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Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious merchants and tradition [3] of the . Hinduism is often colonists referred referred to as San ātana (a phrase meaning collectively to the “the eternal “) by its adherents. [4][5] Generic “types” of followers of Indian Hinduism that attempt to accommodate a variety of complex as . views span folk and Vedic Hinduism to tradition, as in Eventually, it came to . Hinduism also includes yogic traditions and a define a precisely wide spectrum of “daily morality” based on the notion of religious identity that and societal norms such as Hindu customs. includes any person of Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no Indian origin who single founder. [6] Among its roots is the historical Vedic neither practiced of Age , and as such Hinduism is often [7] called the “oldest living religion“ or the “oldest living major nor non-Vedic Indian "Dancing Ganesh. Central . Early religion”.[8][9][10][11] religions, such as fifteenth . Colours on cotton. A large body of texts is classified as Hindu, divided into , , Height: 68 centimetres". [1] This form is Śruti (“revealed”) and (“remembered”) texts. These , or tribal also known as Maharakta ("The Great texts discuss , and mythology, and () religions, One"). [2] provide on the practice of dharma (religious thereby encompassing living). Among these texts, the are the foremost in a wide range of religious beliefs and practices related to authority, importance and antiquity. Other major scriptures San ātana Dharma.[18][19] include the , Pur āṇas and the epics Mah ābh ārata The Hinduism was introduced into the English and Rāmāya ṇa. The Bhagavad G ītā, a treatise from the in the 19th century to denote the religious, Mah ābh ārata , spoken by , is of special importance. [12] philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India. [20]

Etymology The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit word The earliest evidence for prehistoric Sindhu , the historic local appellation for the in the back to the late Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500– northwestern part of the 2600 BCE). [21][22] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical Indian subcontinent.[13] and (1500–500 BCE) are called the “historical Vedic religion“. is first mentioned in the Rig Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which Veda [14] is the , dated to 1700–1100 BCE. [23] The Vedas center The word Hindu was on of such as , and , and on first used by Arab invaders the . -, called yajña were performed, and then went further west and Vedic chanted but no or icons were by the Arabic term al-Hind built. [24] The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities referring to the land of the to and other Indo-European religions. [25] people who live across river The major Sanskrit epics, and , Indus. [15] and the Persian were compiled over a protracted period during the late term Hind ū referring to all BCE and the early centuries CE. They contain Indians. By the 13th mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient century, Hindust ān emerged India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical as a popular alternative , a contemporary of treatises. name of India, meaning the composes the Ramayana. The later “land of Hindus ”.[16] Originally, Hindu was a secular term which was used to recount tales describe all inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent (or about devas ) irrespective of their religious affiliation. It also and , occurs sporadically in Sanskrit texts such as the later their of (Hinduka, c. 1450), some 16th- interactions 18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, including with and Chaitanya , usually to and their contrast Hindus with Yavanas or .[17] It was only battles towards the end of the 18th century that the European in Tibet is regard-ed as the spiritual abode of . against . institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in new of Hindu thought: the advent and spread of indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and Upanishadic, Jaina, and Buddhist philosophico-religious teachings of individuals, as with and Ramana thought throughout the broader Indian landmass. [26] Maharshi. Prominent Hindu , including (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha (founder of Buddhism) Aurobindo and (founder of ISKCON), translated, taught that to achieve reformulated and presented Hinduism’s foundational texts for or , one did contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers not have to accept the and attention in India and abroad. Others such as authority of the Vedas or Vivekananda, , B.K.S. and the system. Buddha Rama have also been instrumental in raising the went a step further and profiles of and in the West. Today modern claimed that the movements, such as ISKCON and the , of a Self/ or was attract a large amount of followers across the . [33] unnecessary. [27] Buddhism peaked during the reign of Typology Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who Hinduism as we know it can be subdivided into a number unified the Indian The so-called Shiva of major currents. Of the historical division into six darshanas, subcontinent in the 3rd seal only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga survive. The main divisions of are Vaishnavism, , century BCE. After 200 [35] CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Smartism and . Hinduism also recognizes numerous divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or , including , Yoga, , [36] , Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[28] , the regards them as lower manifestations of it. Other notable founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in characteristics include a in and karma, as in the sixth century BCE. [29] Between 400 BCE well as in personal duty, or dharma. and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded at the expense of McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic “types” of [30] Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views Buddhism. [37] Sanskritic went into decline after the end of the on a rather complex subject: • period. The early medieval Puranas helped establish a Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and of religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies local deities at a communal level and spanning back to undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism prehistoric or at least prior to written Vedas. • and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation Vedic Hinduism as still being practiced by traditionalist at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a (for example shrautins). • mainstream “Hinduism” that overshadowed all earlier Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita (Smartism), as traditions. [31] based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads. Though came to India in the early 7th century with • Yogic Hinduism, especially that based on the Yoga the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of , it of . started to become a major religion during the later Muslim • “Dharmic” Hinduism or “daily morality”, based on the conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[29] During this period notion of Karma, and upon societal norms such as Hindu Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus converted to marriage customs. Islam. Numerous Muslim rulers such as destroyed • Bhakti or devotionalism, especially as in Vaishnavism. Hindu temples and persecuted non-; however some, such as , were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers , Madhva, and Chaitanya.[29] Followers of the moved away from the abstract concept of , which the Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible , especially Krishna and Rama. [32] as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as and . They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric and philosophy to and the . At the same , societies such as the Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic , endeavouring to The Swaminarayan Akshardham in , according the Guinness World Records is the World’s Largest Comprehensive [34] . Radhakrishnan explicitly states that Hinduism Definitions cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced. [52] Similarly some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a Hinduism does not have a “unified system of belief [38] category with “fuzzy edges”, rather than as a well-defined and encoded in declaration of faith or a “, but is rather an rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious Hinduism, while others are not as central but still remain phenomena originating and based on the Vedic [39][40][41][42] within the category. Based on this, Ferro-Luzzi has developed traditions. a ‘Prototype Theory approach’ to the definition of The term Hindu in origin is a Persian word in use from Hinduism. [53] the time of the , referring to any tradition that Problems with the single definition of what is actually is native to India as opposed to Islam. Hindu is mistankenly meant by the term ‘Hinduism’ are often attributed to the fact used in the sense of ‘Indian pagan’ in English from the 17th that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical century,but Hindus are not pagans as their religion is a [43] [44] founder. Hinduism, or as some say ‘Hinduisms,’ does not mixture of and but the notion of have a single system of and has different goals Hinduism as an identifiable religious tradition qualifying as according to each or denomination. The forms of Vedic one of the emerged only during the 19th religion are seen not as an alternative to Hinduism, but as its century in western countries. earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to found in much western scholarly writing between Vedism, differences in belief, and Hinduism’s openness, makes it Brahmanism, and Hinduism. [11][54] difficult to define as a religion according to traditional A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the Western conceptions. [45] To its adherents, Hinduism is the [46] frequent use of the term “faith“ as a synonym for traditional way of life, and because of the wide range of “religion”.[38] Some academics [55] and many practitioners refer traditions and ideas to Hinduism using a native definition, as San ātana Dharma , a incorporated within Sanskrit phrase meaning “the eternal law“, or the “eternal or covered by it, way”.[4][56] arriving at a comprehensive definition of the Beliefs term is Hinduism refers to problematic. [38] a religious mainstream While sometimes which evolved referred to as a organically and spread religion, Hinduism over a large territory The , or the intersection is more often marked by significant of River, River and defined as a mythical river. ethnic and cultural religious diversity. This tradition. [3] It is therefore described as both the oldest of the mainstream evolved world’s religions, and the most diverse. [8][47][48][49] Most Hindu both by innovation traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the from within, and by Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu of external traditions regard particular as essential for salvation, traditions or cults into but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some Hindu fold. The philosophies postulate a theistic of creation, of result is an enormous sustenance, and of destruction of the , yet some variety of religious Detail of the Phra , the central Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized by traditions, ranging from tower of the Arun ("Temple of the belief in reincarnation ( samsara ), determined by the law innumerable small, ") in , - of karma, and the idea that salvation is freedom from this unsophisticated cults to showing Indra on his three-headed cycle of repeated birth and . However, other religions of major religious Erawan () the region, such as Buddhism, , also movements with believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism. [38] Hinduism millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The is therefore viewed as the most complex of all of the living, identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate historical world religions. [50] Despite its complexity, from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest , but affirmation of its adherents that it is such. [57] is also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots Hinduism grants and complete freedom of belief reaching back into prehistory. [51] and worship.[58][59][60] Hinduism conceives the whole world as A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice a single family that deifies the one , and therefore it President of India, who was also a prominent theologian, accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct , states that Hinduism is not “just a religions which would imply a division of identity.[61][62][63] faith”, but in itself is related to the union of reason and Hence, Hinduism is devoid of the concepts of , and blasphemy.[64][65][66][67] moksha depends on towards God and on God’s grace. [78] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), Sams āra (The than as the infinite principle), God is called (“The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and ), Karma Lord”), [79] (“The Auspicious One”[79] ) or (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from (“The Supreme Lord”[79] ). [75] However samsara ), and the various (paths or practices). [68] interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman Concept of God and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita. [75] In the majority of Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs traditions of Vaishnavism he is , God, and the text of spanning , , , pantheism, Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as Krishna, sometimes referred to as . There are also , , , among [80] others; [69][70][71][72] and its concept of God is complex and schools like the Samkhya which have atheistic leanings. depends upon each particular tradition and philosophy. It is Devas and Avatars The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or dev ī in feminine form; devat ā used synonymously for in ), “the shining ones”, which may be translated into English as “” or “heavenly beings”.[81] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme , with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate

Temple carving at representing the : deities) as their iṣṭ a , Shiva and Vishnu. devat ā, or chosen ideal. [82][83] The sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion choice is a matter to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but [73] of individual any such term is an overgeneralization. [84] preference, and Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true of regional and “self” of every person, called the — is eternal. [74] family According to the monistic/pantheistic of Hinduism [84] traditions. (such as school), this is ultimately Hindu epics indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these and the Puranas schools are called non-dualist.[75] The goal of life, according relate several to the Advaita school, is to realize that one’s ātman is episodes of the identical to Brahman, the supreme soul. [76] The Upanishads descent of God to state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the Earth in corporeal innermost core of one’s form to restore own self realizes an identity dharma to society with Brahman and thereby Krishna displays his (Universal and to guide reaches moksha (liberation Form) to on the battlefield of humans to moksha. or freedom). [74][77] . Such an Dualistic schools (see is called an . The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu Dvaita and Bhakti) and include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna understand Brahman as a (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata). Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her Karma and Samsara [85] thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and can be described as the “moral law of cause and effect”.[86] Shiva, or , depending Krishna, the eighth incarnation According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the - upon the sect. The ātman is (Avatar) of Vishnu or svayam dependent on God, while bhagavan, worshiped across a atma , develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether number of traditions physical or mental. The linga sharira , a body more subtle Objectives of Life than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains Classical Hindu thought accepts the following impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing [87] objectives of human life, that which is sought as human a unique trajectory for the individual. Thus, the concept of purpose, aim, or end, is known as the puru ṣārthas:[98][99] a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically • Dharma (“righteousness, ethikos“) relates to reincarnation as well as to one’s personality, • characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions (“livelihood, wealth”) • of and destiny. Kāma (“sensual pleasure”) • This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is Mok ṣa (“liberation, freedom (from samsara )”) a continuum called samsara . The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Yoga Gita states that: In whatever way a Hindu “As a person puts defines the goal of life, there are on new clothes several methods (yogas) that and discards old sages have taught for reaching and torn clothes, that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga similarly an include the , the embodied soul Yoga Sutras, the

enters new Pradipika, and, as their A statue of Shiva in yogic material bodies, philosophical and historical basis, . leaving the old the Upanishads. Paths that one bodies.” (B.G. can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life ( moksha , 2:22) [88] or nirvana ) include: Samsara provides • (the path of love and devotion) ephemeral pleasures, • (the path of right action) which lead people to • (the path of meditation) rebirth so as to • Jñ āna Yoga (the path of ) [100] enjoy the pleasures of From Ramayana An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, a perishable body. according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path [89][90] believed to ensure lasting and peace. It is to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their thought that after several , an atman eventually belief that the world is currently in the (one of four seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/). epochs which are part of the ). [101] Practice of one The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha , nirvana yoga does not exclude others. Many schools believe that the or samadhi , is understood in several different ways: as the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For realization of one’s union with God; as the realization of example, the practice of yoga , is thought to inevitably one’s eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga ), and vice versa. [102] all existence; perfect unselfishness and of the Self; Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in yoga ) as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as must embody the core principles of karma yoga , from worldly . Such realization liberates one from and bhakti yoga , whether directly or indirectly. [100][103] [91][92] samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth. Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul, [93] death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self. [94] Thence, a Practices person who has no desire or ambition left and no Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminal God and sometimes also seeking from Devas. disease may embrace death by .[95] Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the to help one think various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita of in the Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer midst of identifies itself with an individual but as identical with everyday life. Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) Hindus can schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after engage in pūjā attaining moksha expect to spend in a (worship or [79] (), [96] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara . ), Thus, it is said that the followers of dvaita to “taste either at home or sugar”, while the followers of Advaita wish to “become at a temple. At [97] sugar”. home, Hindus often create a The visarjan (nimarjan ) ceremony of shrine with icons during the . dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, dedicated to a primary along with associated subordinate singing devotional , meditation, chanting mantras, deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting reciting scriptures etc. [110] A notable feature in religious ritual temples is not obligatory, [104] and many visit temples only is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts during religious . Hindus presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the perform their worship through icons practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or (). The icon serves as a tangible during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with , is link between the worshiper and God. [105] thus a typical feature of most religious action. [110] Other The image is often considered a characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of and manifestation of God, since God is concept of , gained through the performance of charity immanent. The Padma Purana states that or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere sufferings in the next world. [110] Vedic rites of fire-oblation stone or wood but as a manifest form of The sacred ( ) are now only occasional practices, although they are the Divinity. [106] A few Hindu , such Tulsi plant in highly revered in theory. In Hindu and as the Ārya Sam āj, do not believe in front of the ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic worshiping God through icons. house. mantras are still the norm. [111] The rituals, upacharas, change Hinduism has a developed system of with time. For instance, in the past few hundred some symbolism and to represent the sacred in art, rituals, such as sacred and offerings in the architecture, literature and worship. These symbols gain their standard Sodasa Upacharas prescribed by the Agama meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. , were replaced by the offerings of and sweets. The syllable (which represents the Parabrahman ) and the Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby’s first intake of identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates solid food), Upanayanam (“sacred thread ceremony” many symbols, which include the lotus, and , undergone by upper-caste children at their into with particular deities. formal education) and Śrāddha (ritual of treating people to Mantras are invocations, praise and that through feasts in the name of the deceased). [112][113] For most people in their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. [107] The epic Mahabharata extols (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the (what Hindus believe to be the current age). [108] Many adopt Japa as their primary . [108]

Rituals The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis. [109] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home. [110] but observation of rituals greatly to to vary among India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and regions, time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in villages, and consultation with astrologers. [112] On death, is individuals. considered obligatory for all except sanyasis , , and Devout Hindus children under five. [114] Cremation is typically performed by perform daily wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a . chores such as worshiping at dawn after Pilgrimage bathing (usually Hindus recognise several Indian holy cities, including at a family , , , and . Notable shrine, and temple cities include , which hosts a major Vaishnava typically temple and Rath celebration;and Katra, home includes to the Vaishno temple. The four holy sites Puri, lighting a lamp , , and (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, , and and Traditional diyas and other items foodstuffs ) compose the (four abodes ) during a ceremony. pilgrimage circuit. The (the “pitcher festival”) is sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two one of the holiest of Hindu that is held every four classes: Shruti and Smriti . years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, , and . Another important set of pilgrimages are Shruti the Shakti Peethas , where the is worshipped, Shruti (lit: that the two principal ones being and .Two which is heard) [119] comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage primarily refers to are - , home to the Tirumala the Vedas , which Temple; ,where Swami Ayyapan is worshipped. form the earliest While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in record of the Hindu different parts of India all are respected equally well scriptures. While according to the universality of Hinduism. many Hindus revere Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many [115] the Vedas as eternal adherents undertake them revealed to

ancient sages Festivals (Ṛṣ is), [117] some The Rig Veda is one of the oldest religious Hinduism has many festivals throughout the . The devotees do not texts. This Rig Veda manuscript is in Hindu usually prescribe their dates. The festivals associate the creation typically celebrate events from , often of the Vedas with a coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which god or person. They are thought of as the of the spiritual are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed of the Indian subcontinent. to the sages. [116][120][121] Hindus believe that because the Some widely observed Hindu festivals are spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be • expressed in new ways. [122] • There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, S āma-, Yajus- and • Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important • Vasant Veda. [123] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary • one, the Veda proper , being the Sa ṃhit ā, which contains • Ram sacred mantras . The other three parts form a three-tier • Krishna Janmastami ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed • to be slightly later in age than the Sa ṃhit ā. These are: the • Br āhma ṇas , Āra ṇyakas , and the Upanishads . The first two • Dussera • • • • • • Bonalu • • celebrations in Dhakeshwari National Temple, • Bandhan Dhaka, • • The Naradeya Purana describes the mechanics of the cosmos. • Depicted here are Vishnu with his consort resting on Nag. and Brahma are also pictured.

parts were subsequently called the Karmak āṇḍ a (ritualistic Scriptures portion), while the last two form the Jñ ānak āṇḍ a (knowledge Hinduism is based on “the accumulated treasury of portion). [124] While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and times”.[116][117] The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse discuss Brahman and reincarnation.[21][125][126] form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down. [118] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current other than the Shrutis are collectively called Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics epics, which consist of the Mah ābh ārata and the Rāmāya ṇa. [21] and metaphorical meanings derived from them. Most The Bhagavad G ītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence contains philosophical teachings from Krishna , an incarnation of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus of Vishnu , told to the Arjuna on the eve of a great war. may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by The Bhagavad G ītā, spoken by Krishna, is described as the adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non- of the Vedas. [127] However Gita, sometimes called sectarianism, are indirect followers. [144] Gitopanishad , is more often placed in the Shruti, category, Other denominations like (the of being Upanishadic in content. [128] Pur āṇas, which illustrate Ganesha ) and ( worship) are not so widespread. Hindu ideas through vivid narratives come under smritis. There are movements that are not easily placed in any of Other texts include Dev ī Mah ātmya , the , the Yoga the above categories, such as Swami ‘s Sutras , , Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Āgamas . A Samaj , which rejects image worship and veneration of more controversial text, the , is a prescriptive multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire lawbook which lays the societal codes of social stratification sacrifices ( yajña ). which later evolved into the Indian caste system.[129] The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes: Demographics “Tantras are... also divided as or Vedic and nastika or Hinduism has non-Vedic. In accordance with Countries with the greatest more than a billion teh predominance of the deity adherents, of whom proportion of Hindus from (as of 2008): teh astika works are again approximately one divided as Sakta (Shakta), Saiva billion live in 1. 86.5% [132] [130][131] (Shaiva), Saura, Ganapatya and India. Other 2. India 82% Vaisnava (Vaishnava).” [145] A Balmiki significant 3. 54% [133] populations are found 4. 28% [134] Ashramas in Nepal (23 million), [135] 5. 27.9% Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Bangladesh (14 [136] 6. 25% Āshramas (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include million) and the 7. and Tobago 22.5% Indonesian island of ). The first part of one’s life, Brahmacharya, the 8. 20% [137] as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and (3.3 million). [138] 9. Sri 15% pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up Demographically, [139] 10. Bangladesh 9% the mind for spiritual knowledge. is the Hinduism is the 11. 7.2% world’s third largest ’s stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma 12. Réunion 6.7% and artha in one’s married and professional life respectively religion, after [140] 13. 6.3% (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu and 14. 6.25% householder include supporting one’s parents, children, guests Islam. 15. 6% ā and holy figures. V naprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual 16. 5% detachment from the

Society 17. 4% material world. This

Denominations 18. 3% may involve giving 19. Belize 2.3% Hinduism has no over duties to one’s 20. 2.1% [141] central doctrinal children, spending authority and many more time in practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular religious practices denomination. [142] However, academics categorize and embarking on contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: holy pilgrimages. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The Finally, in denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Sanny āsa , the stage Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of of , one The Vaishnava Tirumala Venkateswara that god. renounces all Temple the most visited and richest Hindu Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; worldly attachments temple in the world. Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or [146] , Devi ; while Smartas believe in the essential peacefully shed the body for Moksha. oneness of five (panchadeva) or six (, as Tamil Hindus add )[143] deities as personifications of the Supreme. Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sanny āsa) in The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who may not Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, , understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping God. [147] A Hindu is called a sany āsī, sādhu , or sw āmi . , and Other Food A female renunciate is called a sany āsini . Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward Customs renunciation Hindus advocate the practice of ahi ṃsā (non-violence) of selfishness and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human and world- [156] [157] liness serves animals. The term ahi ṃsā appears in the Upanishads, the epic Mahabharata [158] and Ahi ṃsā is the first of the five as an inspira- [159] tion to house- (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. holders who In accordance with ahi ṃsā, many Hindus embrace strive for vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all mental [160] renunciation. religions) vary between 20% and 42%. The food habits Some vary with the community and region, for example some having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on monastics A in , India. [161][162] live in seafood. Some avoid only on specific holy days. , while others wander from place to place, trusting Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain [148] from . The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified in God alone to provide for their needs. It is considered a [163] highly meritorious act for a householder to provide s ādhus as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. [164] Cow- with food or other necessaries. S ādhus strive to treat all with [165] respect and , whether a person may be poor or slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India. rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, There are many Hindu groups that have continued to pleasure, and pain. [147] abide by a strict vegetarian in modern times. One example is the movement known as ISKCON (International Society for Krishna ), whose followers “not Varnas only abstain from meat, , and fowl, but also avoid certain Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four that are thought to have negative properties, such classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit : “colour, form, [79] as onion and appearance”): garlic.”[166] A • the Brahmins : teachers and ; example is the • the : warriors, nobles, and kings; Swaminarayan • the : farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and Movement. The • the : servants and labourers. followers of this Hindus and scholars debate whether the so-called caste Hindu group also system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the [149] staunchly adhere to a scriptures or an outdated social custom. Among the diet that is devoid of scriptures, the system is mentioned sparingly and meat, eggs, and Rajasthani thali. descriptively (i.e., not prescriptive); apart from a single seafood. [167] mention in the late Rigvedic sukta , the rigid division Vegetarianism is propagated by the Yajur Veda and it is into varnas appears to be post-Vedic, appearing in classical recommended for a satvic (purifying) . [168] Thus, texts from the Maurya period. The Bhagavad G ītā (4.13) another reason that dietary purity is so eminent within states that the four var ṇa divisions are created by God, and [150] Hinduism is because “the idea that food reflects the general the Manusm ṛiti categorizes the different castes. However, qualities of : purity, , inertia” It follows, then, at the same time, the Gītā says that one’s var ṇa is to be that a healthy diet should be one that promotes purity within understood from one’s personal qualities and one’s work, not [166] [151] an individual. one’s birth. Some mobility and flexibility within the Based on this reasoning, Hindus should avoid or varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the minimize the intake of foods that do not promote purity. caste system, as has been pointed out by several [152][153] These foods include onion and garlic, which are regarded as sociologists. rajasic (a state which is characterized by “tension and Many social reformers, including and [154] overbearing demeanor”) foods, and meat, which is regarded B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination. The as tamasic (a state which is characterized by “anger, greed, religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836–1886) taught that: and jealousy”). [169] “Lovers of God do not belong to any castle... A Some Hindus from certain sects - generally Shakta, [170] without love is no longer a brahmin. And certain and castes [171][172] and certain a pariah with is no longer a pariah. Eastern Indian [173] and East Asian regions; [174] practise animal Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable [175] [155] sacrifice (bali ). Although most Hindus, including the becomes pure and elevated.” majority of Vaishnava and Shaivite Hindus abhor it.[176]

Conversion into Hinduism through marriage is well accepted and often Concepts of conversion, evangelization, and expected to enable the non-Hindu partner to fully participate proselytization are absent from Hindu texts and have never in their spiritual, religious, and cultural roles within the larger played a significant role in practice. Early in its history, in the Hindu family and society. absence of other competing religions, Hindus considered There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone although in many traditions a ritual called dīksh ā (“initiation”) they met to be Hindus. [177][178] marks the beginning of spiritual life. A ritual called Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas (“purification”) sometimes marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion. Most Hindu sects do not seek of acceptability of conversion. Hence, many Hindus continue [182][183][184][185] to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had converts, as they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it from birth, while many others continue to believe that anyone [182][186] who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu, and many is practiced sincerely. However, some Hindu sects and believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction affiliates such as , Saiva Church, to perceived and actual threat of evangelization, BAPS, and the International Society for Krishna prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow religions most modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of Hinduism. conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se. [179] In general, Hindu view of religious freedom is not based Hindus in Western countries generally accept and on the freedom to proselytize, but the right to retain one’s welcome willing converts, whereas in India acceptance of religion and not be subject to proselytization. Hindu leaders willing converts is becoming more common. With the rise of are advocating for changing the existing formulation of the clause in the Universal Declaration of Hindu revivalist movements, reconversions to Hinduism have [187] [180] since it favours religions which proselytize. also risen. Reconversions are well accepted since ______conversion out of Hinduism is not recognized. [181] Conversion ______

Notes the Study of the Hindu (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, part III, chapter 5 “The

1. ^ This work and its description are shown in Pal, p. 125. Law of ”, p. 146. On the meaning of the word

2. ^ For a representation of this form identified as “Dharma”, see also René Guénon, Studies in Hinduism , Maharakta, see Pal, p. 130. Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-69-3, chapter 5, p. 45 a b 3. ^ Hinduism is variously defined as a “religion”, “set 6. ^ Osborne 2005, p. 9 of religious beliefs and practices”, “religious tradition” 7. ^ Morgan, Sarma 1953 etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: “Establishing the 8. ^ a b Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Encyclopedia , boundaries” in (2003), pp. 1-17. René Merriam-Webster, 2000, p. 751 Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu 9. ^ Laderman, Gary (2003), Religion and American Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588- : An Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and 74-8, proposes a definition of the term “religion” and a Popular Expressions , Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu pp. 119, ISBN 1-57607-238-X, “world’s oldest living doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58). and religion” a b 4. ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. 10. ^ Turner, Jeffrey S. (1996), Encyclopedia of Ed. John Bowker. , 2000; relationships across the lifespan , Westport, Conn:

5. ^ The term “Dharma” connotes much more than simply Greenwood Press, pp. 359, ISBN 0-313-29576-X, “It is “law”. It is not only the of religious and moral also recognized as the oldest major religion in the rights, but also the set of religious duties, social order, world” right conduct and virtuous things and deeds. As such 11. ^ a b Klostermaier 1994, p. 1 Dharma is the Code of Ethics.[1] The modern use of the 12. ^ The is a traditional short poem term can be traced to late 19th century Hindu reform sometimes found as a prefatory to editions of the movements (J. Zavos, Defending Hindu Tradition: Bhagavad Gita . Verse 4 refers to all the Upanishads as Sanatana Dharma as a Symbol of in Colonial the cows, and the Gita as the drawn from them. India , Religion (Academic Press), Volume 31, Number (Chidbhavananda 1997, pp. 67–74) 2, April 2001, pp. 109-123; see also R. D. Baird, 13. ^ “India”, Oxford English Dictionary , second edition, “Swami Bhaktivedanta and the Encounter with 2100a.d. Oxford University Press. Religions”, Modern Indian Responses to Religious 14. ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv10075.htm Pluralism , edited by Harold Coward, State University of 15. ^ Thapar, R. 1993. Interpreting Early India. Delhi: Press, 1987); less literally also rendered Oxford University Press. p. 77 “eternal way” (so Harvey, Andrew (2001), Teachings of 16. ^ Thompson Platts, John, A dictionary of , the Hindu Mystics , Boulder: , xiii, ISBN 1- classical Hind ī, and English , W.H. Allen & Co., Oxford 57062-449-6). See also René Guénon, Introduction to University 1884 17. ^ O’Conell, Joseph T. (1973). “The Word ‘Hindu’ in 35. ^ Adherents.com, which itself references many sources; Gau ḍīya Vai ṣṇ ava Texts”. Journal of the American The World & Book of Facts 1998 being Oriental Society 93 (3): pp. 340–344. especially relevant. 18. ^ http://veda.wikidot.com/sanatana-dharma 36. ^ Flood, Gavin. D. 1996. An introduction to Hinduism. 19. ^ http://www.religionfacts.com/hinduism/sects.htm 1996. P.14 20. ^ “...that many-sided and all-enfolding culture which we 37. ^ J. McDaniel Hinduism , in John Corrigan, The Oxford in the West have chosen to call Hinduism” , Handbook of Religion and Emotion , (2007) Oxford Visnuism and Sivaism , . 1996, University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52-53 ISBN ISBN 812150287X p. 1. cited by Welbon, G.R. (Journal 0195170210 of the American of Religion, Vol. 43, No. 1, 38. ^ a b c d Flood 2001, Defining Hinduism 98+100. March, 1975.), Review: Love of God According 39. ^ Smith, W.C. (1962) The Meaning and End of to Saiva Siddhanta: A Study in the Mysticism and Religion. San Francisco, Harper and Row. p. 65 Theology of Saivism by Mariasusay Dhanamoy . 40. ^ Stietencron, Hinduism: On the Proper Use of A 21. ^ a b c Nikhilananda 1990, pp. 3–8 Deceptive Term , pp.1-22 22. ^ “Hindu History” The BBC names a bath and phallic 41. ^ Halbfass, (1991) Tradition and Reflection . Albany, symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the SUNY Press. pp. 1-22 “ (3000-1000 BCE)”. 42. ^ Smart, (1993) The Formation Rather than the Origin 23. ^ T. Oberlies ( Die Religion des Rgveda , Vienna 1998. p. of a Tradition ,in DISKUS: A Disembodied Journal of 158) based on ‘cumulative evidence’ sets wide range of , vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1 1700–1100. 43. ^ http://www.paganroots.net/history/paganism-in-a- 24. ^ Falcao, Nelson (2003), Kristapur āṇa, a Christian- nutshell Hindu encounter: a study of inculturation in the 44. ^ OED cites J. Davies, tr. Mandelslo’s Trav. 74 (1662) Kristapur āṇa of Thomas Stephens, S.J. (1549-1619) , The King of Cambaya, who was a Hindou, or Indian, Sahitya , p. 99, ISBN 9788187886723, that is, a Pagan. and Sir T. Roe’s Voy. E. Ind. in P. della http://books.google.com/?id=VRo2AAAAMAAJ Valle’s Trav. E. Ind. 374 (1665) The Inhabitants in 25. ^ The Ṛgvedic deity , regarded as the father of the general of Indostan were all anciently , called in other deities, is linguistically cognate with —the general Hindoes. in , Iovis (gen. of 45. ^ Bryan S. Turner “Essays on the of Fate - ) —the king of the gods in , Page 275” and Tiu/Ziu in [2], cf. English 46. ^ Insoll, Timothy (2001), and world ‘Tues-’. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with religion , Routledge, ISBN 9780415221559, those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples’ http://books.google.com/?id=QNxnYjYRuOMC&pg=P mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion. A35 26. ^ Olivelle, Patrick, “The renouncer tradition”, in Flood 47. ^ Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of World Religions, 2003, pp. 273–274 p. 434 27. ^ Eliot 2003 48. ^ Vaz, P. (2001), “Coexistence of and 28. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi. in India”, Handbook of Global Social 29. ^ a b c Basham 1999 Policy (CRC Press): 124, ISBN 9780824703578, 30. ^ “The rise of Jainism and Buddhism”. Religion and http://books.google.com/?id=opHYPSvPpWYC&pg=PA Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences . BBC. 26 123&dq=oldest+major+tradition+Hinduism, retrieved July 2004. 2008-06-26, “Hinduism is the oldest of all the major http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/histor world religions.” y/history_2.shtml. Retrieved 2007-04-21. 49. ^ Eastman, R. (1999), The Ways of Religion: An 31. ^ , From ‘Brahmanism’ to ‘Hinduism’: Introduction to the Major Traditions , Oxford University Negotiating the of the Great Tradition , Social Press, USA Scientist 2001, pp. 19-50. 50. ^ Joel Beversluis (2000), Sourcebook of the World’s 32. ^ J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism” in & Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Basham 1999 (Sourcebook of the World’s Religions, 3rd 33. ^ Raymond Brady Williams (2004), Williams on South ed) , Novato, Calif: New World Library, pp. 50, ISBN 1- Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works , 57731-121-3 Ashgate Publishing Ltd., ISBN 0754638561, 51. ^ Weightman & Klostermaier 1994, p. 1 http://books.google.com/?id=nkVBOfE1KkAC&dq=swa 52. ^ Bhagavad Gita , Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan: “Hinduism minarayan+hare+krishnap.217 is not just a faith. It is the union of reason and intuition 34. ^ Jha, Preeti (2007-12-26). “Guinness comes to east that can not be defined but is only to be experienced.” Delhi: Akshardham world’s largest Hindu temple”. 53. ^ Ferro-Luzzi, (1991) The Polythetic-Prototype ExpressIndia.com. http://www.expressindia.com/latest- Approach to Hinduism in G.D. Sontheimer and H. Kulke news/Guinness-comes-to-east-Delhi-Akshardham- (ed.) Hinduism Reconsidered . Delhi: Manohar. pp. 187- -largest-Hindu-temple/254631/. Retrieved 2008- 95 01-02. 54. ^ “JSTOR: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 34, No. 2 70. ^ Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991), Hinduism, a way of life , (April, 1984 ), pp. 234-236”. www.jstor.org. Publ., p. 71, ISBN 9788120808997, http://www.jstor.org/pss/1398925. http://books.google.com/?id=J_- 55. ^ Hinduism in Britain Kim Knott, (2000) The South rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71 Asian Religious in Britain, , and a 71. ^ “Polytheism”. Encyclopædia Britannica . United States. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. 56. ^ Harvey, Andrew (2001), Teachings of the Hindu http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism. Mystics , Boulder: Shambhala, xiii, ISBN 1-57062-449-6 Retrieved 2007-07-05. 57. ^ Weightman 1998, pp. 262–264 “It is Hindu self- 72. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2002), The man who was a woman awareness and self-identity that affirm Hinduism to be and other queer tales of Hindu lore , Routledge, p. 38, one single religious universe, no matter how richly ISBN 9781560231813, varied its contents, and make it a significant and potent http://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA38 force alongside the other religions of the world.” 73. ^ See Michaels 2004, p. xiv and Gill, N.S. 58. ^ Olson, Carl (2007). The many colors of Hinduism: a “”. About, Inc. thematic-historical introduction . Rutgers University http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henothei Press. p. 9. ISBN 9780813540689. sm.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-05. http://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC& 74. ^ a b Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 20–37 pg=PA9. 75. ^ a b c & Bhaskarananda 1994 59. ^ Andrews, Margaret; Boyle, Joyceen (2008). 76. ^ Vivekananda 1987 Transcultural concepts in nursing care . Lippincott 77. ^ Werner 1994, p. p37 Williams & Wilkins. p. 386. ISBN 9780781790376. 78. ^ Werner 1994, p. 7 http://books.google.com/books?id=rdEnV1HWrvgC&pg 79. ^ a b c d e Monier-Williams 2001 =PA386. 80. ^ Sen Gupta 1986, p. viii 60. ^ Dogra, R.C; Dogra, (2003). Let’s know 81. ^ For translation of deva in singular noun form as “a Hinduism: the oldest religion of infinite adaptability and deity, god”, and in plural form as “the gods” or “the diversity . Star Publications. p. 5. ISBN 9788176500562. heavenly or shining ones”, see: Monier-Williams 2001, http://books.google.com/books?id=mpzqP4NYyTkC&p p. 492. In fact, there are different ranks among the devas. g=PA5. The highest are the immortal Mahadevas, such as Shiva, 61. ^ (Rigveda 1:164:46) “ sat vipra bahudha vadanti” Vishnu, etc. The second-rank devas, such as Ganesha, - Truth is one; sages call it many names are described as their offspring: they are “born”, and 62. ^ (Maha Upanishad: Chapter 6, Verse 72) “Vasudhaiva their “lifespan” is quite limited. In ISKCON the word is kutumbakam” - The entire world is a one big family translated as “”, although it can also denote 63. ^ Badlani, Hiro (2008), Hinduism: Path of the Ancient such heavenly denizens as . See: “Vedic Wisdom , iUniverse, p. 303, ISBN 9780595701834, ”. Vedic Knowledge Online . VEDA - http://books.google.com/?id=8NrQhyxH-GgC . 64. ^ Lane, Jan-Erik; Ersson, Svante (2005), Culture and http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm. : a comparative approach (Edition 2) , Ashgate Retrieved 2007-06-25.. For translation of devat ā as Publishing, Ltd, p. 149, ISBN 9780754645788, “, divinity”, see: Monier-Williams 2001, p. 495. http://books.google.com/?id=mKtDY_iJH2QC&pg=PA 82. ^ Werner 1994, p. 80 149 83. ^ Renou 1961, p. 55 65. ^ de Lingen, John; Ramsurrun, Pahlad, An Introduction 84. ^ a b Harman 2004, pp. 104–106 to The Hindu Faith , Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, p. 2, 85. ^ * Apte, Vaman S (1997), The Student’s English- ISBN 9788120740860, Sanskrit Dictionary (New ed.), Delhi: Motilal http://books.google.com/?id=tPoox9hTdYoC&pg=PA2 Banarsidas, ISBN 8120803000 66. ^ Murthy, BS (2003), Puppets of Faith: theory of 86. ^ Smith 1991, p. 64 communal strife , Bulusu Satyanarayana Murthy, p. 7, 87. ^ Radhakrishnan 1996, p. 254 ISBN 9788190191111, 88. ^ Bhagavad Gita 2.22 http://books.google.com/?id=OBQ_wWNjpZ4C&pg=P 89. ^ See Bhagavad Gita XVI.8-20 A7 90. ^ See Vivekananda, Swami (2005), Jnana Yoga , 67. ^ “India and Hinduism”. Religion of World . ThinkQuest Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-425482-88-0 301-02 (8th Library. Printing 1993) http://library.thinkquest.org/28038/page1_3.html. 91. ^ Rinehart 2004, pp. 19–21 Retrieved 2007-07-17. 92. ^ Bhaskarananda 1994, pp. 79–86 68. ^ Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions , Winona, 93. ^ Europa Publications Staff (2003), The Far East and MN: Mary’s Press, ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5 Australasia, 2003 - Regional surveys of the world , 69. ^ Rogers, Peter (2009), Ultimate Truth, Book 1 , Routledge, p. 39, ISBN 9781857431339, AuthorHouse, p. 109, ISBN 9781438979687, http://books.google.com/?id=e5Az1lGCJwQC&pg=PA3 http://books.google.com/?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C&pg=PA10 9 9 94. ^ Hindu spirituality - Volume 25 of Documenta 112. ^ a b “Life-Cycle Rituals”. Country Studies: India . The missionalia , Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, Library of Congress. September 1995. 1999, p. 1, ISBN 9788876528187, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi- http://books.google.com/?id=58UZWWzqglMC bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0056). 95. ^ “Hinduism - and ”. BBC. 2009-08- Retrieved 2007-04-19. 25. 113. ^ Banerjee, Suresh . “Shraddha”. Banglapedia . http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hindue Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. thics/euthanasia.shtml. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0516.htm. 96. ^ The Christian concepts of Heaven and do not Retrieved 2007-04-20. translate directly into Hinduism. Spiritual realms such as 114. ^ Garces-Foley 30 Vaikunta (the abode of Vishnu) or loka are the closest 115. ^ Fuller 2004 analogues to an eternal Kingdom of God. 116. ^ a b Vivekananda 1987, pp. 6–7 Vol I 97. ^ Nikhilananda 1992 117. ^ a b Vivekananda 1987, pp. 118–120 Vol III 98. ^ as discussed in Mah ābh ārata 12.161; Bilimoria et al. 118. ^ Sargeant & Chapple 1984, p. 3 (eds.), Indian Ethics: Classical Traditions and 119. ^ See, for instance, René Guénon Man and His Contemporary Challenges (2007), p. 103; see also Becoming According to the Vedanta (1925 ed.), Sophia Werner 1994, Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 7 Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-62-4, chapter 1, “General 99. ^ The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of remarks on the Vedanta, p.7. Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (iRght 120. ^ Note: Nyaya-Vaisheshika believe that the Vedas were Wealth), (Rght Desire), Moksha (Right Exit created by God, not eternal. (Liberation)) , Pustak Mahal, 2006, ISBN 81-223-0945-3 121. ^ Harshananda, Swami (1989), A Bird’s Eye View of the 100. ^ a b Bhaskarananda 1994 Vedas, in “Holy Scriptures: A Symposium on the Great 101. ^ For example, see the following translation of B-Gita Scriptures of the World” (2nd ed.), : Sri 11.54: “My dear Arjuna, only by undivided devotional , ISBN 81-7120-121-0 service can I be understood as I am, standing before you, 122. ^ Vivekananda 1987, p. 374 Vol II and can thus be seen directly. Only in this way can you 123. ^ Rigveda is not only the oldest among the vedas, but is enter into the mysteries of My understanding.” one of the earliest Indo-European texts. (Bhaktivedanta 1997, ch. 11.54) 124. ^ “Swami ’s mission”. 102. ^ “One who knows that the position reached by means http://www.dlshq.org/religions/vedas.htm. Retrieved of analytical study can also be attained by devotional 2007-06-25. service, and who therefore sees analytical study and 125. ^ Werner 1994, p. 166 devotional service to be on the same level, sees things as 126. ^ Monier-Williams 1974, pp. 25–41 they are.” (Bhaktivedanta 1997, ch. 5.5) 127. ^ Sarvopani ṣado gāvo, etc. ( Gītā M āhātmya 6). Gītā 103. ^ Monier-Williams 1974, p. 116 Dhy ānam , cited in Introduction to Bhagavad-gītā As It 104. ^ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 157 Is. 105. ^ Bhaskarananda 1994, p. 137 128. ^ Thomas B. Coburn, Scripture” in India: Towards a 106. ^ arcye vi ṣṇ au śī lā-dh īr. . . narak ī sa ḥ. 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