not only in Italy, but even in many countries coastal protective structures are built only after the setting in motion of the erosive process, and in many cases when it is irreversible. A tardy intervention is, of course, more expensive and more difficult. The comparison among changes of bathymetry and consequently shoreline regression shows that it would have been possible to predict the present situation and a correct protective action, made years ago, could have had better chances of maintaining the environmental equilibrium.

It is incomprehensible why this obvious principle is never used in the coastal environment defence. Based on past experience, it is recommended to establish a continuous and systematic survey of those environmental parameters capable of showing evolutional variation in coastal areas. Management in this way will avoid being taken by surprise when erosive processes develop. It would be opportune if coastal town officials would take on this responsibility. Briefly, it should be remembered that for a basic survey for possible future interventions, it is sufficient to measure very simple parameters as those described previously, which should serve not to quantify the interventions but to indicate when the situation is developing into dangerous levels for the equilibrium of a coastal environment. The cost of such a service is relatively low, but it would save in the future, guaranteeing at the same time greater possibilities of success in protecting our coasts.

References CARBOGNIN L., GATTO P., MARABINI F. 1985. Correlation between shoreline variations and subsidence in the Po river delta, Italy. In: Land Subsidence, Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Land Subsidence, Venice, Italy, 1984, IAHS, 151, 36.7-373. CARBOGNIN L., MARABINI F. 1987. Environmental impact of some defence works. Proceedings of COPEDEC 87, Beijing, China. CIPRIANI M. 1982. Esperimento di una nuova struttura di difesa della spiaggia nelle Marche. In: Porti Mare Territorio, IV, 4. DE SANTIS N. 1986. Impiego di geotessili nell'ingegneria costiera. Atti, II Convegno Nazionale dei Geotessili, Roma, 14 nov. 1986 GAMBARDELLA F., MONTORI S., SARTI G. 1985. Techniques for protection and restoration of beaches damaged by subsidence. In: Land Subsidence, Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Land Subsidence, Venice, Italy, 1984, IAHS,151, 309-320. MARABINI F., VEGGIANI A. 1991. Evolutional trend of the coastal zone and influence of the climatic fluctuations. Atti, C.O.S.U. II, Long Beach, U.S.A., 2-4 aprile 1991, 459-474. MARABINI F. 1985. Evolutional trend of the Adriatic toast (Italy). IV Symposium on coastal and Ocean management, Baltimore, USA

254 The Spatial Dimension of Human-Wildlife Conflicts – Discoveries of New Animal Geography

Tino Johansson University of Helsinki, Finland [email protected]

Abstract Traditionally, wild animals have been left out from the core of geographical inquiry. New animal geography aims at filling this gap and revising the interest of geographers in the interaction of humans and wild animals. Contemporary wildlife conservation faces serious challenges in trying to form a balance between human needs and survival of endangered wild animal species. Wildlife conservation is increasingly taking place in heavily human-affected ecosystems, which simultaneously are the locations of rural poverty and biodiversity. This paper studies the spatial dimensions of human-wildlife conflicts in borderland communities where humans and free roaming wild animals share space. The paper also investigates the inclusion and exclusion of certain wild animal species from particular types of spaces and uses the perceived nature-culture borderlines in explaining the causes of human-wildlife conflicts. Wild animals which intrude into domesticated spaces become subjects ‘out of space’ and challenge the total control of humans over natural elements in these spaces. The spatial proximity of wild animals may also provoke fear among the inhabitants and cause loss of biosecurity.

Key words: New animal geography, human-wildlife conflicts, spatial dimension, Tanzania

Introduction

This paper is based on the assumption that human-wildlife conflicts occur when an animal or a human crosses a perceived borderline between nature and culture and enters into the realm of the other. The subject (human or animal) that crosses this border becomes a subject out of place, which means that the subject is then spatially located in a space where it should not be or where it does not belong according to tradition, custom, rules, law, public opinion, prevailing discourse or some other criteria set by human beings. Wild animals also have borders between the intra- and inter-species territories where conflicts occur when an individual animal enters the territory of another animal. Even though such wildlife-wildlife conflicts are sometimes a partial cause to human-wildlife conflicts in a spatial sense, these are not studied here. The borderline between nature and culture marks a perceived division of spatial content in our senses of place.

A subject out of place may be considered as a source of disorder, like in a study of Mary Douglas (1966) on the concern for purity as a key theme in every society. She used the concept of dirt to comprehend the established assumptions and need for order in human societies. She writes that dirt is essentially disorder, an offence against order. Eliminating dirt is regarded as a positive effort to organize the environment. Douglas writes that if uncleanliness is matter out of place, we must approach it through order. This insight is present in human societies and it does not involve any clear-cut distinctions between sacred and secular or between primitive and modern societies. Obviously, all human beings have a subjective view on the place of different animals in their life world. Our individually

255 perceived and publicly negotiated nature-culture borderlines are dynamic and extend from our intimate space to public space. We accept some animals to enter our intimate space but dislike others and want to keep a longer distance to those animals. For example, people who do not like dogs at all may accept them in public space but cannot stand the presence of dogs in their social space, such as at home or in the garden.

We try to control the content of our perceived spaces in many different ways. We build fences, use insect repellent and guard dogs to protect the prevailing status, order and content of our spaces. An appearance of a wild animal in a domesticated space brings an uncontrolled element into that space where humans have previously commanded total control of all other natural elements. And eventually, a human-wildlife conflict appears. Woodroffe et al. (2005: 1–2) use the term human-wildlife conflict to describe a phenomenon where a conflicting situation between people and wildlife takes place in the form of crop raiding, livestock depredation, predation on managed wild animal species or killing of people. These conflicts occur world-wide and can be found on land and in waters, in the city as well as in the countryside. Sukumar (1998: 303) describes the incursion of elephants into the suburbs of Bangalore in India as a modern example of human-wildlife conflict there. According to John Knight (2000: 2), human-wildlife conflicts appear universally but occur most often in human settlements in forest-edge regions. People-wildlife conflicts usually arise from territorial proximity, reliance on the same resources or threat to human livelihoods and safety. He distinguished eight different human-wildlife conflicts: attacks on people attacks on livestock crop-raiding forestry damage competition for wild forage with humans, livestock or with game animals competition for prey with hunters house and other building infestations threats to other natural species and to biodiversity

One strand of a structuralist approach to animal symbolism has emphasised the role of classification of animals in terms of space. Here space is understood as being culturally divided into different spheres, such as land and water. Some species will become anomalous because they are associated with more than one different sphere. Such social understanding of environmental order makes animals, which are found out of space, pests or vermin. This anthropological point of view explains that at least some wildlife pestilence is connected to boundary-crossing behavior of different spatial spheres as much as its economic consequences. Those species crossing the spatial boundary are often subjected to negative symbolism and regarded as immoral characters, such as thieves or murderers (Knight 2000: 14–16). Human-wildlife conflicts can also have consequences on personal safety. Henry Buller (2008) addresses the concept biosecurity through the reintroduction of the Grey Wolf to the southern French Alps. He defines biosecurity by stating that it simply means policies and measures to protect people from “being eaten by big and ferocious wild animals”.

Data Collection

Empirical data for this paper was collected in six villages in the Liwale district and in Mtwara and Lindi towns in southern Tanzania (Fig 1.) during June and July 2002. I also carried out interviews in Dar es Salaam in 2003. The research methods included semi-structured interviews, participatory mapping, questionnaire survey and Q-methodology. In the six

256 studied villages, a total of 183 persons participated in the village meetings and discussion sessions in the following composition:

Barikiwa / Chimbuko 26 (8 females and 18 males) Kikulyungu 29 (2 females and 27 males) Likombora 15 (2 females and 13 males) Liwale B 3 (all male) Mihumo 42 (7 females and 35 males) Mpigamiti 68 (18 females and 50 males)

O E UGANDA

G Scale 1 : 2,000,000

M 0 100 200 km F

O C

RWANDA MARA KENYA 2°

KAGERA

BURUNDI MWANZA

SHINYANGA KILIMANJARO ARUSHA 4°

KIGOMA

TABORA TANGA PEMBA

DODOMA ZANZIBAR 6° SINGIDA DODOMA

Dar es Morogoro Salaam RUKWA DAR ES SALAAM MOROGORO COAST

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF 8° THE CONGO MBEYA IRINGA

Kilwa Masoko Liwale Kilwa ZAMBIA LINDI

Liwale Lindi 10° International boundary Lindi Mtwara Regional boundary District boundary Nachingwea National capital RUVUMA MTWARA Regional capital District capital Lake MALAWI MOZAMBIQUE

12° 30° 32° 34° 36° 38° 40° Figure 1: Liwale district is located in the Lindi region in Southeast Tanzania.

I wanted to map out the spatial content of stakeholders images of rural African landscape. I wanted to find out which animals are integral parts of their perceived image and which animals are more exterior and not so strongly a part of such image of landscape. I used a pre- formulated questionnaire to study the associated meanings and contents of rural African landscape. This questionnaire was delivered to the members of local villages and to selected district and region level officials who worked for the government and international NGOs. The aim was to study whether the human-wildlife conflicts in Liwale could partly be explained on the basis of differences in the perceived images of landscape between the ordinary villagers and those people who make decisions on wildlife management and nature conservation at the district and regional levels. The associated meanings and values as well as perceived contents of a place have an effect on behavior and choices of acceptable actions among the stakeholders in rural development and wildlife conservation. If the perceived images of the rural landscape were uniform between the ordinary villagers and district or regional level authorities, the conflicts related to wildlife conservation at the local level could not be explained from the basis of different values and associated meanings of places.

257 New Animal Geography

Rising concerns on animal rights and conservation of nature, together with the emerging discipline of environmental ethics brought the human-animal relationship back into the focus of geographers in the 1980’s. At the same time with the animal rights movement, modernization critique emphasized questions about the human relationship with nature. It was argued that environmental problems are caused by dualism based on Cartesian philosophy of science which created a divide between man and nature (Salonen 2004: 230). It was the larger social context and the interest of social theorists in animals during the 1980’s which launched the reappearance of cultural animal geography. The ideas of feminism, postmodernism and post-structuralism, postcolonial theory and critical race theory challenged human dominance in the human-animal relationship. These ideas were supported by new scientific findings in cognitive psychology, ethology, landscape ecology and conservation biology, which showed that also animals have cognitive abilities and questioned the idea of dualism and human superiority (Wolch 2002: 725). The revival of animal geography in the mid–1990’s was largely inspired by the above mentioned discourses, including the rethinking of culture and subjectivity. The nature of animal subjectivity, animals’ role in the social construction of culture, and human-animal divide are the particular focus of the new animal geographies. The researchers are interested in, for example, how and why the line of human-animal divide shifts over time and space.

The nature-society problematic has interested critical cultural geographers for decades and the human-animal divide has been challenged by postcolonial and feminist scholars. The study of animals has now been included into a societal framework from which it has long been excluded. The sociological interest in the study of animals has also inspired human and urban geographers to integrate animal geography into their analyses (Anderson 1997: 466). A new animal geography was born among a relatively small circle of Anglo-American geographers. Content-wise, it is not a unified field of study but has several approaches and topics-of- interest. The focus of new animal geography has not only been shaped by the interest in the relationship between humans and nature but also by the interest in marginal groups, minority rights and feminism. Animals can be seen as individual subjects who have limited or no political and legal rights just like other marginal groups in human societies (Salonen 2004: 230–231). Animal geography is interested in studying the inclusion and exclusion of certain animals from particular types of places and exploring the socio-cultural impact of animals on places and landscapes over time. For example, borderland communities where humans and free animals share space have been investigated by animal geographers. There are still several areas in animal geography which have received little or no interest by researchers, and the geographical history of human-animal relations is one area that needs further examination (Emel et al. 2002: 409–410).

Each individual human being has a certain value basis and value orientations related to wildlife. The social norms adopted by individuals define a framework for the acceptability of an action or a situation. Similarly social norms and creation of place define what is appropriate and acceptable in certain places. For some persons, it is acceptable that elephants live in the forest and search for food there but it is unacceptable that the elephants live in a cultivated field and search for food there because they do not belong to the perceived content of the cultivated field landscape. For them, the elephants do not fit into the associated meaning and value for the cultivated fields. Elephants and other wildlife are associated with inhabited wilderness landscapes, such as forests, and become out of place when they cross the nature-culture borderline and enter some other category of space. As a result, most human-

258 wildlife conflicts in wildlife conservation programmes in rural areas are primarily caused by the clash of different social norms, associated meanings, values, traditions and experiences related to the place designated under these programmes. This spatial value-based explanation of the lack of success in wildlife conservation means that solving the problems will require much more than just economic compensation of losses or improvement of the organizational structure of the programs. As a result, human-wildlife conflict management is strongly affected by land use structure. Conflict management is much more complicated in fragmented landscape mosaics where agricultural areas and pasture lands are mixed with forest patches. There is no clear edge or boundary between wildlife habitat and human land uses, so conflict management is difficult when domestic livestock operations are located in forested pastures or in the vicinity of forested lands where they overlap with large carnivore ranges. Dense vegetation in the forests favors predation on livestock by large carnivores, while proximity to dense road networks and human settlements decreased predation (Treves et al. 2004: 115– 116).

In summary, human-wildlife conflicts around the world are basically conflicts about exclusion or inclusion of wildlife into a particular landscape or place. Usually, a conflict takes place when wild animals cross a line or border between the domesticated and the wild and enter the human sphere uninvited. Any wildlife which is found inside the fences will be treated as intruders and will face consequent actions by the humans. The sudden appearance of wild animals inside the domesticated sphere causes humans to loose total control over the contents and activities of that place and they usually take immediate actions to regain that control by chasing the intruder away from the domesticated sphere. This is done by catching the animal and relocating it into the wild or simply by killing it. The borders between the domesticated and the wild are not static but appear on different scales and are also species-related. For example, a fox seen in a corn field does not necessarily cause a conflict between the fox and the farmer, but if that fox enters the courtyard or even the hen house, a conflict will eventually take place. A fascinating element in human-wildlife conflicts is that a non-dangerous or non- harmful wild animal, which crosses the culture-nature border and enters into the human- controlled space, will usually face similar defensive actions by humans as crop-raiding and predatory wild animal intruders do. When a fly enters a dining room from the open window and tries to land on a piece of bread on the dinner table, it is very common that everyone tries to chase it away from the food or kill it while it flies inside the house.

Human Wildlife Conflicts in the Liwale District

In Tanzania, approximately 200 people are killed by wildlife every year. About one third of these victims are killed by lions. According to the Liwale District Assistant Game Officer, lions and leopards killed 14 people in the season of 1996/1997 and in 2001/2002 these species killed five people in the Liwale District (District Assistant Game Officer, 22.7.2002, personal communication). Crop damage caused by wild animals has also heavily increased in the beginning of a new millennium (Table 1).

Table 1: Agricultural crops lost by wildlife damage in the Liwale District between 1991 and 2002. Source: District Agriculture and Livestock Development Officer, 25.7.2002, personal communication. season crops lost by wild animal damage (tons) 1991/1992 845 1992/1993 478 1993/1994 654 1994/1995 758

259 1995/1996 691 1996/1997 717 1997/1998 792 1998/1999 427 1999/2000 687 2000/2001 1023 2001/2002 1053

In Kiswahili, wildlife is called wanyamapori or Wanyama wa pori. The word is made up of two parts, mnyama which means an animal and pori which means a savannah, a forest and an uninhabitated/ uncultivated area. Thus the term wanyamapori can be also mean animals of the savannah or animals of the forests. It is important to notice that the concept wildlife itself is spatially charged and contains a spatial distinction in Kiswahili as well as in English language. Many big mammals and large predators, which the European tourists admire, are a burden to the small farmers in Tanzania. The farmers call these animals as Wadudu, which is a term used also for biting bugs and mosquitoes (Baldus 2001: 1).

The villagers perceived that wild animals were coming into the villages and farms from the forested areas. In Barikiwa/Chimbuko village, the village members told me that most wild animals come to their villages from the Selous Game Reserve. They added that once the animals have eaten in the village area, many of them continue to move southwards and cross through their village. Some animals do return back to Selous Game Reserve after their visit in the village and farms. The villagers told me that the nearby rivers are water sources for some wildlife species, and hippopotamuses can often be seen in local rivers. In Barikiwa village the interviewed village members did not notice any seasonal differences in wildlife distribution. They said that elephants, jackals and monkeys are seen there throughout the year. In Kikulyungu and Mpigamiti villages the participants also perceive that animals moved to the village area from the forests of the Selous Game Reserve. In Mihumo and Likombora the most often mentioned source of wild animals was the Angai forest. This empirical data provides me enough information to conclude that the villagers perceive a clear nature-culture border located between the cultivated fields and the forest border.

Results

I analysed 183 questionnaires from the ordinary village members and 16 questionnaires filled out by district level and regional level civil servants. I calculated the average rank of each listed animal in the questionnaire for each village. There was big variation in the number of respondents between the villages which has to be taken into consideration when pondering the results. Each diagram shows the average rank of the selected animals ranked by the village members according to their perceived image of rural African landscape. The closer the average rank is to number one, the more an integral part this animal is of the person’s perceived image of the rural African landscape. The larger the rank is, for example 12, the more exterior is the animal in the perceived image of the landscape. Thus those animals which have an average rank visualized close to the x-axis are the most integral to the locals’ perceived image of rural landscape. The respondents could also add their own choices of animals not found on the list. The villagers added a few animals as others into their lists, such as blue wildebeest, hippopotamus, horse and helmeted guinea fowl in Mpigamiti, bees and rabbit in Mihumo, blue wildebeest, hartebeest, rhino, helmeted guinea fowl, greater kudu, donkey, bush pig, eland and hyena in Kikulyungu, and hyena, wild cat, leopard and blue wildebeest in Barikiwa/Chimbuko.

260 16

10 Mpigamiti Mihumo 8 Likombora Kikulyungu

average rank average Barikiwa / Chimbuko 6

a t k lo le p la g oat ke e og a br g lion ffa d p tho ze icken phan duc catt dove r other e sna bu she im a ch el w baboon animals

Figure 2: The important animals of the perceived image of the African countryside for the members of six studied villages in the Liwale district, Tanzania.

The diagram above shows that the overall ranking of animals according to their importance in the perceived image of the African landscape has been quite similar in all villages. There are a few animals, such as the elephant, which has a wide variation in the average ranking between different villages. Goats, chicken and cattle have been ranked as an integral part of the perceived image of the countryside in all villages while baboons, warthogs and snakes are considered as exterior in the same setting. This supports the results of the open discussions where people mentioned species which they do not even want to see in their village areas. The average ranking of buffalo is almost identical to that of the sheep, so the people consider them both as animals belonging to their image of the countryside. Therefore it can be concluded that buffalos are seldom involved in human-wildlife conflicts in the Liwale district. The average ranking of the buffalo which is parallel to that of a domestic animal shows that the tolerance level of people to its presence in the rural landscape is higher than for some other wild animal such as warthog, for example.

The comparison of the average rankings of animals between the civil servants of the two different levels, district and region, gives an interesting result (above). Three animals stand out from the generally parallel results. These are the lion, the warthog and the baboon, which are given much more preference in the perceived image of African countryside by the regional level civil servants than by the district level civil servants. If these subjective preferences of animals belong to the perceived image of the countryside would be directly transmitted to the wildlife management decisions made on the regional level, there would certainly be disagreements between the district and regional levels on the role of these animals in the rural areas. Finally, I compared these average rankings with the combined average ranking of all studied villages next to see how big a difference exists between these stakeholder groups.

261 18

10 District level administration Regional level administration 8 average rank average

t r a nt e k o e e a ion al goa l attl dog the zebr icken duc c dov o h eph snak buff sheep impala c el warthog baboon animals

Figure 3: The important animals of the perceived image of African countryside for the civil servants at the district and regional level.

10 Regional level administration District level administration 8 Village averages average ranks average

nt k o e p g e la bra lion ee do ov oon e goat ha duc attl d pa rthog other z snake c sh a ep buffal im bab chicken el w animals

Figure 4: A combined diagram of the average ranks of the animals in the perceived images of African countryside among the villagers and civil servants at the district and region levels.

The villagers do not consider the elephant as such an integral part of the perceived image as the civil servants do, especially at the regional level. The villagers exclude snakes from their countryside image but not so strongly as the civil servants do. There is little variation in the

262 cases of the zebra, the goat, the buffalo, the sheep, the dove and the impala. These can be considered as neutral species in the different countryside images among the compared groups of respondents. The diagram shows that the regional level civil servants ranked the elephant, the lion, the dog, the warthog and the baboon with lower average ranks, meaning that these animals were more a integral to their perceived image of countryside than for the other group of respondents. Persons who work at the regional level seem to position elephants and lions closer to their perceived image of African countryside than the villagers and if the regional level administrators make decisions on the basis of this image it may indicate conflicts in the management and conservation of these two wild animal species in the rural areas. These findings support the idea that human-wildlife conflicts in Liwale can partially be explained on the basis of differences in the perceived images of landscape between the ordinary villagers and the decision-makers on wildlife management and nature conservation at the district and regional levels.

References Anderson, K. (1997), A walk on the wild side: a critical geography of domestication, Progress in Human Geography 21: 4, 463–485. Baldus, R.D. (2001), Introduction: Conservation by the People, in Baldus, Rolf, D. and Siege, Ludvig (eds.), Experiences with Community-based Wildlife Conservation in Tanzania, 1–4. Tanzania Wildlife Discussion paper No. 29. Wildlife Division, GTZ Wildlife Programme in Tanzania. GTZ, Dar es Salaam. Buller, H. (2008), Safe from the wolf: biosecurity, biodiversity, and competing philosophies of nature, Environment and Planning A 40, 1583–1597. Douglas, M. (1966), Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concept of Pollution and Taboo. Routlegde, U.K. Emel, J., C. Wilbert and J. Wolch (2002), Animal Geographies, Society and Animals 10: 4, 407– 412. Knight, J. (ed.) (2000), Natural Enemies. People-Wildlife Conflicts in Anthropological Perspective. Routledge. London, Great Britain. Salonen, V. (2004), Eläinmaantiede – näkökulmia ihmisen ja eläimen vuorovaikutussuhteeseen, Terra 116: 4, 227–240. Sukumar, R. (1998), Wildlife-Human Confl ict in India: An Ecological and Social Perspective, in Guha, R. (ed.), Social Ecology, 303–317. Oxford in India readings in Sociology and Social Anthropology. Oxford University Press, Delhi, India. Treves, A., L. Naughton-Treves, E. K. Harper, D. J. Mladenoff , R. A. Rose, T. A. Sickley and A. P. Wydeven (2004), Predicting Human-Carnivore Conflict: a Spatial Model Derived from 25 Years of Data on Wolf Predation on Livestock, Conservation Biology 18: 1, 114–125. Wolch, J. (2002), Anima urbis. Progress in Human Geography 26: 6, 721–742. Woodroffe, R., S. Thirgood and A. Rabinowitz (2005), The impact of human-wildlife conflict on natural systems, in Woodroffe, R., S. Thirgood and A. Rabinowitz (eds.), People and Wildlife. Conflict or Coexistence? , 1–12. Conservation Biology 9. The Zoological Society of London. Cambridge University Press, U. K.

263 Section 5: Geotechnological Diversity

Practical Aspects of Project Based Interdisciplinary Teaching with GIS

Alexander Kotsev, Anton Popov, Stelian Dimitrov

During the year of celebration of the 111th year of Academic Geography at Sofia University - 2009 the state of teaching and research is in a condition that can hardly be considered to be optimistic. It can be characterised with the constantly decreasing number of students, lack of qualified experts in many fields, old and frequently irrelevant methodologies in research, poor or no public image of geography in the country. On the other hand there are an increasing number of research and development projects in the country. The project based approach has been, as elsewhere a fact during the past decades, however a particularly important specific of the country is the increase of funding for research with budgets and priority areas, where projects exist have increased in times since 2007. This creates excellent opportunities for inclusion of students as participants in the research projects where they can get involved with practical applications of the knowledge that they gain during their studies in geography. This is also achieved thanks to the use of GIS in fields where geographic research is underrepresented like biology, archaeology, marketing and management, regional and urban development, etc. The paper addresses the issues of PBL with GIS through the inclusion of students in project activities with the benefits as well as the problems that occurred during this process. The problem of integration of the abovementioned PBL approach within the curriculum is also addressed in the paper.

State of the art of Academic Geography in Bulgaria

Although that GIS is widely used in Bulgaria, and despite the fact that there are certain positive results of the implementation GIS, there are still many unsolved problems. The most important of them are (Kotsev et. al., 2004): • Awareness of GIS: Geographic information systems can, as we mentioned above, be considered to be relatively new to countries like Bulgaria. Potential users are not fully aware of the functionality of GIS that they can benefit from. • Irrelevant Legislation: Probably, one of the biggest problems for implementing GIS in the country is the absence of appropriate legal framework, regarding spatial data, the rules for dealing, distributing and processing such data. The absence of an adequate institutional infrastructure for the implementation of GIS is also a very serious problem. • Lack of experts: A problem, typical to the country is related to the education of the GIS specialists. There is an obvious lack of capacity in the institutions to work with contemporary geoinformation systems, and education is the main reason for that. The established practice to train, instead of educate GIS specialists in Bulgaria resulted in a lot of problems: varying from geographic data production to jeopardizing multi-million euro projects.

Related to all that is mentioned here, there is an increased interest within the country for well educated specialists in the field of GIS, and the leader in the education field is the Sofia University.

264 The first GIS course, taught within the institution began in the academic year 1995/6. It was an elective course which was initially not very popular among students. Gradually, geographic information sciences found their place within the Bulgarian educational system and today GIS courses and programs could be found in most Universities and relevant academic institutions.

In 2001 in the Faculty of Geology and Geography started the first and still the only one Master degree program in GIS. The University is the first in the country to offer independent degree programs in GIS, remote sensing and spatial modelling. The number of students attending a GIS course during their studies has tripled for the past five years, which is unique for a geographic course in the country. The academic stuff as well as the laboratories and other facilities have during the same time remained constant due to budgetary and other objective limitations.

A dramatic change in the nature of the degree programmes has also occurred for the past few years – from strictly profiled and conservative to interdisciplinary, integrating knowledge and methods from various sciences. This has lead to a shift in the number of students from classical traditional programmes with over a century of traditions within the university (geography, geology, history, etc.) and an increase of the number of students within new interdisciplinary programmes. In order to satisfy the increased demand new courses have been developed including in the field of geographic information science – GIS in: archaeology, regional development, electoral studies, regional human resources management, geology, environmental protection, social and economic studies, tourism, etc. The abovementioned GIS courses are highly recognized by geographers and non-geography students and faculty. They are successfully being taught within the following both undergraduate and postgraduate interdisciplinary degree programs: • Regional development and policy (undergraduate) • Biology and Geography (undergraduate) • History and Geography (undergraduate) • Biomanagement (undergraduate) • Geology (undergraduate) • Applied demography (postgraduate) • Tourism (postgraduate) • Archaeometry (postgraduate)

Structurally all the interdisciplinary courses mentioned above are separated into two interrelated parts spreading into two semesters – (a) introduction to GIS and (b) thematic content based on the audience. The first part is similar regardless of the frequently completely different audience of the course. This is difficult to avoid, particularly because we require that a GIS course must cover at least some fundamental theoretic geographic concepts. Our strongest belief is that GIS is not an IT phenomenon born after the quantitative revolution and the computerization of the world we live in, but rather an inseparable part of geographic information science with its own methodology (see. NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIScience).

The highest employability rate of geographers is doubtlessly in the field of GIS, where even without good data it is more than likely that more than 70 percent of the graduates work in the field.

265 Project implementation and the learning process:

The project based approach is relatively new to the country, not only in the field of research and education. The main coordinator of the projects in Bulgaria is the National Science Fund, which is a supportive and consultative body of Ministry of Education and Science. For the past decade there have been an increasing number of projects and budget available for both research and education. The most significant increase of budget is observed during the past two years, with volumes of the available funding which have increased over four times for only two years Figure 1 Budget of the National Science Fund of Bulgaria for project implementation (million euro) (Figure 1). Another characteristic of the situation is related to the fact that over 50 % of the funding of 30 million euro goes directly to universities (2008).

Research projects are of critical importance now. The economic crisis and funding for research and education in Bulgaria have a diametrically opposite influence on the situation of academic institutions. The slowing economy (forecast for an increase in GDP of 2.4 % in 20098) is already limiting the opportunities for employability of students in the field of GIS, particularly in the private sector in US owned companies from the IT branch. On the contrary long term projects create the opportunity for students to be employed and develop their competences in the field of GIS for periods from a few months to three years. Departments dealing with GIS are in a unique situation to be able to independently apply or partner other institutions in virtually every possible research area of the ones identified by the National Science Fund (Figure 2). Faculty of the department of GIS and Cartography at the Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” are working in all the identified areas below, within projects ranging from suitability analysis for placement of solar panels and wind generators to underwater archaeology GIS databases elaboration.

Figure 2: Thematic Distribution of funding for research within the National Science Fund of Bulgaria

8 Source: The Economist country forecast, Economist Intelligence Unit

266 Examples of good practice

During the past years due to the process of shifting of funding from directly subsidised to project based there an increasing number of project based education examples have been observed. They can all be summarized into three types, based on the nature of the activities which are being accomplished: 1. Postgraduate thesis preparation as part of research projects. All PhD students during the past five years have participated in research projects most of which are directly related to their field of research. The majority of masters students have also prepared their thesis as part of a bigger projects: Some of the examples of our practice are: o Geological GIS Database for the Needs of Petroleum Geology; o GIS for Identification of Potential Habitat of the Black Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus); o GIS for Planning of the Regional Development in the Country. 2. Spatial data collection and manipulation for the needs of project implementation – All the projects that have been implemented include some sort of data collection. Most students in GIS and cartography have been involved into the creation of spatial data on a paid basis. By doing so they have acquainted industry standard software products like ESRI’s ArcGIS + extensions, as well as open source software products like GRASS GIS. Some examples of data collection include: o Hydrological data collection for GIS-based zebra mussels infestation risk assessment for basins in Northwest Bulgaria; o Creation of large scale digital geographic data for archaeological purposes in the Kabyle National Archaeological Reservation. o Data for spatial planning purposes. o Rila National park geographic database optimization and actualization. 3. Extracurricular activities – Most projects that have been implemented during the past years have included fieldwork for data collection and verification purposes. Both undergraduate and postgraduate students in the department of GIS and cartography have participated in fieldworks with GPS, DGPS, mobile GIS and total stations.

Conclusion

The inclusion of students in project activities is doubtlessly a “win-win” approach, where everyone benefits in one way or another. Not only do students get to know more about the contemporary GIS and the GIScience, which gives the fundamental methodological and theoretical foundations, but are also placed in an interdisciplinary environment. This is so because the majority of projects are implemented jointly with various institutions, and departments external to geography.

There are also certain problems arising from the learning during project implementation. The major ones we consider to be related to:

Lack of Integration of the project content within the curriculum. Curricula are certainly not in any way coherent with various projects. An option for solving those coordination issues is to include an obligatory module within the curriculum for an internship and/or work within research projects. This can however only be achieved after the inclusion of an obligatory one semester course in project cycle management, so that students will know theoretical and practical aspects of project implementation.

267 Limitation of theoretical concepts Project activities implementation frequently ignores theoretical concepts. Therefore, the integration of theoretical topics, as close to the content of project activities as possible, needs to be done within the curriculum.

Use of a toolbox and not fundamental geographic principles. One of our strongest concerns is the worshiping of technology among a representative share of students, which is in no way stimulated by students working within projects but is rather a consequence of the information society we all live in. It must be noted that the abovementioned is in a way indirectly supported by the necessity to use industry standard software products to teach GIS.

References Goodchild, M. F. (1997), What is Geographic Information Science?, NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIScience, www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/giscc/units/u002/u002.html, October 7. Kotsev, A., S. Dimitrov (2004), Problems and potential solutions for the implementation of GIS within the Bulgarian Statistical System, 24th Biennial Conference on Regional and Urban Statistics: Understanding Change (pp151-158), Minneapolis, USA.

268 Diversity of approaches to using geoinformatics in public education: the case of Slovenia

Marko Krevs Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Askerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia [email protected]

Abstract Since 1980s several documents have been produced to define the broad field of and many specific topics about geographic information systems and geographical information science. These works, including a growing number of textbooks, served as guidelines and resources to educators, mainly in higher, but increasingly also in lower levels of education. Could it be expected that because of this, geoinformatics is taught in quite a similar way all over the Europe? Of course not. Geoinformatic contents have been implanted in diverse educational programmes and have consequently grown in diverse directions and at very different pace. In spring 2008 a HERODOT “GIS expert meeting” in Madrid resulted in a draft document trying to define the expected geoinformatic competences and learning outcomes in secondary school, undergraduate and graduate level of higher education in Europe.

Selected statements from this draft document have been evaluated by teachers and other professional users of geoinformatics from different levels and different fields of education in Slovenia. Some of the results of this study will be presented in this paper to highlight the specific situation in the country, and to serve as background for further discussions about diversity of geoinformatics in the European educational context. Keywords: GIS, public education, Slovenia, Europe

Introduction

A study of attitudes for or against the statements from the HERODOT (2008a) document on geoinformatic education, expressed by professional and educational experts, employers and “other users” of geoinformatics in Slovenia, is briefly and partially presented in the paper. A web-based worldwide discussion (HERODOT, 2008b) about this document has been going on since the Madrid expert meeting (HERODOT, 2008a). The study presented in the paper differs from this discussion: o it is more systematic in the way of accessing the respondents, o it is more structured in the way of collecting and discussing the information, using an internet questionnaire, and o focuses on a national “geoinformatic population” (using national language).

The experiences gained by this pilot study can help us in designing a generally applicable approach to get feedback on geoinformatic education, and hopefully also on other “geographic benchmarks” (HERODOT, 2009) from all European countries.

Shifting context of geoinformatic education

Since about 15-20 years ago geoinformatics has been a fast growing pedagogic field, with a relatively small “body of geoinformatic (GI) knowledge”, studied “in one piece” (covering

269 major part of the GI contents) within many university study programmes, in a similar way in geography, geodesy and other disciplines. Since then the “body of GI knowledge” has grown so huge that no single existing discipline can cover it (except geoinformatics as a discipline by itself). Traditional “spatial” disciplines (and study programmes) became more selective in inclusion of particular GI contents. Consequently diversification in GI technology and science itself, and in its education, increased considerably. The university study of geoinformatics can in general be divided into two categories (Krevs, 2007): studies where GI receives main focus of the whole study programme, and other studies (including geography) where GI is present only as a supplementary course (or several courses). In the latter studies GI knowledge and skills support learning activities within other courses, and in student’s individual research. And in these studies the diversification is even more evident.

Following improved technical equipment in schools, raised levels of ICT literacy and the increasing number of easily accessible and user friendly geoinformatic tools, there is also a growing process to introduce geoinformatics into pre-university institutions, particularly secondary education. In USA this process started more systematically, especially after introducing The National Geography Standards (NCGE, 1994). In Europe this process is still very uneven between and within the countries, and in secondary education (especially within the geography courses) is not generally binding. A big task for geoinformaticians, and especially geography educators in Europe is to produce general guidelines for conducting this process, taking national and local specificities into consideration. Such guidelines are necessary not only to harmonize European approaches to geoinformatic education, but also to support introduction of GI into the (geography) curricula.

Since the end of 1980s a number of documents have been produced with an attempt to systematize the area of geoinformatic definition and education, which may help to justify the importance of specific contents, skills and acquired competencies. To mention just a few most influential: o NCGIA Core Curriculum (2000), issued and upgraded since 1990, influencing also a number of geoinformatics courses in Europe; o The National Geography Standards (NCGE, 1994) have been established in order to consolidate the position of geography within the essential knowledge and skills "necessary for a citizen in the 21 century"; standards which most directly relate to the content of geoinformatics: STANDARD 1: how to use maps and other geographic visualizations, tools and technologies for the acquisition, processing and communicating information; STANDARD 3: how to analyse the spatial organization of people, places and environments on Earth's surface; o Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge (DiBiase et al., 2006), which significantly upgrades the aforementioned documents.

All these documents have been published in the USA and have been only selectively used in Europe. Geoinformatic education in Europe developed in a largely fragmented way, with weak links between education and geoinformatic market, even among educational institutions within the universities. Due to this fragmentation there is a true need for a document that would help to achieve a higher degree of compatibility and interoperability in the field of geoinformatic education in Europe.

270 European discussions on geoinformatic education

The first European biennial seminar in the area of geoinformatic education EUGISES (http://www.eugises.eu/) was organised in 1998. Themes were discussed in the areas of geoinformatic curriculum, acquired competences of the graduates and formal arrangement of geoinformatics as a profession. Related discussions followed in many forms in national, European or worldwide conferences and publications. But we still do not have a comprehensive and generally acceptable document on the contents of and achieved competences in geoinformatic education in Europe.

HERODOT (Network for Geography in Higher Education) is trying to bridge this gap in the field of geography and related disciplines. The network launched a debate on the basic contents and competencies of the European geoinformatic education (HERODOT, 2008a, 2008b). The document is not intended to be binding, but should rather: serve as a guideline in curriculum development, represent the basis for discussion within and among the disciplines using geoinformatics, help to evaluate the achieved level of geoinformatic education and serve as a consultation document and a tool for lobbying among politicians and financers.

A working version of the document “benchmark statements”, has been prepared for three levels of education: for the secondary, undergraduate and masters level. The statement for each of the levels consists of three parts: general introduction, level descriptor and learning outcomes (last versions of the documents can be found here http://www.HERODOT.net/geography-benchmark.html and further considerations of the documents in Krevs, 2008).

Testing selected statements from HERODOT’s document on geoinformatic education: case of Slovenia

Geoinformatic education in Slovenia is as diverse and weakly intertwined as found across Europe. Attempts to establish different forms of cooperation within the country (Krevs, 2006) and in wider region (Krevs, Mandl and Mesaros, 2005-2006) added little to solve this deficiency so far. In Slovenian public education geoinformatic content is explicitly recognizable in university level curricula in some disciplines like geography, geodesy, archaeology and forestry. Several examples of using geoinformatic tools in pre-university education have been reported and discussed on conferences and seminars for geography teachers. But this content is left to be a “free choice” to geography teachers. It is not explicitly present in the geography curricula for primary or secondary education, and consequently also not included into the evaluation of the acquired knowledge and skills.

Two sub-populations have been particularly targeted in our study: - participants of the biennial symposium on GIS in Slovenia, the largest geoinformatic event in the country, bringing together experts and audience from the widest range of disciplines and GI applications; - geography teachers in primary and secondary schools.

Further snowball effect of spreading the link to the web-based questionnaire added a few more respondents to the studied “sample” (total number of respondents has been 139). The employment fields of the sample varies with 51 per cent of the respondents working in education, 45 per cent in research, 24 per cent in public administration and 19 per cent in

271 diverse economic activities (the answers to the question were not mutually exclusive). Therefore we succeeded to reach respondents beyond the teaching community. Only 15 per cent of the respondents actually teach geoinformatics, and a bit more (18%) use GIS in teaching other subjects. About a half (48%) of the respondents use GIS for research purposes, and one half (50%) for “other professional activities” like administration or economic activity. The respondents report an average 7.5 years of use of GIS (from 6.8 years respondents employed in education to 9.1 years respondents employed in economic activities).

The questionnaire was composed of selected statements from the HERODOT document and included some of the suggestions from the web-based discussion (HERODOT, 2008b). Our focus shifted slightly from secondary education and undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral levels used in the document, to primary, secondary and tertiary (undergraduate) education. The primary level of education has been introduced in the questionnaire and the debate to detect the differences in “geoinformatic potential and abilities” respondents perceived between the primary and secondary school students. Since the HERODOT expert group did not produce a document for the primary school, the statements from the document for the secondary school were used to evaluate geoinformatic perspectives for both levels of education (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1: Statements related to “level descriptor” of geoinformatics in primary and secondary geography education, and the respondent’s generalized level of agreement*. Statement: at the end of primary/secondary school students will be Primary Secondary able to demonstrate their geoinformatic abilities by being able to … school school actively participate in public decision-making by the use of spatial 7 40 information and presentations understand the basic purpose and use of GIS for solving 19 73 interdisciplinary problems in the real life use geoinformation interfaces (usually on the Internet) for the 49 90 acquisition of geographical information with an aim of examining a spatial phenomenon communicate the results of a geographical investigation with help of 19 75 GIS be aware of ways how to maintain and building their own 7 64 geoinformatic knowledge and skills * Level of agreement is expressed by percentage of respondents selecting answers “feasible” or “feasible without problems”.

The statements have been organised by level of education, and subdivided by focus on “level descriptor” and “learning outcomes”. Respondents evaluated each statement using the following five-level scale: non-feasible, maybe partially feasible, partially feasible, feasible, feasible without problems, with a possibility of opting for “escape answer” (“I do not know / can't evaluate”).

The answers about GI content in the undergraduate study of geography have shown that levels of agreement with the statements (see explanation below Tables 1 and 2) were between 70 per cent and 91 per cent for “level descriptor” and between 64 per cent and 88 per cent for “learning outcomes”. The respondents value as most feasible the following statements: − from the “level descriptor”: students get familiar with the fundamentals of spatial concepts, spatial analysis and geoinformatic applications;

272 − from the “learning outcomes”: students should be able to use GIS at a basic level for the presentation of spatial data, for the acquisition of spatial data and to identify the social importance of the use of a GIS in the context of concrete applications.

Table 2: Statements related to “learning outcomes” of geoinformatics in primary and secondary geography education, and the respondent’s generalized level of agreement*. Statement: at the end of primary/secondary school students will gain Primary Secondary the following geoinformatic competences** school school critical reading and interpretation of cartographic displays in various 27 81 media awareness of geographic information and their presentations using 30 83 GIS visual communication of geographic information 33 85 description and use of examples of geoinformatic applications in daily 34 84 life and in society use freely available GIS applications on a basic level 53 93 ask and answer geographical questions using GIS 19 74 * Level of agreement is expressed by percentage of respondents selecting answers “feasible” or “feasible without problems”. ** Each statement in the questionnaire has been complemented by examples.

The least feasible statement seem the achievement of ability to use GIS in a multi-disciplinary team, present the basic spatial information to other researchers, decision-makers, clients and the general public (“level descriptor) and identify spatial patterns and processes (“learning outcomes”).

Conclusions

The study does not give us clear answers relating to actual changes in curricula or in practice of geoinformatics in public education in Slovenia, neither does it reflect reliably the real abilities of the students at different levels of education. But they clearly show we need to clarify several aspects of the use of GI in the public education, acquired competences, and finally consider adequate incorporation of these contents into the geography curricula. The benchmark statement together with the results of this study makes a strong argument in the process of solving the problem of GI contents in public education.

From a practical point of view such an approach to evaluate benchmark statements should: • proceed with evaluation of the pilot study and re-design (and translate) the questionnaire to be used in all the European countries (or beyond); • organise a network to carry out the concrete study, including a kind of quota sample for each partner country based on all relevant sub-populations (for example geography teachers, employers, public administration); • help in rewriting the benchmark statement under consideration; • decrease frequency to enable dedicated cooperation of every partner involved.

Cooperating with HERODOT as the most widespread and very active European geographic network is a true advantage in carrying out such a project.

273 Only a minor part of the research results can be presented in this paper. The analysis of responses to the questionnaire, including highlighting some substantial differences between the groups of respondents, and some concrete suggestions collected by open-ended questions has been elaborated in details in Krevs (2009).

References DiBiase, D. & DeMers, M., Johnson & A., Kemp, K. & Taylor Luck & A., Plewe, B. & Wentz, E. (editors) (2006), Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge. Washington: University Consortium for Geographic Infomation Science. Associaltion of American Geographers HERODOT (Network for Geography in Higher Education) (2008a), What GIS in Geography and related subjects? GIS expert meeting, Madrid, 29.5.-1.6.2008, http://www.HERODOT.net/conferences/GIS-madrid/madrid-tp4-2008.html, accessed 10/6/2008. HERODOT (Network for Geography in Higher Education) (2008b), GIS in Geography, Web discussion using Google Groups portal, http://groups.google.com/group/HERODOT-net, accessed 10/6/2008 HERODOT (Network for Geography in Higher Education) (2009), Benchmarks in Geography, http://www.HERODOT.net/geography-benchmark.html, accessed 15/4/2009 Krevs, M. & Mandl, P. & Mesaroš, M. (2005-2006), Geoinformatics and Cartography in SE Europe – Interregional Cooperation, Human Resources, link to web questionnaire http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.asp?u=378851855660, accessed 15/4/2006. Krevs, M. (2006), Izzivi povezovanja med ustanovami na področju geoinformacijskega izobraževanja (Challenges of inter-institutional cooperation in the field of geoinformatic education), link to web questionnaire http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=OdVlzteVnhiS5FbziUr0Lw_3d_3d, accessed 10/6/2008; link to abstract of the workshop http://slogis2.zrc- sazu.si/Povzetki%20GIS%20v%20Slo%202005-06.pdf, accessed 10/6/2008; link to presentation http://slogis2.zrc-sazu.si/images/Krevs_GISvSlo2006.pdf, accessed 10/6/2008. Krevs, M.(2007), Challenges and pitfalls of project based university study of geoinformatics, in Catlin, S. (ed.), Changing geographies: innovative curricula : the conference proceedings. Oxford: International Geographical Union, Commission for Geographical Education, British Sub-Committee: HERODOT, 168-173. Krevs, M. (2008), Temeljna geoinformacijska znanja na različnih ravneh javnega izobraževanja (Core geoinformatic knowledge achieved at different levels of public education), in Perko, D. et al (editors), Geografski informacijski sistemi v Sloveniji 2007- 2008, Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 433-441. Krevs, M. (2009), Do empirical findings suggest more explicit introduction of geoinformatic contents into geography curriculum?, Dela, Ljubljana: Oddelek za geografijo, Filozofska fakulteta, (forthcoming). NCGE (The National Council for Geographic Education) (1994), Geography for Life - The Eighteen National Geography Standards, Tutorial, http://www.ncge.org/publications/tutorial/, accessed 10/6/2008 NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIScience (2000), National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis, http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/education/curricula/giscc/, accessed 10/6/2008.

274 iGuess: Introducing GIS Use in Education in Several Subjects

Luc Zwartjes VLA, on behalf of the iGuess consortium

Abstract The consortium of iGuess (Introducing GIS Use in Education in Several Subjects) will develop a teacher training course to promote GIS and instruct teachers in using it. Lots of people use GIS applications daily, like car navigation systems, interactive maps on the internet,… yet GIS learning in Europe is lagging behind. Progress could be made if we initiate continent-wide educational programs, following the example of the US. Not only do we need more GIS-trained people, teachers also need to become aware of the advantages of GIS. It will give them opportunities for collaborating and realising interdisciplinary, cross- curricular, even European projects. Our project aims to bridge this gap by getting the stakeholders to work together, disseminating GIS skills by sharing ideas and best practices in learning about the use of GIS. In the two-year time span of our project, the partners will develop, share, test, enhance and optimise a course for teaching and learning with GIS. The course will contain methodologies, guidelines, good practices and exercises for using GIS in the classroom practice. Standard templates, facilitating the integration of exercises in courses, need to be developed. All content will be made available on a website, containing databases, reports, news, network links. GIS-knowledge in Europe will expand by the increasing number of teachers and pupils that will work with GIS and this will have a great impact on the industries, thriving on GIS.

Keywords: GIS, geography education, lessons

What is iGuess iGuess is a European Comenius Project that started in October 2008 for a period of 2 years. iGuess is the abbreviation of Introducing GIS Use in Education in Several Subjects although Integrating GIS Use in Education in Several Subjects might also be a correct name (Figure 1). 9 The consortium involved in this project aim to increase the use of GIS in education and enhance and its methodology. This is important as GIS is a tool that is already widely used in all sorts of businesses: industry, public services. Beyond schools, people are using this tool to create, store, analyse and manage spatial data and its associated attributes, what might be known as geo-information. This GIS technology is rapidly emerging into several aspects of society and is gaining importance (examples include GPS and digital maps). Many European students are likely to come into contact with it in Figure 1: iGuess logo their future professional lives.

9 Parts of the text are extracted from the application document of the iGuess project.

275 Schools in the USA picked up on this many years ago and are gradually integrating GIS in their curricula. Unfortunately, European schools are lagging behind, mainly due to the lack of awareness and deficit in the skills among teachers. This is also partially due to the fact that the software to use and study GIS has been quite expensive. However, new framework curricula in European school education will include GIS as a learning goal for secondary schools. GI in education is an EC initiative under the IST programme10.

Today, in many European countries, GIS introductory courses do exist, but they are mostly aimed at geography teachers. They tend to be highly technological and lack examples of good educational practice. So there is a great necessity for European in-service teacher training projects, introducing and developing GIS in secondary education and lowering the threshold for all teachers by creating an easy access to a workable course.

The iGuess Consortium iGuess is lead by KOGEKA, a group of six secondary schools (general, technical and vocational education) and has had GIS experience on European scale with another European project: GISAS. Out of that project came the idea of organizing in-service teacher training modules on GIS. To reach that goal KOGEKA gathered a diverse team, consisting of • GIS experts: University of Sofia - a very active partner of HERODOT, University of Helsinki - has already organized GIS teacher training courses in Finland, University of the Aegean - running a GIS lab, and Digital Worlds – now part of ESRI UK, develops a simplified version of ArcGIS. • Teacher training institutes Pedagogical University of the diocese Linz - a competence centre for lifelong learning and using digital media in education, specialized in geoinformation, VVKSO - In-service Training in Catholic Education - Flemisch Association for the Catholic Secondary Education - organizes dozens of in-service teacher training courses in Flanders, among which GIS trainings. • Curriculum developers: VVKSO is designing curricula for all Flemish catholic schools within the legal limits. • Secondary education institutes: KOGEKA , VVKSO represent the catholic educational institutions in Flanders in their contacts with all other educational participants (government, industry, parents, media,...), Collège et lycée privés du Sacré-Coeur is a big secondary school in the outskirts of Paris (France). • A public body with an extensive educational service: Danube-Drava National Park Directorate (Hungary) offers, through its visitor centres, many school programmes, among which GIS teacher training, visualizing the characteristics of the national park • A non-governmental organisation focused on education: GREEN’s core business is setting up sustainable development projects for primary and secondary schools, many of which have spatial aspects, which are visualized using GIS • An educational GIS software company: Digital Worlds has developed user-friendly GIS software (DW3) for educational purposes based on ArcGIS (ESRI) • All the iGuess partners have lots of experience in transnational cooperation: teacher training projects, school partnerships, teacher’s associations, ICT projects, Interreg projects, UNESCO projects, thematic networks. • ESRI has freely distributed ArcGIS software and licences among the participating parties. When necessary, it will participate in the discussion about the project and help with the GIS training.

10 Information Society Technologies: http://cordis.europa.eu/ist/

276

The evaluation of the project is done by an external evaluator because of his independence. This increases the quality of the evaluation and, thus, the quality of the project activities and results. Karl Donert is the GIS expert who evaluates the project with respect to content and organisational aspects.

What is the aim of iGuess

Through the network of the consortium of iGuess, teachers will be made aware of the possibilities of GIS. With the teacher training, we want to provide approaches and methods for teaching and learning with geo-information in education. Enquiry-based, ICT learning in schools will be endorsed by the use of GIS and it can be used in all subjects. Digital competence of students will be enhanced. It is also important that the exercises are translated in the partner languages to stress and compare possible cultural differences. All this should motivate teachers to test and try these innovative and collaborative teaching methods.

Interested teachers will be trained and become experts in GIS and thus pass on the knowledge in their schools and to their pupils. The project also offers free licences and software to learn and to use GIS in the schools of the participating teachers. More and more schools will become convinced of the use of GIS without the costs of buying the software or the licences. GIS will appeal to the teachers, because of the examples of good practice (exercises) that will be included in the teacher training course and also because of the adaptation of the matter to the level of secondary school students. Not only geography teachers will be convinced, but also other subjects will benefit. The themes and exercises can also lead to active citizenship, by producing and mapping data that will raise the awareness of youngsters, citizens and law- makers.

Through an updated website (www.iguess.eu) that will elaborate on GIS-aspects, information about approaches that support good practice will be disseminated. The mechanisms for quality control will be inherent in the exercises and the guidelines. The website and the training course will also be a platform to enhance educational quality and to exchange innovative products and good practice on a European level.

What will the outcome be?

This project will produce a teacher training course, consisting of 4 modules including exercises, translated in 8 languages (partner countries). The methodology of the exercises is carefully developed keeping in mind what we want to reach. The aim is not to develop a manual for software programmes but to use GIS as a tool for investigation and spatial thinking. Therefore we reflect every exercise to what level of self supported learning we aim it. The basic exercises are meant for the basic level ‘self working’, using worksheets and step- by-step methodology.

The moment we go to the higher levels ‘independent working’ and ‘independent learning’ we drop the step-by-step method and target on the content. The exercise starts with a ‘start-up phase’ informing the teacher of the subject he wants to investigate. The questions have to be answered without a step-by-step document. If the teacher still needs support on a specific GIS tools and skills he will be able to drop back on ‘i-notes’, short 2-page explanatory guides. All the exercise will be developed using the same templates and guidelines developed by the

277 consortium. These will be used in a later phase by the teachers to develop their own exercises (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Self supporting learning line for GIS in iGuess

The first module produced will be an introduction to GIS and it will be very practical and accessible for laymen. This module will combine the theory with the actual use of the GIS software in basic exercises, so that the participants get acquainted with GIS. These exercises must comply with the templates and guidelines that will also be produced within the project. The participants will have to learn from scratch how to use GIS. This also means going out to collect data.

The theory will give background on Geographical Information and GIS, on the different tools for GIS that exist, going from web-based applications to full GIS software. The basic exercises will – using these tools – learn the teacher the first steps in the possibilities of GIS. The emphasis will be here in the first exercises a step-by-step method. This method will not be maintained for further exercices as they do not force you to think about what you are doing nor what you want to investigate, reach …

The second module consists of examples that are collected and developed by the partners of the consortium. The participants will be able to process their collected data and see what some of the possibilities within GIS are. In the third module the teachers/participants in the course will be introduced to the guidelines to make the exercises. They will learn how to make exercises that fit in with their lessons. In the fourth module the participants will attend a workshop in which they will actually work together with other European teachers and create their own GIS exercises.

278

Every module will be evaluated using criteria of the ECDL GIS driving license and the HERODOT Benchmark on GIS in secondary education. Throughout the project a website will be developed. On this website partners, participants… can consult a number of data. There will be a database with examples of exercises. These can be external exercises or exercises developed by the partners of the consortium. A list of e-partners and organisations experienced with geo-information in education will also be presented on the website to further motivate the teachers to do the exercises. Furthermore, the consortium will publish a report on the state of GIS in education on the website, as well as a report on the opportunities to use GIS in curricula in the partner countries. To raise the awareness and to create publicity, there are also iGuess brochures and posters.

It is planned that teachers who complete the course will be awarded a GIS driving licence. Together with this driving licence they will be granted a licence to use GIS software (Arcview from ESRI) for free during one year in their school. This will enable teachers to learn, test, study and convince others to use GIS.

Time schedule

The iGuess consortium started it’s activities in October 2008. Every half year during a project meeting the main developments and strategies are outlined and followed. In between these meetings consultations will be held via different channels. During the last meeting (May 2009 in Sofia) the details of the first try out of the exercises was set up. This pilot will be done by a group of Greek teachers in Mytiline, Lesvos in September 2009. The feedback from this will help enhance the next exercises for the final training in September 2010 in Geel, Belgium. At this training teachers from all over Europe will be able to participate via the Comenius catalogue.

Conclusion iGuess is delivering, for the first time, a pan-EU approach to help teachers use a new technology in their classroom with GIS. It will offer new teaching approaches (in class, interdisciplinary and on a European level), new learning opportunities and new skills development. We want to simplify GIS teaching to the level of teachers and their secondary pupils, so that GIS-awareness is raised step by step. Moreover, incorporating GIS into curricula is an innovation that enables the study of environmental phenomena and the solution of problems in a new way.

Another new innovation aspect will be the development of a “GIS driving licence” for the secondary school teachers, which could be used in their CV when applying for a job. Thanks to our GIS driving licence, attendees to the course will take GIS knowledge AND free licences/software back to their schools so they can test, study and teach GIS in class. During and after the course they will have access to ready-made exercises that can be used in any subject and they will be able to adapt the exercises to match their own interests.

References AICA: The ECDL GIS driver license (pdf ) http://aicanet.net/certificazioni/ecdl/specialised-level/ecdl-gis accessed 21/12/2008 ANDERSLAND Svein, KNUDSEN Arne: Web-based GIS in Upper Secondary Schools (ppt)

279 http://www.herodot.net/conferences/stockholm/HERODOT-Stockholm2.html#pres accessed 10/01/2009 FARGHER Mary: Linking Lessons learnt from the Classroom with Research Findings on Pedagogies with GIS (pdf) http://www.herodot.net/conferences/stockholm/HERODOT-Stockholm2.html#pres accessed 21/12/2008 HERODOT: Benchmark on GIS in school Geography and teacher education (doc), http://www.herodot.net/geography-benchmark.html accessed 21/12/2008 KOGEKA: iGuess, Application form 2008: Lifelong Learning Programme Sub-programmes – Multilateral Projects, Networks, Accompanying measures – , May 2008 KOOLVORD Bob: Connecting Project-based GIS Curricula with Secondary Schools (ppt) http://www.herodot.net/conferences/stockholm/HERODOT-Stockholm2.html#pres accessed 10/01/2009 GERSMEHL Carol and Phil: Modes of spatial thinking, http://www.jeffreylash.com/courses/3137/PDF/BasicModesOfSpatialThinking.pdf accessed 21/12/2008

280 GIS In Pre-Vocational Secondary Education

Gert Ruepert

European Geography Association for Students and Young Geographers [email protected]

Abstract GIS is used more and more in secondary education in the Netherlands. Nowadays it is integrated in most geography school books, but mainly limited to books for VWO (pre- university education) and HAVO (senior general secondary education) and not for VMBO level (pre-vocational secondary education). The article reports on the student appreciation of a short GIS module for second year VMBO pupils. The module was designed by the teacher with the use of the Dutch website EduGIS. In general the pupils liked the module, but the purpose was not always understood. A further integration in the regular geography curriculum is needed to create a better understanding of the application of GIS.

Key words: GIS, Secondary education, pre-vocational secondary education

Introduction

The paper describes a GIS module for students at the pre-vocational secondary education. It examines what are the pitfalls and success factors in teaching GIS to these students? The article starts with a short overview of the Dutch education system, the place of the pre- vocational secondary education in this system, the role of geography in secondary education and the attention for GIS in the geography lessons.

VMBO and the Dutch Education System

The Dutch education system has a wide variety of school types and levels which can lead to many different educational career tracks. Figure 1 gives an overview of the Dutch Educational System. After Figure 1: Dutch Education System primary school children go to secondary school at about the age of twelve. The type of secondary school they go to depends on the result of the test they have in the final year of their primary school, the advice of the primary school, the choice of the pupil and his/her parents and the accepting school.

281 Pre-university education (VWO) is the highest level in secondary education. It takes six years, and it gives entrance to university. Senior general education (HAVO) takes five years and prepares pupils for professional university (HBO). Pre-Vocational Secondary Education (VMBO) takes four years, a diploma gives access to upper secondary vocational education. Pupils who are unable to obtain a VMBO qualification can receive practical training, which prepares them for entering the labour market. Sixty percent of students nationally are enrolled into VMBO. VMBO has only existed since 1999. It combined the existing, more theoretical, junior general secondary education schools and the practical pre-vocational education. VMBO combines vocational training with theoretical education in languages, mathematics, history, arts and sciences. VMBO has four different levels, in each a different mix of practical vocational training and theoretical education is combined. The four levels are the following:

o Theoretical learning path (VMBO-T) is the most theoretical of the four, it prepares for the upper-secondary vocational education (MBO), with a VMBO diploma it is also possible to switch to HAVO. o Mixed learning path is a mix between the theoretical learning path and the middle management-oriented learning path. o Middle management-oriented learning path teaches theoretical education and vocational training equally. It prepares for middle management and vocational training at the MBO and is meant for students with a more practical learning style. o Basic profession-oriented learning path emphasizes vocational training and prepares for the vocational training at the MBO.

Geography at VMBO

Since 2006 secondary schools got a lot more freedom to design the curriculum for the first two school years. The ministry of education determined 58 core objectives, including 12 on the domain ‘man and society.’ Schools can decide themselves how they offer these core objectives. The ministry decides ‘what’, the school decides ‘how. The can be in the traditional way of the separate school subjects, or in projects, combined subjects or ‘learning area.’ At some schools this lead to the origin of the school subject ‘Man and Society’ which combines history, geography and economy. At the VMBO students can do a final exam in geography depending on which sector they have chosen and what the school offers.

GIS at VMBO One of the core objectives for the first two years of secondary education is that all students should be able to work with maps and the atlas (ministry of education 2008). There is no reference no reference to GIS or other ICT applications. In a publication, ordered by the ministry, on how to make the core objectives more concrete, Google Earth and remote sensing are mentioned as examples for HAVO and VWO but not for VMBO. In the current geography schoolbooks for VMBO there is some attention to remote sensing but not, - except in one - for GIS. In the newest schoolbooks for the final years of HAVO and VWO there are assignments with GIS.

In the proposal of the Royal Dutch Geographical Society for the new VMBO exam GIS is mentioned. Working with Google Earth, EduGIS and advanced GIS is seen as an important part of the geographical education (KNAG, 2008). Favier (2008) identifies 12 reasons to stimulate the use of Geo-ICT in the class room. - Career rationale: 1. orientation on successive education

282 2. training of ICT skills - Practical rationale: 3. Increase of Geo-ICT technologies (GPS, Car Navigation), 4. Increase of the role of Internet in the communication of geo-information. - Educational rationale: 5. GIS as source for digital geo information 6. Development of geographical thinking skills 7. To gain map making skills 8. As research tool (combination and visualization and analysis of data) 9. Possibilities for more challenging education (learning by discovery) 10. Possibilities for more realistic education 11. Possibilities for more topical education - Subject related rationale 12. GEO-ICT simply belongs to geography

These reasons could just as well apply for HAVO/VWO as for VMBO. Except that the research skill is more relevant to HAVO and VWO students than to VMBO students. But GIS is also more and more used in daily activities (GPS on mobile phones, Googlemaps). Important in VMBO education (Noordink 2007) is to connect subject matter to the students perception, the use of ICT can realise this. The use of GIS in the world of work is not limited to a small group of researchers anymore, but also the more practical jobs where VMBO students will enroll.

A GPS/GIS Module for Second Year VMBO-T Students

A geography teacher at the Udens College has designed a GPS and GIS module with 12 lessons for the second year VMBO theoretical learning path class. The first 5 lessons were dedicated to GPS, starting with two theoretical introduction lessons about orientation (geographical grid, coordinates etc.) and navigation. In the 3 next lessons the students went outside with a GPS to walk a route and to make their own route and draw it on a map. The GIS lessons started with a classical introducation, followed by 3 lessons on the computer. For the GIS lessons the website EduGIS was used, an online GIS specially designed for secondary education. After an introduction lesson on EduGIS, the students made a module on EduGIS about the carriage capacity of the Netherlands. The students had to write their answers on a paper which was graded. For the quick students the teacher made an extra assignment. Students had to use the GIS to find a location of a geography teacher by several clues.

The first reactions of the students when the module was announced were very positive. The message that they would go outside for GPS and working on the computer was cheered. Later the enthusiasm was slightly moderated when they discovered that it was not only fun, but they had to work as well. All students took actively part in the practical assignments, and the grades for the practical work were well. For the GPS part of the module the students had to work in groups. The module was finished with a written exam, the results of this exam were in general lower. A common problem among VMBO students was that they do not have the patience to read carefully, but immediately want to take action. Both in the GPS and GIS lessons many questions were asked to the teachers, while it was explained in the text.

It was the first time the teacher did this module. In evaluation a few points came up. In general the students liked the module. First of all because going outside for the GPS lessons and the computer lessons for GIS are a welcome change to the daily routine in the class room. But as well because they were busy themselves, it gave them a good feeling when they noticed they were able to make discoveries themselves. They liked to work with modern technologies.

283 Although during the theoretical lessons the use of GPS and GIS was explained, it was not totally clear to the students what personal uses it has for them. What can they do with GIS, why it is important for geography? Do they need it for a future job? Will they use it again in geography lessons?

Conclusion and Recommendations

GIS can be taught to students at the pre-vocational education. There is a growing importance of Geo-ICT in the world of work and in daily life even makes it necessary to teach it. Though it is not part of the school books it is possible for teachers to design their own lessons, for example with the help of a website like EduGIS. From an in-class example some success factors and pitfalls can be identified: o For all students, but especially for VMBO students it is important to connect to their perception. In other words, keep it close! By coincidence part of the GIS assignment was about their hometown, Uden and so the teacher could add some extra questions about it. o In the module GPS and GIS were separated in different assignments. For the perception of te students and their motivation, it would have been better to combine them. Putting their own GPS data into a GIS makes it even more realistic for the students, o For the teacher it was difficult to make a written exam about GIS and GPS. Although the material designed by the teacher contained some theory, the main part of the module was practical. Most of the questions in the exam focused on finding coordinates of places in the atlas, which was not the core of the module. I conclude that a written exam is not always necessary! o In the final GIS assignment there was a mistake in the clues, so the students could not find the right location. Obvious advice, but make sure to test your material yourself carefully! o This were separate GPS/GIS module without connection to previous and later subjects in geography lessons. For many students the advantages of GIS did not became clear. Therefore I stress the importance of integrating GIS into the normal modules!

References Favier, T, (2008), Geo-ICT in het voortgezet aardrijkskunde onderwijs 12 redenen om het gebruik van geo-ICT in de klas te stimuleren, Presentation GIN symposium. Hamstra, D. G. & Ende van den, J. (2006), De vmbo-leerling. Onderwijspedagogische- en ontwikkelingspsychologische theorieën, Amersfoort: CPS, onderwijsontwikkeling en advies Kerski, J.J. (2003), The implementation and Effectiveness of Geographic Information Systems Technology and Methods in Secondary Education. Journal of Geography, 102 (4):128-137. KNAG Commissie Aardrijkskunde Tweede Fase (2006), Gebieden in perspectief natuur en samenleving, nabij en veraf. Utrecht: KNAG KNAG Commissie examen aardrijkskunde vmbo (2008), Kijk op een veranderende wereld voorstel voor een nieuw examenprogramma aardrijkskunde vmbo, Utrecht: KNAG Korevaar, W. & Koenders, R. (2004), Help GIS in (en via) het Voortgezet Onderwijs op weg! VI Matrix jaargang 11, nummer 4; Noordink, H. & Rozing, G. (2007), Concretisering van de kerndoelen mens en maatschappij, Enschede: SLO

284 Teaching a Progression of Courses in Geographic Information Science at Higher Education Institutions

Michael A. McAdams, Ali Demirci, Ahmet Karaburun, Mehmet Karakuyu, Süleyman İncekara Geography Department, Fatih University 34500 Büyükçekmece, Istanbul, Türkiye

Abstract When Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RM) was first introduced to higher education in the early 1990s, it usually consisted of only one course for each of these technologies. Many considered it an elective, whether being housed in Geography Departments or in other departments and not considered essential for the education of future professionals. This has changed with the courses related to spatial technologies being at the center of many Geography departments' program. Until recently, these courses were inadequately understood as to their relationship to a broader science. The developing sub- discipline of Geographic Information Science (GIScience) is providing the framework for adequately teaching spatial technologies for Geography Departments. The recent publication by the American Association of Geographers (AAG), Geographic Information Science and Technologies Body of Knowledge (GIS&T BoK) is the first step in the development of a progression of courses to adequately prepare students for careers, which utilize spatial technologies. This paper will discuss the developing discipline of GIScience, the impact of GIS&T BoK and how this outline for GIScience education can be implemented in Geography Departments, using the curriculum and experience of implementing a progression of courses in GIScience at the Geography Department at Fatih University.

Keywords: Geographic Information Science, Geographic Education, spatial technologies, higher education

Spatial Technologies and Professional Education

During the last twenty years, the concurrent development of technology and greater access to information could only be called a revolution. It has transformed almost every spectrum of activities in the developed and to a lesser extent in the developing countries. The development and the increase sophistication, availability and usability of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing, and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are intrinsically linked with the technological changes that occurred in the last twenty years. GIS, Remote Sensing, GPS and other related geographically oriented technologies are collectively referred to as spatial technologies. However, the development of spatial technologies is ultimately another tool for mankind’s need to understand space and analyze it for the improvement of operating within the spatial realm. With the advent of the affordability of computer hardware and software by a wide spectrum of users, the accessibility of spatial technologies has concurrently dramatically changed such that both those in the private and public sector are using spatial technologies for numerous tasks from resource management, emergency management, urban planning, store location, transportation planning, gas and water line planning and numerous other tasks. The Internet has allowed for unprecedented sharing of geographic data. Interrelated are the interrelated disciplines of Remote Sensing and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and spatial

285 modeling. Growing and feeding this triad has been mathematics, cartography, and computer science and information.

A large amount of literature and applications are found related to spatial technologies. Its development is dynamic and the blurring of lines the GIS and the related technologies gets hazier as it becomes easier to integrate them. In the process, spatial technologies are being partially fragmented as it is integrated into cell phones, mobile GIS units, the Internet etc. They are now becoming essential to the study of any spatial phenomena. There is a real and pressing need for properly trained professionals with expert skills in spatial technologies.

Spatial Technologies

Spatial technologies are generally considered Remote Sensing, GIS and GPS, but could also include navigations systems. They depend on a number of interrelated disciplines and technologies (see Figure 1). These technologies are becoming increasing seamless and being utilized both in analysis and real time applications. The comprehensive study of spatial technologies and the supporting disciplines are under the rubric of Geographic Information Science (GIScience) (Longley2005). There are numerous applications for spatial analysis in environmental science including regional and local resource planning and management, and sustainability. Spatial technologies are widely used in both the private and public sector. The ultimate aim of GIS is to provide for better decision-making. Spatial technologies do not provide the solutions. They provide better, faster and sometimes unique ways of examining spatial phenomena. One of the key strengths of GIS and Remote Sensing is their ability to integrate different layers, time, data, images, and real time events in a geographic setting.

With the advent of the PC, they have now become the most widely used tool for spatial analysis by both the private and public sector for numerous tasks from natural resource management, emergency management, urban planning, store location, resource development, transportation planning, gas and water line planning and numerous other tasks. The Internet has allowed for the unprecedented sharing of geographic data. There is strong evidence that spatial technologies not just an adjunct to many disciples, but are an essential and integral part of them. With the increased need for spatial data required by both the public and private sector, the use of spatial technologies has been adopted by many entities in developed countries for management of public and privately owned natural resources.

This is no doubt that they are powerful tools for sundry and varied purposes. However, when software companies display their products, it often seems to the potential users that it is “turn key”. GIS and Remote Sensing are often touted as a panacea by its proponents within an organization. The reality of its implementation is often quite sobering. There are significant barriers to the implementation of a GIS for an organization including the amount of training necessary, the usability of the software, institutional barriers, data sharing problems, software selection and numerous other impediment. To overcome these barriers, skilled professionals who are not only technicians, but familiar with GIScience are needed.

286

Figure 1: Relationship of Spatial Technologies and Related Fields

University Level Professional Development

There has been much promotion and examples of the potential of spatial technologies in ecology, environmentalism, urban planning, transportation, agriculture etc. However, there exists a gap between the need and those that are professionally skilled in specialized areas and also spatial technology experts. To realize both a hybrid form of education has to be developed.

Twenty years ago, when GIS and Remote Sensing were first being taught in institutions of higher education, teaching these technologies were considered as ‘add-ons’and specialties and not part of the basic courses of the different departments. At this time, if one took a couple of courses in GIS then you were considered by many to be a GIS professional. Since this time, instruction in spatial technologies has grown due to the great demand for those that are suitably trained in the spatial technologies either as a specialist in GIS, Remote Sensing and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) or as an expert user who will use it as a tool in various disciplines such as urban planning, environmental analysis or geographic education (Wilke and Finchum 2003). The increased usability the relative affordability of the hardware and software has realized that most colleges and universities have the capability of providing instruction in spatial technologies. However, the capability of a higher education institution to teach GIS, Remote Sensing and GPS and in terms of adequate software and hardware does not translate to its ability to effectively train students for the GIScience market. Presently, GIScience education is now occurring in multiple institutions (technical schools, universities, software companies etc.), numerous departments and often cross-disciplinary and through various means of delivery (e.g., distance education.) (Wilke and Finchum 2003). Berdusco (2003) identifies 514 institutions worldwide that are offering some kind of GIS courses, of which 44 offer undergraduate degrees and 80 graduate degrees in GIS. Curricula in GIScience are extremely varied and it is difficult to state that they are moving toward any level of commonality. This 2003 estimate is a conservative one and is estimated to be significantly higher in 2009. In an extensive review of courses of various institutions worldwide by McAdams and Demirci (2008), it was clear there is not any consensus in GIScience curricula. One can see some similarity such as Cartography and Introduction to GIS courses, but others are courses are ambiguous and do not indicate the nature of the material that is being taught (i.e., GIS I, GIS II, Advanced GIS etc.). Prerequisites may be indicated, but generally there is limited information about specific tracks with a GIScience degree and the progression of courses. How should the training of professionals that are skilled in both disciplines of

287 GIScience and other specialty areas be accomplished? The emphasis must be on equipping the students with the necessary skills to be proficient in both areas. In this aspect, the student is trained to use spatial technologies as a tool as applied for various areas of interest. A student must have some of the skills of other science professionals such as advanced mathematics, such as calculus and statistics and basic knowledge of computers and ‘utility software (i.e., Word, Excel, PowerPoint).

For example, to be proficient in Environmental Science and Spatial Technologies, students must be given specialized classes in biology, chemistry, environmental impact; hydrology, weather and climate, soils and a series of classes both basic and advanced concentrating on GIScience and the use of spatial technologies. Environmental Science programs are interdisciplinary being a combination of engineering, geography, geology, urban planning and political science. Programs span the spectrum from undergraduate to doctoral programs.

A major step has been taken with the University Consortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS) publication Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge (DiBiase et al. 2006) to formulate what areas should be taught in higher education institutions to adequately equip GIScience professionals to enter the job market. At this time, it is up to individual programs to review the development of spatial technologies and environmental science and access the proper mix of both.

Development of a Hybrid Geography and Spatial Technologies Program at Fatih University

Approximately two years ago, the Geography Department started a program that deviated from other programs in Turkey. The decision was made to concentrate on GIScience, environmental analysis and urban planning. While our program does have some introductory regional geography courses, the decision to concentrate on specific areas was based on the size of our faculty, presently only five, and assessment of what curricula would result in marketable students for the current job market in Turkey. The courses related to a concentration on Environmental Science and Spatial Technologies in the Geography Department’s program at Fatih University were displayed in Table 1. Of course, we do not anticipate that this course curriculum will be fixed but will change as different developments occur in Environmental Science and GIScience.

Table 1: Courses in the Geography Department related to Environmental Science and Spatial Technologies. Years Courses 1st Year Chemistry, Biology, Statistics, Cartography, Introduction to GIScience, Calculus 2nd Year GIS, Remote Sensing, Methods, Soils, Geomorphology 3rd Year Advanced courses: Agent Based Modeling, Environmental Applications, project oriented advanced courses in Remote Sensing, GIS, Land Use Planning, Hydrology 4th Year Senior thesis, internships at GIS or environmental agencies, GIS database management, GIS usability, spatial modeling

288 Conclusion

Spatial technologies are becoming powerful tools for environmental protection and management. Nevertheless, there is a gap between the “hype” of spatial technologies and practice. Many environmentalists have limited or basic experience in spatial technologies and likewise many in spatial technologies have limited exposure to environmental principles. The need is for environmental analysts that are well versed in both areas or ‘on the edge of the vortex’. A university program that brings together both elements appears to be the best program to fill the need for environmental analysts skilled in spatial technologies. Both the Environmental Science and GIScience academic environment is confusing and diverse. It is promising that there is recognition that there is a need for the development of consistent GIScience interdisciplinary programs which would incorporate Environmental Science. However, there appears to be very slow movement toward any kind of consensus. As the international GIScience community is maturing, the need for standardization and an accreditation process should become greater. Practically, institutions offering GIScience courses are charged with training professional for the rapidly developing GIScience market which cannot wait for the leading bodies in GIScience to arrive at a solution. They must address these issues or become irrelevant.

In summary, intuitions for higher education that want to develop joint Environmental Science and GIScience curricula and provide well-qualified professionals for these expanding markets must: 1) follow a rational plan; drawing from the available experience of leading institutions; 2) evaluate the relevancy of their programs to market; 3) involve industry representatives in all phases of the process and 4) be flexible enough to quickly respond to the “shifting sands” of Information Technology in spatial technologies and environmental science.

References Berdusco, B., 2003,. Results of a survey of known higher education offerings in GIS and GIScience. http://www.institute.redlands.edu/kemp/Berdusco.htm DiBiase, D., DeMers, M., Johnson, A., Kemp, K., Luck, A.T., Plewe, and Wentz, E. (eds), 2006, Geographic information science & technology body of knowledge (GIS&TBoK). Washington D.C: UCGIS/Association of American Geographers. Jankowski, P., 2003, Department of Geography, San Diego State University, GIS and Wildfires. http://map.sdsu.edu/fire2003/GIS-and-wildfires.htm Kemp, K., Reeve D., Heywood, D. I. (May 1998). Report of the International Workshop on Interoperability for GIScience Education (IGE '98). Summary report of ICE ’98, Soesterberg, The Netherlands. http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/ige98/report/ige98.pdf Kopperoinen, L., Petri J. Shemeikka, P. And Visa Lindblom, V., 2004, Environmental GIS in the management of visitor flows, Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute. http://www.metla.fi/julkaisut/workingpapers/2004/mwp002.htm Longley, P. A., M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire, and D. W. Rhind, 2005, Geographic Information Systems and Science. John Wiley & Sons. McAdams, M. and Demirci, A. 2008, A ‘road map’ for the development of an interdisciplinary GIScience program at higher education institutions ,Bulgarian Journal of Science and Education Policy (BJSEP), Volume 2, Number 1, 2008. McNulty, S., Swank, W. , 1996, Forest ccosystem Analysis Using A GIS, Conference Proceedings of Eco-Informa '96, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, 4-7 November 1996, http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_mcnulty001.pdf Wilke, T, Finchum G., 2003, The emerging GIS degree landscape. Computer, Environment and Urban Systems, 27(2), 107- 122.

289 IT to promote Europe in Primary School11

Dr. Daniela Schmeinck [email protected]

Abstract The experiences of today's primary school children regarding Europe are very complex. Thus today’s schools must both, taking up the actual experiences of the children and prepare the learners for tomorrow’s Europe. In an area of globalization it thereby should be self-evident for teaching and learning already in primary schools that the scholastically desired identification is not limited to a closely defined geographic area and/or the homeland area. The goal of a European dimension in education should be to enable the learners for lifelong learning and for active participation within the further development of Europe. By using innovative methods of inter- and transcultural learning and teaching as well as the us of IT and/or the so called “New Media” the paper tries to show a pedagogical approach which allows a reasonable and effective implementation of a European Dimension into primary school teaching and learning.

Key words: European Dimension, education, IT, teaching and learning methods, primary school, Europe

Introduction

The increasing “Europeanisation”, the rising information flood by the different media such as television and Internet as well as the increasing mobility of the population affects the experiences and practice of primary school children. With reference to Negt (1998) the understanding of the changes in the world or in Europe as well as the detection of aspects concerning the own personality are not just superfluous luxury, but existential basic conditions.

With support from the European Commission the COMENIUS 2.1 project “The Implementation of a European Dimension by Peer Learning in Primary School“ (E-PLIPS) tries to provide an up-to-date contribution to the debate about an efficient European education in primary school ages. By using innovative methods of trans- and intercultural teaching and learning, the project seeks to establish efficient pedagogies for teaching about the European dimension for life. Intercultural group learning and peer assessment are therefore used to underpin the cooperative learning environment for both teachers and children. The results of the project should equip children and teachers with lifelong learning skills as well as enable them to become active participants in European life. It is the belief of the partners that such understanding is essential and of fundamental importance for Europe’s future growth and development.

11 The paper is supported by the Project „E-PLIPS – The Implementation of a European Dimension by Peer Learning in Primary School“ funded with support from the European Commission; Grant Agreement number: 128766-CP-1-2006-1-DE-Comenius-C21.

290 Traces of Europe in the everyday life of primary school children – Reasons for the implementation of a European Dimension into the learning and teaching in primary school

If one examines the field of experience of today’s primary school kids regarding Europe, foreign countries or the world, one can basically distinguish between five different fields: 1. Experiences out of living together with people from different countries and cultures 2. Growing mobility and increasing travelling of population 3. Influences of the different (mass) media 4. Increasing European and international consumption offers 5. Officially supported programmes for the support of the growing together of Europe (Schmeinck, 2008 & 2009)

The listing shows that the realms of experience of primary school children do not only cover the homeland area or the own region (in addition see Schmeinck 2006, p. 37-59, see also Schmeinck 2007a; 2007b). Consequently it appears indispensable to support the understanding of foreign countries, Europe and/or the European Union and its structures already in the primary school.

The consideration thereby should not only be exclusively spatio-geographical but also interdisciplinary and on the basis of different viewpoints. It should be the goal of European learning and teaching in primary school not only to take up, if necessary to work up, to compete and/or to structure the already existing experiences of the children, but also to support the learner within the development of an intended, critical and differentiated perception of everyday life reality.

Official bases for Europe in primary school education

From an education policy point of view the necessity for the realisation of a European Dimension in education is undisputed in Germany as well as the European Union. Numerous official statements and announcements on European, national and regional level point out the relevance of a European education (Schmeinck, 2008) e.g.: • 23rd /24th of April 1975 European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) refers to the fact that the education system is of central importance for the full, healthy development of the community (Amtsblatt der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, 1976, p. 1) • 8th of June 1978 Resolution of the Conference of the Ministers of Education (in German: Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK)) for a realization of „Europe in School“ (only secondary schools) (Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1978) • 24th of May 1988 Council of Europe and it‘s Ministers for Education underline their willingness, to focus more on the promotion of the European Dimension in education (Amtsblatt der Europäischen Gemeinschaft, 1988, p. 5) • 1th of December 1990 Resolution by the Conference of the Ministers of Education (KMK) for a realisation of „Europe in School“ (primary schools included) (Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1990, p. 7)

291 • 2002 Perspective Framework for General Studies in Primary Education: Examples of contents and processes (spatial perspective) - the state, Germany, Europe, the world in overview (Gesellschaft für Didaktik des Sachunterrichts, 2002, pp. 10-15) • 5th of May 2008 Resolution by the Conference of the Ministers of Education (KMK) for a realisation of „Europe in School“ (Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2008)

Europe as a topic in the primary school related educational discourse

The necessity for the implementation of a European Dimension in primary education has been emphasised in the educational discourse for many years. Whilst in the sixties the focus in connection with the subject “Heimatkunde” (local history and geography) was on the “accessible and walkable place: the hometown of the children, the concrete place, in which they are living” (Schreier, 2005, p. 30; original in German), numerous current studies show that children in primary school age or even younger already possess direct and/or indirect experiences concerning European or foreign countries and that therefore the life reality of today’s children is no longer limited to the own homeland area or the closer environment (see Schmeinck 2005, 2007a, 2007b and 2008; see also Engelhardt 2005a, 2005b and Schniotalle 2003).

The results confirmed the demands of Luchtenberg (1990), who determines regarding primary schools that “the change of our environment into a multicultural, European merged society leads to new great demands in educational areas“. Schreier (2005) postulates an education, which is orientated at current needs and reacts accordingly to the extended areas of experience of the children (Schreier, 2005). “The extension of the areas of experience of children is thereby not to be seen as statically. In fact an orientation on the reality of children and on their areas of experience implies rather an orientation on the continuous changing reality of children and their horizon of experience.” (Schmeinck, 2008; original in German)

Aims for implementing a European Dimension in learning and teaching in primary school

Looking at the aims of a European Dimension in learning and teaching one can see, that there a different aims for different levels: For children in primary schools it first of all seems to be important to encourage their natural curiosity about the European Community that they are part of. An assumption in this is that they are able to develop a clear understanding of their own place and respectively of the place of the individual n general within the European society. On this basis an understanding for the multi-cultural nature of Europe and the richness, which lies in this diversity as well as for the interdependence and interrelationships between people, cultures and environments can be formed. This again enables them to act respectfully and tolerantly. Last but not least the implementation of a European Dimension at primary school age ought to prepare pupils to participate effectively in the further development of the United Europe.

292 The aims in implementing a European Dimension in learning and teaching in primary school age disclose four different competence areas and their interaction: knowledge, understanding, attitudes and skills (Figure 1).

A fundamental but flexible knowledge about Europe (e.g. cultural, geographical, historical and political); an understanding of both the interdependences and the coherences within Europe and the world as Knowledge Attitudes well as an understanding of the impact of themselves on the future development of society and the way, the European Union is influencing their own lives.

The effective participation as a European citizen is made up upon clear, positive and constructive but also critical attitudes Skills Understanding towards the European idea and other people and their cultures. Effective participation is also based upon practical lifelong learning skills like e.g. language, communication and social skills. Figure 1: Aims for implementing a European In the context of (school) education it is Dimension in learning and teaching in essential to promote these competencies primary school effectively. By establishing effective methods and pedagogies for implementing a European Dimension into primary school education the E-PLIPS project will contribute to this task.

Peer learning in primary school

The theory behind the E-PLIPS project is based on the idea that the implementation of a European Dimension in primary schools can be realised by peer learning activities in form of interaction, communication and exchange about views and information between real people from other/different cultures and countries (teacher and children).

In this context “peer learning” and respectively “peer learning activities” and “peer tutoring” refers to the use of teaching and learning strategies in which people (students and teacher) learn with and from each other. The emphasis thereby is on the idea of co-construction. Whereas the different levels in this context exist in the cognitive development rather than in the areas of experience, knowledge and information recourses. Thus the individuals are “experts” concerning their own culture and country but learners concerning the other countries and cultures.

Concerning the effectiveness of communication and interaction between people it seems to be undisputable that face-to-face contact e.g. through exchange or study-visits have a positive influence on the development of the individuals. However, against the background of the increasing globalisation and mobility and the addition ecological consequences involved this solution has to be seen critical. Therefore in the context of the E-PLIPS project an immediate face-to-face contact is not planned for the teachers and children involved. Instead of this the following “technical tools” are used to make the contact between the different partners:

293

Email Apart from the fast transmission of information between the partners also ICT skills are promoted for teachers and learners.

Video/Audio/PowerPoint Presentation Offering the opportunity to prepare and exchange materials. The materials thereby can be organised on different levels (for children/for the teacher) and can be developed by single persons or by the whole class. In the comparison to normal text passages these tools possesses a very high motivation factor both on sides of the producer and on sides of the user.

Video-conferencing Is probably an accessible means to achieve the next best way to actually being face-to-face. In the case of primary schools it therefore is demanding, and requires lots of planning, teacher encouragement, assistance and intervention. Above all the different foreign language skills of the children of primary school age have to be considered here. It is in this area that it seems to be necessary to find special ways to enable and enhance communication.

Conclusion

The implementation of a European dimension in primary school education can make an effective contribution for the promotion of the European identity as well as for the European citizenship. Thus by promoting the interests of the young people in the life of people from other countries, primary school can already make a crucial contribution for the advancement of a united Europe. The use of IT and/or the so-called new media can thereby support the activities.

References Amtsblatt der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (1976): Entschließung des Rates und der im Rat vereinigten Minister für Bildungswesen vom 9. Februar 1976 mit einem Aktionsprogramm im Bildungsbereich. Amtsblatt C 038 vom 19/02/1976, pp. 1-5. Online: http://eur- lex.europa.eu/Notice.do?val=53153:cs&lang=de&list=53153:cs,&pos=1&page=1&nbl=1&pg s=10&hwords=&checktexte=checkbox&visu=#texte [19.10.2007]. Amtsblatt der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (1988): Entschließung des Rates und der im Rat vereinigten Minister für das Bildungswesen zur europäischen Dimension im Bildungswesen vom 24. Mai 1988. Amtsblatt C 177 vom 06/07/1988, pp. 5-7. Online: http://eur- lex.europa.eu/Notice.do?val=140191:cs&lang=de&list=140192:cs,140191:cs,140190:cs,&pos =2&page=1&nbl=3&pgs=10&hwords=&checktexte=checkbox&visu=#texte [19.10.2007]. Engelhardt, W. (2005a): Eine wachsende Weltkarte. In: Praxis Grundschule, 6, pp. 6–8. Engelhardt, W. (2005b): Ferne Räume erschließen – Fremdheit überwinden. In: Grundschule, 11, pp. 34–35. Gesellschaft für Didaktik des Sachunterrichts (GDSU) (Ed.) (2002): Perspektivrahmen Sachunterricht. Bad Heilbrunn. Negt, O. (1998): Lernen in einer Welt gesellschaftlicher Umbrüche. In: Dieckmann, H. & Schlachtsieck, B. (Ed.): Lernkonzepte im Wandel. Die Zukunft der Bildung. Stuttgart. pp. 21- 45. Schmeinck, D. (2005): Europe in geographical education – An international comparison of factors influencing the perceptions of primary school pupils. In: Donert, K./Charzynski, P. (Eds.): Changing Horizons in Geography Education. Torun, pp. 206-211.

294 Schmeinck, D. (2006): Images of the World or Do travel experiences and the presence of media influence children’s perception of the world? In: Schmeinck, D. (Ed.): Research on Learning and Teaching in Primary Geography. Norderstedt, pp. 37-59. Schmeinck, D. (2007a): Wie Kinder die Welt sehen – Eine empirische Ländervergleichsstudie über die räumliche Vorstellung von Grundschulkindern. Bad Heilbrunn. Schmeinck, D. (2007b): “Island pictures” and “situation representations” – Children’s everyday perceptions as a challenge for teaching primary geography in the 21st century. In: Reinfried, S./Schleicher, Y./Rempfler, A. (Ed.): Geographical Views on Education for Sustainable Deveopment. Proceedings, Lucerne-Symposium, Switzerland, July 29-31, 2007. (= Geographiedidaktische Forschungen, 42), pp. 151-157. Schmeinck, D. (2008): Europa im Sachunterricht – historische Entwicklungen und aktueller Stand in den Bildungs-, Rahmen- und Lehrplänen in Deutschland. In: Geographie und ihre Didaktik, 35, 4, pp. 161-177. Schmeinck, D. (2009): Up to the garden fence or The world in primary school. In: Orbis scholae. 2/2009. Studies on Teaching and Learning in Different School Subjects. Schniotalle, M. (2003): Räumliche Schülervorstellungen von Europa. Ein Unterrichtsexperiment zur Bedeutung kartographischer Medien für den Aufbau räumlicher Orientierung im Sachunterricht der Grundschule. Berlin. Schreier, H. (2005): Herausforderung raumbezogenes Lernen. In: Grundschule, 11, pp. 30-32. Sekretariat der ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Ed.) (1980): Europa im Unterricht. Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 08.06.1978. Bonn. Sekretariat der ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Ed.) (1990) : Europa im Unterricht. Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 08.06.1978 in der Fassung vom 07.12.1990. Bonn. Sekretariat der ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Ed.) (2008): Europabildung in der Schule. Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 08.06.1978 in der Fassung vom 05.05.2008. Bonn.

295 Geoinformation support of derived mapping based on digital terrain model

Ing. Martin Klimanek, Ph.D. Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno, Czech Republic Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Geoinformation Technologies [email protected]

Abstract The most basic and interesting geographical data type is the digital terrain model (DTM). The concept of “surface modelling” generally describes the process of representing a physical surface by a geometric model, namely a mathematical expression. In applications of geographic information systems (GIS), they provide opportunities for modelling, analyzing and displaying geographical phenomena connected with topography and relief. Much valuable information in the form of attributes related to the surface of a real terrain can be gained by interpretation (analysis) of terrain models. The analysis of geomorphometric parameters is divided into general and specific geomorphometrics. The paper presents diversity of outputs from DTM for derived mapping using GIS tools – e.g. topographic shape classification, hydrologic and viewshed analysis, modelling of climatic parameters, etc. These derived outputs are usually utilized for examination and support in education, research and profession of geographical disciplines. Keywords: digital terrain model, GIS, spatial analysis, shape-of-country classification

Introduction

For most of human history mankind has endeavoured to discover the laws of the surrounding world. One of the ways to understand and describe an object or a process is to create a model. Modelling itself simplifies reality to a given and predefined extent in order to make the model an object of experiment or to understand its properties. If we look back in the past, they were usually real made models, which were miniatures of the original object of interest. Plastic models from different materials were mostly used for relief representation. The introduction and massive development of computer technology gave rise to virtual (digital) models and the reality is modelled on knowledge database and programmes which handle this data. This technology has brought vast possibilities and increased quality of object and process description and it can be said that it has made these possibilities accessible to anyone.

This advancement also brought about modelling of continuous surfaces which are based on the values of discrete measurement using the processes and methods of spatial data interpolation. Digital terrain models (DTM) occupy a significant place in this field because relief represents a basic area of human existence and its properties directly affect all human activities. Based on the model of terrain it is possible to describe further processes in the real world which take place on its surface as well as under and above this reference level. In this case the model usually refers to three-dimensional (3D) representation of reality, whose fourth dimension is time. Modelling is a complicated process and requires knowledge of mainly geographical information systems (GIS), remote sensing and geostatistics.

296 Digital Terain Models

Digital terrain models have been used in geoinformatics since about 1950 (Miller & Laflamme, 1958). Since then they have become an integral part of digital processing of spatial geographical information. In GIS applications they can be used for modelling, analyzing and representation of phenomena connected to topography and relief. Terrain modelling techniques can be classified using the following criteria: • data structure – basic and most frequent classification according to the description of the surface using raster models with different pixel (or facet) type, or the triangular grid (TIN), • mathematical model – classification according to the methods of description of the surface between facets; it is, in fact, a method of interpolation of surface values, • method of model generation – basic classification is based on the assumption of automatic generation of values or possibility of semiautomatic processing with the operator’s help.

Data sources and spatial surface interpolation Source (terrain) data represent quite unorganized data elements (random values). For the creation of DTM it is necessary to introduce topological relations among these elements as well as interpolate these spatial data into a continuous surface with defined behaviour.

DTM are usually based on two main data sources: (1) this is data from photogrammetric measurements and (2) data from digital elevation sets. Recently there has also been available DTM from laser scanning (or radar altimetry or radar interferometry), because it is more financially accessible now. In the first case, however, the quantitative parameters are influenced by the way the data is obtained – the accuracy of determining terrain level from a photogrammetric analysis is limited by open visibility of the ground and in the second case, the model is negatively influenced by the spatial distribution of contour lines and point elevations (Klimanek, 2006).

Interpolation in the process of a terrain modelling makes for calculation of values in places where they were not measured. Most frequently it is the calculation of a grid for a given point or pixel, the calculation of location at interpolation of contour lines or the change of resolution (resampling), in some case the change of data structure. The problem covers generally applicable statistic procedures and methods, which are specifically modified for the need of the relief terrain modelling. Most frequently applied methods include Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method, Triangulation with linear interpolation, Spline methods, Radial function methods, Kriging and Conditional stochastic simulation.

Data representation and models Data representation can be classified using the following three types of models: 1. Raster model is seen in two variants. The first one considers a cell as a facet enclosed by four points of a raster net, each of which can have different grid. The resulting model is therefore formed by warped quadrangles. The second one considers a cell as an object representing a rectangular facet integrally and the assigned value represents a attribute for the whole surface of a pixel – this variant is most used in raster oriented GIS (Kraus, 2000). 2. Polyhedron model, where elementary facets are triangles which adjoin to each other, thus creating a polyhedron adjoining to a terrain. The polyhedron vertexes are points on a terrain area; area interpolation is usually done linearly triangle-by-triangle. This approach, denoted

297 as a triangulation or Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN), is currently the most widespread with vector oriented GIS. 3. Plate model has many features common to the polyhedron model. The terrain is again divided into smaller surfaces which do not have to be only flat; they can be curved in a certain way. Areas described by polynomic functions, which concur so fluently to guarantee a continuity of derivations to a certain advance system, e.g. Bezier curve (Pfeifer & Pottmann 1996).

Derived Mapping Based On Digital Terrain Models

Much valuable information in the form of attributes related to the surface of a real terrain can be gained by interpretation (analysis) of terrain models. These analyses can proceed in two levels, though they occur in combination more frequently. Either it is a visual (graphic) interpretation or purely quantitative analysis, and outputs can be used in other components of GIS or they represent an input into other models (e.g. hydrological or erosive). Evans (1972) divides the analysis of geomorphometric parameters into general geomorphometrics (slope, aspect, curvature) and specific geomorphometrics (e.g. topographic shape classification, hydrologic modelling, viewshed analysis).

Slope and aspect of relief Slope is defined as gradient (maximum) of height. Gradient in a defined point is the angle measured from the horizontal line to the tangent plane in this point. Slope can be calculated as slope in the direction of axis x, slope in the direction of axis y and maximal slope. The slope of relief is a significant natural pattern of the landscape, because it distributes free available energy. It also has a significant influence on localization of human activities in a landscape. Through a suitable selection of slope categories and their cartographic representation it is possible to display edges of a terrain as well as terrain with predominant slope, e.g. dendrite shapes of valleys dug in levelled surfaces, fault-slopes, cuestas, alluvial planes, etc. (Kolejka et al., 2006).

Aspect is usually defined as azimuth, which is a horizontal angle expressed in degrees included between geographic north and slope. Aspect distributes incident sunlight. Depending on the orientation of the Earth surface in respect of the cardinal points (and slope) energy and moisture is redistributed, which generates a wide range of processes and affects their course and duration. We recognize 4, 8 or even up to 16 basic cardinal points. Colours used should reflect respective cartographic and environmental standards of this area – warm colours are used to mark richer southern areas, cold colours are used for more humid and energetically poorer northern areas. Areas with a slope up to 3° are marked with different colours (white and grey) as they are considered a plane, excluded from DTM analysis for the purposes of defining the aspect.

Analytical hillshading of relief Computing of slope and aspect is closely connected with the procedures for creating analytical shading of relief. That is highlighting relief by displaying illuminated areas and shaded areas by the selected light source when defining its azimuth (angle from which the terrain is illuminated ranging from 0 to 360°) and its height above horizon (elevation ranging from 0 to 90°). There are many computation methods for the determination of surface reflectance – the most common one is Lambert's reflectance model which supposes ideal reflectance of rays from the surface which then appears as equally lit from all angles of view. More complicated models, such as the Lommel-Seeliger Law are based on the analysis of variance of rays in dependence on the surface and distance. In cartography it is common to

298 use illumination from the northwest which gives the impression of reading a map with the light coming from the front and from the left that means with the azimuth of 315° and the elevation of 30°.

Terrain curvature Apart from the slope and exposition another general geomorphological analysis is the curvature (degree of curvature). Curvature comprises of two components (Evans, 1980): vertical curvature (profile curvature) kv – rate of change at slope and horizontal curvature (plan curvature or tangential curvature) kh – rate of change at contour lines. In the results, the negative values mean convex shapes and positive values mean concave ones. Due to the fact that this characteristic is represented by two values, in practice these two are often merged into one complex variable which is the average curvature or accumulation curvature or Gaussian curvature.

Classification of relief shapes From the point of view of geomorphological analysis the terrain elements might be divided (as entities in the space) into point elements (peaks, pits, saddles), line elements (ridges, valleys) and polygon elements (slopes, plateaus). The principle is the determination of required objects (see Table 1) based on their characteristics with the help of algorithms based on the analysis of the environment (with the help of a filtering). The whole technology comprises of two processes: first the DTM must be edited (smoothed) so that in the following phase of mathematical classification no faulty conclusions were made (Herrington & Pellegrini, 2000).

Table 1: Basic topographic shapes (shape-of-country classification). Class Description Peak A surface location that is higher in elevation than all surrounding cells Pit A surface location that is lower than all surrounding cells Ridge Contiguous lines of cells that occur when the cells are higher than the cells on either side Valley Contiguous lines of cells that occur when the cells are lower than the cells on either sided Saddle point Intersection of ridge and valley Concave hillside Hillside that is concave upward Convex hillside Hillside that is convex upward Saddle hillside Hillside that has positive curvature in one direction and negative curvature in the other, orthogonal direction Flat hillside Hillside with no curvature Flat Surface with no slope

DTM editing is most often done by smoothing the texture with the help of lowpass filtering; the Fourier transform can be applied. The principle of mathematical classification is based on the algorithm of distinguishing terrain shapes in dependence on the continuous changes of slope, aspect and on horizontal and vertical curvature. These characteristics are calculated by algorithm (i.e. based on Zevenbergen-Thorn method) and compared with a set of heuristic tables containing information about the allocation of individual terrain shapes (Herrington & Pellegrini, 2000). In easier cases it is possible (for example from the point of view of the transport of material and runoff parameters) to distinguish in the terrain only accumulation, transition and dispersion zones, influencing also the speed and the course of runoff by retardation R, acceleration A, concentration C, diffusion D or equation E (see Figure 1) based on horizontal curvature kh and vertical curvature kv (Krcho, 1990).

299 k > 0 kh > 0 kh > 0 h

k = 0 kv > 0 D R kv < 0 D E v D A Transition Transition Dispersion

kh = 0 kh = 0 kh = 0

kv = 0 kv > 0 E R kv < 0 E E E A Transition Transition Transition

kh < 0 kh < 0 kh < 0

CE kv = 0C A kv > 0 C R kv < 0 Accumulation Transition Transition

Figure 1: Elementary shapes of terrain representing accumulation, transition and dispersion zones influencing also the course of runoff (Krcho, 1990).

Another possibility is usage of Topographic Position Index (TPI). TPI calculates grids from elevation grids, and provides a simple and repeatable method to classify the landscape into slope position and landform category (Jenness, 2006). TPI is the basis of the classification system and is simply the difference between a cell elevation value and the average elevation of the neighbourhood around that cell. Positive values mean the cell is higher than its surroundings while negative values mean it is lower. TPI is naturally very scale-dependent. The same point at the crest of a mountain range might be considered a ridgetop to a highway construction crew or a flat plain to a mouse (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. TPI of small-neighbourhood slope position classification (above) and large- neighbourhood slope position classification (below) in the topographic shape classification (Jenness, 2006).

300

Hydrologic and erosion modelling The calculation of qualitative (direction) and quantitative (amount) characteristics of the runoff is, together with distinguishing river basins and watersheds, one of the basic hydrological characteristics found from DTM. Algorithms which are available for this purpose might have two basic alternatives because they suppose 4 (side neighbourhood of pixels) or 8 possibilities of runoff (side and diagonal neighbourhood connectivity of pixels). A real ecosystem, however, from the hydrological point of view is far more complex. At a more precise modelling of this process it is also necessary to take into account the amount of incident rainfall, the time period of the rainfall and surface absorption (surface type, its permeability and saturation of underlying beds). DTM often comprises of a number of faulty values which are the same or values whose heights are locally higher than the previous ones in the direction of the gradient. These are called local depression pits (sinks) and they must be eliminated by means of filtration so there is no runoff interruption (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Schema of hydrologic analyses (tools) in ESRI ArcGIS Desktop

The issue of erosion is a rather complicated one. DTM, however, might make the processes related to the quantification of the threat of erosion more effective. In Central Europe the most significant erosions are water and wind erosions. Most often, however, is modelled only the intensity of the water erosion with the help of Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation. For determining the individual factors of the equation are used experimental relations, nomograms or maps and the whole equation might be effectively solved using GIS tools (Wilson & Lorang, 2000). From the point of view of DTM they concern the determination of the slope factors and slope lengths. Some GIS products (Idrisi) already have a built-in module for these calculations.

Modelling of climatic values Modelling the parameters of atmosphere is at present a dynamically developing area using interpolation algorithms. Although most of these models do not primarily work with DTM, they use similar procedures for the prediction of values. There is, however, one of the basic climatic parameters, which very well correlates with the elevation and it might be modelled based on DTM and other derived data. It is the average annual air temperature which both decreases with

301 the elevation (by about 0.6°C for 100 m), and it is influenced by the slope and aspect (angle and time for which the solar radiation falls on the surface). On the basis of this speculation, the calculation of potential average annual air temperatures might be carried out by setting up a regression equation of the dependency of temperature on elevation and to further make these values more precise by calculating the equations using coefficients of relative surface insolation (k) of an area (see Table 2).

Table 2: Coefficient of the relative surface insolation based on slope and aspect (Vasku, 1971) k 0 - 5° 5 - 10° 10 - 15° 15 - 20° 20 - 25° 25 - 30° 30 - 40° 40 – 50° S 1.05 1.11 1.17 1.22 1.26 1.31 1.34 1.37 SE, SW 1.04 1.10 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.26 1.28 1.30 E, W 1.02 1.06 1.09 1.11 1.12 1.12 1.10 1.07 NE, NW 1.00 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.92 0.84 N 0.99 1.00 0.98 0.96 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.75

Although this calculation might provide a more precise prediction of average annual air temperature on a given location, due to the complexity of natural processes some factors are missing – such as temperature inversion in deep or narrow valleys. These phenomena would have to be further modelled and incorporated into the calculation. The calculations of length and intensity of solar radiation falling on the surface – based on azimuth and Sun elevation – might be carried out in a similar way.

Analyses if visibility and intervisibility Analyses of visibility are one of the basic operations of specific geomorphometry and they use also data about objects on relief surface. Determining visual exposure differs from analysis of visibility in the fact that they take the human factor into account – a visually exposed area is exposed to the perception of an observer. This analysis can thus serve as an additional tool for the classification of landscape character of an area and the character of landscape scene. Practical result can be the delimitation of visual horizons and determining their protected zones because changes in visually exposed areas have a large impact on cultural, historical and aesthetic value of the area (Kuchynkova & Mikita, 2009).

Conclusion

The use of DTM is very extensive, as we can already see from the possibilities of the analysis and primary depends on GIS software potentialities. For instance, forestry belongs to fields which deal with renewable natural resources management and terrain characteristics markedly influence individual components of forest ecosystems. DTM can have their use partly in generally shaped disciplines focused on forestry and partly in a forest management planning itself. It is therefore possible to model soil characteristics on the basis of DTM (e.g. soil moisture and transport of sediments), hydrological characteristics (e.g. flow direction and accumulation, watershed, erosion hazard) and climatic characteristics (e.g. temperature and insolation parameters). In the field of the forest management planning, many functions for effectiveness and accuracy of work are suggested: • measurement of stand height on the basis of detailed DTM and aerial stereo- photogrammetric images, • forest road network optimization and following mass calculations in construction activity, • bases for calculations of hazard factors of erosive exposure of forest soils, • bases for terrain classifications in logging,

302 • bases for modelling of spread of abiotic and biotic harmful factors (e.g. fire, pollutants, animal pests).

Acknowledgement The paper was prepared within the framework of research project of the Ministry of Education of the Czech Republic “Forest and Wood – Support to a functionally integrated forest management”, MSM 6215648902.

References Evans, I. S. (1972), General geomorphometry, derivatives of altitude and descriptive statistics. In: Chorley, R.J. (ed.) Spatial Analysis and geomorphology. London, 17-90. Evans, I. S. (1980), An integrated system of terrain analysis for slope mapping. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 36: 274-295. Herrington, L. & Pellegrini, G. (2000), An Advanced Shape-Of-Country Classifier: Extraction of surface features from DEMs. 4th International Conference on Integrating GIS and Environmental Modeling (GIS/EM4): Problems, Prospects and Research Needs. Banff, Alberta, Canada. Jenness, J. (2006), Topographic Position Index extension for ArcView 3.x, v. 1.3a. Jenness Enterprises, http://www.jennessent.com/arcview/tpi.htm, accessed 03/10/2009. Klimanek, M. (2006), Optimization of digital terrain model for its application in forestry. Journal of Forest Science, 52 (5), 233-241. Kolejka, J., Plsek, V., Klimanek, M., & Navratil, V. (2006), Mapy rzeźby jako pochodne numerycznego modelu terenu. In Pawlak, W. & Spallek, W. Swiat techniki w kartografii. Wroclaw: Uniwersytet Wrocławski, 78-88. Kraus, K. (2000), Photogrammetrie Band 3. Topographische Informationssysteme. First edition. Köln, Germany: Dümmler Verlag, 46-58. Krcho, J. (1990), Morfometricka analyza a digitalne modely georeliefu. Bratislava (Slovakia): Veda, Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akademie vied, 261-274. Kuchynkova, H. & Mikita, T. (2009), Visual exposure within the Dolni Morava Biosphere Reserve. Journal of Landscape Ecology, 1 (2), 67-79. Miller, C. L., Laflamme, R. A. (1958), The digital terrain model – theory and application. Photogrammetric Engineering, 24 (3), 433-42. Pfeifer, N. & Pottmann, H. (1996), Surface models on the basis of a triangular mesh – surface reconstruction. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, XXXI, IWG III/IV, 638-643, Vienna (Austria). Vasku, Z. (1971), Metodika vyhodnoceni potreby odvodneni a zavlah. Statni melioracni sprava, Praha, 1971. In: Ambros, Z. Praktikum geobiocenologie. 1.vyd. Brno: edicni stredisko MZLU v Brne, 2003. Wilson, J. P. & Lorang, M. S. (2000), Spatial Models of Soil Erosion and GIS. In: Fotheringham, A.S., Wegener, M. (eds.) Spatial Models and GIS. New Potential and New Models. Taylor & Francis, 2000, 83-108.

303 Utilization of GIS in mediaeval archaeology and historical geography

Sebastian Tyszkowski Polish Academy of Science, Poland Department of Geomorphology and Hydrology of Lowlands [email protected]

Abstract This paper shows how GIS can be successfully used to solve problems in the field of archaeology and history. At the middle of 13th century northern Poland was occupied by Teutonic Knights. Their economic system strongly depended on agriculture. Until nowadays archaeologists and historians do not know the reason of change freeholders and borders of some provinces. Some of them suppose that changes depended on insufficient grain production. Geographical analysis is the most suitable method to find answers to these queries. Research was made with gathering historical and current maps concerning analyzed territory. During the reconstruction, many analyses showing interdependence between environment and human factor were made in GIS systems.

Key words: Teutonic Knights, historical geography, GIS analysis, soil quality maps, historical cartography

The Teutonic Order (usually, hospitale sancte Marie Theutonicorum Jerosolimitanum - the Hospital of St. Mary of the Germans of Jerusalem or der orden des Düschen huses - the order of the German houses, in the sources) was one of the three major knightly or military orders that originated and evolved during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. During the first twenty years of its existence, the institutional structure of the Order developed and stabilized. The Teutonic Order followed the lead of the Templars and Hospitallers by creating a system of provinces. Unlike monastic orders composed of independent abbeys, the Teutonic Knights had a hierarchical chain of command with commanderies (house, Kommende) at the lowest level. Provinces or bailiwicks (Ballei, Komturei) were parts of "countries" that composed the Order as a whole. Its first independent rule was adopted in 1264.

In the middle of 13th century northern Poland was occupied by Teutonic Knights. They created many cities, villages and begun to separate their area for several provinces. Their economic system strongly depended on agriculture. At the turn of the 13th century, two states (Rogozno and Wieldzadz state) suddenly begun to change their freeholders and borders. Until nowadays archaeologists and historians do not know the reason of that situation. No documents, that would explain this situation, have left, even though Teutonic Knights used to keep detailed documentations. Some scientists suppose that changes depended on insufficient grain production. On this part of the state territory the grain production was the most significant factor of the financial situation in the province. Geographical analyze is the most suitable method to find the answer to the query, whether the natural conditions determined the changes of territory and finance of these provinces, or not.

The study area is located in the Northern Poland Lowland, on the range of Last Glacial Maximum (Figure 1). The territory is covered mainly with tills and sands that have a thickness of several meters. Maximum disparities in the height of the area are several meters. The greatest are located near the river valleys that indent the uplands.

304

Figure 1: Location of study area

Research begun with gathering historical and current maps concerning analyzed territory (circa 400 km2): • Schrotter Map 1798-1803, ~1:50 000 – it is the oldest map available for this area, that enables precise surveying • Topographische Karte 1909, • Current soil (quality) map 1:5000, 1:25 000, - maps that contain the information important for agriculture, about the type and quality of the soil and surface geological structure (about 2 meters). • Geological and topographic maps, • A map of the archaeological discovers and the location of some settlement objects (castles, burg cities, villages) in the late Middle Ages.

A database with all the problems mentioned below (each one analyzed in an individual layer in ArcMap) has been created during the work (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Main layers in project database

The first step of the analysis was to reconstruct the elements of historical landscape of each state. Current and mediaeval landscape were compared with each other and differences of range zones of forests (Figure 3), swamps and hydrology (Figure 4) could be seen. The most significant element taken into consideration is the change of the forest area. The changes were not considerable on this territory. Presently the forests take up 11,9% of the research area. In

305 the end of XVIII century (Schrotter Map) they took up 15,2%. According to the references the changes of the forest range since the Middle Ages to XVIII century were not significant and they came to 25% (Slaski, 1951). It shows that the research area was exploited in agriculture very early. The main fellings took place before the Middle Ages.

Figure 3. Examples of deforestation between XVIII and XX century

Figure 4. Decay of lakes between XVIII and XX century

After that a DTM was made to show descent of terrain. It enabled excluding from the analysis the area with detrimental slopes. Then areas on which grain production were not possible (e.g. forests, swamps, terrain with large descent) were eliminated. The rest of the territory was able to cultivate. Next, grain production from this territory was estimated, by using current soil quality maps. A soil quality factor was multiplied by an average of grain production in mediaeval and areas of states (Figure 5), to know how much grain was possible to get from

306 each state. The results of the analysis show that the environment conditions enabled large grain production – over 350 kg of grain from one hectare (taking into account losses, taxes and waste lands).

In those states environment enabled to gain 30% of crops more than inhabitants needed, so initial thesis of historians that changes were caused by insufficient environment, was not reasonable. Probably the situation was different – those states were self-sufficient, fertile and rich enough to be an object of rivalry.

Figure 5: Soil quality in the Rogozno province. Data from 1:25000 soil map transform to GRID net 500x500 m

During the reconstruction, analyses showing the interdependence between environment and human factor were made. This elaboration is one of the first that combined historical and archeological analyses with the usage of geography. This could be that effective only by using GIS programs. The analyses and database scheme may be now freely modified, depending on chosen area and the amount of archeological data. Nevertheless, considering possible historical inaccuracies and the reconstruction of environment conditions the author determines the possible error of estimation up to 10-15%. Still the method enables to answer basic questions concerning this topic.

References Slaski, K. (1951), Range of the Pomerania forests at last millennium (in Polish). Przeglad Zachodni, 6, 208-263

307 A Framework to Manage the Time Dimension of GIS

Pigaki M 1, Koutsopoulos K 1 and Klonari C 2 1 NTU of Athens 2 University of the Aegean [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Nowadays the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) requires the support of flexible and expressive data management systems in order to describe, analyse and present the physical and manmade world. However, the majority of the current approaches are based on classical relational models, and subsequently on the distinction between spatial and thematic information. This paper puts forward a theoretical framework based on the notion that time is also an important element of GIS. More specifically, it suggests that the inclusion of time into spatial databases has to be the condition for the optimal management of cartographic data when the time dimension is considered. The proposed framework is based on two pillars: the first one links the methods, which themselves are dependent on the way information is modelled in the database, with the recycling of all information available. The second one, is the development of “real” models which integrate spatio-temporal constraints (socio- economic, regulatory and co relational) in order to analyse activities, processes and their impact on the real world. Keywords: spatial, temporal, historical, geography, GIS

Introduction

The way human beings perceive the physical space is mostly functional. It is the result of two actions: first how we perceive our place in space and correlate with other subjects or objects and second, how we perceive time as an environmental change due to natural phenomena or to man-made influences. Therefore, the notions of “object” and “space” are closely associated with the notion of time, which itself (in its complete form) is based mainly on logical actions such as the order of events that justifies time-sequence, and time measurement which is isomorphic to space measurement. Although the current GIS tools store, depict and model space in a rather sufficient way, nevertheless the depiction of time and its effects on objects is still incomplete. A new research approach is thus necessary.

It is well known that in existing commercial GIS the problem of spatial depiction is not entirely resolved, in the sense that they do not examine the parameter of time. They have inflexible databases which are not able to manage the cognitive or physical time. However, the representation of the real world depends highly on the multiple depictions that are the result of time sequences. Therefore, the need for a time-space approach in order to manage geographical space emerges (Figure 1). This approach should be supported by a functional mathematical model which Figure 1 should be flexible as far as the connections are concerned, as well as effective in managing the problem of time.

308 This article presents a theoretical framework for modelling the notions of space and time as well as representing “reality”. The first part examines how our space perception shifts from the static present space into a dynamic one that alters. Next a theoretical framework for the synchronic management of geographical data is presented, which induces the use of a model. Finally, suggestions on which future research have be based are presented.

Changing our perception of space: space as part of a “scenario”

Space can be perceived and depicted in a static or in a dynamic way. But these two ways in treating space, lead us to define “distance” on two levels: distance-space and distance-time. In the first case we refer to a spatial perception that is based on the measured “distance”, while in the second one we perceive space through the chronological order of events which means that space is integrated into a “scenario”.

“Distance” - Space Presently the spatial tools depict space in a given moment and thus create a “virtual reality”. In other words the user lives and acts inside a certain spatial context that has instantaneous projection. Our perception of how space evolves through time (past- future) is achieved by using multiple designed projections (graphic projections) of the geographical space. As a result, the “distance”-space mobilises visualised entities by synchronising spatial features (Figure 2). The parameters which are activated in order to achieve the perception of “reality” in a present spatial context are: • The alternation of scale from the partial to the holistic approach of space creates the perception of unity and promotes a better understanding of the relations between multiple objects. • The integration of different images, maps, aerial photos or satellite images, display the chronological Figure 2 order of the phenomena and thus convey the notion of time.

“Distance”-Time “Distance” – time depicts space through the use of timelines. In that way it transforms the spatial “virtual realities” into scenarios (past – present – future). “Distance” - time restructures the conflictual reality which is the final result of the interaction between time, space and man. In this time-structure, the objects are placed in relation to: • The succession of events (before, afterwards, during) • The duration of time intervals (the notions of a bigger or smaller time period -an hour, a minute- the notions of regular or irregular rhythm as well as the notions of a faster or slower rhythm). • The cyclical recurrence of certain periods of time (days, months, seasons) • The reversible feature of time (p.e. “this is over… we cannot live that again”)

As a result, in order for a GIS to be a time-space tool, it must reflect and depict the past, the present as well as the future. In other words, it must be able to manage the above notions. Otherwise, it must record the perception of the identity and the allocation of subsequent phenomena that bare similar relationships in time.

309 Integrating time The integration of time is based on the analogy between time and space. Theoretically, the objects can be depicted on both a spatial and a temporal “dimension”. On a temporal dimension they are called time-points (lacking dimension-volume), while on a spatial dimension they are called space-points (points, lines, surfaces). Their management and measurement refers to the dimensional specification (duration, length, volume) or to the topological specification (before, after).

A time-managing GIS becomes a system of cognitive depiction per object, meaning a modelling and exploitative tool of additional knowledge. Its implementation is based on rules that determine “real” space and it is represented by variables and connections so as to provide a model for their variation. This type of system, however, should provide a flexible database, that would enable it to support the connections between the object variations as well as to express the functionality of space. Therefore, the integration of time into a spatial system should be treated differently and the emerging problems that need solutions are far more complex than those posed by the depiction of space. The insertion of time into a spatial system such as a GIS requires precise definitions and rules that have to be set on the system’s database and are presented next.

The framework for the new modelling of space and time

A space model must include the rules that permeate the world we live in and perceive it. In such modelling the following concepts are relevant, in a theoretical framework: the nature of the data, their “distances”, their life-cycle, their variables and the axes that determine the new geographic systemic background (Figure 3). In this model this system is represented by one-dimensional allocations.

With regard to the nature of the data: This new model consists of two components: a. Starting from a point of reference, space is depicted via a three-dimensional Euclidean space, which contains the concept of “distance” as a unit of measurement and expresses the observed measured space. This is a quantitative space that is geometrically chartered, in total connection to the mathematical structure. b. The second component depicts the world as the result of human actions, thus attributing the element of “functionality’ to it. These data are descriptive and statistical and thus qualitative and one-dimensional. The nature of these data Figure 3: The new geographic systemic is considered to be isotropic, continual and background lacking limitations.

With regard to the “distance”: The new model includes the integration of the dimension of time that can actually activate the notion of “distance” and thus define the life-cycle of the objects in the database (registration / destruction). In that way, the registration of data becomes quantitative and is expressed as a relative position or as the result of observation. With regard to the systemic background: The new model includes data pertaining to space, which are organized (inside a certain geo-system) according to the following axes:

310 horizontally, based on a topological structure, vertically based on their descriptive structure, in “depth” based on the “distances” and “forward” in order to describe their dynamic evolution.

Modelling the objects in the database The integration of time categorizes the spatial elements according to their life-cycle in the real world. In other words, the spatial elements acquire a temporal dimension. Those intervals begin from the moment of their record into the database and their life-cycle continues until their destruction. In the new model we propose, their life-cycle introduces three types of time- span, which in their turn define the specific types of objects (Figure 4). Therefore we observe the continuous objects, the discontinuous-periodical ones and the objects that have an instantaneous temporal dimension.

The continuous objects are those objects that exist constantly. They never cease to be recorded in the database. These objects are considered to be continuous even when they don’t have a temporal dimension themselves (life- cycle), but they possess time - characteristics (morphic elements) as well as structural Figure 4: New modeling of the objects in the database elements that alter in time. The discontinuous-periodical objects are the ones whose life-span is periodical or disrupted. They are the objects whose life-cycle (birth-destruction) will be recorded in the database and they remain recorded even after their destruction. In the new model we propose, we should explicitly illustrate the difference between the objects that possess continuous time- characteristics (morphic elements) and the discontinuous-periodical ones which appear in the database only during their life-span. The category representing this type of objects has a time -characteristic that could be identified as “interval”. The "interval” describes the life-span of the object.

The objects having an instantaneous time dimension consist of events, natural phenomena, social phenomena, and so on, that need to be modeled in the database due to their importance. They are marked on the time axis as a point and this type of object has a time-characteristic that could be identified to “date”.

Modelling the new variables of data (weight) In order to express and record in detail the dynamic feature of an entity, it is essential that we find a model for the components that defines time and space. These components are permeated by certain rules which define the “weight” of their variables, according to the need of the application (Figure 5). The entities, therefore, are recorded not only according to their life-cycles Figure 5: The new variables of data (weight) (birth/destruction), but we can also make a further

311 distinction as far as their variables are concerned. More specifically, the dynamics of an entity are defined by two types of variables that can function as weight variables.

The entities may consist of variables such as: the time -characteristic (morphic element) and the structural element. The first variable refers to the notion of time, namely to that characteristic of the entity that changes. The second one refers to the spatial transformation of an entity. These two variables may be independent or dependent. They are independent when they do not influence the structural element of the entity and dependent when they transform even the structural element. The transition from the independent to the dependent stems from the “weight” of the time -characteristic (morphic element).

The first one, the time -characteristic is the variable that alters the description of the entity. If we further specify this category (time -characteristic) we will find the notion of a continuous time-variable as well as the notion of cause and effect. The continuous time- variables describe the entities that remain in a certain condition for a period of time and then suddenly they change. The notion of “cause and effect” covers these cases where the structural element no longer exists but its effects continue to exist through time.

Finally, the time -characteristic (morphic element) is rendered by “intervals” and "values”, where “interval” defines the validity period of the variable’s value, and “value” defines the measured value (Figure 6).

The second one, the structural element is the variable that attributes to the entity its spatial characteristic. In this category we discern three types: the invariable, the variable and the discrete structural elements. The structural element is represented by the “date” and the “value”, where “date” defines the time of registration in the database, and “value” expresses the value of the Figure 6: Type of variables structural element.

New types of connections in the database In order to render the temporality of the entities we must record in an equally detailed way the connections in the database. It is clear by now that the connections formed have to deal with the “temporal dimension”. A temporal connection that has a certain life-cycle describes a relationship in the real world that exists so far as the participant objects appear, coexist and cease to exist. A typical example of this is a model that describes two adjacent buildings through a connection. That connection is valid only as long as the two buildings coexist. The destruction of one of the two buildings brings about Figure 7: New types of connection in the destruction of the connection itself. the database

312 We can detect three types of connections: The long-term connections deal with the continuous entities. The periodical connections deal with objects where there is at least one continuous time-characteristic. Finally, an historical connection describes a connection that continues to exist even after the destruction of the entities that had formed it (Figure 7). More specifically: a long-term connection describes that kind of connection that is lacking temporal dimension and whose existence exceeds its life-span in the database. Such a connection may include various entities but at least one of them must be “continuous”.

The periodical connection describes two kinds of connections: the ones that do have a temporal dimension but a periodical life-span, and the connections that have a constant time- span but their life-span is equal to that of the database. The life-cycle of such a connection cannot exceed the life-span dictated by the life-cycle of the entities in the connection.

The historical connection: The relationships that have a cause and effect type of component must be represented by such a connection. A typical example would be the modelling of land- plot development. A connection describing the relationship between adjacent land-plots is a temporal connection, but it is valid and active only as long as the two land-plots coexist, that is only as long as the situation remains unaltered. On the contrary, when the parameter of “cause and effect” comes into place (for example a land-plot is divided into two parts) we have an historical connection: the fact that a land-plot was divided remains unchangeable regardless of the life-cycle of the participant objects.

Conclusions and proposals

Through the modelling of entities in timelines, we observe that the depiction of space alters. An entity recorded as continuous, discontinuous or discrete leaves its mark in space; and that has multiple consequences and effects. The modelling of connections and time intervals (that depend on the life-cycle of the entities) will help recover those entities that were damaged or destructed or may be damaged by time. As a result, both the life-cycle of an entity and the recording of its variables create a new systemic geographical setting. That very systemic background is what helps us restructure or “recover” the interdependent spatial entities. In this way, space becomes part of a “scenario” thus representing the effects of natural phenomena and human actions in real time.

The proposed ideas on modelling time do not constitute a complete and thorough schema. The logic behind our model consists in defining the rules that permeate the entities as well as their interaction. The application of such a model requires a more detailed research in the sector of planning. Nevertheless, this article constitutes a first attempt to approach the issue by defining certain essential concepts. The objective of our future research will be to develop a time-space tool that will enable us to manage complex applications (for example socio-economical) while representing as much as possible the real world.

References Page, M., Gensel, J., Capponi,. C., Bruley, C., Genoud, P. , Ziebelin, D., Bardou, D., Dupierris, V. A New Approach to Object-Based Knowledge Representation: the AROM System, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 2001. Weibel, R. and Dutton, G.. Generalizing Spatial Data and Dealing with Multiple Representations. In: Longley, P, Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (eds.). Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications, Second Edition. Cambridge, GeoInformation International, 1999.

313 The Use of GIS and Remote Sensing as Information Support for Landscape Management

Vladimir Zidek and Martin Klimanek Mendel University Brno [email protected], [email protected],

Abstract Satellite Ikonos and QuickBird data has been used and processed to produce a frame for digital database of alluvial planes of Morava and Dyje rivers. The research aims to create a Digital Landscape Model (DLM) as a fully integrated geodatabase of the area of interest. Final model comprises three multi-parameter layers (natural background including DEM, human impacts and development limits). DLM, containing latest remotely sensed, GPS and GIS data will serve as basic information tool for analytic, modelling and planning operations in the region. Cooperation with subjects in the experimental area is realized – one of them is the UNESCO MAB Biosphere Reserve Lower Morava, situated in South Moravia, about 35 km south of Brno and next to the Austrian and Slovak borders. Research outcomes offer information for further multi-temporal and multi-criteria analyses, decision support and other ecological and preservation purposes in the landscape. Evaluation of the influence of man on landscape diversity and environment can be this way realised.

Keywords: GIS, GPS, remote sensing, satellite data, Ikonos, QuickBird, imagery processing, DTM, landscape management, land cover, biosphere reserve, digital landscape model, Idrisi, ArcGIS

Introduction

Since 2005, the Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology of the Mendel University Brno have been working on a research program called “Forest and wood – support of a functionally integrated forest management and the use of wood as a renewable material”. One of its sections is called “Alluvial forests – sustainable development management”. The research concerns floodplains of rivers Dyje and Morava (region South Moravia) that are unique natural formations and have for a long time been under a significant anthropogenic pressure.

This section is divided into 8 thematic projects, where part 8 is entitled “The use of geoinformation technologies in landscape planning”. This project, elaborated by the Department of Geoinformation Technologies (DGT), is focused on the development of methodology and formalized process for the creation of a Digital Landscape Model, based on geoinformation technologies and serving as a digital data source for landscape analyses. The main goal is to quantify present situation and revitalization measures in the landscape, to optimize and visualize results, as well as to provide geoinformation support for other tasks of the research program. Within the frame of this research, the DGT cooperates with a number of institutions operating in the area – the most important one being the Lower Morava Biosphere Reserve (LMBR).This reserve is situated in the warmest region of the Czech Republic. Its core part, the Biosphere Reserve Palava was created in 1986 under authority of UNESCO MAB programme. When in 2003 this Reserve was enlarged (see Figure 3), the LMBR, covering over 300 km2, came into existence. It encompasses a unique combination of limestone cliffs of the Palava Hills, the rare Central European lowland floodplains along

314 lower reaches of Kyjovka, Dyje and Morava rivers with valuable remnants of alluvial forests, and the Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape.

Material and methods

Ikonos and QuickBird satellite imagery Data used On May 2005, we have ordered panchromatic and multispectral Ikonos data for the area of interest. We requested data of August that would be most suitable for purposes of landscape and vegetation interpretation. Nevertheless, imagery we have received was taken as late as 1st November 2005. The area was covered by 6 Ikonos scenes bought in 2005 and by 5 more partial Ikonos scenes, bought as archive data in 2007. Each of them consists of one panchromatic canal (450 - 900 nm, 1 m spatial resolution) and four multispectral canals (blue 450-520 nm, green 520-600 nm, red 630-690 nm, NIR 760-900 nm, 4 m spatial resolution). As no Ikonos data covered the important Palava Natural Reserve (northeast part of the Biosphere Reserve Lower Morava), archive (2003) QuickBird data for this area has been found on the Internet and later bought, also in 2007. QuickBird imagery, with spatial resolution of 0.6 m (panchromatic) and 2.5 m (multispectral) has spectral characteristics similar to Ikonos.

This satellite imagery was processed in three principal consecutive stages: • Geometric corrections • Mosaicking • Preliminary classification (First work on the Ikonos 2005 data was realized by Sustera, 2006).

Geometric corrections Main part of geometric correction was realized in software Geomatica 10 OrthoEngine (product of PCI Geomatics). The project was based on the OrthoEngine generic projection Krovak negative (D211), the Czech national civil geodetic system S-JTSK and the Digital Terrain Model (DTM, see 2.2). Mathematical model of rational polynomial functions was employed, where not only surface position but also elevation was considered. The model builds a correlation between the pixels and their ground locations using rational polynomial coefficients (RPC) that are provided with the image data. This solution was refined by adding Ground Control Points (GCP) measured by GPS method. Rational polynomial coefficients reduce number of necessary GCPs for each satellite scene and increase transformation accuracy (PCI Geomatics, 2008). For field work analogue topographic maps 1 : 10,000 were used.

Ground Control Points For the uncorrected image, Pixel (P, i.e. column) and line (L) coordinates of each GCP must be determined manually; measured map coordinates (X, Y, Z) can be afterwards entered, and the point stored in a GCP table. According to a value of computed root mean square (RMS) in pixel or ground units, point can be used as GCP point or check point. A GCP is used in computing the geometric model; whereas a check point is used to check the accuracy of the computed geometric model (it is not included in the bundle adjustment). The RMS should be kept below 1 pixel.

GCPs were placed in the panchromatic image and used for corrections. Later they were used also for geometric corrections of multispectral imagery. In this case geodetic coordinates (X,

315 Y, Z) remain the same, while image coordinates Pixel and Line have to be divided by four as the pixel in the multispectral image is four times larger than pixel in the panchromatic image. For this purpose, ground control points were exported from the OrthoEngine projects in IXYE format, which means that each row of text contained the following information: (1) the GCP ID (I), (2) the georeferenced East/West coordinate (X), (3) the georeferenced North/South coordinate (Y), (4) the elevation (E). The Pixel and Line position for each point were taken from the uncorrected image. Position identity of GPCs at panchromatic and multispectral imagery was checked, and corrected at the multispectral image, where needed.

Geodetic coordinates were measured using a Trimble GeoXT device. This high performance, sub-meter GPS receiver is combined with a rugged handheld computer and equipped with the TerraSync Professional software. Advanced mission planning, field work and data dictionary creation and editing were quite easy with this tool. Measured data was stored in Standard Storage Format (SSF) file, which is Trimble standard data file designed for mapping applications. The Trimble GPS Pathfinder Office software that works with the TerraSync software was used for data dictionary creation, data transfer, data import and export, and for postprocessing. With GPS Pathfinder Office, files can be imported from a number of GIS and database formats.

Generation of orthoimages Orthorectification is the process of using a rigorous mathematical model and a digital elevation model (DEM) to correct distortions from the platform, the sensor, Earth terrain and curvature and cartographic projection in raw images. The computation of a rigorous math model is often referred to as a bundle adjustment. The math model solution calculates the position and orientation of the sensor at the time when the image was taken. Once the position and orientation of the sensor is identified, it can be used to accurately account for known distortions in the image. In Ortho image production schedule, several processing options are set up; in particular available digital elevation model (DEM) and appropriate resampling method have to be chosen.

For resampling of images during orthorectification process two methods were used: (1) nearest neighbour interpolation and (2) cubic convolution. The nearest neighbour resampling is suitable for automated classification, the cubic convolution resampling is suitable for visual interpretation and for field works.

Post-processed differential correction Measured GPS data of Ground Control Points was imported into Trimble GPS Pathfinder Office software where post processed differential corrections were realized. In our research, correction data were received from the Czech network of permanent station for position determining (CZEPOS) that provides to GPS users correction data for exact positioning at the Czech Republic territory. CZEPOS is operated by the Czech Office for Surveying (CUZK). Data were transferred via Internet using RINEX - the Receiver Independent Exchange Format. Moravsky Krumlov (CMOK) station and hourly data files were used.

Measured GCP data was imported in SSF data format into Trimble Pathfinder office, processed by standard base processing and exported as ESRI shapefiles, with GCP attributes position and elevation. It was found useful to transform resulting shapefile DBF data to Excel XLS files, as such results could be easily re-imported into OrthoEngine GCPs table. After appropriate corrections, the orthorectification process in the OrthoEngine was run again, this time providing the most precise georeferenced and orthorectified image output.

316

Mosaicking Georeferenced and orthorectified scenes were joined together using Automatic mosaicking as well as Manual mosaicking options of the OrthoEngine. For the originally ordered and for archive Ikonos data, the automatic mosaicking option in OrthoEngine was used for the bulk of the work (see Figure 1). After defining a mosaic area, for each image included in the mosaic file, four steps in sequence were completed: (1) selecting an image to add, (2) collecting (and editing) the cutlines, (3) adjusting the colour balance and (4) adding the image to the mosaic.

Preliminary classification To explore characteristics and bunching ability of the image data, dominant patterns of spectral reflectance were at first automatically extracted, using unsupervised classification modules of Idrisi version 15 (Andes). The unsupervised classification does not require the user to specify any information about the features contained in the images; it automatically creates groups of similar pixels using methods of cluster analysis. For this purpose, a false colour composition from the multispectral Ikonos data was initially produced, a cut covering Lednice region (north-west part of the area of interest) created and used as reference basis for experimental unsupervised classification of the imagery.

This part of the image data (i.e. Lednice area) was then classified using following Idrisi Andes unsupervised classification modules: CLUSTER, ISOCLUST, KMEANS, MAXSET, SOM and Fuzzy ARTMAP. Later the same data has been segmented and experimentally classified in contextual object oriented image analysis software Definiens (eCognition) version 5.

Digital Terrain Model The Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is one of the crucial layers for the Digital Landscape Model (DLM, see 2.3), as all environmental processes occur in relation to it. For its construction we have used elevations from the Fundamental Base of Geographic Data (ZABAGED) from the Czech Office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre (CÚZK). Here, only contour lines contain the elevation data and they have two main disadvantages: they do not contain local maximum and minimum values (that is the point elevations on hill tops, mountain ridges, but also in the valleys) and depending on the terrain shape the data is irregularly stratified, which often leads to a shortage of elevation identifications (typically in longitudinal axes of ridges and valleys).

The ZABAGED contour layer data came from maps of 1 : 10,000 scale and have the interval of 5 m (on some map sheets there is the interval of 2 m). The lines are not continual; in places of singularities they are interrupted. This might on the one hand cause complications to algorithms working primarily with lines, but on the other hand, it enables to identify these places with singularities in the terrain and thus makes DTM more accurate. For part of the area, stereo-photogrammetric data from the Geodis Brno was used, which contains point elements and lines of singularities. The density of this field of points is very varied, especially regarding the density of plant cover. The whole work was further complicated by the fact that the area of interest has quite small altitude differences (from 150 to 350 m above sea level), and at places almost a zero gradient. Software products ESRI ArcGIS and GIS Idrisi were used, and their corresponding algorithms for the creation of DTM from contour layer data which provide best results, i.e. ArcGIS Topo to Raster and Idrisi Andes TIN.

317 A good quality DTM, however, cannot be obtained by mere choice of suitable algorithm, it was also necessary to carry out the actual field measurement in order to provide data in areas of very low density of elevation and to verify the created DTM. Further, the source data was updated with additional information such as the lines of water courses, water areas and elevation (this data was obtained by vectorization of maps at scales 1 : 5,000 and 1 : 10,000). Best results were obtained with the Topo to Raster tool. This algorithm uses modification of the spline method and hydrological characteristics in order to create the DTM as accurately as possible and it enables its further improvement by the application of additional data into the model (ground elevations and hydrological network). The algorithm is primarily designed for working with contour line data and the idea is based on the presumption that the main factors, which model the shape of the terrain, are hydrological processes. Depending on the type of interpolation, it is the discrete spline method, which allows to model sudden changes in terrain relief (Klimanek, 2006).

Land cover map and Digital Landscape Model of the Lower Morava Biosphere Reserve Land cover database for long-term monitoring of landscape changes was created, similarly as the DTM, from the ZABAGED data (the most detailed data source with the most frequent updates in the Czech Republic) that is both formally and factually safe. Processing of the area covered with forest stands was based on forest maps and data of the Forest Management Plan (FMP) from the forest enterprise Zidlochovice. Attribute tables of FMP database record particular items, such as tree species representation, age, stand density and height which enables classification according to detailed (or even changing) requirements.

Our update of maps and data was based on orthorectified and classified satellite imagery (Ikonos panchromatic and multispectral data of 1 m, respective 4 m spatial resolution) acquired in the end of 2005. The last phase encompassed check of problematic places by field inspection and surveying (using GPS receivers Trimble GeoXT and ProXH).

In spite of all our efforts, the topological accuracy of the database and the whole resultant map remains doubtful, because of combination of the data from different sources. For example, lines of forest borders were digitized by a mensurational offices based on the Derived State Map 1 : 5,000, and therefore they were not identical with borders of woodland polygons in ZABAGED data. The reason rests with both the duplicate data creation in particular institutions and different requirements on accuracy of created data sets. Thus we can only hope that the implementation of the INSPIRE regulation will bring improvement to this field.

The Digital landscape model is a fully integrated geographical database that supports various expert systems with reliable geospatial data, e.g. for land use optimizing, risk assessment, decision making, emergency management, etc. It consists of at least three muti-parameter thematic layers and DTM. (Kolejka et al., 2003). Relevant information can be extracted from these layers by querying. For the correct functioning of the digital landscape mode (DLM) it was necessary to get a large and topologically accurate database of the area of interest. It was created by number of input data integrated into the form of 3 layers – natural background, anthropogenic environment and a layer of development limits (see Figure 4). Creating the layer of natural background was a very demanding process. This layer consists of following data components: geologic and soil map, forest type map and a map of classified soil- ecological units (in Czech BPEJ). Due to considerable generalization of the geological map and the soil map, the first task in this stage was to re-make these maps in order to correspond as accurately as possible to real conditions. The created digital geologic and soil map was therefore re-made upon the Base Map of the Czech Republic 1 : 10,000 and ZABAGED data;

318 terrain singularities were taken into consideration, so that the resulting map could be used for consequent data integration. Layers of anthropogenic impact and development limits were created using land cover plans of concerned villages. When data integration is completed and database updated, it is possible to carry out various spatial analyses and syntheses, e.g. the search for non-forest areas suitable for forestation that might be one of final results of our research project.

Results and discussion

Georeferenced, orthorectified and classified imagery QuickBird 2003 panchromatic data had to be first reprojected from 0.6 m spatial resolution to 1 m resolution and then added to the existing Ikonos mosaic. Manual mosaicking options of OrthoEngine was used in this case; otherwise it was difficult to reach the satisfactory contrast of both satellite data. With manual cutlines, proper colour balancing was achieved (Figure 1), though some differences remain in the mosaic due to diverse years of data acquirement.

Fig. 1. Mosaic preview of the project, after joining QuickBird data, with cutlines of Ikonos archive and QuickBird scenes (left); resulting mosaic after contrast adjustment (right)

Best classification results have been obtained from CLUSTER, ISOCLUST, KMEANS and SOM modules (details are given in Zidek, 2008). According to our experience, CLUSTER provided the best information on number of clusters existing in the imagery, as it is not necessary to define number of clusters in advance – the module detects it itself using a histogram peak technique. SOM output results (with maximum of 15 output clusters option) proved to be very close to information categories obtained by preliminary classification in Definiens (see Figure 2). SOM undertakes unsupervised classification of remotely sensed imagery using Kohonen’s Self-Organizing Map (SOM) neural network. The network algorithm is able to find characteristic objects in the image without any external information. The input layer represents the input feature vector with a separate neuron for each reflectance band. The output layer of the SOM is typically organized as a two-dimensional array of neurons. For unsupervised classification, competitive layer neurons are organized into classes through the use of a clustering procedure such as an agglomerative clustering or k-means procedure.

319

Figure 2: Data classification of Lednice area by module SOM (15 clusters) compared with a preliminary classification result in object oriented software Definiens

Unsupervised classification output provides important objective evidence on imagery information capability that can be subsequently used in supervised and contextual classification. Especially creating training data sets and their identification in the field can be this way distinctively facilitated. More classification experiments using supervised and object oriented classification are planned for the nearest future.

The LMBR Digital Terrain Model The created DTM of 5 m spatial resolution serves i.a. for satellite data orthorectification, for visual interpretation of other data sets and for further modelling. DTM is the key base for the Digital Landscape Model and it enables a number of other analyses, such as simple determination of categories of gradient and exposition, various landscape studies (visual sensitivity of landscape, visual exposure of landscape) or hydrological and climatic modelling (Hadas et al., 2008).

The LMBR Land cover database and the Digital Landscape Model The created database of land cover served also for the creation of a thematic map at scale 1 : 50,000. For our project, the LMBR borders (Figure 3) were more closely specified in cooperation with the management of the Reserve, on order to avoid possible problems at the creation of the map of land cover. After the creation of geodatabase, area of each land cover category in the LMBR was computed (see Table 1). This information is used for comparing with historical data and for periodic updates of land cover map. (It is envisaged that the land cover map updating could be harmonized with periodic Forest Management Plan updates).

320

Figure 3: The Lower Morava Biosphere Reserve (LMBR)

The resultant geodatabase and resultant thematic map were printed in mid-2007 and there is a possibility that a planned LMBR map server could be based on this data.

Land cover Area [km2] Representation [%] Buildings and urban area 4.38 1.2 Forest growth 137.11 38.6 Permanent grassland 31.44 8.9 Garden, orchard and park 12.63 3.6 Arable land 131.71 37.2 Other anthropic land 3.85 1.1 Vineyards 21.70 6.1 Water area 11.72 3.3 Σ 354.54 100.0 Table 1: Representation of main categories of LMBR land cover

The Czech Republic disposes of detailed land documentation concerning both natural environment and socio-economic domain. The products of environmental thematic mapping are analytical (thematic) maps of particular elements of nature. Although parameters of the represented elements are always in mutual harmony in nature, in GIS it may happen that when the maps are overlaid, the expected concordance of thematic layers is quite delusive. This way a lot of combinations of individual parameters may come into existence that is impossible in nature. These problems are avoided by logical integration of the data in the Digital Landscape Model. Such DLM only contains homogeneous multi-parametric areas such as typological natural (as well as anthropogenic) landscape elements with mutually well combined natural characteristics and human impact. From the formal point of view, DLM thus contains logically integrated data layers representing the database where there is a low number of poly- thematic layers and the digital terrain model, instead of great amount of overlaid mono-

321 thematic data layers (Kolejka et al., 2003). These poly-attribute DLM layers, i.e. integrated layer „natural background“, (2) integrated layer „anthropogenic impact“ and (3) Integrated layer „development limits“ then suffice for many tasks of spatial analyses and syntheses accomplished in GIS. Our DLM consists of several (few) synthetic maps with multi- parameter content where information is logically connected and all object positions are correct.

Figure 4: Scheme of the digital landscape model (After Kolejka et al., 2003)

Conclusion

In the frame of the project, several important data layers were created (georeferenced satellite imagery, the DTM, thematic maps) that became sources of finally produced Digital Landscape Model for the area of the LMBR. Research outcomes offer information for management, for further multi-temporal and multi-criteria analyses, for decision support and other ecological and preservation purposes in the landscape. This kind of support is nowadays an essential part of most research projects and it is crucial for creating available and widely applicable results.

Acknowledgement This paper was prepared with the support of Ministry of Education grant No. MSM 6215648902

References Hadas, P., Mikita, T., Litschmann, T., Blahova, K. (2008), Impact of the relief on the formation of moisture conditions in the Devin national nature reserve (in Czech), Proceedings of the Bioclimatological aspects of evaluation of nature processes in landscape, Praha: Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, CD, 1-14. ISBN 978-80-86690-55-1. Klimanek, M. (2006), Optimization of digital terrain model for its application in forestry, Journal of Forest Science, 52, 233-241, ISSN 1212-4834. Kolejka, J., Plsek, P., Pokorny, J. (2003), Digital Landscape Model – an integrated tool for area management, Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Digital Earth „Digital Earth – Information Resources for Global Sustainability“, Brno: Masaryk University, 155- 165. ISBN 80-210-3223-5. PCI Geomatics (2008), OrthoEngine Workbook, http://www.pcigeomatics.com/services/training/OE_course_outline.pdf

322 Sustera, J. (2006), Orthorectification of Ikonos satellite scenes from Morava and Dyje confluence (in Czech), Manuscript, Praha: GISAT, 8 pp. Zidek, V. (2008), Unsupervised classification of Ikonos 2005 data, region Lednice (in Czech), in Koren, M., Majlingova, A., Smreček, R., (eds): 9th Idrisi and ESRI user meeting. Zvolen: Technical University, 1-6. ISBN 978-80-228-1875-9.

323 Dynamic Data Structures for Geographic Data

Panagiotis D. Alevizos Department of Mathematics, University of Patras, GR-26110 Patras, Greece. [email protected]

Abstract Sets are as fundamental to computer science as they are to mathematics. Whereas mathematical sets are unchanging, the sets manipulated by algorithms can grow, shrink, or otherwise change over time. We call such sets dynamic. In a typical implementation of a dynamic set, each element is represented by an object whose fields can be examined and manipulated if we have a pointer to the object. Operations on a dynamic set can be grouped into two categories: (a) Queries, which simply return information about the set: Search(S, k): A query that, given a set S and a key value k, returns a pointer x to an element in S that key[x] = k, or NIL if no such element belongs to S. Successor(S, x): A query that, given an element x whose key is from a totally ordered set S, returns the next larger element in S, or NIL if x is the maximum element. Predecessor(S, x): A query that, given an element x whose key is from a totally ordered set S, returns the next smaller element in S, or NIL if x is the minimum element. Minimum(S): A query on a totally ordered set S that returns the element of S with the smallest key. Maximum(S): A query on a totally ordered set S that returns the element of S with the largest key. (b) Modifying operations, which change the set: Insert(S, x): A modifying operation that augments the set S with the element pointed to x. Delete(S, x): A modifying operation that, given a pointer x to an element in the set S, removes x from S. There are several dynamic data structures which can accomplish several geographic operations such as: linked lists, stacks, queues, and rooted trees.

Linked Lists

A linked list L is a data structure in which the objects are arranged in a linear order. The order in a linked list is determined by a pointer in each object. Linked lists provide a simple, flexible representation for dynamic sets, supporting all the operations listed above. Each element in the list is an object with fields for the key and pointers (shown by arrows) to the next and previous objects (Figure 1). The next field of the tail and the prev field of the head are NIL. The attribute head[L] points to the head and the attribute tail[L] to the tail. A list may have one of several forms. It may be either singly linked or doubly linked, it may be sorted or not, and it may be circular or not. If a list is singly linked, we omit the prev pointer in each element. If a list is sorted, the linear order of the list corresponds to the linear order of keys stored in elements of the list; the minimum element is the head of the list, and the maximum element is the tail. If the list is unsorted, the elements can appear in any order. In a circular list, the prev pointer of the head of the list points to the tail, and the next pointer of the tail of the list points to the head.

Searching a linked list:

324 SEARCH-LIST(L, k) 1. x ← head[L] 2. while x ≠ NIL and key[x] ≠ k do x ← next[x] 3. return x The procedure SEARCH-LIST(L, k) finds the first element with key k in list L by a simple linear search, returning a pointer to this element. If no object with key k appears in the list, then NIL is returned. To search a list of n objects, the SEARCH-LIST procedure takes Θ(n) time in the worst case, since it may have to search the entire list. For the unsorted doubled linked list in Figure 1, the call SEARCH-LIST(L, 2) returns a pointer to the second element, and the call SEARCH-LIST(L, 15) returns NIL.

Deleting from a linked list: The procedure DELETE-LIST(L, x) removes an element x from a linked list L. If we wish to delete an element with a given key, we must first call SEARCH- LIST(L, k) to retrieve a pointer to the element x with key[x]=k.. DELETE-LIST(L, x) runs in O(1) time, but if we wish to delete an element with a given key k, Θ(n) time is required in the worst case because we must first call SEARCH-LIST(L, k) (Figure 2). DELETE-LIST(L, x) 1. if prev[x] ≠ NIL 2. then next[prev[x]] ← next[x] 3. else head[L] ← next[x] 4. if next[x] ≠ NIL 5. then prev[next[x]] ← prev[x]

Inserting into a linked list: Similarly, given an element x with key[x]=k procedure LIST- INSERT(L, x) insert x in the linked list L (see Figure 3).

Stacks and Queues

The INSERT operation on a stack is called PUSH, and the DELETE operation, is called POP. The order in which plates are popped from the stack is the reverse of the order in which they were pushed onto the stack, since only the top plate is accessible (last-in, first-out, or LIFO property). The first-in, first out, or FIFO property of a queue causes it to operate like a line of people in the registrar's office. The queue has a head and a tail. When an element is inserted, it takes its place at the tail of the queue, just as a newly arriving person takes a place at the end of the line. The element deleted is always the one at the head of the queue, like the person at the head of the line who has waited the longest (Figure 4).

Binary Trees

We represent each node of a binary tree by an object. As shown in Figure 5 we use the fields p[x], left[x], and right[x] to store pointers to the parent, left child, and right child of each node x in a binary tree T. If p[x] = NIL, then x is the root. If node x has no left child, then left[x] = NIL, and similarly for the right child. The attribute root[T] points to the root of the entire tree T. If root[T]= NIL, then the tree is empty. For each vertex u in the left subtree of a vertex w, we have: key[u] < key[w], and for each vertex v in the right subtree of w, we have: key[w] < key[v].

325 A binary search tree is called balanced if for each vertex w the heights of the left and rights sub-trees differ by at most one. The height of a balanced binary search tree with n vertices, is Θ(log2n) (Figure 6). Thus, the searching of an object x (with a key[x] = k) on a binary tree T which stores a set of 2100 objects, requires only 100 operations.

326

327

328 Digital:earth:at – Centre for Teaching and Learning Geography and Geoinformatics

Michaela Lindner-Fally University of Salzburg

Abstract

School geography, teacher education and in-service teacher training face a rapidly changing world. Support for geography teachers is a very important topic, daily business at school leaves only little time and energy to go into depth of innovative teaching methods and technologies. In a survey realized in Salzburg in 2008, the needs and interests of teachers and pupils were located in order to install the most effective forms of support. The author will give a short insight to the results in this paper.

Furthermore, this paper intends to present the Salzburg Centre for Teaching and Learning Geography and Geoinformatics (www.digitalearth.at). Supported by the Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, Arts and Culture, Salzburg University’s Centre for Geoinformatics , the Geography Department of Salzburg College of Education and the GIScience Institute of the Austrian Academy of Science have joined and are setting up a new – in a first step regional – centre of excellence. Through various tracks, support for geography teachers and learners is going to be provided and a communication platform is being installed. As a partner in national and international projects and networks, e.g. the HERODOT network, results and experiences will continuously be shared with the geographic community in Europe and beyond.

Keywords: Geography teacher education, teacher training, digitalearth.at, school geography, GIS Day, GI in school.

Geography Education today

What is geography education? When does it start? Does it start? What are key strategies in order to enhance spatial thinking and a „geographic view“?

According to the AAG, “ Geography is the science of place and space. Geographers ask where things are located on the surface of the earth, why they are located where they are, how places differ from one another, and how people interact with the environment.” (AAG, 2009)

Geography as a school subject is defined differently regarding its contents, methods and outcomes. National curricula follow a variety of paradigms, methods and focus on different contents. Let us step back and have a glance at the beginning of an individual’s spatial experiences: Parents can observe that Geographic learning starts before school education. Spatial relationships play an important role even for babies. They soon know, where they are „at home“, where they usually sleep and where they usually get food – a qualification of places can very soon be multiply sensed (smelled, heard, seen). As soon as they get mobile, infants start to explore “space” and increase their environment continuously. Curiosity drives

329 them to discover new places, see how they look and feel like, see what happens there and what happened if they go to a certain place. Spatial relationships are thus discovered very soon in an individual’s live. Social development and the exploration of spatial interrelations go hand in hand.

School geography takes this pre-conditions and often explores the children’s surroundings from the near to the far. In terms of contents, this seems to tie exactly with their interest. So: if every child is interested in spatial relationships, why is interest in geography as a school subject rated as “medium” in the average (see fig. 1)? Teachers sometimes do not succeed in keeping the pupils’ natural curiosity focussed on spatial phenomena. I hypothesize that this is mainly because learners do not feel personally involved in learning topics. Social and personal involvement and/or activity are preconditions to reach learners and make them participate in the learning process. If learners are not personally affected by a topic, active learning methods may make them involved. Learning theories are talking about constructivist and active learning (Maresch, 2005) Thus, geography teaching methods and contents need to move from a teacher-centred, topography-oriented summary of facts to pupil-centred, active learning processes oriented on spatial interrelations.

This transition of learning processes is effectuated very slowly. Due to personal, educational and financial reasons, teaching takes only slow evolution. Only very innovative and dedicated teachers, the “early birds”, use information and communication technologies in their geography teaching. Different media require different teaching methods. After a period of technology-centeredness, learning with geoinformation is being integrated into a wider pedagogical debate (JEKEL et al, 2008). Practical experiences with new learning environments are being gathered and scientifically evaluated. In many cases, theory lags behind practice.

According to the Benchmark Statement on GIS in Secondary School Education (Donert, 2008), geography education prepares school leavers who: o can actively participate in public decision making, o understand the basic purpose of GIS to real world problems, and o can use GI interfaces in order to investigate, reflect and communicate spatial phenomena.

This is a great educational mandate. Universities, teacher educators and teacher training institutions are asked to provide teachers with adequate skills, materials and working conditions.

Science has to be taught corresponding to the latest developments in research and technology. Teachers are requested to bring new technologies into classroom. Geoinformation technologies are well suited for active learning processes. Everyday applications are increasingly spatial, often students use them intuitively without reflecting that they are just “doing geography”. Nevertheless, one has to be aware that the use of innovative technology does not mean better teaching. Teaching methods have to be adapted to the changing technological environment. Geoinformation science goes beyond software programs to produce maps. Interactive, Web 2.0 applications and geographic services invite pupils to become active, to explore and produce their own knowledge. Teachers’ role will be to actively support pupils’ learning processes rather than transmitting knowledge to inactive bodies. Spatial concepts have to be explained and explored, learning strategies have to be taught and – finally – there is the big chance to make pupils the centre of the learning process.

330 Rapidly changing GI, ICT and pedagogic approaches challenge and often overcharge teachers. Digital:earth:at, the Salzburg Centre of Excellence for Teaching and Learning Geography and Geoinformatics intends to bridge the gap between (virtual) reality and school education. digital:earth:at

Salzburg University’s Centre for Geoinformatics has joined with the Geography department of the College of Education in Salzburg and GIScience Institute of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in order to establish a regional centre for geography learning. Supported by the Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, Arts and Culture they are creating an information and communication platform for geography teachers. Literal affinity to the well known vision of a former US Vice President

“Digital Earth is a visionary concept, popularized by former US Vice President Al Gore, for the virtual and 3-D representation of the Earth that is spatially referenced and interconnected with digital knowledge archives from around the planet with vast amounts of scientific, natural, and cultural information to describe and understand the Earth, its systems, and human activities.” ( ISDE5, http://www.isde5.org/about_digitalearth.htm , accessed 13/03/2009) is intentional. Digital:earth:at wants to contribute to the vision of earth citizens, linked through the Internet, being able to freely access a virtual world of information and knowledge resources.

Digital:earth:at aims at developing a comprehensive concept for effective teacher support. A multi-level approach has been selected in order to meet the demands of different groups involved in geography teaching and learning. The process of teaching geography is influenced by several factors, besides internal and external teaching conditions, technological developments seriously affect learning processes. As a result, activities and support for teachers and pupils is great, but scientific assessment and discussion of the changing learning processes remains indispensable. Digital:earth:at integrates scientific discussion with practical experiences and increasing technological possibilities. Web 2.0 is not only being integrated in school lessons but also in the information and discussion process within digital:earth:at, a highly interactive initiative from whatever perspective.

Currently, the network’s website is being launched and network activities are planned. The cooperation intends to: o Set up a communication platform for pupils, students, teachers, scientists (www.digitalearth.at) o Initiate and realize initial and vocational trainings for teachers-to-be and in-service teachers o Create and exchange learning materials for geography teachers and pupils o Organize events for school-classes (e.g. GIS Day) o Organize conferences on Learning with Geoinformation o Collaborate with other networks and organisations on a national and international stage (e.g. HERODOT.net) o Create awareness-raising materials and organize events

331 o Disseminate information on digital:earth:at

These activities should help to reach the following goals: - Stimulate professional exchange - Foster the scientific debate on learning with geoinformation - Encourage industries, universities and public service institutions to cooperate with schools in order to bring school geography in contact with “real life geography” - Create a modern pedagogy for learning with geoinformation - Develop projects on different geographic scales, involving all Digital:earth:at target groups and international partners

Digital:earth:at provides activities for different target groups, it brings together the wide community of geographers. Teachers, teacher educators and teacher trainers, scientists (geographers, GIScientists, educationalists), practitioners (GI-companies, GI-related public services, geodata providers) and pupils will benefit from the initiative’s activities. Each of these groups is invited to participate actively in a joint process of learning geography and to bring in constructive contributions to the development of an adequate, modern geography teaching concept.

GIS Day Survey 2008

Salzburg University’s Centre for Geoinformatics has organized GIS Day events since the late 1990s. GIS Day is a worldwide event to raise public awareness for GIS. In Salzburg, workshops and presentations have been organized for school classes coming from Salzburg, Upper Austria and close-by Bavaria.

On the occasion of GIS Day 2008, a survey was undertaken in order to gain insight into the state-of-the art of school geography and the teacher’s needs in an intentionally regional context. Teachers were asked about - their opinion concerning GIS Day 2008 - computer and GIS use in their geography lessons - their interest in GIS- teacher training pupils were asked to indicate - their interest in geography - the use of computers and GIS in their geography lessons - their understanding of GIS after GIS Day 2008.

Selected results of the GIS Day survey are presented in the following. These have been directly applied to the digital:earth:at initiative in order to assess current challenges and needs.

1) Interest in geography The pupils’ interest in the subject revealed that there are significant differences between male and female learners, additionally boys could rather be attracted by GIS Day activities than their female colleagues. Whereas 49% of male participants indicated high or very high interest in geography, only 27% of the girls are (very) interested. On the other hand, 18% (boys) and 21% (girls) stated low or no interest.

332

Figure 1: Pupil’s interest in geography Figure 2: Enhanced interest (in %) in geography after GIS Day

Figure 2 shows that GIS Day enhanced boys’ interest in geography in more than 60%, girls’ interest could be raised for 50%. In total, 54% of participants confirmed that GIS Day raised their interest in geography.

2) The use of computers and GIS in today’s geography classes While 7 out of 8 teachers indicated to use computers in geography teaching, only 55% of the pupils did so. GIS use in class was confirmed by 3 out of 8 teachers but only by 13% of pupils. The type of program was described as web-based applications like Google Earth.

Teachers agreed that GIS Day was absolutely fulfilling their expectations, active learning stations (organized as hands-on workshops) were rated best by teachers and pupils.

Figure 3: GIS Day: The City of Salzburg from the bird’s eye view. Hands-on workshop. (Source: Z_GIS, Centre for Geoinformatics, Salzburg University)

Conclusion: GIS Day could enhance pupils’ interest in geography in more than 50%. Only a low percentage of pupils is actively using geo-ICT in geography lessons. In order to enhance technology use, teachers must receive adequate training and methodological input.

3) What do Teachers need? New teaching methods need innovative teachers willing to adapt their way of working with students. Rockenfeller (2008) states that teachers prefer improved trainings in

333 methodological-didactical areas to technological equipments in schools. Especially teachers who irregularly use digital media in class feel not sufficiently instructed and able to deal with special software. These teachers may be in-service or teachers-to-be, both need high quality education considering new methods, new technologies and new teaching materials and applications. Sometimes, universities and colleges of education are overcharged and fail to keep track with innovative developments. Teacher training is the most efficient way to bring new pedagogies into class, information on the internet is important but not enough. In the GIS Day survey teachers were asked about their needs. The result was that they preferred innovative project work together with their students as a training method in order to raise their competences. The internet and teacher trainings were rated equally on a lower level.

Figure 4: Teacher training methods preferred by teachers

The survey focused the use of digital media in geography. The majority of the teachers can though be considered as “new style” teachers, they have realized that the teacher’s role is no longer to present or being a knowledge base, but to moderate active learning processes. Learning is regarded as a common process, contents and so-called soft-skills are developed together with technological skills that are indispensable for future success of today’s pupils. Peer learning and teacher support are central elements of active learning settings, creativity and mutual appreciation grow in relation to open but well-structured learning environments. Technology-training is certainly important, teachers will nevertheless soon find out that they cannot exploit the full potential of digital media in traditional, teacher centred learning processes.

Conclusion

At the moment, digital:earth:at has to be considered as a growing information and communication platform for the geographic education community. Teachers, teacher educators and teacher trainers, geographic information scientists and experts share their knowledge about geography education. Needs and expertises are being brought together, mutual learning about teaching methods and technological requirements is expected to increase quality of geography teaching. Events and information services complete the range of activities offered by the initiative. International networking is considered as important to general educational and didactical approaches applied in innovative geography teaching.

334

Digital:earth:at is just at the start of a journey: interactive media including geographic information services (the “geoWeb 2.0”) are increasingly integrated in everyday’s life and play an important role in lifelong learning. Learning processes, materials and strategies will continuously have to be adapted to changing technologies and societies.

References AAG (2009), What is Geography? http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html (24.3.2009) Donert, K. (Ed) (2006), Computers in geographical education: a European perspective on developing exciting Geography. Geography in European higher education 3 – Bukarest. Donert, K. (Ed.) (2008), Future Prospects in Geography. Geography in European higher education 7 - Liverpool Hope University Press. Geographical Association, (2002), Developing the case for geography. http://www.geography.org.uk/download/AUdeveloping.pdf (16.01.2009) Jekel, T., Koller, A. & Strobl, J. (2008) Lernen mit Geoinformation III. – Heidelberg. Maresch, G. (2005), e-Learning und Computer Aided Design. Ein didaktisches Konzept für die Qualitätssteigerung im modernen Geometrieunterricht. Dissertation, Salzburg. Rockenfeller, P. (2008), Die Herausforderungen in der Lehrerfortbildung. – L.A. Digitale Medien, 1/2008.

335