TITLE a Primer on Fresh Water: the Environmental Citizenship Series

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 401 091 SE 056 915

TITLE A Primer on Fresh Water: The Environmental Citizenship Series. INSTITUTION Environment Canada, Ottawa (Ontario). REPORT NO ISBN-0-662-20240-6 PUB DATE 94 NOTE 83p.; Also available in French and Arabic. Two earlier editions appeared under the title "A Primer on Water: Questions and Answers." AVAILABLE FROM Environment Canada, Water Awareness and Environmental Citizenship, Water and Habitat Conservation Branch CWS, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 Canada. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher)(052) Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Conservation (Environment); *Environmental Education; Environmental Standards; Foreign Countries; Groundwater; Higher Education; Secondary Education; *Water; Water Pollution; Water Quality; Water Resources; Wetlands IDENTIFIERS Canada

ABSTRACT Water is the lifeblood of the environment as no organisms can survive without it. This reference booklet is part of the Canadian Environmental Citizenship Initiative aimed to help people make environmentally responsible decisions. The primer is targeted at the general public (grade 8 to post-secondary) to be used by educators, communities and organizations as well as individuals, as part of a learning campaign to help Canadians improve their understanding of the environment. Formatted as questions and answers, the booklet focuses on different aspects of water. These aspects include its physical characteristics, its availability both above and below ground, the uses people make of it, and how water is shared and managed. The primer contains some practical advice on how individuals can conserve water as a natural resource. Chapters are also devoted to ecosystems, facts about water in Canada, and water facts about the Great Lakes. A selected glossary provides definitions to terms. (AIM)

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A Primer onFresh Water The Environmental Citizenship Series

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EnvironmentEnvironnement Canada Canada ;04-AlEnvironmental *itizenshiA.,C p

A Primeron Fresh Water

3 Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

A Primer on Fresh Water

ISBN 0-662-20240-6 DSS cat.no. En37-90/1994E

1. Water Canada. 2. Water qualityCanada. 3. Water conservationCanada. 4. Water-supplyCanada. I. Canada. Environment Canada.

GB707.P74 1990 553.7'0971 C90-098545-3

"Character" drawings: John Bianchi

Published by authority of the Minister of the Environment

©Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1994

Two earlier editions of this publication appeared under the title "A Primer on Water: Questions and Answers"

A reference booklet targeted at the general public (Grade 8 to Post-Secondary)

Disponible en frangais sur demande

Cobc-Lc-44*.VU" N71>c".a.crxis`

This material may be reproduced for educational purposes; a line crediting Environment Canada would be appreciated.

4 The goal of the Environmental Citizenship Initiative is to help provide Canadians with the means to make environmentally responsible decisions. This primer has been written as part of this initiative, in order to foster the development of an environmentally literate citizenry. It is one in a series of Environmental Citizenship primers that includes: A Primer on Ozone Depletion A Matter of Degrees: A Primer on Global Warming

A Primer on Environmental Citizenship The Nature of Canada: A Primer on Spaces and Species A Primer on Waste Management For information regarding Environment Canada publications please contact your local Environment Canada office, or contact the Environment Canada Enquiry Centre, (819) 997-2800 or 1-800-668-6767.

A Primer on Fresh Water iii

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE vii

INTRODUCTION viii

WATER Forever on the move 1 WATER Underground 6

WATER How we use it 10

WATER How good is it? 16 WATER An ecosystem perspective 25 WATER In Canada 31 WATER - How we share it 36

WATER - How we manage it 40

WATER The Great Lakes 51 WATER DOs and DON'Ts 57

SELECTED GLOSSARY 62

A Primer on Fresh Water BEST COPYAVAILABLE PREFACE

Water is the lifeblood of the environment. Some very simple organisms can survive without air, but none can grow without water. Although Canada has more water than most nations, changes in water availability in terms of quantity and quality greatly affect Canadian life. The impacts of droughts have been most severe in the Prairies, while those of flooding have been experienced more profoundly in British Columbia and the Atlantic provinces. In recent years, Great Lakes levels have fluctuated to such a degree that daily surveillance has been necessary. Apart from natural phenomena, drinking water has become a major Canadian concern. For domestic use, 26% of all Canadians rely on groundwater, which, if contaminated, poses difficult cleanup problems. In the North, the emergence of toxics is a major issue. And all of Canada could be affected by climate change and its effects on water. A Primer on Fresh Water was put together to answer a wide range of questions. They are grouped to focus on different aspects of water: its physical characteristics; its availability both above and below ground; the uses we make of it; and how we share and manage it. The Primer also contains some practical advice on what we, as individuals, can do to help conserve this precious resource for our use, and for that of future generations.

A Primer on Fresh Water Vii

BEST COPY AVAILABLE ti INTRODUCTION In 1986, the World Commission on Environment and Development called upon the nations of the world to practice sustainable development: to meet the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development turned the idea of sustainable development into a global action plan. The Canadian government introduced its own environmental action plan in 1990the Green Plan. Its goal is the achievement of a safe and healthy environment and a sound and prosperous economy. The Green Plan is Canada's national strategy for sustainable development. Achieving the Green Plan goal will require more than just governmental action. The involvement and commitment of the Canadian people is essential. What is required is that Canadians become active environmental citizens. Many already are activethe challenge is to build upon their example. The Environmental Citizenship Initiative is designed to help Canadians do so. Canadians citizens enjoy both rights and responsibilities. The idea behind environmental citizenship is that one of these responsibilities is to care for Canada's environment. An environmental citizen issomeone who has accepted this responsibility and is committed to actingupon it. Environmental citizenship emphasizes voluntary action by all sectors of society, complementing the regulatory initiatives and economic incentives put in place by government. It applies to all Canadians; individuals, communities, and organizations all have a role to play. Learning is the key to environmental citizenship. In addition to awareness and concern, effective environmental action requires knowledge. For this reason, the Environmental Citizenship Initiative includes learning campaigns on specific topics to help Canadians gaina better understanding of their environment. This publication will help Canadians learnmore about an important environmental issuefresh water. It is intended for use by individuals, educators, communities, and organizations who are ina position to develop the learning resources that will enable Canadians to improve their understanding of the environment. The contents of this primer will be subject to constant revision and improvement, not only by government specialists, but also bymany other stakeholders, including educators, provincial and local agencies, business groups, and environmental organizations. Your feedback is welcomed. viii A Primer on Fresh Water Water Forever on the move

Water-Forever on the move

Q 2.

What is water? Where did all the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers and Water means different things to different under the ground come from? people. It has unique phyical and chemical properties; you can freeze it, There are a number of theories that try to melt it, evaporate it, heat it, and combine answer this question. Some believe that it. water was here from the start; some think About 83% of our Normally, water is a liquid substance it came later, from comets. Many blood is water. It made of molecules containing one atom of scientists believe that 4.5 billion years helps digest our oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen (H20). ago, when the earth was being formed, its food, take in Pure water has no colour, no taste, no primitive atmosphere contained many oxygen, transport body wastes, and smell, turns to a solid at 0°C and a poisonous substances. Among the control body vapour at 100°C. Its density is 1 gram chemicals present at the time were the temperature. per cubic centimetre (1 g/cm3), and it is basic constituents needed to form water. an extremely good solvent. Over time, the earth cooled and a mass All life depends on water. It makes up of molten lava became the soils and two thirds of the human body. A person bedrock we know today. This process can live without food for more than a began when water was formed in the month, but can live for only a few days atmosphere and fell to the ground as rain. without water. All living things, from the The rain continued for many, many years. tiniest insect to the tallest tree, need While the earth cooled from the falling water to survive. rain, forces from within created vast land

A Primer on Fl.esh Water 1

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water Forever on the move

masses and oceans. Scientists believe Over tirrie, major cyclic changes in that life itself began in these oceans and, climatic processes have produced deserts over the years, evolved and adapted to thy and ice cover across entire continents. land. Today, regional short-term fluctuations in the order of days, months or a few years g3. in the hydrologic cycle result in droughts and floods. What is the hydrologic cycle? Q4. From the beginning of time when water first appeared, it has been constant in Is water related to climate? Glacier ice over quantity and continuously in motion. 100 000 years Little has been added or lost over the Water and climate are intimately related. old is found at years. The same water molecules have It is obvious, from a water resource the base of many been transferred time and time again from Canadian Arctic perspective, how the climate of a region to ice caps. the oceans into the atmosphere by a large extent determines the water evaporation, dropped upon the land as supply in that region based on the precipitation, and transferred back to the precipitation available and on the sea by rivers and groundwater. This evaporation loss. Perhaps less obvious is endless circulation is known as the the role of water in climate. Large water hydrologic cycle. At any instant, about bodies, such as the oceans and the Great 5 litres out of every 100 000 litres is in Lakes, have a moderating effect on the motion. local climate because they act as a large

EVAPORATION

OCEAN

0 o . -olaciON0..A . .ATER .

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 0 ED

2 A Primer on Fresh Water Water Forever on the move

source and sink for heat. Regions near variability would mean changing the these water bodies generally have milder frequency of extreme weather events and winters and cooler summers than would increase the incidences of dry and wet year be the case if the nearby water body did sequences. Water availability would not exist. fluctuate due to uncertain water supplies Water has a basic role in the climate as well as to unknown water use response The average system through the hydrologic cycle. The to climate change. Therefore current annual flooding evaporation of water into the atmosphere design criteria for hydrologic structures and erosion requires an enormous amount of energy and flood damage reduction efforts may damage along which ultimately comes from the sun. prove to be inadequate under future the Canadian When water vapour in the atmosphere climatic conditions. shore of the Great Lakes is condenses to precipitation, this energy is The effects of climate change on the about $2 million. released into the atmosphere. Thus water quality of water would modify the stress on acts as an energy transfer and storage aquatic life and cause new cleanup medium for the climate system. problems. For example, unusually low water levels, which impair navigation and 95- increase the backup of upstream waters, would require increased dredging activities, thus harming bottom-dwelling organisms Some scientists are predicting and contaminating surrounding waters. extensive climate change. How would this affect water Q6. resources? How would climate change We have all experienced the natural affect water resources in the variability in climate from time to time in the form of cool summers, warm winters, North? and droughts. It is now believed that changes to the atmospheric composition Most scenarios of climate change based on may result in unprecedented changes in a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide the global climate within the next century. predict significant warming in the Far The increasing concentrations of "green- North. For example, the Canadian Climate house" gases such as carbon dioxide (from Centre model estimates an increase of from the burning of coal, oil and gas for industry 4°C to 10°C in winter and 2°C to 4°C in and energy production, and from large- summer, with the smaller increases in the scale deforestation) and methane (from rice Yukon. Higher temperatures would paddies, wetlands and livestock) trap heat probably lead to longer periods of open near the earth's surface. As a result, the water, giving boat travel a longer season. global mean temperature is expected to However, they might also cause some increase, with resulting changes in climate areas of permafrost (permanently frozen being more pronounced in the northern ground) to melt, resulting in erosion or latitudes, which include much of Canada. "slumping." This could affect docks, There is considerable debate among highways, pipelines and buildings. scientists and researchers on whether Changes in precipitation have not been climate change has already begun and how so well defined by models, but experience severe it will be in the future. from recent mild northern winters suggests Because of the intimate relationship that snowfall may increase, while summer between climate and the hydrologic cycle, precipitation may not change. While changes in the climatic regimes would greater winter precipitation may increase directly affect the average annual water spring breakup flows, higher summer flow, its annual variability and seasonal evaporation is likely to decrease mean distribution. For example, greater climatic annual flows for many northern rivers and

A Primer on Fresh Water

'Ti Water Forever on the move

to cause drier summers, making forests precipitation occurs in winter due to the more vulnerable to fire. low moisture capacity of air at low A five-year study of the effects of climate temperatures; and runoff from winter change on the Mackenzie River Basin, snowfall is concentrated in the brief period involving various government agencies at of spring snowmelt, breakup and flooding. all levels, business, industry and The Yukon has an appreciably different academia, under the lead of Environment climate: there the ice cover lasts from five Canada and Green Plan funding, is to eight months; most of the precipitation is presently under way. The findings will be in winter and evaporation is high. The available by 1996. runoff in the Yukon comes from both snowmelt and glacial melt. Glacial melt 7- causes the characteristic August high water levels in the western Yukon rivers that drain off high mountains. This high water In Canada, the Why is snow important in period is critical to the local ecosystems. wettest place, on water resources? average, is Ocean Falls, 99. B.C., with Snow is precipitation in the form of ice 4386.8 milli- crystals. When it falls to the ground and What is a drought? metres of accumulates, it may be considered as precipitation per water in storage. In Canada, about 36% year. The place of the total annual precipitation is in the A drought is a sustained and regionally with the least form of snow. When the winter snowpack extensive occurrence of appreciably below- amount of melts in the spring, it becomes a average natural water availability, in the precipitation, on significant portion of the water available form of precipitation, streamflow or average, is for streamflow. Because snow groundwater. Droughts are natural events Eureka, N.W.T., accumulates during periods when the which have occurred throughout history with 64 milli- evaporation loss is low, the relative and may be considered as temporary metres per year. contribution of its meltwaters to stream- features caused by fluctuations in the flow in some regions may be greater than climate system. for rainfall. Snow supplies at least one third of the water used for irrigation in the 910. world and is an important contributor to hydropower reservoirs. The fact that snow acts as water storage over the Where do droughts occur? winter and provides soil moisture recharge in the spring is of particular Droughts can occur anywhere. However, importance to agricultural productivity in regions with a semi-arid or arid climate some regions. and which have only marginal annual precipitation to meet the water demands 9 8. are more vulnerable to droughts. In Canada, southern Saskatchewan and the interior valleys of British Columbia How do climate, snow and ice experience frequent droughts. affect the water resources in the North? 9 11.

The cold northern climate slows down What causes floods? many processes in the hydrologic cycle. For example, in the Northwest Territories, Flooding is almost always a natural water bodies remain ice-covered for six to occurrence; an exception would be flooding ten months of the year; little evaporation or due to the collapse of a dam.

4 A Primer on Fresh Water 12 Water Forever on the move

There are many conditions and and the flood fringe. Damage is most variables that determine whether a lake or extensive in the floodway where the water river overtops its banks or an ocean rises volumes and velocities are the greatest. It along its shores. The most common is within these areas that you should not causes of flooding in Canada are water build, since you could expect to suffer backing up behind ice jams and the rapid considerable damage, not just once in a melting of heavy winter snowcover, lifetime but time and time again. Within particularly when accompanied by the flood fringe you may be able to build, rainfall. Heavy rainfall itself can also providing that you undertake some cause floods. Severe storms result in protection measures such as adequate strong surges when sustained high winds floodprooflng. from one direction push the water level up at one end of the lake. Flooding is worse 913. if high tides occur at the same time. Certain conditions only affect specific regions in Canada. For example, under- How do you find out whether sea disturbances such as volcanic erup- or not you are on a tions or earthquakes may result in floodplain? catastrophic waves called "tsunamis" in the ocean coastal regions. In the If you are considering buying property, be glaciated areas of Canada, lakes dammed sure to consult with your municipal or by glaciers (extensive bodies of land ice) regional office, provincial authorities or The largest lake may drain suddenly, resulting in glacier- Environment Canada offices in your entirely in Cana( la outburst floods. These floods are called region to determine whether flood risk Great Bear, N.W.T. "jOkulhlaups" and can be devastating to maps have been produced for your area. 31 328 square the local ecosystem, as they can attain If maps are unavailable, talk to kilometres. levels of up to 100 times greater than neighbours, local historians or check at those of normal rain or snowmelt floods. local libraries or archives for records of past flooding. 912. Is it true that you should not build close to a river because you might get flooded?

It depends! The floodplain is usually divided into two categories: the floodway

Fie Floodplain

Flood Floodway N. fringe Flood level Flood-proofed structure Normal river channel

A Primer on Fresh Water

1 S BEST COPYAVAILABLE Water Underground

Water-Underground

Q 14. periglacial rivers. These types of aquifers provide most of the water supply for the Kitchener-Waterloo region in Ontario and What is groundwater? the Fredericton area in New Brunswick. The Carberry aquifer in Manitoba is an Two thirds of the world's fresh water is old delta lying on what was formerly found underground. Even in Canada, Lake Agassiz. It is well developed as a there is more water underground than on source of irrigation water. Prince Edward the surface. This water is found in Island depends on sandstone aquifers for aquifers and appears at the surface as its entire water supply. A major outwash springs. Very often groundwater is sand and gravel aquifer occurs in the Freshwater interconnected with the lakes and rivers. Fraser Valley in British Columbia. It is lakes, rivers and Groundwater occurs in the tiny spaces extensively used for municipal, domestic underground between soil particles (silt, sand and aquifers hold and industrial water supplies. The only 3.5% of the gravel) or in cracks in bedrock, much like Winnipeg and Montreal aquifers are world's water. a sponge holds water. The underground fractured rocks that are used for By comparison, areas of soil or rock where substantial industrial water supply. saltwater oceans quantities of water are found are called However, to concentrate only on major and seas contain "aquifers." These aquifers are the source (i.e., large) aquifers is misleading. Many 95.1% of the of wells and springs. It is the top of the individual farms and rural homes depend world's water water in these aquifers that forms the on relatively small aquifers such as thin supply. Water table." sand and gravel deposits in the till. The origin and composition of aquifers Although these aquifers are individually are varied. Many important Canadian not very significant, in total they com- aquifers are composed of thick deposits of prise a very important groundwater sands and gravels previously laid down by resource.

6 A Primer on Fresh Water Water Underground

GROUNDWATER SYSTEM

a AQUIFER SALTWATER assi+ INTRUSION **--* . Q15. to pumping is much less important than well failures in terms of impact on groundwater supplies. The depletion of Can an aquifer dry up deeper aquifers may be permanent where completely? the weight of overlying sediments causes the aquifer to compress as the water is Groundwater resources are depleted or pumped out. The aquifer would therefore "mined" when pumping from an aquifer is never again be fully recharged even if not matched by recharge. This can pumping ceased, because its capacity to happen in two ways: (1) by overpumping store water has been reduced. Most communi- or (2) by decreasing recharge due to ties lose a considerable drought, for example. The drying up of Q16. portion of their an aquifer should not be confused with piped water (up the failure of individual wells in that Are there any areas in Canada to 3096) in pipe- aquifer, which happens much more line leaks, saying frequently. Well failures can have many where aquifers are depleted? it is cheaper to causes: waste than to A well may be too shallow, so that a In Canada, there is no major problem repair or replace. temporary decline in water levels with aquifer depletion because most lowers the water table below the major centres use surface water. Where bottom of the well; groundwater is used (for example, Plugging of the screen at the opening Prince Edward Island and of the pipe at the bottom of the well Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario), the safe by mineral and/or bacterial deposits yields of the aquifer have been determined (very common) can occur. and are managed accordingly. Some Aquifer depletion is a more serious places where groundwater was used for problem in the United States than in municipal supply earlier this century have Canada. Although it happens in Canada, had to switch to surface water, or the permanent depletion of aquifers due augment their groundwater supplies with

A Primer on FYesh Water 7 15 Water Underground

surface water because the increasing groundwater is critical. Perhaps the most demand for water exceeded the safe yield significant function of groundwater is its of their aquifers (for example, gradual discharge to rivers to maintain Lloydminster, Alberta, and Regina, streamflow during dry weather periods Saskatchewan). throughout the year. Over three million Canadians residing in 917. urban areas rely on groundwater for their domestic water supply. At least another three million rural Canadians also use What is groundwater groundwater. Prince Edward Island (with recharge? no major rivers) depends almost entirely on groundwater, while the Northwest Groundwater recharge refers to the Territories uses mostly surface water. On replenishment of water in an aquifer. the other hand, in the Yukon groundwater Much of the natural recharge of use is seasonal. For example, the City of groundwater occurs in the spring and is Whitehorse uses groundwater for 50% of the result of the melting snowpack or its water supply during the winter months from streams in mountainous regions and very little during the remainder of the where the water table is usually below the year. bottom of the stream bed. It can also In addition, bottled groundwater, known occur during local heavy rainstorms. as "spring water" or "mineral water," is Often groundwater discharges into a river being bought by many Canadians to or lake, maintaining its flow in dry replace drinking water that flows through seasons. their taps, particularly in the areas It is estimated bordered by Lake Ontario and the that approxi- St. Lawrence River. mately 1 to 918. As well as supplying human needs, 2 million water groundwater is used for livestock wells are in use in Canada at the What causes springs? Do they watering, aquaculture, and mining. present time. come from groundwater? Approximately 920. 38 000 new water wells are Springs are created when groundwater drilled each year naturally flows to the surface. What is the relationship in Canada. Groundwater discharged from a spring between groundwater and may have travelled many kilometres permafrost? before reaching the surface. Usually, spring water discharges occur or increase Most of the Northwest Territories is when rain or snowmelt has recharged the covered by either the Canadian Shield or groundwater system in upland areas. permafrost (permanently frozen ground), both of which inhibit the flow of 919. groundwater. The major exceptions include the Mackenzie Mountains in the Is groundwater important to western Northwest Territories and Yukon, and the limestone terrain southwest of Canada's water supply? Great Slave Lake, where soils, fractured rock, and glacial debris provide material Groundwater is extremely important in that can store and release groundwater. supplying fresh water to meet the needs of On a local scale, the seasonal Canadians. The interdependency of development of a thawed "active layer" surface water, groundwater and above the permafrost can provide atmospheric water is of great importance permeable pathways for the subsurface in the hydrologic cycle. The role of movement of water and contaminants.

8 A Primer on Fresh Water Water Underground Q21. but isolated problem in coastal areas. It is referred to as saltwater intrusion. Worldwide water withdrawals How does groundwater Q 22. from water become contaminated? bodies have risen from 250 cubic Compared with surface water, metres per Groundwater becomes contaminated person (per year) when anthropogenic, or people-created, is groundwater safe for human in 1900 to over substances are dissolved in waters consumption? 700 cubic metres recharging the groundwater zone. today. In Examples of this are road salt, petroleum Groundwater is generally safer than Canru-ln, the products leaking from underground surface water for drinking because of the number is much storage tanks, nitrates from the overuse of filtration and natural purification higher about chemical fertilizers or manure on farm- double that processes which take place in the ground. amount. land, excessive applications of chemical These processes become ineffective owing pesticides, leaching of fluids from landfills to sewage, fertilizers, toxic chemicals and and dumpsites, and accidental spills. road salt, which seep into the ground. Contamination also results from an Household, commercial, and industrial overabundance of naturally occurring wastes that end up in dumps, waste iron, manganese, and substances such as lagoons, or septic systems can pollute arsenic. Excess iron and manganese are groundwater. Acid rain also threatens to the most common natural contaminants. recharge aquifers with contaminated Another form of contamination results water. from the radioactive decay of uranium in Generally, groundwater is not as easily bedrock, which creates the radioactive gas contaminated as surface water, but once radon. Methane and other gases some- it is contaminated, it is much more times cause problems. Seawater can also difficult to clean up because of its relative seep into groundwater, and is a common inaccessibility.

A Primer on Flesh Water 9

17 Water How we use it

Water: How weuse it

23. and for a particular use, and eventually return all or part of it to the source. The difference between Canadians are among the the amount of water withdrawn and biggest water users in the water returned to the source is water world. Nearly all of our "consumed" (for example, by Much less than economic and social activities evaporating and not returning to the 1% of the water local source). produced at a depend on water. How do we In 1986, thermal power generation used large municipal use it? over 60% of total withdrawals, with water treatment manufacturing coming next with nearly plant is used for There are two basic ways in which we use 19% of the total intake. Municipal, drinking water: agricultural and mineral extracting purposes. (1)Instream uses, such as hydroelectric activities withdrew 11.2%, 8.4% and 1.4% power generation, transportation, of the total, respectively. fisheries, wildlife, recreation, and waste disposal, take place with the 924. water remaining in its natural setting, "in the stream." (2)Withdrawal uses, such as thermal How much of Canada's power generation, mineral extraction, farmland is irrigated? irrigation, manufacturing, and municipal use, remove water from its Much of the land producing fruits and natural setting for a period of time vegetables as well as a significant amount

10 A Primer on Fresh Water Water How we use it of the land used to grow tobacco is Q 26. irrigated. In western Canada, irrigated forage crops help stabilize the livestock industry. How many dams are there in According to the 1986 Census, over Canada? 678 000 hectares (about 2%) of the crop and pasture land of the four western Canada now ranks as one of the world's provinces is irrigated. Only about top ten dam builders. Although the 70 000 hectares of the rest of the Register of Dams presently reports 618 provinces and territories is irrigated. large dams higher than 10 metres - in the country, there are many thousands of small dams. Annually, g25. Large dams are used primarily for hydro- Canada's rivers electric power generation and also for discharge 9% of How much water is used for irrigation purposes. Quebec has pro- the world's portionately more large dams (189) than renewable water irrigation? any other province, with most of them supply - 105 000 owned by Hydro-Quebec. British cubic metres per Columbia is next, with 89 large dams, 33 second. Approximately 70% of the water used in irrigation is consumed (water withdrawn of them owned by B.C. Hydro. but not returned to the water course). British Columbia, Alberta and Q 27. Saskatchewan use 3.5 million cubic decametres (1 dams = 1000 m3). Due to What proportion of Canada's incomplete data, only information on the electrical generation has irrigated areas of Western Canada is hydropower as its source? available; water use for irrigation in Atlantic Canada is known to be very small During 1987, 67% of the total power and has not been estimated. generated in Canada came from hydro

NUMBER OF LARGE DAMS IN CANADA

89 80

16 3 3

A Primer on Fresh Water 11 19 Water How we use it

sources, but it varied from highs of over large-scale production. Hydroelectricity is 94% for Newfoundland and Labrador, also renewable and relatively clean, but if Quebec, Manitoba, British Columbia, and a large dam is built, wildlife habitat, the Yukon, to lows of 10% for Nova Scotia, farmland, forests and town sites can be 3.9%for Alberta, and 0% for lost, social alienation can occur, and Prince Edward Island. heavy metals such as mercury can be In1985,the United Nations ranked mobilized. Hydroelectricity forms the Canada as the world's largest most important source of renewable hydroelectric producer, with15%of the energy for Canadians. Of the combustible global output. The Churchill Falls plant fuels, hydrogen is the cleanest burning, in Labrador generates about4500 followed by natural gas and light fuel oil. megawatts of power enough to light Nuclear energy (fission) is a non- On the Prairies, 45million light bulbs, or run80million combustible form Of energy production, irrigation is the home computers. but disposal of the radioactive waste and largest consumer possible major accidents remain as of water. 9 28. problems. Surprisingly, nuclear energy (fission) is also a non-combustible clean form of How important is water in the energy, although disposal of the highly production of electrical toxic by-products of the fission process energy from coal or nuclear presents major problems, and many fuel? people perceive the threat of a major accident. Finally, natural gas and refined, light After the fuel itself, water is the most fuel oil are relatively clean fuel sources of important input in large-scale thermal energy, although they do produce toxic power production. Production of emissions and some other by-products. 1 kilowatt-hour of electricity requires 140litres of water for fossil fuel plants and205litres for nuclear power plants for 9 30. condensing cooling purposes. Large amounts are required in the condensing How does the water that we and cooling phase. use in our home get there? 9 29. Across Canada, 10% of the water used in Canadian municipalities comes from Which form of energy groundwater; the rest is from lakes and production - solar, hydro, rivers. In cities, water is distributed nuclear, gas or oil - is the through a series of pipes connected to a municipal water supply system. In rural most compatible with the areas, it is obtained from wells. Water environment? supply systems typically have intake, treatment, storage, and distribution No form of energy production is 100% components. There are many different environmentally friendly. However, some treatment types, depending upon the methods of energy production are less characteristics of the source water. damaging to the environment by being Likewise, the storage and distribution renewable, by causing less damage to the systems vary greatly between municipal- ecosystem and by producing less ities, depending upon the unique damaging waste. Solar and wind characteristics of each city or town. generation are both relatively clean and Rural residents usually have individual are renewable but are not yet practical for groundwater supplies. Wells must be

12 A Primer on Fresh Water 2 '2 Water How we use it

carefully prepared and maintained to residence. Monthly bills range between prevent pollution. $10 and $36, the lowest being in areas of Water is delivered by trucks to several the West and East coasts, and highest in regions of Canada. In the Far North, water the Prairie provinces and northern may have to be trucked to homes that do Canada. not have conventional water supplies Both consumer and actual costs are because the ground is frozen. Water is higher in the territories than in southern also delivered by truck in some rural Canada. More water is used as well: areas of the east and in the prairies where about 500 litres per capita per day in the shallow wells go dry. Northwest Territories and 1000 in the Where there are piped systems in the Yukon, well above the Canadian average North, the pipes are often buried deeper, of about 340. This may be because in the up to 3 or 4 metres, to get below the worst North water often has to be kept running of the frost, and are insulated to prevent to keep the pipes from freezing. the water from freezing. Although the operating costs for trucked In permafrost areas, the heat lost from service are very high, the lower capital even insulated underground pipes would costs make it more economic than piped melt the permafrost and cause the ground service for most northern communities. to cave in. Therefore, above-ground Consumption is much lower for trucked utilidors are used to carry water, sewer, service, about 200 litres per capita per and sometimes hot water (for heating) day in the Northwest Territories. Canada has built pipes to individual residences. These are over 600 large heated, insulated metal or wood-clad Q 33. dams, and about enclosures which are generally installed 60 large on piles or blocking. domestic What costs do water revenues interbasin cover? diversions. To 9 31. date, only about 40% of Canada's Why do we have to pay to use Several studies show that water revenues hydroelectric are not sufficient to cover operational, potential has water? repair, upgrading or expansion costs. been developed. They cover only a small part of the costs Water power First, water is a managed, government- of supplying water. For example, meets about two owned resource with licence and irrigation water charges recover only thirds of the administrative fees attached. Second, about 10% of the development cost of the nation's electrical water supplies usually have to be resource. needs. pumped, stored, moved and treated to Maintenance (repair and upgrading) make water available and safe for use costs of municipal water supply and and then have to be taken away after sewage systems may be as high as discharge. All of these services cost $8 billion to $10 billion over the next money. ten years. The fact that this money is not currently available is further evidence that 9 32. water revenues do not cover costs. What is the cost of water? 934. How much do we use? Who sets water prices in Water prices across Canada are generally Canada, and how are they low compared to other countries. The determined? average household pays about $18 per month, and uses about 27 000 litres per Provincial and municipal officials set month, for water delivered to the water prices in Canada. Most provinces

A Primer on Fresh Water 13

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 21 Water How we use it

levy licence fees to major water users for would cost $1.50; cola, 85(t, milk; 98tt; access to the resource. The provincial and table wine, $9.00. licence fees for water are not set in accordance with any pricing principles, 9 37. but rather are related to the cost of administering the licensing program. Municipalities also levy charges to water Do all houses. in Canada have users. In many areas, users are charged limning water and sewerage a flat monthly, quarterly or annual rate in services? exchange for access to unlimited amounts of treated water. In other places, the Over 90% of the urban households are charges are based on the volume of water serviced by municipal water and sewer used, as measured by a water meter. systems. The remainder, as well as most Irrigation water fees are paid according to of the rural population, is serviced by land area irrigated, not water volume private systems (usually groundwater), used. septic tanks and/or tile fields, or is delivered by trucks. 35. In the Northwest Territories, for example, 16% of the communities have centralized Are householders going to piped systems either above or below ground, while 74% have trucked water have to pay more for using supply and waste disposal systems. The water in the future? remaining 10% use private systems, water buckets, privies or honey buckets. It is expected that the price of water will Although two increase in the future to bridge the gap 938. thirds of urban between the cost of providing water to the Canadians are user and the revenue received from those served by using it.Like with most commodities, the What is water conservation? sewage amount of water used decreases as prices treatment rise. Canadians use larger amounts of Water conservation activities are systems, that water per capita than users in other essentially designed to do two things: proportion is countries who face higher prices. (1) to reduce the absolute amounts of much lower east Canadians pay, on the average, about one water we use (less water per person or of the Ottawa quarter of European and about one half of given product or service); and/or (2) to River. American domestic and industrial water reduce the rate (using water only when we prices. This supports the conclusion that need it) at which we use water in our water in Canada is underpriced. daily lives - either at home, at work, in However, this general conclusion may not business or in industry. In all cases, the be applicable in specific cases. goal of water conservation is to use our water resources more efficiently. Water 36. conservation allows us to do the same task or job, but with much less water. How does the cost of tap 39. water compare with the cost of other drinks? Why is water conservation important in Canada? Tap water is very inexpensive compared with some other liquids. For example, 1 litre of water costs about 0.000 Water conservation is important for three while the same amount of bottled water reasons: (1) Some regions of Canada are

14 A Primer on Resh Water Water How we use it water-short due to semi-arid conditions. previously-used water, and the Dry summers place these areas of the implementation of universal water country under additional stress. (2) Other metering in communities. Industrial parts of the country, particularly the rural examples include the installation of water areas, often rely on groundwater as their recycling equipment such as cooling sole source of supply. Excessive water towers, and process changes that lower use or withdrawals can lower water tables water use. Economic measures refer to in these rural areas. (3) And, finally, in means of altering the ways in which users many urban areas in Canada, municipal pay for the right to use water. Examples water utilities are experiencing limits on include revisions to municipal water rates supply due to infrastructure problems - to assure full cost recovery, water charges either due to summer peak demands based on quantities used, and implement- exceeding system capacities, or due to ation of volume-based charges for self- older sewer and water systems which are supplied industries. Social measures refer in need of upgrading or repair. to broad social policies and actions In all three contexts listed above, water designed to lower water usage. Examples conservation helps by putting less include revisions to plumbing codes, legal pressure on the existing water supply restrictions on water use during drought (and wastewater treatment systems). periods and campaigns to inform the Reducing the rate at which we use water public about the importance of water. and/or the absolute amounts we use is The last section of this Primer, 'Water: the essence of what conservation is all Do's and Don'ts," provides many about. It can help us "stretch" our examples of actions which individual The Great Lakes existing reserves without having to invest water users can take to implement constitute one of in more expensive sources of new supply. conservation. the largest This "frees up" supply, either to serve the systems of fresh needs of future growth (in population or Q 41. water reservoirs industry), or to serve an existing on earth, with population for a longer period of time. 18% of the What are the benefits of world's fresh conservation? surface water. 940- In addition to "stretching" available water How can water conservation supplies to meet increasing demands, water conservation has distinct economic be implemented? advantages. For example, use of water saving showerheads can not only save the There are many water saving homeowner the cost of the water itself but opportunities available to consumers, also save over $100 in water heating industry and governments. Generally, costs. Furthermore, conservation three groups of actions are important retrofitting of an existing building could physical measures, economic measures generate benefits ranging between 15 and and social measures. Physical measures 20 times the costs incurred presently. refer to alterations that can be made to Finally, water conservation lessens the water using equipment or processes. demands made on a vital natural Domestic examples include the use of resource, thereby contributing to the low-flow shower heads, water conserving sustainability of the Canadian toilets, laundry facilities that recycle environment.

A Primer on Fresh Water 15

BEST COPYAVAILABLE 23 Water How good is it?

Water-How good is it?

Q 42. summarized in the pamphlet "How Safe is our Water?" which is available from: What do we mean by water Enquiry Centre quality? Environment Canada Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 Tel. (819) 997-2800 Estimates vary, Water quality is defined in terms of the but it is Toll free 1-800-668-6767 chemical, physical and biological content Fax (819) 953-2225 commonly of water. The water quality of rivers and believed that lakes changes with the seasons and there are up to Q 43. 100 000 geographic areas, even when there is no chemicals in pollution present. There is no single commercial use measure that constitutes good water What are the key factors that worldwide, with quality. For instance, water suitable for influence water quality? about 1000 new drinking can be used for irrigation, but chemicals water used for irrigation may not meet Many factors affect water quality. entering the drinking water guidelines. The quality of Substances present in the air affect market every water appropriate for recreational rainfall. Dust, volcanic gases and natural year. purposes differs from that used for gases in the air such as carbon dioxide, industrial processes. oxygen and nitrogen are all dissolved or The quality requirements of major water entrapped in rain. When other uses are given in the Canadian Water substances such as sulphur dioxide, toxic Quality Guidelines. These guidelines are chemicals or lead are in the air, they are

16 A Primer on Flesh Water 24 Water How good is it?

also collected in the rain as it falls to the chemical and microbiological analyses. ground. For example, acidity (pH), colour and Rain reaches the earth's surface and, as turbidity (a measure of the suspended runoff, it flows over and through the soil particles in the water) are measured in and rocks, dissolving and picking up the field. The concentrations of metals, other substances. For instance, if the nutrients, pesticides and other soils contain high amounts of soluble substances are measured in the substances, such as limestone, the runoff laboratory. will have high concentrations of calcium Another way to obtain an indication of carbonate. Where the water flows over the quality of water is biological testing. rocks high in metals, such as ore bodies, This test determines, for example, it will dissolve those metals. In the whether the water or the sediment is toxic Canadian Shield, there are large areas to life forms or if there has been a with little soil and few soluble minerals. fluctuation in the numbers and kinds of Consequently, the rivers and lakes in plants and animals. Some of these these areas have very low concentrations biological tests are done in a laboratory, of dissolved substances. while others are carried out at the stream Another factor is the runoff from urban or lake. areas. It will collect debris littering the streets and take it to the receiving stream Q 45. or water body. Urban runoff worsens the water quality in rivers and lakes by increasing the concentrations of such How does Yukon water quality substances as nutrients (phosphorus, compare with that in the Globally, nitrogen), sediments, animal wastes, Northwest Territories? approximately petroleum products, and road salts. 34 000 deaths Industrial, farming, mining and forestry The Yukon has much more variable water occur daily from activities also significantly affect the water, faeces quality and generally higher levels of and dirt related quality of Canadian rivers, lakes and sediment than the Northwest Territories. diseases. (This groundwater. For example, farming can This is due in part to the more rugged is equivalent to increase the concentration of nutrients, terrain in the Yukon, which has several 100 Jumbo Jets pesticides, and suspended sediments, large mountain ranges (such as the St. crashing daily!). while industrial activities can increase Elias on the west and the Mackenzie concentrations of metals and toxic Mountains on the east), while the chemicals, add suspended sediment, Northwest Territories is dominantly made increase temperature, and lower dissolved up of the Canadian Shield, which is much oxygen in the water. Each of these effects older and already highly eroded. The can have a negative impact on the aquatic extreme seasons in the Yukon, combined ecosystem and/or make water unsuitable with its complex geology, glaciation and for established or potential uses. sources of erodible material, are also a 944. contributing factor. 946. How do we measure water quality? What is good quality drinking water? The quality of water is determined by making measurements in the field or by Good quality drinking water is free from taking samples of water, suspended disease-causing organisms, harmful materials, bottom sediment, or biota, and chemical substances, and radioactive sending them to a laboratory for physical, matter. It tastes good, is aesthetically

A Primer on Pl-esh Water 17 Water How good is it?

appealing, and free from objectionable chemicals are actually added to produce colour or odour. The Guidelines for good drinking water; the best examples of Canadian Drinking Water Quality specify chemical addition are chlorine used as a limits for substances and describe con- disinfectant to destroy microbial ditions that affect drinking water quality. contaminants, or fluoride used to reduce For further information and copies of the dental cavities. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality, contact: Q 48. Canada Communication Group Some of my friends buy - Publishing Ottawa, Canada bottled water for drinking and K1A 0S9 cooking. But I have heard Tel. (819) 956-4802 that it is not safe either. Is Fax (819) 994-1498 that true? Q 47. In 1987, Canadians spent $110 million on bottled water, this figure is expected to How can we be sure that water double by 1995. Many consumers claim is safe to drink? that their concerns about contaminants in tap water are a major reason for using such a product. Municipalities have the responsibility to In a 1990 study by the Consumer's provide their citizens with safe drinking Association of Canada, 12 of the 16 water and to provide sufficient warning domestic and imported bottled waters Thirty-three about pollution risks related to tested contained potentially harmful percent of recreational uses. Samples are regularly contaminants at concentrations above the Canada's collected and analyzed to check drinking acceptable levels indicated in the population live in water quality. The results of these Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water municipalities analyses are compared with the Canadian Quality. that do not Drinking Water Quality Guidelines to provide sewage Bottled water is not regularly tested for treatment. decide whether or not the water is safe to many pollutants, including pesticides, drink. found in some waters because it is It should be noted that there is a considered a "food" and not bound by difference between "pure water" and "safe drinking water guidelines specified by drinking water." health and environmental departments. Pure water, often defined as water Consumers buying bottled water to avoid containing no minerals or chemicals, does health hazards from tap water may not not exist naturally in the environment. get the desired benefits, and may be Under ideal conditions, water may be paying up to 3000 times more for bottled distilled to produce "pure" water. water than regular tap water. Safe drinking water, on the other hand, may retain naturally occurring minerals Q 49. and chemicals such as calcium, potassium, sodium or fluoride which are actually beneficial to human health and Are drinking water supplies in may also improve the taste of the water. urban areas better or worse Where the minerals or chemicals occur naturally in concentrations that may be than those in rural areas? harmful or displeasing, then certain water treatment processes are used to reduce or The answer to this is not a simple "yes" or remove the substances. In fact, some "no". In general, one can say that the

18 A Primer on Fresh Water 23 Water How good is it? quality of water in rural areas is better 9 52. because these areas are removed from industrial activities which may result in the degradation of the quality of river, Some people say that you lake or ground water. There are, however, shouldn't pour solvents and many exceptions. In areas with intensive other household chemicals agricultural activity, mining, and logging, the impacts on water quality can be down the drain because they severe. pollute the rivers and lakes. Is that true? How else can I get g50. rid of them? If we could boil all the water While chemical household products are generally safe for the uses they are we consume, could we designed for, some may become harmful eliminate pollution? to the environment as they accumulate in it. For this reason you should not put No. Boiling water kills germs but will not these products down the drain. Most remove chemicals. sewage treatment facilities are not capable of removing such toxic substances. 9 51. Anything put into the storm sewers is going directly to the receiving lake or river Approximately completely untreated. So, before you 57% of Is chlorine in the water supply dump anything down the drain, Canadians necessary, and could it remember that you or others may be (1980-81 data) become a health hazard? drinking it some day. are served by For those substances that you have at wastewater home now and want to get rid of, such as treatment plants, Chlorine was introduced as a disinfectant old paint, find out whether there is a compared with in water treatment around the turn of the hazardous waste disposal site in your 75% of century. It has since become the pre- community and take them there. You Americans, dominant method for water disinfection. may also contact your local environmental 86.5% of Apart from its effectiveness as a germi- health officer for assistance. Make sure Germans, and cide, it offers other benefits such as colour 99% of Swedes. the containers are labelled to indicate the removal, taste and odour control, sup- contents. pression of algal growths, and precipitation of iron and manganese. In addition, chlorine is easy to apply, measure and 9 53. control. It is quite effective and relatively inexpensive. As a responsible consumer Chlorine as a disinfectant in water treat- how can I tell if the products I ment can be a health hazard if its concentration or the concentrations of certain buy are potentially harmful to by-products (e.g., trihalomethanes, a the environment? chlorinated organic compound) are greater than the Canadian Drinking Most household chemical products and Water Quality Guidelines allow. If the pesticides sold in Canada have warning maximum acceptable concentrations are labels. These labels tell us whether the exceeded, the authorities responsible for product is flammable, poisonous, public health should be consulted for the corrosive or explosive. The labels usually appropriate corrective action. also give first aid instructions.

A Primer on ftesh Water 19

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water How good is it? Keep in mind that some products which 9 55. are hazardous do not require warning labels. Canadian laws for hazardous household chemicals are regulated by How effective are wastewater Consumer and Corporate Affairs Canada. treatment plants in The laws for pesticides (such as moth- eliminating water pollution? balls, house and garden pesticides or insect repellents) are controlled by Agriculture Canada. Health Canada Conventional wastewater treatment plants regulates cosmetics. The symbols used remove suspended solids and some of the on hazardous household chemical organic matter. More advanced plants products are shown below: also remove phosphorus and nitrogen which are nutrients for aquatic plants. Both of these nutrients are present in human sewage as well as in runoff from agricultural practices. Laundry detergents were once a major source of phosphorus, but regulations controlling its use in detergent manufacture have minimized its impact on receiving waters in Canada. Between 1972 and 1981, Q 56. Canada's water withdrawal increased from Who determines whether or 24 billion cubic not a beach should be closed? metres per year The warning symbols are based on shape: to over 37 billion the more corners a symbol has, the greater cubic metres per the risk. When shopping for household Regional health officers determine year a rise of chemical products, always look for these whether or not a beach should be closed over 50%; in the symbols. Read the label to find out how to using the Canadian Guidelines for same period, use the product safely and what precau- Recreational Water Quality developed population tions to take for its disposal. jointly by federal and provincial experts. increased only These guidelines deal mainly with health 5%. Q54. hazards in instances where people have direct recreational contact with water. This includes infections transmitted by What happens to water that pathogenic microorganisms, such as drains out of our home? microbes and viruses, and injuries due to impaired visibility in muddy waters. Sewers collect the liquid waste and When a public beach is unsafe for discharge it into lakes, streams or the swimming, posters are installed in visible ocean. Most, but not all, municipalities locations. treat their sewage using mechanical For further information and copies of the and/or biological processes before Canadian Guidelines for Recreational discharging it. Regardless of the process, Water Quality, contact: sewage treatment plants concentrate the sewage into a solid called sludge, which is Chief, Monitoring and Criteria Division then utilized on agricultural land, disposed Bureau of Chemical Hazards of in a landfill site, or incinerated. Health Canada Residents of rural areas, the North, and Ottawa, Ontario cottage country may have individual septic K1A OL2 systems or have sewage collected by truck. Tel. (613) 957-3128

20 A Primer on Fresh Water

2'J Water How good is it? Q 57. Q 59. Eutrophication is a form of Is the discharge of cooling pollution. What is a eutrophic water from electrical power lake? plants a form of pollution?

Eutrophication is the process of becoming Yes, it is called thermal pollution. In 1981, better nourished either naturally or artifi- thermal and nuclear power plants in cially. In terms of a lake, eutrophication Canada discharged 19 billion cubic metres occurs naturally with the gradual input of of water. Almost all of this had been used nutrients and sediment through erosion for condenser cooling. However, most of and precipitation resulting in a gradual these facilities have controls on the aging of the lake. Man speeds up this maximum temperature of their discharge natural process by releasing nutrients, waters, and many of them use cooling particularly phosphorus, into rivers and ponds or towers. lakes through municipal and industrial Thermal pollution, when not regulated, effluent and through increased soil erosion can be a problem. Artificially heated water by poor land use practices. Eventually, a can promote algae blooms, threatening lake has high nutrient concentrations and certain species of fish and otherwise dense growths of aquatic weeds and algae. disturbing the chemistry of the receiving These plants die and decompose causing water body. When this water is not re- depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water. used by industries or for heating in near- This process often results in fish kills and by communities, large amounts of energy changes in a lake's fish species. and potential dollar savings are lost. Ultimately, eutrophication will fill the lake with sediment and plant material. Q 60. Q 58. What effect can a dam have on the water quality of a river How does irrigation affect system? water quality? Generally, rivers are dammed to create Irrigation affects water quality in different reservoirs for power production, down- ways, depending upon the original water stream flood control, recreation, or quality, the type of soil, the underlying irrigation. When a dam is constructed, the land behind it is flooded. This may mean geology, the type of irrigation, the crop the loss of valuable wildlife habitat, farm- During the grown, and the farming methods used. land, forests or townsites. Accumulation of summer about Although a large portion of irrigation half of all treated sediments in the reservoir can have a water is used by plants or evaporates from detrimental effect on water quality by water is sprayed the soil (evapotranspiration), part of it is onto lawns. creating increased concentrations of returned to the source. As is often the harmful metal and organic compounds in case with water use, when the water the reservoir. returns to the stream or water body, the quality has been lowered. The water that Q 61. runs off the fields carries with it sediments, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides (if these chemicals are used on the fields), and What is dredging? natural salts leached from the soil and enters rivers, lakes and groundwater Dredging is the removal of sediments or supplies. earth from the bottom of water bodies

A Primer on Flesh Water 21 25 Water How good is it?

using a type of scoop or suction apparatus. geographic area. In some cases, This material, often called "spoils," is then disturbed lake and river bottoms can be deposited along the shore, formed into recolonized once the actual dredging islands or transported elsewhere away activities have stopped. Dredged spoils from the site. Dredging is usually done to can be used to create islands and increase the depth or width of water contoured shorelines, provide nursery channels for navigation or the transport of habitat for fish, nesting and staging larger volumes of water. habitat for waterfowl, and winter habitat for furbearers. Q 62- Although dredging can disturb the normal balance and productivity of an Can dredging do any harm? aquatic ecosystem, proper attention to mitigation and construction procedures Dredging can disturb the natural ecological may result in the beneficial effects of balance through the direct removal of dredging outweighing the negative effects. aquatic life. For example, in estuaries (part of the river mouth where fresh and Q 64. sea water are mixed) oyster beds can be destroyed, and in the freshwater environment those bottom-dwelling What is acid rain? organisms on which fish depend for food may be eliminated from the food chain. In "Acid rain" refers to rainwater that, having 295 000 litres of addition, when spoils are deposited directly been contaminated with chemicals water is required in a water system, they may smother the to produce 910 introduced into the atmosphere through kilograms of remaining organisms, and silt or sediments industrial and automobile emissions, has paper. 86 300 released from dredging activities can cover had its acidity increased from that of clean litres of water is and destroy fish feeding and breeding rainwater. Acidity is measured on a pH required to habitat. scale. For example, vinegar, an acid, has a produce 910 Furthermore, contaminants accumulate pH of 3, and lemon juice, another acid, has kilograms of over long periods of time in the sediments. a pH of 2. It is generally accepted that rain steel. Some toxic substances, such as mercury, with a pH less than 5.3 is acidic. deposit in the sediments but re-enter the Emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides water system when the sediments are from various sources enter the dredged. Such contaminants then atmosphere. While in the atmosphere endanger the health of water users, these compounds combine with particularly the organisms that live in the atmospheric water to form acids. The body of water. Nutrients are also released most common acids formed in this manner by dredging. These can cause eutrophica- are sulphuric acid and nitric acid. When tion of the system, resulting in oxygen mixed with rain, these acids fall as wet depletion and possibly death of fish and deposition (acid rain). In the absence of other aquatic organisms. rain, the particulate matter slowly settles to the ground as dry deposition. Together, Q 63. wet and dry deposition of acidic substances is known as acid precipitation. Can dredging be beneficial to the aquatic ecosystem? Q 65.

Yes, in many instances, dredging is How does acid deposition beneficial to the environment. Dredging affect water quality? can be used to enlarge or create wetlands and provide more habitat opportunities The effects of acid deposition on water and greater biological diversity in a given quality, although complicated and variable,

22 A Primer on Fresh Water Water How good is it?

0 The pH scale

1 Battery Acid

2 Lemon Juice

INCREASING 3 Vinegar Acid ACIDITY -Adult fish die rain 4 -Fish reproduction affected 5 -Normal range of precipitation pH 6 Milk NEUTRAL 7 Normal range of stream pH

8 Baking Soda, 9 Sea Water

10 INCREASING Milk of Magnesia ALKALINITY 11

12 Ammonia

13 Lye

1 14

The acidity of a water sample is measured on a pH scale. This scale ranges from 0 (maximum acidity) to 14 (maximum alkalinity). The middle of the scale, 7, represents the neutral point. The acidity increases from neutral toward 0.

Because the scale is logarithmic, a difference of one pH unit represents a tenfold change. For example, the acidity of a sample with a pH of 5 is ten times greater than that of a sample with a pH of 6. A difference of 2 units,from 6 to 4, would mean that the acidity is one hundred times greater, and so on.

Normal rain has a pH of 5.6 slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in the earth's atmosphere by the rain.

have been well documented. Impacts from chemical alterations of the waters draining Acid rain with these acidic compounds in the atmosphere these watersheds, eventually altering pH of 3.6 has can occur directly by deposition on the conditions in the lakes downstream. 100 times the water surface, or indirectly by contact with The extent of chemical alteration resulting acidity of normal rain with a pH of one or more components of the terrestrial from acidic deposition depends largely on 5.6. ecosystem before reaching any aquatic the type and quantity of the soils and the system. The interactions of acid deposition nature of the bedrock material in the with the terrestrial ecosystem, including watershed, as well as the amount and vegetation, soil and bedrock, result in duration of the precipitation. Watersheds

A Primer on Fresh Water 23 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

3.L Water How good is it?

with soils and bedrock containing sub- (polychlorinated biphenyls) have also been stantial quantities of carbonate-containing detected in snow and in fish in the materials, such as limestone and calcite, Northwest Territories. The exact pathways are not affected by acidic deposition for entry of these compounds into northern because of the high acid neutralizing waters have not yet been identified, but capacity derived from the dissolution of they likely include long-range atmospheric this carbonate material. Thousands of transport from agricultural and industrial lakes in Canada, however, lie on the sources in the south or from other Precambrian Shield. This vast expanse of continents. bedrock possesses few limestone-type A long-term commitment to a materials and, consequently, has only comprehensive monitoring program for limited ability to neutralize acidic de- northern rivers and lakes is essential to position. Consequently, lakes and rivers in keep governments, the public, developers, these areas generally show acidification and industry users informed on the quality effects, including decreasing pH levels, and of northern rivers and lakes. This informa- increasing concentrations of sulphate and tion is required by regulatory agencies to certain metals such as aluminum and ensure that water quality concerns can be manganese. addressed before they become problems. However, the marine water system in the Q66. North, in contrast to the freshwater one, has been contaminated from various global sources, including air and sea transport. Our northern rivers and lakes This is of particular concern to the Inuit, have long been considered to many of whom live near the sea and depend on it for their food. The Great Lakes, be of pristine quality. Is this straddling the still true? Canada-U.S. Q67. boundary, contain 25% of the The quality of Canada's northern rivers world's fresh and lakes is good in comparison with the Has water quality in Canada water in lakes extensively exploited watercourses in improved or deteriorated in (tying for 'first southern Canada. the last ten years? place" with Lake Some pollution concerns do exist in the Baykal, Russia). North, and these must be closely monitored to ensure that good water In some aspects it has improved, while in quality is conserved. The North contains others it has deteriorated. Some problems significant reserves of gold, silver, uranium identified 10 or 20 years ago have been and other metals, which have led to the partly solved. However, we have also development of a number of mining identified new problems. For example, operations throughout the Northwest although the problem of eutrophication Territories. By-products from the mines has not disappeared and we still must take include metals such as copper, lead and great care in limiting the discharges of zinc, arsenic and cyanide, which are phosphorus to the lakes, we can say that discharged into receiving waters. this problem is now under control in the The oil and gas industry, located in Great Lakes basin. Regulations to prevent northern Alberta and in the Mackenzie eutrophication have proved effective there. Valley, can also degrade water quality by Attention is now being directed toward accidental spills from refineries and along toxic chemicals. transportation routes. Monitoring of water, Today, toxic chemicals overshadow all suspended sediments, and instream biota other problems in the Great Lakes and in is required to ensure that water quality is many other water bodies in Canada. not deteriorating. Although we are striving to solve this Toxic organic compounds such as threat to water quality, we still have a long organochlorine pesticides and PCBs way to go before it is under control.

24 32 A Primer on Fresh Water Water - An ecosystem perspective

Water-An ecosystem perspective

68. 69.

What is an aquatic What is the range of ecosystem? organisms found in aquatic ecosystems? An aquatic ecosystem is a group of interacting organisms dependent on one another and their water environment for Aquatic ecosystems usually contain a nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) wide variety of life forms including and shelter. Familiar examples are lakes bacteria, fungi, and protozoans; and rivers, but aquatic ecosystems also bottom-dwelling organisms such as include areas such as floodplain marshes, insect larvae, snails, and worms; One litre of oil which are flooded with water for only free-floating microscopic plants and can contaminate parts of the year. Seemingly inhospitable animals known as plankton; large plants up to two million such as cattails, bulrushes, grasses, and litres of water. aquatic ecosystems can sustain life. Thermal springs, for instance, support reeds; and also fish, amphibians, reptiles, algae and some insect species at temper- and birds. atures near the boiling point; tiny worms The assemblages of these organisms live year-round on Yukon ice fields; and vary from one ecosystem to another some highly polluted waters can support because the habitat conditions unique to large populations of bacteria! each type of ecosystem tend to affect Even a drop of water is an aquatic eco- species distributions. For example, many system, since it contains or can support rivers are relatively oxygen-rich and living organisms. In fact, ecologists often fast-flowing compared to lakes. The study drops of water - taken from lakes species adapted to these particular river and rivers - in the lab to understand how conditions are rare or absent in the still these larger aquatic ecosystems work. waters of lakes and ponds.

A Primer on Fresh Water 25 33 Water Art ecosystem perspective

970. water and fresh water meet are called estuaries. These productive ecosystems, What types of freshwater found on Canada's coasts, contain unique assemblages of organisms including aquatic ecosystems do we starfish and sea anemones. have in Canada? 9 71. Canada contains an abundance of fresh- What are wetlands? water (non-saline) ecosystems including lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands. Wetlands are defined as lands saturated by A lake is a sizeable water body surface or near surface waters for periods surrounded by land and fed by rivers, long enough to promote the development of springs or local precipitation. The broad hydrophytic vegetation (e.g., weeds, geographical distribution of lakes across bulrushes, sedges) and gleyed (poorly Canada is primarily the result of extensive drained) or peaty soils. glaciation in the past. There are five basic classes of wetlands: Lakes can be classified on the basis of a bogs, fens, salt and freshwater marshes, variety of features, including their formation swamps, and shallow water. and their chemical or biological condition. One such classification identifies two types 972. of lakes: oligotrophic and eutrophic. Where are wetlands found in Oligotrophic lakes are characterized by relatively low productivity and dominated Canada? by cold-water bottom fish such as lake trout; and eutrophic lakes, which are Wetlands cover about 14% of Canada. shallower, are more productive and They were once abundantly distributed dominated by warm-water fish such as throughout the country. Today, however, bass. Great Slave Lake (N.W.T.) and most wetlands have become a scarce resource in prairie lakes represent the two types, the settled parts of the country. Through- respectively. out Canada, wetlands have been adversely Ponds are smaller bodies of still water affected by land use practices which have located in natural hollows such as lime- resulted in vegetation destruction, nutrient stone sinks, or resulting from dams built by and toxic loading, sedimentation, and humans or beavers. Ponds are found in altered flow regimes. For example, in Since the most regions and may exist either season- southern Ontario, 68% of the original wet- beginning of the ally or persist from year to year. lands have been converted from their 19th century, Rivers and streams are bodies of fresh, natural state to support alternative uses marshes along flowing water. The water runs permanently such as agriculture and housing. the Canadian or seasonally within a natural channel into Similarly, only about 25% of the original shore of Lake another body of water such as a lake, sea wetlands of the "pothole" region of Ontario have or ocean. Rivers and streams are generally southwestern Manitoba remain in been reduced in more oxygenated than lakes or ponds, and existence. In the North, however, most of area by 40%. they tend to contain organisms adapted to the wetlands are intact. the swiftly moving waters (e.g., black fly larva and darter fish). Some of the larger 9 73. rivers in Canada include the St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Fraser, Athabasca, North and What kinds of animals use South Saskatchewan, and Saint John wetlands? rivers. Some rivers flow into oceans, the great Wetlands are important to species from saltwater bodies that cover 70% of the many familiar classes of animals, as well as earth's surface. The tidal areas where salt to less commonly known creatures.

26 A Primer on Fresh Water Water An ecosystem perspective

Every drop of water contains microscopic captured by primary producers (mainly zooplankton which are a vital component green plants and algae) and converted by of the food chain. The water's surface a process called photosynthesis into and the wetland bottom are covered with chemical energy such as carbohydrates. insect eggs, larvae and nymphs. The chemical energy is then used by the Members of the fish, amphibian and plants to perform a variety of functions reptile groups are all dependent on the including the production of plant parts habitat provided by wetlands. Numerous such as leaves, stems, and flowers. The bird and mammal species make extensive raw materials used for this purpose are use of the water and its adjacent shores. nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, oxy- These species can be important to gen, and calcium): substances necessary humans economically, or as indicators of for the growth of all plants and animals. environmental health. Animals are incapable of photosynthesis. They therefore eat either plants, other Q 74. animals, or dead tissue to obtain their energy and required nutrients. In ecosystems, the transfer of energy and nutri- How do wildlife species use ents from plants to animals occurs along wetlands? pathways called food chains. The first link in a food chain consists of primary Food and shelter are the primary producers: green plants and other requirements of life. Wetlands provide organisms capable of photosynthesis. these functions for many species of Plant-eating organisms, known as animals that either live permanently primary consumers, are the next link in within the wetland or visit periodically. the food chain. They, in turn, are eaten Almost every part of a wetland, from the by secondary consumers: carnivores Canadians are bottom up, is important to wildlife in (flesh-eaters) or omnivores (plant and the trustees of some way. Frogs bury themselves in the animal eaters). Decomposers such as almost 25% of all muddy substrate to survive the winter, bacteria and fungi make up the final link of the world's in the food chain. They break down dead wetlands, and some insects use bottom debris to form a protective covering. Fish swim and tissues and cells, providing nutrients for a currently new generation of producers. covering 14% of feed in wetlands, often eating the eggs of the land area of insects which have been deposited in the Most organisms in an ecosystem have Canada. water. Wetland vegetation provides more than one food source (e.g., fish feed nesting materials and support structures on both insects and plants) and therefore to several bird species and is a major belong to more than one food chain. The source of food to mammals, even those as consequent overlapping food chains make large as moose. Small mammals use the up food webs: complex phenomena with lush vegetation at the edge of wetlands for links that are constantly changing. cover and as a source of food, and they themselves are food for birds of prey. Q 76. Each species has adapted to using the wetland and its surrounding area in a particular way. What is the significance of a toxic substance to the food Q 75. web?

How does an ecosystem work? A toxic substance is one that can cause harm to the environment or human life. Energy from the sun is the driving force of Most are synthetic and include PCBs, an ecosystem. This light energy is pesticides, dioxins, and furans.

A Primer on Fresh Water 27

3EST COPY AVAILABLE Water An ecosystem perspective Some toxic substances can enter a food Q77. web and be transferred through it. The uptake of any environmental substance by an organism is called bioconcentration. What do we mean by an Although nutrients taken up through this "unhealthy aquatic process are usually converted into proteins or excreted as waste, many toxic ecosystem"? Sports fishing compounds accumulate in the fat or accounted for certain organs (e.g., liver) of animals. Healthy aquatic ecosystems are those $1.76 billion in As contaminated organisms are eaten by where human disturbances have not expendituresand others, the toxic substances are impaired the natural functioning investments in 1980,of which transferred up the levels in the food web (e.g., nutrient cycling) nor appreciably $300 million was and become more concentrated, some- altered the structure (e.g., species contributed by times to harmful levels. This process is composition) of the system. foreign anglers. called biomagnification. The species at the These disturbances can be physical top level of the food web, including (e.g., injection of abnormally hot water humans, are often subjected to higher into a stream), chemical (e.g., introduction concentrations of toxic substances than of toxic wastes at concentrations harmful those at the bottom. Toxic substances to the organisms) or biological reaching harmful levels is one sign that (e.g., introduction and propagation of the aquatic ecosystem is unhealthy. non-native animal or plant species).

PHYTOPLANKTON 0.0025 ppm

ZOOPLANKTON 0.123ppm HERRING GULL EGGS 124 ppm

RAINBOW SMELT 1.04 ppm LAKE TROUT 4.83 ppm

BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOMAGNIFICATION (ppm = parts per million) (Source: The Great Lakes - An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book, 1987)]

28 A Primer on Fresh Water 36 Water Art ecosystem perspective

Symptoms of poor ecosystem health The frequency of urban beach include: closures has escalated as a result of The loss of species. contamination by animal faeces and The accelerated proliferation of medical waste. organisms. One example is algae Navigation problems, caused by the blooms caused by an excess of rapid expansion of bottom-rooted phosphorous and nitrogen aquatic plants, have increased for compounds in the water. This pleasure craft. condition is called eutrophication. The proliferation of non-native species Increased incidences of tumours or has created problems. One recent deformities in animals. example is the rapidly expanding The presence of certain organisms zebra mussel population, introduced which indicate unsanitary conditions. from the ballasts of a European The Coliform bacteria, for example, freighter into the Great Lakes. Zebra are a sign that the system may mussels have few natural predators, contain organisms that cause a and because the female can produce variety of human diseases such as 30 000 eggs yearly they are expected About 7.6% of diarrhoea, typhoid, and cholera. to spread throughout most of the Canada is A change in chemical properties. freshwater systems of North America. covered by fresh Perhaps one of the most significant This mussel species is already water in lakes has been a reduction of pH in water clogging industrial and municipal and rivers 755 165 square caused by acid rain. water treatment intake pipes, coating kilometres. To Many symptoms of poor ecosystem boats and piers, and causing beach this can be health occur simultaneously. For closures. arldPd instance, increased lake acidity may kill 195 059 square certain species, thereby allowing the Q79 kilometres of temporary proliferation of species more perennial snow tolerant of acidity. and ice. Why are wetlands important? Canada's rivers and lakes Q 78. contain enough Wetlands provide a critical habitat for a water to flood the Why is aquatic ecosystem wide range of plants and animals, and entire country to support one third of the wildlife species a depth of more health important to humans? identified as endangered, threatened or than 2 metres. vulnerable by the Committee on the Human health and many of our activities Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. are dependent on the health of aquatic They play a critical role in making ecosystems. Most of the water that we development environmentally sustainable. drink is taken from lakes or rivers. If the Wetlands provide "outdoor laboratories" lake or river system is unhealthy, the for education and scientific research, and water may be unsafe to drink or contribute to landscape variety and open unsuitable for industry, agriculture, or space. recreationeven after treatment. Uses of Wetlands are among Canada's most aquatic ecosystems are impaired when valuable and productive ecosystems. these systems are unhealthy. For They generate between 5 and 10 billion example: dollars annually in economic returns to Inland and coastal commercial Canadians. Wetlands support fisheries have been shut down due to commercial and sports fishing, waterfowl fish or shellfish contamination or the hunting, trapping, recreation, peatland loss of an important species from the forestry, water purification, groundwater system. discharge, and flood peak modification.

A Primer on Fresh Water 29 37 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water Art ecosystem perspective 980. Q 81. How can we protect our Can we restore the health of remaining wetlands? an aquatic ecosystem? Through conservation programs. Wet- Perhaps, but it takes time and is land conservation encompasses the dependent on the nature of the protection, enhancement and use of disturbance. The effects of dredging, for wetland resources according to principles example, may last from one to several that will assure their highest long-term years, but many of the displaced social, economic and ecological benefits. organisms such as fish can reestablish It is recognized that some wetlands themselves. In other cases, more severe should be protected and managed in disturbances (e.g., dam construction) may their natural state; some actively cause local extinctions of already managed to allow sustained, appropriate endangered species. These ecosystems are use of wetland renewable resources; and unlikely to recover naturally. some developed for their non-renewable In many cases, mechanisms exist that resource values. allow us to help restore ecosystem health A significant program that aims at or minimize detrimental impacts caused by Canada holds protecting our remaining wetlands is the human use. Some of these mechanisms 20% of the North American Waterfowl Management are: world's fresh Plan (NAWMP). In 1986, the govern- Environmental Legislation: Legislation water, but has ments of Canada and the United States such as the Canadian Environmental only 9% of the signed the Plan in reaction to the sharp Protection Act (CEPA) is designed to world's fresh renewable water; decline in waterfowl populations ensure that Canadians and the aquatic the rest is "fossil associated with the destruction of their environment are protected from water," a legacy habitat. They were joined by Mexico in exposure to toxic substances and from of the melting 1993. the risks associated with the use of Pleistocene ice The Plan itself outlines the scope of the chemicals. sheets. work to be done on a continental basis Integrated Resource Planning: This and provides broad guidelines for habitat approach ensures that relationships protection and management actions. among land use, development, water Many partners - from federal and flows, water quality, and aquatic provincial or state governments to non- ecosystems are considered prior to the governmental organizations and land use designations for areas. landowners representing various Technology: Measures to improve the interests, work in partnership to achieve quality of waste discharges and to the NAWMP's goal to restore, protect and lower both water demands and effluent enhance wetland habitat for the benefit of loadings are being implemented in waterfowl, biodiversity and humans. response to environmental and water To receive additional information on the use concerns. NAWMP, contact: Environmental Monitoring: Monitor- ing of chemicals in the water, sediment Communications and organisms helps us to identify North American Waterfowl Management potential ecosystem problems and to Plan track existing problems. c/o Canadian Wildlife Service Compensatory Measures: For Environment Canada example, a fish hatchery operation can Ottawa, Ontario produce young fish which a disturbed K lA OH3 habitat can no longer supply.

30 A Primer on FYesh Water Water In Canada

Water-In Canada

Q 82. groundwater tends to be salty and unsuitable for many uses. Approximately 60% of Canada's fresh Is Canada a "water-rich" water drains north, while 90% of the country? population lives within 300 kilometres of the Canada-U.S. border. Many areas have restricted water supplies, and water Canada has Assessing the "water-richness" of Canada availability constitutes a major concern for about 9% of the is a complex process involving many water management. Even in the Great world's geographic, physical, economic and social Lakes basin, the world's largest fresh-water renewable issues. Canada's fresh water can be found lake system, some off-lake areas in freshwater in the form of rivers, lakes, groundwater, southern Ontario experience periodic and supply, ice and snow. Considering that on an even chronic water shortage, and ground- compared with average annual basis, Canadian rivers water "mining' takes place (i.e., more water 18% for Brazil, discharge close to 9% of the world's is taken out of the aquifer than is being 9% for China, renewable water supply, Canada appears recharged). In this region, a significant and 8% for the to have a generous water endowment. increase in the consumptive use or a United States. Aggregate measures, however, can be reduction in the supply of Great Lakes deceiving. waters would result in a lowering of Some areas in the Interior of British long-term mean levels of the lakes. Columbia, southern Prairies, and the high In many of the settled areas of the Arctic experience arid or semi-arid climates country, water is extremely polluted, and is (less than 35 centimetres of annual either unsuitable for human, animal and precipitation). In these areas, the water industrial use or usable only at a relatively supply is further limited because the high cost of treatment.

A Primer on Fresh Water 31 10 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water In Canada

WATER FLOW COMPARISONS

1 cubic metre per second (m3 /s) = 31 536 cubic decametres per year (dam3/yr) = 86 400 cubic metres per day (m3/d) = fills 2000 backyard swimming pools per day = 1000 rail tank cars per day

83. recorded either digitally or on graph paper or in digital form. Rate of flow (or discharge) requires How do you measure water in multiple measurements of channel lakes and rivers? depth, width, and flow velocity to yield the average discharge in the stream crossing for a given water level. The Water Survey of Canada, Environment Measurements can be made from a Canada, along with many contributing bridge, by wading in a stream, by boat agencies presently measure the rate of flow or from a cableway strung across the (discharge) in rivers and record the levels of river. In winter, the measurements are lakes and rivers at more than 3100 made through the ice. locations in Canada. With sufficient measurements of flow Water levels are read manually by over a variety of water levels (including The Great Lakes' gauge readers or continuously extreme lows and highs), a water coastline accounts for 4% (10 000 TYPICAL RIVER FLOWS (m3/s) kilometres) of the (from lowest to highest daily average) total length of Canada's coasts. Daily Annual Location River Average Highest Lowest

P.E.I. Dunk River at Wall Road 2.63 84.7 0.212 Sask. Qu'Apelle River near Lumsden 5.20 436 0 N.B. Lepreau River at Lepreau 7.37 340 0.028 Man. Manigotagan River near Manigotagan 8.25 103 0.065 Ont. Rideau River at Ottawa 38.9 583 1.48 N.S. St. Mary's River at Stillwater 43.0 974 0.15 Ont. Saugeen River near Port Elgin 56.5 1 030 5.72 Nfld. Gander River at Big Chute 117 1 170 2.78 Alta. Athabasca River at Hinton 173 1 200 10.8 Y.T. Yukon River at Whitehorse 242 646 32.6 Sask. South Saskatchewan River at Saskatoon 259 3 940 14.2 Que. Riviere aux Outardes at Chute-aux-Outardes 385 2 830 10.5 N.B. Saint John River below Mactaquac 810 11 100 21.5 Ont. Ottawa River at Britannia (Ottawa) 1 290 5 060 334 Nfld. Churchill River above Upper Muskrat Falls 1 740 6 820 253 B.C. Fraser River at Hope 2 710 15 200 340 Ont. Niagara River at Queenston 6 010 9 760 2 440 Ont. St. Lawrence River at Cornwall 7 540 10 200 4 500 N.W.T. Mackenzie River at Norman Wells 13 200 33 300 3 680 Source: Water Survey of Canada, 1990

32 A Primer on Resh Water

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water In Canada

level-discharge relationship is supplies, irrigation facilities, and established at each location so that the countless other structures. discharge can be computed from To plan and conduct environmental measured water levels. programs and assessments related to Historical records from 7700 active and water quality, fisheries, and wildlife discontinued sites permit the habitat. estimation of streamflow at ungauged To ensure that the nation's water locations. resources are developed in a manner that conserves and protects the 984. environment. The most severe flooding and Why do you need to know how 985. erosion losses much water Canada has? along the shores of the Great Which are the largest bodies of Lakes occurred Water level and discharge information is water in Canada? during essential for the wise management of 1985-1986. Canada's water resources. For example: To allocate water between various Our rivers and lakes north of 60° latitude users. constitute some of Canada's largest water To manage water resources or bodies. The Mackenzie River, for example, minimize the impacts of extreme flows is over 4000 kilometres long and is the (e.g., flood protection, floodplain country's largest river. Great Bear Lake, mapping, diversion canals and N.W.T., is the world's ninth largest (by irrigation). area) lake. The St. Lawrence - Great Lakes To design and construct bridges, drainage basin is the largest in southern canals, culverts, roadways, water Canada.

I I I LONGEST RIVERS Mackenzie. IN CANADA St. Lawrence (klometres) *Canadian portion only Nelson

Chu chi I (Sask.)

Peace

Fraser

North Saskatchewan

Ottawa

Athabasca

Yukon

Liard

Assini oi e

Severn

Alban 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

A Primer on Fresh Water 33

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water In Canada

LARGEST LAKES Huron, Ont.' IN CANADA Area In km2 x 1000 Great Sear. N.W.T. I Total area including islands Superior. Ont. 'Canadian portion only Great Slave, N.W.T.

. Man. ErieOnt' Ontario, Ont' Athabasca, Sask. Reindeer, SaskJMan.

Smaihvood Reservoir. Nfld. Nell ling, N.W.T. i Winnipegosis, Man. Nipigon, Ont. Manitoba, Man. I I Dubawnt, N.W.T. Lake of the Woods, Ont./Man.- AmedivalL N.W.T. Melville, Nfld.

Q 87. Q 86. What is meant by sustainable What percentage of Canada's development of water Twenty-six fresh water is found in the resources? percent of all Northwest Territories? Canadians rely on groundwater Sustainable development is defined by the for domestic use. The Northwest Territories covers 34% of Canadian Council of Ministers of the Large areas of Canada's landmass, and has 18% of its Environment as "development which the country are lake area. Average annual runoff produced ensures that the utilization of resources dependent on within the Northwest Territories is 18% of and the environment today does not groundwater the total for Canada, and another 5% of damage prospects for their use by future such as Prince that total flows into the Northwest generations." For example, development Edward Island, Territories from the south. such as building a pulp and paper mill on New Brunswick, Saskatchewan The Northwest Territories portion of a river may involve activities that damage and south- Canada's fresh water must be estimated or destroy our soil, water and atmospheric western Ontario. on the basis of the total mean annual flow systems as well as our genetic resources. of rivers, as accurate data on water stored To make the development "sustainable," in its lakes, underground and in glaciers environmental and economic planning are unavailable. However, northern runoff cannot proceed independently of each is less significant than commonly perceived other. They must be integrated. Our because the North is a cold desert. water resources must be developed in Relatively little water is actually circulating harmony with the natural ecosystem so in the hydrologic cycle, due to permafrost that neither the water resource nor the conditions, seasonal storage of water in plant and animal life dependent on it are snow, and long-term storage in glaciers. depleted or destroyed for short-term gain

34 A Primer on Fresh Water 42 Water In Canada

About 7.6% of depleted or destroyed for short-term gain country, the seasonal fluctuation of high Canada is and at the expense of future generations. and low flows strengthens a stable covered by fresh Long-term economic growth depends on a relationship among natural forces such as water in lakes healthy environment. climate, sediment transport and and rivers freshwater discharge to the marine 755 165 square environment. For example, the Mackenzie kilometres. To 988- this can be River system has two inland deltas and added 195 059 Is the water that flows into the one of the world's largest marine deltas, square kilo- the Mackenzie Delta. (A delta is sediment metres of oceans from lakes and rivers deposited where a river discharges into a perennial snow wasted? lake or ocean.) Most of the birds using and ice. the western flyway make their home in Canada's rivers Not at all.It is an essential part of the these deltas or use them to rest and feed and lakes global hydrologic cycle. This water is vital on their long migrations. Northern rivers contain enough to navigation, recreation, fish and wildlife flowing into the Arctic Ocean are an water to flood the support and waste dilution, and so essential component of the hydrologic entire country to a depth of more sustains the lifestyles of large and small cycle and contribute to this large aquatic than 2 metres. communities across Canada. Even in the ecosystem. least populated northern reaches of this

MACKENZIE RIVER BASIN 05. c J./64- Mackenzie (MAJOR DELTAS) Delta

200 mi 300 km

A Primer on Fresh Water 35

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 4 Water How we share It

Water-How we share it

Q 89. government in its management. Some basins (often referred to as Canada-U.S. 'boundary waters") extend beyond the What is a river basin? Canadian border, such as the Saint John A flue-minute River basin. The Great Lakes are an shower with a A river basin is the total land area drained example of a very large transboundary standard shower by a river and its tributaries. basin. head uses 100 litres of Q 90. water, whereas a Q91. flue-minute shower with a Do most river basins fall Do we divert water between low-flow shower head uses within provincial, territorial different river basins in 35 litres of or national boundaries? Canada, and if so why? water. River basins are defined by topography. More water is diverted between drainage Smaller basins (sub-basins of the larger basins in Canada than in any other basins) often fall within political- country in the world. This amounts to administrative boundaries. However, approximately 4400 cubic metres per most larger basins extend well beyond second or the equivalent flow of a river the these boundaries. For example, the size of the Ottawa River. Unlike other Mackenzie River basin contains seven countries which divert from where water provincial and territorial boundaries, as is abundant to where it is scarce, or from well as federal lands, and involves three where there are few people to where there provinces, two territories and the federal are many, Canada diverts water mostly to

36 A Primer on Fresh Water Water How we share it

QUEBEC

EDMUNDSTON NEW GRAND FALLS BRUNSWICK

MAINE

FREDERICTON

SAINT JOHN RIVER BASIN

0 50 100 mi

0 80 160 km SAINT JOHN

Each clay concentrate flows for hydroelectric be partially relocated as water levels rose humans replace development, especially in northern behind a control structure so that the 2.4 litres of projects such as on the Nelson River reservoir could spill through a diversion water, some Program in Manitoba and in the channel into the Nelson River. The through drinking James Bay area in Quebec. and the rest community was also forced to abandon taken by the their commercial fishing on the lake, as body from the Q 92. mercury from flooded soils accumulated foods we eat. in the whitefish to dangerous levels. Interbasin water transfers may also What are the advantages and result in the introduction of incompatible disadvantages of diverting and undesirable organisms in receiving streamflow from one drainage water bodies, leading to degradation of the aquatic ecosystem. basin to another? Decisions on interbasin diversion must rest upon a consideration of the balance Diverting flow from one basin to another between benefits and costs to society over leads to economic development through the long term and upon how these may be energy generation, irrigation and fairly shared. industrial output. On the other hand, disadvantages are likely to appear in terms of social and Q 93. environmental consequences, especially in the immediate vicinity of project construc- How do problems arise over tion and flow regime change. Sometimes communities are flooded out or people are sharing water? forced to change their livelihood or otherwise modify their traditional way of life. We are all downstream from somebody For example, the native community of else! If water is removed upstream, it will Southern Indian Lake in Manitoba had to not be available downstream. If the river

A Primer on Fresh Water 37 45 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Water How we share it flow is reduced, even temporarily, by Q95. upstream storage, ferry traffic, wetlands and fish spawning may suffer. Similarly, pollution upstream can make the water Are there any rules governing unfit for use downstream and force how two or more provinces/ downstream users to clean it up before territories share the use of they can use it. water from the same river or Q 94. lake? The Prairie Not unless the governments involved have Provinces Water Is it complicated to work out negotiated such rules among themselves. Board, a federal a solution to user conflicts? For example, after many years of negotia- provincial board, tion, the three Prairie provinces agreed in administers the 1969 on a formula for sharing common Prairie Provinces The biggest hurdle often is to obtain water sources. The agreement ensures Master willingness on the part of all parties to Agreement on that one half of the natural (eastward) Apportionment study the problems, and to negotiate a flow of waters arising in or flowing (1969). The solution. A number of studies are through Alberta is reserved for Agreement required (technical, economic, Saskatchewan, and that one half of the requires Alberta environmental, sociological, legal). eastward flow arising in or flowing to deliver 50% of Public involvement at various stages through Saskatchewan is reserved for annual natural during the process is vital. Above all, what Manitoba. flows to is needed is a real commitment from all Negotiations are also under way for a Saskatchewan. parties to maintain and protect the water broad water management agreement for In the case of the resource. the huge Mackenzie River basin. South Saskatchewan River, an average of 80% has been passed on since 1970. Even CANADA GR AT LAKES -ST. LAWRENCE RIVER BASIN during the severe UNITED J (CHICAGO DIVERSION) drought of 1988, STATES \.. 58% of the river's natural flow entered Saskatchewan.

siteoslilt0 Chicago Sanitary Canal IllinoisRainved rShip 0 50 100 mi ST. LOUIS F I i 0 80 160 km

38 A Primer on Fresh Water 40 Water How we share it Q 96. purposes. It has since been modified and adapted for municipal water supply and for disposal of effluents. Under a U.S. What arrangements do Canada Supreme Court order, the rate of diversion and the U.S. have for the of water from Lake Michigan into the sharing of boundary waters? Illinois-Mississippi system is limited to 90 cubic metres per second. Periodically, The oldest and most important agreement pressures develop within the United between Canada and the United States is States to increase the rate of diversion, the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. The but these are resisted by Canada and by basic principles for the use, obstruction most of the Great Lakes states because of and diversion of boundary and trans- the adverse effects such increases would boundary waters are established by the have on hydropower, navigation and other Treaty and administered by the economic and environmental aspects International Joint Commission (IJC). throughout the St. Lawrence drainage Under the Treaty's "umbrella," many other basin. agreements have been negotiated for specific water bodies. The studies leading Q 98. to these agreements and the subsequent implementation of the agreements are A lot has been written about done either under the auspices of the IJC or bilaterally by Canada and the United water exports. Does Canada States. Today, over 30 international export any water now? water boards exist between Canada and the United States each with equal At present, Canada's water exports are representation of both countries. negligible. They amount to less than Some neighbouring provinces and states 0.0001% of the national supply. Exports also enter into voluntary arrangements for are in the form of bottled water and water managing and protecting boundary water used in beverages and as piped supply in resources. The best known example is transboundary communities such as the Great Lakes Charter of 1985, signed St. Stephen, New Brunswick, and Calais, by the eight governors and two premiers Maine, where water supplies are of the Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River exchanged in both directions across the states and provinces, respectively. The border. Bulk water exports by ocean Charter commits the signatories to tanker await the development of foreign manage the water resources of the Great markets. Large-scale river diversions Lakes basin cooperatively and in across the Canada-U.S. boundary have accordance with a watershed strategy that never been approved. In1986, Canadians spent reflects the unity of the Great Lakes $80million on system. bottled water. The bottled water Q97. business grew to salesof $130 million in1988 Why is the Chicago Diversion and $150 million from Lake Michigan of in1989. interest to Canada?

The Chicago Diversion originated in 1848 as a means of connecting the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River for navigation

A Primer on Fresh Water 39

BEST COPYAVAILABLE 4 Water How we manage it

Water-How we manage it

9 99. provincial and municipal governments. For the most part, waters solely within the provinces are their property and hence Why do we need to manage their responsibility. The waters flowing in water? the national parks, Indian reserves, and other federal lands in the provinces come The use of water is increasing as urban, under federal jurisdiction. The federal industrial and agricultural expansion has government is also responsible for waters that form or flow across the international Thirty percent of led to increasing competition for the same the earth's fresh water supply. Water management involves boundary between Canada and the United water exists as the anticipation and/or resolution of user States and for waters in the Northwest and ice in the form of conflicts in a manner that protects the Yukon territories. glaciers and ice environment. Good water resource Shared federal-provincial responsibilities caps. management maintains a balance between encompass interprovincial water-related growing social and economic demands, issues, agriculture, health and significant and the continued ability of our freshwater national water issues such as interbasin resource to support them. tranfers. 9 100. 9 101. Who is responsthle for water Who is responsible for water management in Canada? management in the North?

In Canada, the responsibility for water The federal government, specifically the management is shared by the federal, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs

40 A Primer on Fresh Water 48 Water How we manage it

(DIAND), manages the water resources in the Yukon and Northwest Territories under 9 103. The Northern Inland Waters Act. The Act provides an unique framework for What are Canadian Heritage managing water resources. Among other Rivers? things, it establishes a water board in each territory, which is responsible for conservation, development and use of The Canadian Heritage Rivers System, water resources. The Water Resources established in 1984, is a cooperative Division of DIAND is responsible for program of the Government of Canada and enforcing the Act, and for resource all of the provincial and territorial planning, forecasting floods, collecting governments. The program objectives are: data, and supplying information to to give national recognition to the territorial water boards and the public. important rivers of Canada; and The Department's Indian and Inuit Affairs to ensure long-term management that Program is concerned with water quality will conserve their natural, historical and the effect of polluted water on the and recreational values for the benefit health of the native peoples. Furthermore, and enjoyment of Canadians now and in under its Northern Affairs Program, the future. DIAND's Water Resources Division shares Since 1984, sections of 27 rivers, with a responsibility with the Water Survey of total length of more then 5700 kilometres, Canada for the hydrometric network that have been added to the system. These include the following: monitors flows on major water courses and the Main and Bay du Nord in shares responsibility with Environment Newfoundland; Canada for collecting water quality data. the and Shelburne in Nova Specifically, Environment Canada's Scotia; Northwest Territories Programs Branch, in the Hillsborough in P.E.I.; cooperation with the Department of Indian the St. Croix in New Brunswick; and Northern Affairs and other government the Jacques Cartier in Quebec; and private sector agencies, operates about the Mattawa, French, Grand, Boundary 142 water level gauges in streams and Waters and Missinaibi in Ontario; lakes, and about 36 water quality sites. the Bloodvein in both Ontario and Similarly, in the Yukon Territory, data are Manitoba; monitored at 74 water level gauges and the Seal in northern Manitoba; about 7 water quality sites. the Clearwater and Churchill in Saskatchewan; 9 102. the Athabasca, North Saskatchewan and Kicking Horse in the Mountain What are the major water National Parks in Alberta and British Columbia; The value of issues in the Yukon? the Alsek, The Thirty Mile section of the Canadian water Yukon River and the Bonnet Plume in treatment and As the Yukon is a subarctic desert, and delivery systems the Yukon; water is relatively scarce, water is of critical the South Nahanni, Kazan, Thelon, totals $100 concern to its industries, communities and billion. Soper and Arctic Red in the Northwest ecosystems. However, flooding connected Territories. with ice formation and breakup is also a Rivers currently being considered by their common concern, as most communities managing governments for possible are built in valleys. From a management nomination include: point of view, transboundary questions are the Coppermine in the Northwest also relevant, as water flows across Territories; Yukon's borders with Alaska, British the Tatshenshini in the Yukon and Columbia, and the Northwest Territories. British Columbia;

A Primer on Fresh Water 41

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 4S Water How we manage it

*Bonnet Plume River

The Thirty Mile (Yukon River) "05 Alsek per River River

*Main River Clearwater River

1.1%. *Bay du Nord River North X* ugh Saskatchewan Churchill River 071 Margaree River

St. Croix *Shelburne Boundary,' River River THE CANADIAN HERITAGE Waters RIVERS SYSTEM Grand River * NOMINATED ACCEPTED (not yet designated)

the St. Marys in Ontario; Severn Canal and its Murray Canal the Restigouche in New Brunswick. Branch in Ontario. The objective of the Historic Canals is to Q104. foster their appreciation, enjoyment and understanding by providing for navigation; What are Historic Canals? by managing cultural and natural resources for purposes of protection and presentation; and by encouraging Initially built for transportation, trade and appropriate uses. in some cases defence, a number of The larger canals have an impact that Passage of a Canada's canals no longer serve com- goes far beyond the movement of boats major storm on mercial purposes. These canals, now from one lock to another. They form Lake Erie can cause short-term referred to as historic canals and managed extensive heritage corridors that link cities lake level by the Canadian Parks Service, have and towns and whose drainage basins changes of as developed into places to appreciate and encompass large geographical areas. The much as enjoy cultural and natural heritage canal corridors encompass rivers, lakes, 5 metres. through land and water based activities. wetlands, channels and locks. To provide The historic canals vary from the single adequate water for the canals, a complex locks of the St. Peter's Canal in water control system is in place using Nova Scotia, the Sainte-Anne, Carillon and dams and monitoring systems. Natural the Saint-Ours canals in Quebec, and the landscapes and habitats along the canals Sault Ste. Marie Canal in Ontario, to the complement the cultural resources and complex systems of interconnected locks, contribute to the environmental quality of channels and natural waterways of the the canals. The historic canals are Chambly Canal in Quebec, the Rideau managed to provide the optimum balance Canal and its Tay Branch, and the Trent- between the use of the natural resources, 42 A Primer on Fresh Water 5 Water How we manage it

especially water, the safety of the public The federal government's role of protect- and the protection of the historic ing lakes and streams in the Yukon and resources. Northwest Territories includes responsi- In some cases, the management of these bility similar to the provincial governments' heritage corridors is subject to federal- function in the south. provincial agreements. Various levels of Water legislation is now being updated, government, as well as groups and con- consolidated and strengthened in support cerned individuals have a role in fostering of implementation of the federal govern- public appreciation, enjoyment and under- ment's policy on water. standing of the values represented by the historic canals. 9 106. Canada has more lake area 105. than any other What is the Federal Water country in the Policy? world. What laws do we have in Canada to protect lakes and rivers? The Federal Water Policy, the first of its kind in Canada, was formulated after several years of intensive consultation, As water resources in Canada are both within and outside government. It primarily the responsibility of the addresses the management of water provinces, most of the laws used to protect resources, balancing water uses with the lakes and rivers are passed and enforced requirements of the many interrelation- by the provinces. Examples of provincial ships within our ecosystem. legislation include Manitoba's Clean The policy takes into account the needs of Environment Act, Ontario's Water all Canadians in its overall objective: Resources Act, and Newfoundland's Waters to encourage the use of fresh water in Protection Act. an efficient and equitable manner con- The federal government does, however, sistent with the social, economic and maintain involvement to protect Canadian environmental needs of present and lakes and rivers where an issue affects a future generations. large number of Canadians or when it To manage Canada's water resources, the involves more than one province, territory federal government has defined two main or other countries. The federal govern- goals with respect to water ment's legislation related to the protection to protect and enhance the quality of the of our lakes and rivers includes: water resource; the Canada Water Act; to promote the wise and efficient the International River Improvements management and use of water. Act; The policy stresses that government the International Boundary Waters action is not enough. Canadians at large Treaty Act; must become aware of the true value of the Fisheries Act; water in their daily lives and use it wisely. the Northern Inland Waters Act; We cannot afford to continue undervaluing the Navigable Waters Protection Act; and therefore wasting our water resources. the Canadian Environmental Protection Copies of the Federal Water Policy are Act; available from: the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act; Enquiry Centre the Canada Shipping Act; Environment Canada the Government Organization Act; Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 the Lake of the Woods Control Board Tel. (819) 997-2800 Act; Toll free 1-800-668-6767 the Dominion Water Power Act. Fax (819) 953-2225

A Primer on Flesh Water 43

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5 Water How we manage it

THE FEDERAL WATER POLICY STRATEGIES AND POLICY STATEMENTS

ECONOMIC FEDERAL PUBLIC INSTRUMENTS WATER AWARENESS POLICY

IMPROVED WATER MANAGEMENT SCIENCE LEGISLATION LEADERSHIP

SUSTAINABLE yik DEVELOPMENT AK

INTEGRATED PLANNING

POUCY STATEMENTS TO WHICH THE 5 STRATEGIES ARE BEING APPUED:

1. Management of Toxic Substances 14. Management of Northern Water Resources 2. Water Quality Management 15. Native Water Rights 3. Ground Water Contamination 16. Canada-U.S. Boundary and Transboundary 4. Fish Habitat Management Water Management 5. Provision of Municipal Water and Sewer 17. Potential interjurisdictional Water Conflicts infrastructure within Canada 6. Safe Drinking Water 18. International Water Relations 7. Water Use Conflicts 19. Drought 8. Interbasin Transfers 20. Flooding 9. Water Use in irrigation 21. Shoreline Erosion 10. Wetlands Preservation 22. Climate Change 11. Hydroelectric Energy Development 23. Water Data and Information Needs 12. Navigation 24. Research Leadership 13. Heritage River Preservation 25. Technological Needs

A Primer on Fresh Water 52 Water How we manage it

To determine the environmental participants. The process is one of self- implications of any federal water-related assessment every federal department, proposal, the government must apply the and therefore every federal Minister, is "Environmental Assessment and Review responsible for applying EARP to pro- Process." posals that affect their area of decision- making responsibility. 107. Four courses of action are possible (see diagram) (1)If no potentially adverse environmen- What is the Environmental tal effects will result from a proposal, Assessment and Review or if its effects are insignificant or can Process? be mitigated with known technology, the proposal may proceed. In the developing (2)If the potentially adverse environmen- countries,8096of The Federal Environmental Assessment illnesses are tal effects are significant or if public water-related. and Review Process (EARP) requires that concern is such that a public review is the environmental implications of any desirable, then, at the discretion of the proposals for which the federal government Minister of the initiating department, has decision-making authority be con- the proposal is referred to the Minister sidered prior to taking irrevocable of the Environment for a review by an decisions, and as early in the planning independent panel. process as possible. (3)If the potential adverse environmental The 1984 EARP Guidelines Order, which effects are unknown the initiating is a law of general application, establishes department must undertake a more the process and sets out the requirements, detailed study, known as an initial procedures and responsibilities of the environmental evaluation, then

EARP: INITIAL ASSESSMENT

AUTOMATIC INSIGNIFICANT ADVERSE PROPOSAL EXCLUSION ADVERSE EFFECTS MAY EFFECTS MITIGABLE PROCEED

INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION ABILITY ADVERSE SCREENING ABANDON OF PROPOSALS TO MITIGATE- EFFECTS- OR POSTPONE UNKNOWN UNKNOWN

REFERRED TO SIGNIFICANT MODIFY PUBLIC AUTOMATIC MINISTER OF ADVERSE 4- THE ENVIRONMENT I AND CONCERN REFERRAL EFFECTS FOR PUBLIC RESCREEN REVIEW

A Primer on Flesh Water 45

a Water - How we manage it

reassess whether the proposal war- understanding of the existing environ- rants a public review; if so, the mental conditions. This permits predic- Minister of the initiating department tion of the impacts that the project will must refer it to the Minister of the have on the environment and is the Environment for an independent essence of the Environmental Impacts panel review. Statement, which is produced for a (4)If the potential adverse environmental project under EARP. Based on these effects of the proposal are unaccept- predictions, design engineers working able, the initiating department will with other professionals such as biologists either modify and reassess it, or can mitigate impacts by adjusting the abandon it. project design. The department which initiates the review retains the decision-making power either to proceed to the next step of the 109. process, to abandon the project or to approve the project if environmental, What does environmental social and economic criteria are satisfied during any particular phase of the review. screening try to achieve? Departments with specialized knowledge, such as Environment Canada, are obligat- Screening determines whether a water ed to provide initiating agencies, upon resource proposal, such as building request, with information, data and dykes, filling a reservoir or dredging a advisory assistance within their area of harbour, will have potentially adverse expertise for the review of proposal. environmental effects and whether these can be corrected. If so, the project may go Toilets (while 108. consuming nearly ahead without detailed environmental one quarter of impact studies but, only after scientists our municipal Does water resource and water managers have designed water supply) adequate measures to protect the environ- use over 40% development take into ment or minimize negative environmental more water than account environmental effects. needed. considerations? For water development projects, these measures might include the construction Under the self-assessment role, federal of fish ladders for migrating fish, creating departments hold themselves accountable wetland habitat for waterfowl nesting, and for following the steps described for EARP. industrial processes to reclaim pollutants These steps require all departments to and prevent their entry into the hydrologic screen proposals for potentially adverse cycle. These measures along with their environmental effects and to ensure that costs are then considered part of the public concerns have been considered. overall project. All water development projects affect some part of the environment. Smaller 9 110. projects, such as constructing a weir or operating a water intake pipe, will harm the environment to a lesser degree than, Is the federal role in for instance, a large-scale hydroelectric environmental assessment project that diverts or stores large quantities of water. under reform? However, the negative impacts of such a large project can be reduced. After a site Yes. In June 1990, the Minister of the has been chosen, field studies, monitoring Environment tabled a Bill in Parliament and a literature review will provide an entitled the Canadian Environmental

46 A Primer on Flesh Water 5. Water How we manage it

Assessment Act (CEAA) as the dominant Provincial and federal environmental initiative among a series of environmental legislation is also updated from time to time assessment reforms. The Act sets out the to protect more comprehensively the government's responsibilities and proce- ecological resources from the impacts of dures for the environmental assessment of development. projects under federal jurisdiction. The Bill received Royal assent on June 23, 1992 9 113. and is expected to be proclaimed in 1994. Why is it necessary to obtain a 111. licence for surface or groundwater use? What do we mean by an "ecosystem approach" to water To share the resource equitably, a licence is management? required to define the allowable quantity and timing for each use. Although seemingly abundant, the groundwater supplies An ecosystem or holistic approach to water in North America in certain regions are management requires an understanding of coming close to depletion and are under the interrelationships of the biological, siege from contaminants. chemical and physical properties of an aquatic ecosystem. Once we understand 9 114. the ecosystem, we can take certain measures to minimize large-scale and long- Can floods be predicted? Approximately term impacts resulting from human uses. 60% of Canada's In cases where these impacts cannot be fresh water avoided, alternative measures can be taken. To some extent. Flood forecasting and drains north, For example, the loss of fish habitat caused warning systems minimize flood damage while 90% of our by dam construction may require the oper- effects including the prevention of the loss population lives ation of a fish hatchery to replace young of life. within 300 fish which can no longer be supplied by the There are a number of forecasting centres kilometres of our lost habitat. across Canada which monitor conditions southern border. that influence flooding. When it is deter- 112. mined that there is a potential for flooding, the forecasters notify dam operators, municipal officials, emergency personnel, Are there any rules on how to and the media. Warning systems and deal with sensitive water emergency procedures are put into effect to development? allow residents to protect their homes, move valuables to safe ground, and if necessary, to evacuate. The warning system Manuals and handbooks dealing with habi- also allows officials time to prepare such tat protection are produced by environ- protective actions as sand-bagging along mental and regulatory agencies as well as river banks. non-government organizations and univer- sities. Also guidelines such as the 9 115. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines to maintain water quality for stream cross- ings and fish passage, and for waste dis- Water management also deals posal are developed and continually with flood protection. What are improved. Such guidelines recommend some methods of protection? conditions that should not be exceeded in order to sustain a particular water use and The most recognizable methods of flood the well-being of the aquatic environment. protection are engineering works such as

A Primer on Fresh Water 47

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 5% Water How we manage it

dams, dykes and diversion channels. These such as the Ottawa River is a compromise types of projects can be expensive to build between low flow augmentation and flood and maintain and yet they do not neces- protection. In water-short areas, there is sarily provide a complete guarantee of no compromise, only conservation. safety. During extreme events, floodwaters may overtop dykes and exceed the capacity Q 117. of reservoirs and diversion channels. To reduce the amount of damage and Is water research necessary for suffering caused annually by floods, the federal government, in cooperation with the water management? provincial and territorial governments, initiated the National Flood Damage Definitely. Research is a valuable manage- Reduction Program. One of the main aims ment tool. To manage water properly, we of the program is to produce maps out- rely on a scientifically sound knowledge lining the floodplain and its boundaries. base. The Federal Water Policy states that Once the floodplain is identified and "scientific and socio-economic research, designated a flood-risk area, development technological development and data collec- in this area is discouraged. tion are essential tools for dealing with the Existing buildings or new construction increasing scope and complexity of the may be protected by various floodproofing emerging water problems." methods. For example, buildings may be Environment Canada has two national elevated on posts, piers or landfill. Flood- water research institutes - the National walls or ring dykes can protect groups of Water Research Institute in Burlington, buildings. Foundations and basements Ontario, and the National Hydrology can be designed to allow some flooding. Research Institute in Saskatoon, Consideration should also be given for the Saskatchewan. They conduct a Canada- Ten litres of protection of electrical, sewage and other wide program of research and development water is required in water science, in partnership with other to manufacture services. 1 litre of Canadian research establishments and the gasoline. Q 116. international freshwater scientific community. A major goal is to advance our understanding of the physical, chemical What is the importance of and biological processes controlling the reservoirs to water quality and health of aquatic ecosystems. management? Q 118. Without a water supply from reservoirs Why do we need all this many of our farming communities in western Canada (the British Columbia Interior, information on water? southern Alberta, and Saskatchewan) would have drastically reduced populations To protect and conserve our aquatic envi- and economic activity. During the past ronment, and to manage it in ways that several years Regina and Moose Jaw have will continue to make it available for use greatly depended on the Diefenbaker by our generation and future generations. Reservoir. The water supplying the Environmental monitoring, resource in- Lac Seul reservoir averted a major power ventories, and field studies all provide a outage in Manitoba and northwestern record of past or present water resource Ontario in 1988. conditions. The data describe the state of Like everything else, reservoirs are not a the resource for different geographic loca- perfect solution, but they do substantially tions and at different times; the physical, reduce the probability of failure of domes- chemical, biological characteristics of tic water supply and power shortages. the water; and the economic, social and Management of reservoirs in many systems institutional makeup of the system of

48 A Primer on Fresh Water Water How we manage it

which the water resource is a part. For and for simulation of operational con- example, the information includes data ditions. on water quantity and quality, runoff The planning models use water quantity, characteristics, water user needs, fish and water quality and various socio-economic waterfowl numbers, vegetation distribu- data collected over 30 years or so to tions and habitat inventories. This com- study the impact on the environment of puterized information is stored in data proposed dams, changes in operating banks (e.g., ENVIRODAT, a national water procedures, dykes, diversions, effluent quality database). treatment plants, and new water uses. Other information is obtained by study- Such studies usually assume that past ing changes in the resource over time. For meteorological conditions are represent- this, an understanding of the cause-effect ative of future ones. A planning model relationships between different environ- was used to design the weirs for the mental components, the water resource Peace-Athabasca Delta, the world's and human activities is necessary. These largest freshwater delta, to mitigate the relationships can be determined from detrimental effects of the upstream experimental research in the laboratory or Bennett Dam constructed in 1970. in the field, from physical or numerical Operational models are used to forecast models including computer simulation. flows, levels and water quality over a From models scientists can forecast trends relatively short period of several days or Permission for in water quantity and quality. Based on weeks. An operational model is used for any shoreline this and information obtained by monitor- the Ottawa River basin to determine flow construction that ing the water resource, managers develop releases from the 13 major reservoirs in extends into the water management strategies, plan the water of the the system. Great Lakes development of river basins and operate must be obtained water facilities such as dams for the 9 121. from four levels greatest benefit to all users. of government federal, 119. Is artificial intelligence used provincial, in water management? municipal, and local Why is computer modelling coservation used? Yes. Expert Systems (ES), a special field authority. of artificial intelligence, is used in water The use of mathematical models to simu- management for decision-making. ES late real situations represents an import- uses a collection of facts, rules of thumb, ant step in both the understanding and and other knowledge to help make infer- appreciation of the governing factors in a ences on how to deal with the water typical water management problem. management problem under considera- Models can also be used as a compara- tion. Expert Systems differ substantially tively cheap, fast and safe way in which to from conventional computer programs in test the viability of various water resource that their goals may have no mathemati- management strategies before deciding cal solution, and they must make infer- which to implement. ences based on incomplete or uncertain information. They are called expert 9 120. systems because they address problems normally thought to require human spe- What are these computer cialists for solution. Their success lies in their ability to analyze large amounts of models supposed to achieve? information according to some pre- established rules, resembling the reason- Mathematical models are used by water ing of a human expert or group of managers both for planning purposes experts.

A Primer on Fresh Water 49

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 57 Water How we manage it Q 122. Q 123. Where is water-related Are the developments in information available? computer and communication technology affecting the way Canada, being a large and regionally diverse country, has many centres and agencies Canadian agencies manage involved in water-related research activities. water resources? This results in several thousand published and unpublished reports being produced Currently, supercomputers can process each and every year. It is a complex and several hundred million operations per time-consuming task for a researcher to second. This enables water managers to identify and locate this material. cope with increasingly complex problems To simplify the task, the Ecosystem in a limited time frame. Satellite tele- Conservation Directorate offers quick and communications make data almost in- easy access to full bibliographic citations, stantly available from remote locations keywords and abstracts for Canadian water On average, most and environment-related documents. Its shore-protection for monitoring, forecasting, and operational decision-making purposes. How- database, AQUAREF, is available for public structures online searching through CAN/OLE, a re- designed by ever, even with these significant inform- property owners atics advances, formidable problems trieval system offered by the Canada have a useful life remain in such areas as short and long- Institute for Scientific and Technical of ten years. term river flow and lake levels fore- Information (CISTI) of the National Research casting, and in prediction of the path- Council. For information on the system, ways and effects of toxic contaminants in contact: aquatic systems. In day-to-day manage- Ecosystem Conservation Directorate ment, computer modelling programs are, Environment Canada for example, assisting in reservoir opera- Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 tion, flood forecasting and municipal Tel. 953-1532 water demand. Fax (819) 994-1691

50 A Primer on n-esh Water Water The Great Lakes

0114. 6 .

Water-The Great Lakes

The issues and concerns faced by water Q 124. resource managers in Canada are perceived not only in a national perspective (i.e., those problems common How important are the Great For every to all parts of the country) but also in a Lakes to Canada and the 1 centimetre regional context (i.e., the interaction of a United States? decline in Great wide range of problems, many specific to Lakes water a particular area, such as droughts on the levels, 93 metric Prairies, floods in the coastal provinces, The Great Lakes basin (the lakes plus the tonnes must be and fluctuating water levels in the Great area of land draining into the lakes) is subtracted from Lakes). home to 8.5 million Canadians and the total load a The example of the Great Lakes 32.5 million Americans. Great Lakes boat can carry. presented here provides insight into one As well as providing drinking water, the of the regions making up the Canadian lakes have played a major role in the mosaic. The Great Lakes and development of both countries. They St. Lawrence River basin, which straddles allow goods to be shipped to and from the the Canada-United States border, heart of the continent; they are a source contains 18% of the world's fresh surface of hydroelectricity; and they are the site water; its coastline accounts for 4% of the of industrial, commercial, agricultural total length of Canada's coasts and is and urban development. The Great Lakes home to over 35% of the Canadian are also an important source of population. recreation.

A Primer on Fresh Water 51 Water The Great Lakes

Q 125. supplies, sports fishing, waterfowl hunting, trapping of furbearing animals, of the problems harvesting of trees, berries and other What are some vegetation, adult and public school educa- and issues confrontingthe tion, and a variety of recreational pursuits. managementof theGreat Unfortunately, humans also alter and fill Lakes system? in wetlands in order to use them for other purposes. About half of the original wetlands in the Great Lakes basin have The Great Lakes - St. Lawrence River basin already been lost, and they continue to is a huge ecosystem unto itself. The disappear at a rate of 8100 hectares per specific problems in the Great Lakes have year. Today, about 170 000 hectares of changed over time but the broader issues wetlands remains along the shores of the have remained - those of deteriorating Great Lakes. As the area of Great Lakes water quality through industrial and wetlands shrinks, the importance of municipal uses, fluctuating water levels, remaining wetlands becomes even greater. flooding, and shoreline erosion. Other concerns are acid rain, airborne toxics, Q 127. depletion of wetland areas, increased demand on shoreline recreation facilities, the sale and diversion of its waters, and Is recreation an important use climate change. of theGreatLakes? One out of every three Canadians Q 126. Recreation is an increasingly important and one out of social and economic activity in the Great every seven U.S. How important are wetlands as residents depend Lakes basin as more people gain greater on the Great partof theGreat Lakes amounts of leisure time. Millions of Lakes for their ecosystem? people, from both within and outside the water, using Great Lakes basin, use the lakes and their almost 140 000 shorelines for a variety of recreational litres of water a Great Lakes coastal wetlands are highly purposes. second. productive and diverse communities of Among the major recreational activities plant and animal life. They are essential to around the Great Lakes are boating, sports the well-being of the Great Lakes fishing, hunting, bird watching, camping, ecosystem. Their unique vegetation swimming, windsurfing, hiking, picnicking, provides cover and food for wildlife, helps and driving along the shoreline. protect shoreline from erosion, and helps All of these recreational uses created the improve water quality by filtering need for provincial and federal parks, pollutants and trapping sediment. marinas, hotels, motels, resorts, These wetlands are home to a wide variety of wildlife species some of which campgrounds and nearby land-based are classified as rare, endangered or recreational establishments. In addition, threatened. Many fish species depend many people who use the Great Lakes for upon Great Lakes wetlands for spawning, recreation have cottages or homes along resting and feeding. Wetlands are also the shoreline. critical for waterfowl as both nesting and migration habitat. In fact, it is estimated Q 128. that 68 bird species are either totally or partially dependent upon Great Lakes What causesthe levels ofthe basin wetlands. Sixteen mammal and 20 reptile species are heavily dependent upon GreatLakes torise and fall? the wetlands of southern Ontario. Wetlands are also important to humans. The Great Lakes receive their supplies of We use them for observing wildlife, water water from inflows from upper lakes in the

52 A Primer on Fresh Water 6? Water The Great Lakes chain, and from precipitation that falls on Q 130. their drainage basins and then runs off into the lakes. They lose water through evaporation, outflows, and consumptive How often do extremes in lake uses. The difference between the amount levels occur? of water coming into the lakes and the amount going out determines whether lake levels remain steady, whether they Since long-term lake level fluctuations are rise or whether they fall. influenced by weather trends, we cannot Because the combined effects of predict when and how often extremes in precipitation, runoff and evaporation vary levels will occur. from season to season, the levels of the Levels of some of the Great Lakes fell to lakes also vary seasonally. Lake outflows record lows in the late 1920s, mid-1930s also vary as a function of lake levels. For and in the mid-1960s. Extremely high example, the lakes usually rise in the levels occurred in the early 1950s and spring due to additional runoff and recede early 1970s, as well as in the mid-1980s. in late summer and early fall as runoff The most recent long-term extremes in decreases. levels occurred between 1985 and 1987 Lake levels can also change over periods when all of the lakes, except Lake of years for the same reasons. During Ontario, reached their highest levels periods of years in which precipitation recorded in this century. Over the and runoff in the Great Lakes basin are following two years, lake levels dropped high and evaporation low, lake levels can rapidly to their long-term averages. gradually increase. In periods of low precipitation and high evaporation, lake Q 131. levels can gradually lower. The resultant variation in lake outflows offsets a part of these water supply variations, but not all, How do water level hence the variations in lake levels. The fluctuations of the Great length of time required for noticeable Lakes affect people living changes, and the degree of the changes, will depend upon how wet or how dry the along their shores, and weather is and on the ambient industrial and commercial temperature. operations?

Q 129. For people living on the shores of the Great Lakes, high water levels can Why do water levels increase the risks of shoreline flooding, sometimes seem to change erosion and damage caused by waves Many homes lose from day to day? during storms. Industries and more water from commercial operations along the lake leaky taps than shores can face the same risks. While they need for Water levels can change in a matter of high water levels allow ships to carry cooking and hours. Sustained high winds from one heavier loads, extremely high levels and drinking. direction can push the water level up at flows through the connecting channels one end of the lake (this is known as can cause navigation problems. High "surge") and make the level go down by a levels can also be beneficial for corresponding amount at the opposite hydroelectric plants, which can produce end. When the wind stops, the water will more electricity with the additional water, oscillate back and forth until it levels itself during extremely high water levels, out, much as it would in a bathtub. This however, the amount of water available to is known as "seiche." these plants exceeds their capacity.

A Primer on Fresh Water 53 Water The Great Lakes

Erosion of shoreline at one point will example, structures have been built to supply the sand that helps build a beach regulate the outflows of Lakes Superior and farther downshore. This contributes to the Ontario. Lake Superior has been regulated constantly changing shorelines of the Great since 1921 as a result of hydroelectric and Lakes. Low water levels increase the size of navigation developments in the St. Marys lakeshore beaches, but extremely low levels River. Lake Ontario has been regulated can expose unsightly and, sometimes, haz- since 1960 after completion of the ardous rocks and other objects that can St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project. pose problems to both swimmers and Besides assisting navigation and allowing boaters. As well, very low water levels can for dependable hydropower, these make some recreational docking facilities regulation structures have helped, to some unfit for use. For industries depending extent, to stabilize the range of lake level upon ships to transport their products and fluctuations. supplies, extremely low levels can interfere Diversions bring water into, and take with loading and unloading. These ships water out of, the Great Lakes. The Long may also have to carry lighter loads. Very Lac and Ogoki diversions bring water into low levels may cause reduced flows through Lake Superior from sources that once connecting channels and thereby result in flowed into James Bay. They were con- reduced hydropower production. structed for hydropower generation and Wetlands also depend upon fluctuating logging. The Lake Michigan Diversion at water levels to maintain their ecological Chicago takes water out of Lake Michigan balance over the long term. This is true to the Mississippi River for domestic, even though extremely high lake levels may navigation, hydroelectric and sanitation flood marshes and lead to changes in their purposes. The Welland Ship Canal, which plant and animal populations, and very low was built to allow ships to bypass Niagara levels may dry marshes out and cause Falls and to provide water for power other changes to plant and animal life. generation, routes additional water out of 1000 kilograms Lake Erie into Lake Ontario. of water is 9 132. In addition, the St. Clair and Detroit rivers required to grow have been dredged and modified. This has 1 kilogram of How have land use changes in caused some drop in the levels of Lakes potatoes. Michigan and Huron. Channel and shore- the Great Lakes basin affected line modifications in connecting channels of the lakes themselves? the Great Lakes have affected lake levels and flows as well. For example, in the Since early in this century, significant Niagara River construction of bridges and changes in land use have occurred such as infilling of shoreline areas have slightly deforestation, urbanization and drainage of reduced the flow carrying capacity of the wetlands. These activities have changed river. the runoff characteristics of the drainage However, human effects upon lake levels basin. Although the extent to which these are small compared to the changes caused changes affect lake levels is not yet clear, by the natural factors described earlier. research to date suggests that land use changes have increased flows into the 9 134. Great Lakes from some tributary streams. 9 133. Who is responsible for flooding and shoreline erosion on Do people also cause changes properties along the Great in lake levels? Lakes?

Several human activities have affected Planning for and managing the develop- levels and flows of the Great Lakes. For ment of the Canadian shoreline is the

54 A Primer on Fresh Water Water The Great Lakes

St. Marys R. (Soo Locks) St. Clair River Straits of Lake St. Clair Welland DULUTH CHICAGO Mackinac Detroit River St. Canal Lawrence 183 m 176 m 173 m River Lake Superior Lake Lake Michigan Lake Erie 74 m Huron SEA LEVEL

229 m Lake Ontario

244 m 405 m NOTE: 1. The profile is taken along the long axes of the lakes. 2. The vertical exaggeration is 2 000 times. GREAT LAKES PROFILE 3. Lake surface elevations are given above sea level, (Source: The Great Lakes - An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book, 1987) and maximum depths are below surface level.

responsibility of provincial and municipal withhold approval for the use, obstruction governments. The protection of shore or diversion of boundary waters. When property is primarily the responsibility of requested, it investigates matters of the property owner. concern to one or both governments, and upon mutual consent, it may decide 9135. matters of difference between both governments, although it has never been How do both countries share asked to do so. The Great Lakes Water Quality the Great Lakes? Agreement (1972, 1978, 1987 Protocol) and the Niagara River Treaty (1950) are examples of arrangements between Of the world's The Canada-United States border runs freshwater through four of the five Great Lakes and Canada and the United States that have supply, over two their interconnecting rivers, causing them followed the Boundary Waters Treaty. The thirds is found to come under federal jurisdiction in both federal governments of both countries underground. countries. Although the land on and provide considerable technical support to under the shores of the lakes is provincial and work closely with the International jurisdiction in Canada, the waters of the Joint Commission, for example on the boundary lakes and rivers and issues management, wise use and stewardship thereof are federal matters. of the Great Lakes. For more information, Canada and the United States are party contact: to the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty which was designed to address and Canadian Office of the International resolve disputes and issues regarding Joint Commission the Great Lakes and other boundary 100 Metcalfe Street waters. This Treaty established the Ottawa, Ontario, K1P 5M1 International Joint Commission, a Tel. (613) 995-2984 quasi-judicial body which may give or Fax (613) 993-5583

A Primer on Fresh Water 55

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 63 Water The Great Lakes

9 136. warnings of events to the many Great Lakes interests affected by lake levels. Environment Canada is also cooperating What is being done to resolve with and providing funds to the Province of concerns about fluctuating Ontario and local conservation authorities Great Lake water levels? to identify, map and plan for more effective use of shoreline lands that are prone to flooding and erosion hazards. The Governments of Canada and the United States provide the mandate and 9 137. technical support to the International Joint Commission (IJC) for their international What is being done to resolve operational Boards that monitor and de- concerns about Great Lakes cide upon flow conditions in the St. Marys, Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers. The water quality? Commission has also carried out three major Reference studies on Great Lakes Canada-U.S. agreements provide the levels and is currently engaged in another framework for resolving water quality bilateral study of ways to lessen the concerns in the Great Lakes. adverse effects of fluctuating Great Lakes The first Great Lakes Water Quality water levels. This Reference study was Agreement (GLWQA) was signed in 1972 requested by the Canadian and United and has been amended and strengthened States governments in 1986, when Great on two occasions in 1978 and by Protocol Lakes water levels were at record highs for in 1987. The 1972 GLWQA prescribed, the century. among other things, standards designed to Residential achieve certain water quality objectives. indoor water use The current IJC Reference study is examining all lake level interests in the The 1978 Agreement placed more emphasis in Canada is as on industrial pollutants and toxic sub- follows: basin, including owners of shoreline property, fishermen, boaters, shippers, wildlife, stances and set water quality objectives for Toilet 45%; specific chemicals. Bathing and and producers of hydroelectricity. An interim report describing measures that The main goal of the 1987 Protocol to the showering 30%; 1978 Great Lakes Water Quality Agree- Laundry 20%; could be taken under crisis conditions to Drinking and alleviate problems associated with high ment between Canada and the United cooking5%. water levels on the lakes was transmitted to States is to advance the cleanup of the the Governments on November 22, 1988. Great Lakes by dealing with all sources of pollution entering them. The Protocol has A report dealing with progress through the also strengthened the public accountability first of two phases of the current five-year of the Parties to the Agreement, which Reference study was sent to the must now report publicly to the Governments on August 25, 1989. Among International Joint Commission on the the findings to date was the recommenda- progress of implementation of specific tion that federal governments should not at annexes to the Agreement. present undertake commitments to further Every two years, the Great Lakes Water regulate Great Lake levels as a means of Quality and Science Advisory Boards pre- reducing shoreline flooding and erosion on sent their reports on progress (or lack the lakes. thereof) toward achieving the objectives of The Government of Canada through the GLWQA. These reports are available Environment Canada has also established from: a Great Lakes Water Level Communica- tions Centre in Burlington to act as a focal International Joint Commission point for information and public contact 100 Ouellette Ave. regarding fluctuating Great lakes water Windsor, Ontario levels. In times of extreme high or low N9A 6T3 water levels, the Centre is instrumental in Tel. (519) 256-7821 providing important information and Fax (519) 256-7791

56 A Primer on Fresh Water 64 Water Do's And Dont's

Water-Do's And Dont's 1. Individuals Can Do they do not drip. Something About Promptly repair any leaks in and around your taps and faucets. (One leak can Conserving and Using waste several thousand litres of water Water Wisely! per year.) When hand-washing dishes, never run Surrounded by seemingly unlimited water continuously. Wash dishes in a freshwater resources, Canadians are the partially filled sink, and then rinse them world's most profligate water users. In using the spray attachment on your reality, our supplies of clean, usable water faucet. are limited, and we must learn to use them If you have an electric dishwasher, use more wisely if we are to continue to enjoy it only to wash full loads, and use the the benefits they provide. Water shortest cycle possible. Many dish- conservation begins at home, and you can washers have a conserver/water-miser do your share by observing the following cycle. DOs and DONTs in and around the house. When cleaning fruit and vegetables, What better place to start to use water never do so under a continuously wisely than in our own homes. It's where running tap. Wash them in a partially we spend most of our time and where we filled sink and then rinse them quickly have the most control over how things are under the tap. done. When boiling vegetables, save water by using just enough to cover them and In the Kitchen use a tightly fitting pot lid. Keep a bottle of drinking water in your fridge, instead of running your tap until Use an aerator and/or a water flow- the water gets cool each time you want reducer attachment in your sink some water. Do not forget to rinse the faucets, to reduce your water usage. container and renew the water every Be sure to always turn taps off tightly so 2-3 days.

A Primer on Fresh Water 57

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 65 Water Do's And Dont's In the Bathroom Water Conservation Water & Habitat Conservation, CWS About 75% of indoor home water use Environmental Conservation Service occurs in our bathrooms, and toilets are Environment Canada the single greatest water users. Ottawa, Ontario KlA OH3 When washing or shaving, partially fill the sink basin and use that water rather Flush your toilet only when really than running the tap continuously. necessary. Never use the toilet as a (This saves about 60% of the water garbage can to dispose of cigarette normally used.) Use short bursts of butts, paper tissues, etc. water to clean razors. Check regularly for toilet tank leaks When brushing your teeth, turn the into the toilet bowl by putting a small water off while you are actually amount of food colouring into the tank brushing instead of running it con- and observing whether it spreads to the tinuously. Then use the tap again for bowl without flushing. Repair leaks rinsing, and use short bursts of water promptly. Ensure that the float ball is for cleaning your brush. (This saves properly adjusted so that the tank about 80% of the water normally used.) water level does not exceed the height Be sure to always turn taps off tightly so of the overflow tube. Also, periodically they do not drip. examine whether the plunge ball and Promptly repair any leaks in and around flapper valve in the tank are properly taps and faucets. "seated," and replace parts when Use aerators and/or water flow-reducer necessary. devices in all your faucets. Regularly check for leaks at the base of Use either low-flow shower heads or your toilet, and have any promptly adjustable flow-reducer devices in your repaired. shower heads. (They reduce flow by at Never flush garbage of any kind down least 25%.) the toilet. Household cleaners, paints, Take short showers - turn off the water solvents, pesticides and other while you are soaping and shampooing, chemicals can be very harmful to the and then rinse off quickly. Some environment. And paper diapers, shower heads have a shut-off lever dental floss, plastic tampon holders, which allows you to maintain the water etc., can create problems at sewage pressure and temperature when you treatment plants. stop the flow. Locate your water meter and Short showers use less water than periodically record the reading late in baths, but if you still prefer bathing, the evening and again early the next avoid overfilling the tub. morning between any water use, and Reduce water usage by about 20% by then compare the readings to see placing a weighted plastic bottle filled whether there was any water leakage with water in the water tank of your during the night. If so, track it down toilet. You can reduce water usage by and have it repaired. 40% to 50% by installing low-flush toilets. Low-cost "inserts" for the toilet tank are In the Laundry Room an alternative to plastic bottles. With a toilet insert, a family of four could save Only wash full loads in your washing 45 000 litres of water per year. Toilet machine. inserts are available at most hardware Use the shortest cycle possible for and plumbing supply stores. For washing clothes, and use the information and availability of water "suds-saver" feature if your machine conserving devices, write to: has one.

58 A Primer on Fresh Water 63 Water Do's And Dont 's

If your washer has an adjustable water- Young or freshly transplanted garden level indicator, set the dial to use only plants need small quantities of water as much water as is really necessary. more frequently until they are well If you have a septic system, spread out established. your washing to avoid heavy-use days Most shrubs and young trees need that could overload the system. water only once per week, even in warm Use only cleaning products that will not weather. harm the environment when they are Wash your vehicle only when absolutely washed away after use. Look for necessary. "environmentally friendly" products Clean sidewalks and driveways with a when shopping. broom, not with a hose. Promptly repair any leaks around the taps, hoses or fittings of your washer, or Editor's Note: Part 1 of this section the taps of your laundry sink. was taken with permission from 'What Atlantic Canadians Can Do For Their In the Yard and Garden Environment," which was produced by the Atlantic Region Departmental Lawns and gardens require only Communications Unit of Environment 5 millimetres (1/5 inch) of water per day Canada. during warm weather. Less is needed during spring, fall or cool weather. Now Available... Water lawns every three to five days, rather than for a short period every day. Water: No Time to Waste A Consumer's Apply 5 millimetres of water for each Guide to Water Conservation is a new day since the last watering in warm Environment Canada publication. The weather. guide is a valuable tool for assessing how The amount of water applied can easily we use water and how savings can be be measured by placing a can in the achieved. The theme of the publication is area being sprinkled. Measure the time that water conservation doesn't mean do- required to apply the proper amount of ing without, it simply means reducing the water and use this information for amount of water we waste. The guide is future sprinkling. available at bookstores throughout Canada Grass which is green does not need or can be ordered from: water. Water is required when the grass starts to develop a black tinge along the Canada Communication Group top. Recovery is almost immediate - Publishing when water is applied at this stage. Ottawa, Canada, K1A 0S9 Blackening does not hurt grass; Tel. (819) 956-4802 browning does. - Fax (819) 994-1498 Do not overwater in anticipation of a shortage. Soil cannot store extra water. Use shut-off timers or on-off timers, if 2. Avoid Hazardous possible. Do not turn on sprinklers and Household Products leave for the day. Water during the cool part of the day, in the morning or evening. Do not water Most proprietory household chemicals are on windy days. safe to use and are environmentally Keep your lawns healthy and maintain friendly, when used according to the direc- them at a height of 6.5 centimetres tions on the package. However, some have (2.5 inches). Taller grass holds water a harmful cumulative effect on the environ- better, and a healthy lawn will choke ment when they are over-used or incorrect- out weeds. ly disposed of.

A Primer on FYesh Water 59 BEST COPYAVAILABLE 67 Water Do's And Dont's

Buy only those environmentally water or your food, dispose of them hazardous products you really need, properly. and buy them in quantities you will be able to completely use up, so that you Always try to use completely, or to will not have to worry about disposing of recycle to other people, all of the con- the leftovers later. tents of such products as oven cleaners, Additional information on nonhazardous toilet bowl cleaners, sink drain cleaners, household products and their uses can bleaches, rust removers, and most other be obtained from the following and acidic and alkali products. This also similar organizations: includes paints, solvents, carpet and furniture cleaners, polishes, and glues. Canadian Manufacturers of Such items as disposable diapers, Chemical Specialties Association dental floss, plastic tampon holders, and 56 Sparks - Suite 702 hair can create many problems in the Ottawa, Ontario, MP 5A9 sewage treatment plant - they should all Tel. (613) 232-6616 be tossed into the wastebasket, not the Fax (613) 233-6350 toilet. Your local fire department will normally Consumers Association of Canada accept unwanted leftovers of barbeque 307 Gilmour Street starter fluids, lighter fluids, gasoline and Ottawa, Ontario, K2P OP7 furnace oils. Tel. (613) 238-2533 Where possible, choose latex Fax (613) 563-2254 (water-based) paint instead of oil-based paint. Use it up instead of storing or The federal government endorses products dumping it. that are environmentally responsible. Look for the Environmental Choicem EcoLogoTM. 4. Avoid Pesticides/ Products bearing this label have been Hazardous Materials In tested and certified by the Environmental Your Garden/Yard Choice Program. Each dove represents a sector of societyconsumers, industry, and government - linked together to Some pesticides and hazardous materials improve and protect the environment. The accumulate in the groundwater and food logo identifies the products that maximize chain, and are toxic to various forms of life, energy efficiency and the use of recycled or particularly when they are not used recyclable materials and minimize the use according to the directions specified on the of environmentally hazardous substances. package or when the empty containers are Consumers can make informed choices. disposed of without proper precautions. For more information, contact: The use of pesticides to control house- Environmental Choice Program hold or garden pests can be reduced or Environment Canada avoided by employing more environ- 107 Sparks Street, 2"d Floor mentally responsible methods such as: Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 pulling weeds by hand; Tel. (613) 952-9440 pulling off and disposing of infested leaves; 3. Don't Misuse Your picking off larvae; using an insecticidal soap solution Household's Sewerage to dislodge or suffocate insects, or System dislodging them using a stream of water from a garden hose; If you do not want toxic chemicals in rotating garden crops each year to household products harming the environ- prevent depletion of soil nutrients ment and even coming back to you in your and to control soil-borne diseases;

60 A Primer on Fresh Water Water Do's And Dont's

cultivating your garden. Regular Be willing to change your attitudes, hoeing will control weeds and keep behaviours and expectations. plants healthy and more resistant Join and support local and national to insects. groups that work to solve Use natural fertilizers such as environmental problems and lobby bonemeal or compost. governments and industry to make Spread sand rather than salt to get changes on institutional, national and traction on winter ice on your international levels. There are about sidewalks and driveways. 1800 such groups across Canada. Urge and support federal, provincial 5. Don't Dump Hazardous and municipal action on Products Into Storm environmental issues. Drains Boycott products that are harmful to the environment. Urge stores to Storm drains empty into underground abandon wasteful packaging and to storm sewer systems, discharging directly use biodegradable materials. into nearby lakes and streams which are Exercise your rights as citizens: important habitats for fish and wildlife. request information; participate in Unlike domestic wastes collected by public hearings; serve on advisory sanitary sewers, the contents of storm committees; and address review sewers are generally not treated at sewage boards. Under federal legislation, treatment plants prior to their discharge these options are available within the into a stream/lake. Therefore: terms of the Canada Water Act, the Dispose of oils, detergents, paints and Canadian Environmental Protection solvents and other products at local Act, and the National Flood Damage recycling or disposal facilities. Some Reduction Program. There are communities organize special days for others... collecting these wastes, or have their When voting in municipal, provincial own hazardous-waste sites. You may and federal elections, make your contact your health and environment choices based on the environmental officers or local waste disposal views, positions and practices of the company for times and place. If your candidates. community doesn't have either, Educate your children and your promote the idea. friends. Environmental problems cannot be solved in a single 6. Don't Sit Back and Just generation; your children and their Let Things Happen children will have to carry on the work.

An informed and committed public can We welcome readers' comments about become a powerful constituency in this Primer. These can be sent to the support of environmentally concerned address below. To obtain copies of the political leaders, and even by themselves Primer and/or a list of other publications provide an impetus and catalyst on on water, contact: environmental issues. You can make a difference! Enquiry Centre Become informed. Environment Canada Trust in the ability of the individual to Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 take action and work together with Tel. (819) 997-2800 other individuals, experts and Toll free 1-800-668-6767 politicians. Fax (819) 953-2225

A Primer on Fresh Water 61

6 9 3EST COPY AVAILABLE Water Glossary

Selected Glossary

A arid - Describes regions where precipitation is insufficient in quantity for most crops and where agriculture is impractical without acid rain - Rainfall with a pH of less than 7.0. irrigation.(See: Q10 82) One source is the combining of rain and sulphur dioxide emissions which are a by-product of atmosphere - The layer of gases combustion of fossil fuels. Also referred to as acid surrounding the earth and composed of deposition and wet deposition. considerable amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, (See: Q22 64 77 125) and oxygen. (See: Q2-4 64 65) algaeSimple rootless plants that grow in sunlit atmospheric water - Water present in the waters in relative proportion to the amounts of atmosphere either as a solid (snow, hail), nutrients available. They can affect water quality liquid (rain) or gas (fog, mist). (See: Q19 64) adversely by lowering the dissolved oxygen in the water. They are food for fish and small aquatic animals. (See: Q57 68 75) B algae blooms - Rapid growth of algae on the bioaccumulation - A general term surface of lakes, streams, or ponds; stimulated by describing a process by which chemical nutrient enrichment. (See: Q59 77) substances are consumed and retained by organisms, either from the environment alkali Any strongly basic substance of hydroxide directly or by eating food containing the and carbonate, such as soda, potash, etc., that is chemicals. (See: Q76: Bioacaunulation and soluble in water and increases the pH of a Biomagnification diagram) solution. (See: pH Scale diagram) biodegradable - Capable of being broken aquifer - The underground layer of water-soaked down by living organisms into inorganic sand and rock that acts as a water source for a compounds. (See: Dos & Don'ts) well; described as artesian (confined) or water table (unconfined). (See: Q14-17 22 82: biological diversity (biodiversity) The Groundwater System diagram) variety of different species, the genetic

62 A Primer on Fresh Water Water Glossary variability of each species, and the variety of the source; e.g., the release of water into the different ecosystems that they form. (See: Q63) atmosphere; the consumption of water by man, animals, and plants; and the biomagnification (biological magnification) - A incorporation of water into the products of cumulative increase in the concentrations of a industrial or food processing. (See: Q82 128) persistent substance in successively higher levels of the food chain. (See: Q76; Bioaccumulation and contaminant - Any physical, chemical, Biomcugnification diagram) biological, or radiological substance or matter that has an adverse affect on air, biota - Collectively, the plants, microorganisms, water, or soil.(See: Q20 21 47 48 62 112 and animals of a certain area or region. (See: Q44) 122) bog - A type of wetland that accumulates cooling tower - A structure that helps appreciable peat deposits. They depend primarily remove heat from water used as a coolant; on precipitation for their water source, and are e.g., in electric power generating plants. usually acidic and rich in plant matter with a (See: Q59) conspicuous mat or living green moss. (See: Q71) cubic metre per second (m3/s) - A unit C expressing rate of discharge, typically used in measuring sireamflow. One cubic metre climate - Meteorological elements that per second is equal to the discharge in a characterize the average and extreme conditions of stream of a cross section one metre wide and the atmosphere over a long period of time at any one metre deep, flowing with an average one place or region of the earth's surface. velocity of one metre per second. (See: Q91 (See: Q4 5 8-10 82 88) 97; Typical River Flow diagram) climate change - The slow variations of climatic D characteristics over time at a given place. (See: Preface; Q5 6 125) dam - A structure of earth, rock, concrete, or other materials designed to retain water, conform bacteria - A group of bacteria used as an creating a pond, lake, or reservoir.(See: Q I I indicator of sanitary quality in water. Exposure to 26 29 60 70 81 104 111 114 115 118 120) these organisms in drinking water causes diseases such as cholera. (See: Q77) delta - A fan-shaped alluvial deposit at a river mouth formed by the deposition of combined sewers A sewer that carries both successive layers of sediment. (See: Q14 88 sewage and storm water runoff. 120; Mackenzie River Basin diagram) condensation The process by which a vapour demand - The numerical expression of the becomes a liquid or solid; the opposite of desire for goods and services associated with evaporation. In meteorological usage, this term is an economic standard for acquiring them. applied only to the transformation from vapour to (See: Q10 16 81 122) liquid. (See: Hydrologic Cycle diagram) depletion - Loss of water from surface water conservation - The continuing protection and reservoirs or groundwater aquifers at a rate management of natural resources in accordance greater than that of recharge. (See: Q15 16 with principles that assure their optimum long- 113) term economic and social benefits. (See: Q38-41 80 101 116 136) dioxin - Any of a family of compounds known chemically as dibenzo-p-dioxins. consumptive use - The difference between the Concern about them arises from their total quantity of water withdrawn from a source potential toxicity and contamination in for any use and the quantity of water returned to commercial products. (See: Q76)

A Primer on Fresh Water 63 Water Glossary discharge - In the simplest form, discharge means effluent - The sewage or industrial liquid outflow of water. The use of this term is not waste which is released into natural water restricted as to course or location and it can be by sewage treatment plants, industry, or used to describe the flow of water from a pipe or septic tanks. (See: Q57 81 97 120) from a drainage basin. Other words related to it are runoff, streamflow, and yield. (See: Q17-19 31 environment - All of the external factors, 54 59 66 79 80 82-84 88; Dos & Don'ts: conditions, and influences which affect an Groundwater System diagram) organism or a community. (See: Preface: Introduction; Q29 47 52 62 63 68 76 84 87 dissolved oxygen (DO) - The amount of oxygen 88 99 108 112 118 120; Dos & Don'ts) freely available in water and necessary for aquatic life and the oxidation of organic materials. environmental impact assessment - The (See: Q43 57) critical appraisal of the likely effects of a proposed project, activity, or policy on the dissolved solids (DS)Very small pieces of environment, both positive and negative. organic and inorganic material contained in water. (See: EARP diagram) Excessive amounts make water unfit to drink or limits its use in industrial processes. environmental monitoring - The process of checking, observing, or keeping track of diversion - The transfer of water from a stream, something for a specified period of time or at lake, aquifer, or other source of water by a canal, specified intervals. (See: g81 118) pipe, well, or other conduit to another watercourse or to the land, as in the case of an irrigation erosion The wearing down or washing system. (See: Q84 92 96-98 115 120 125 133 135; away of the soil and land surface by the Great Lakes -St. Lawrence River Basin diagram) action of water, wind or ice. (See: Q6 57 125 126 131 134 136) domestic use - The quantity of water used for estuary - Regions of interaction between household purposes such as washing, food rivers and nearshore ocean waters, where preparation, and bathing. (See: Preface) tidal action and river flow create a mixing of dredging - The removal of mud from the bottom of fresh and salt water. These areas may water bodies using a scooping machine. This include bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, disturbs the ecosystem and causes silting that can and lagoons. These brackish water eco- kill aquatic life. systems shelter and feed marine life, birds, (See: Q5 61-63 81 109) and wildlife. See wetlands. (See: Q62 70) drought - A continuous and lengthy period during eutrophic lakeShallow, murky bodies of which no significant precipitation is recorded. water that have excessive concentrations of (See: Preface; Q3 5 9 10 15) plant nutrients causing excessive algal dry deposition - Emissions of sulphur and production. (See: Q57 70) nitrogen oxides which, in the absence of water in eutrophication - The natural process by the atmosphere (i.e., rain), settle to the ground as which lakes and ponds become enriched particulate matter. (See: Q64) with dissolved nutrients, resulting in increased growth of algae and other dyke An artificial embankment constructed to microscopic plants. (See: Q57 62 67 77) prevent flooding. (See: Q109 115 120) evaporation - The process by which a liquid E changes to a vapour. (See: Q1 4 6-8 23 58 128; Hydrologic Cycle diagram) ecosystem - A system formed by the interaction of a group of organisms and their envirorunent. (See: evapotranspiration - The loss of water from a Q8 11 29 43 63 65 68-70 75-79 81 87 88 92 102 land area through evaporation from the soil, 106 111 117 125 126) and through plant transpiration. (See: Q58)

64 A Primer on PI-esh Water 7 2 Water Glossary F flow - The rate of water discharged from a source; expressed in volume with respect to time, e.g., ms/s. (See: Q5 6 17-20 43 69 72 fen - A type of wetland that accumulates peat 81 83 84 86 88 91-93 95 101 102 116 120 deposits. Fens are less acidic than bogs, deriving 122 131-133 136; Dos & Don'ts; River Flow most of their water from groundwater rich in diagram) calcium and magnesium. (See: Q68) flood The temporary inundation of normally dry flow augmentation - The addition of water land areas resulting from the overflowing of the to a stream especially to meet instream flow natural or artificial confines of a river or other needs. (See: Q116) body of water. (See: Q3 8 11-13 60 68 84 92 102 114 115 125 131 134 136) food chain - A sequence of organisms, each of which uses the next, lower member of the flood damage The economic loss caused by sequence as a food source. (See: Q62 73 75: floods, including damage by inundation, erosion, Dos & Don'ts) and/or sediment deposition. Damages also include emergency costs and business or financial food web The complex intermeshing of losses. Evaluation may be based on the cost of individual food chains in an ecosystem. replacing, repairing, or rehabilitating; or the (See: Q75 76) comparative change in market or sales value; or on the change in the income or production caused fresh water Water that generally contains by flooding. (See: Q5 114; Flood diagram) less than 1000 milligrams per litre of flood forecastingPrediction of stage, discharge, dissolved solids such as metals, nutrients, time of occurrence and duration of a flood, etc.(See: Introduction: Q14 62 71 78 82 especially of peak discharge at a specified point on 117; Dos & Don'ts) a stream, resulting from precipitation and/or snowmelt. (See: Q101 114 122; Flood diagram) G flood fringe - The land on which water is stored as dead water during flooding, and which does not glacier - A huge mass of ice, formed on land contribute to the downstream passage of flow. by the compaction and re-crystallization of (See: Q12; Flood diagram) snow, that moves very slowly downslope or outward due to its own weight. (See: Q11 flood peak - The highest magnitude of the stage of 86) discharge attained by a flood. Also called peak stage or peak discharge. (See: Q79) greenhouse effect - The warming of the earth's atmosphere caused by a build-up of floodplain - Any normally dry land area that is carbon dioxide or other trace gases; it is susceptible to being inundated by water from any believed by many scientists that this build- natural source. This area is usually lowland up allows light from the sun's rays to heat adjacent to a stream or lake. (See: Q12 13 68 84 the earth but prevents a counterbalancing 115; Flood diagram) loss of heat. (See: Q5) floodprooflng - Any combination of structural and nonstructural additions, changes, or adjustments groundwater - The supply of fresh water to structures which reduce or eliminate flood found beneath the earth's surface (usually in damage. (See: Q115; Flood diagram) aquifers) which is often used for supplying wells and springs. (See: Preface; Q3 9 14-22 floodway - The channel of a river or stream and 30 37 43 49 58 82 113; Dos & Don'ts) those parts of the adjacent floodplain adjoining the channel which are required to carry and discharge groundwater recharge - The inflow to an the base flood. (See: Q12; Flood diagram) aquifer.(See: Q17)

A Primer on Fl-esh Water 65

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 73 Water Glossary H commonly includes Water, soil, timber, grazing land, fish, wildlife, and recreation. (See: Q81) habitat - The native environment where a plant or animal naturally grows or lives. (See: Q29 60 62 interbasin transfer The diversion of water 63 69 73 79 84 104 109 111 112 118 126; Dos & from one drainage basin to one or more Don'ts) other drainage basins. (See: Q92 100) hazardous waste - Waste that poses a risk to irrigation - The controlled application of human health or the environment and requires water to cropland, hayland, and/or pasture special disposal techniques to make it harmless or to supplement that supplied through nature. less dangerous. (See: Q52) (See: Q7 14 23-26 33 34 42 58 60 84 92) hydroelectricity - Electric energy produced by J water-powered turbine generators. (See: Q29 124 136) jokulhlaupDestructive flood that occurs hydrologic cycle - The constant circulation of as the result of the rapid ablation of ice by water from the sea, through the atmosphere, to the volcanic activity beneath the ice of a large land, and back to the sea by over-land, under- glacier. (See: Q11) ground, and atmospheric routes. (See: Q3-5 8 19 86 88 109; Hydrologic Cycle diagram) K hydrology - The science of waters of the earth; kilowatt (kW) - A unit of electrical power water's properties, circulation, principles, and equal to 1000 watts or 1.341 horsepower. distribution. (See: Q117) kilowatt hour (kWh) - One kilowatt of power I applied for one hour. (See: Q28) infiltration - The movement of water into soil or L porous rock. Infiltration occurs as water flows through the larger pores of rock or between soil lagoon - (1) A shallow pond where sunlight, particles under the influence of gravity, or as a bacterial action, and oxygen work to purify gradual wetting of small particles by capillary wastewater. (2) A shallow body of water, action. often separated from the sea by coral reefs or sandbars. (See: Q22) inflow The entry of extraneous rain water into a sewer system from sources other than infiltration, lake - Any inland body of standing water, such as basement drains, manholes, storm drains, usually fresh water, larger than a pool or and street washing. (See: Q128) pond a body of water filling a depression in the earth's surface. (See: Q2 11 14 17 30 inorganic - Matter other than plant or animal, 42-44 49 52 54 57 58 63 65 66-70 77 78 82 and not containing a combination of 83 85 86 88 92 95 101 104 105 122 124- carbon/hydrogen/ oxygen as in living things. 137; Dos & Don'ts; Largest Lakes diagram) instream use - Uses of water within the stream leaching The removal of soluble organic channel; e.g., fish and other aquatic life, and inorganic substances from the topsoil recreation, navigation, and hydroelectric power downward by the action of percolating water. production. (See: Q23) (See: Q21 58) integrated resource planning - The management litreThe basic unit of measurement for of two or more resources in the same general area; volume in the metric system; equal to

66 A Primer on Fresh Water

7 Lt Water Glossary 61.025 cubic inches or 1.0567 liquid quarts. organism - A living thing. (See: Preface; Q5 (See: Q3 28 32 36; Dos & Don'ts) 46 62 68-70 75-77 81 92) M P marsh - A type of wetland that does not parts per million (PPM) - The number of accumulate appreciable peat deposits and is "parts" by weight of a substance per million dominated by herbaceous vegetation. Marshes parts of water. This unit is commonly used may be either fresh or salt water and tidal or non- to represent pollutant concentrations. Large tidal. (See: Q68 71 131) concentrations are expressed in percentages. (See: Bioaccumulation and Biornagnification megawatt - A unit of electricity equivalent to diagram) 1000 kilowatts. (See: Q27) pathogenic microorganisms - model - A simulation, by descriptive, statistical, or Microorganisms that can cause disease in other means, of a process or project that is other organisms or in humans, animals, and difficult or impossible to observe directly. plants. (See: Q56) (See: Q6 118-120) percolation - The movement of water N downward through the sub-surface to the zone of saturation. (See: Hydrologic Cycle natural flow - The flow of a stream as it would be diagram) if unaltered by upstream diversion, storage, import, export, or change in upstream consumptive periglacial river A river in the "periglacial use caused by development. zone"; i.e., the area adjacent to the margin of a glacier. (See: Q14) navigable watersTraditionally, waters sufficiently deep and wide for navigation by all, or permafrostPerennially frozen layer in the specific sizes of vessels. (See: Q105) soil, found in alpine, arctic, and antarctic regions. (See: Q6 20 30 86) non-renewable resourcesNatural resources that can be used up completely or else used up to such pesticide - A substance or mixture of a degree that it is economically impractical to substances intended for preventing, obtain any more of them; e.g., coal, crude oil, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. metal ores. (See: Q80) Also, any substance or mixture of substances intended to regulate plant or leaf nutrient As a pollutant, any element or growth. Pesticides can accumulate in the compound, such as phosphorus or nitrogen, that food chain and/or contaminate the fuels abnormally high organic growth in aquatic environment if misused. (See: Q21 43 44 48 ecosystems (e.g., eutrophication of a lake). 58 76; Dos & Don'ts) (See: Q43 44 55 57 62 68 72 75-77: Dos & Don'ts) pH - An expression of both acidity and alkalinity on a scale of 0-14, with 7 0 representing neutrality; numbers less than 7 indicate increasing acidity and numbers oligotrophic lake - Deep clear lakes with low greater than 7 indicate increasing alkalinity. nutrient supplies. They contain little organic (See: Q44 64 65 77; pH scale diagram) matter and have a high dissolved oxygen level. (See: Q70) photosynthesis The manufacture by plants of carbohydrates and oxygen from organic - (1) Referring to or derived from living carbon dioxide and water in the presence of organisms. (2) In chemistry, any compound chlorophyll, using sunlight as an energy containing carbon. (See: Q51 55 60 66) source. (See: Q75)

A Primer on Fresh Water 67

75 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Water Glossary phytoplankton - Usually microscopic aquatic 84 87 94 96 99 101 104-106 108 109 112 plants, sometimes consisting of only one cell. 113 118 119 122; Dos & Don'ts) (See: Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification diagram) river - A natural stream of water of substantial volume. (See: Q2 3 6 11 12 14 plankton - Tiny plants and animals that live in 17 19 30 42 43 49 52 57 58 60 62 63 65 66 water. (See: Q69) 68-70 78 82 83 85-93 95 98 103-105 114 122 133) polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - A group of chemicals found in industrial wastes. (See: Q66) river basin - A term used to designate the area drained by a river and its tributaries. pond - A small natural body of standing fresh (See: Q89-91 118) water filling a surface depression, usually smaller than a lake.(See: Q69 70) runoff - The amount of precipitation appearing in surface streams, rivers, and precipitation Water falling, in a liquid or solid lakes: defined as the depth to which a state, from the atmosphere to a land or water drainage area would be covered if all of the surface. (See: Q3 4 6-10 57 65 82 128; Hydrologic runoff for a given period of time were Cycle diagram) uniformly distributed over it.(See: Q8 43 55 86 128 132) R S rain - Water falling to earth in drops that have been condensed from moisture in the atmosphere. saltwater intrusion - The invasion of fresh (See: Q2 7 11 18 43 64) surface or groundwater by salt water. (See: Q21; Groundwater System diagram) receiving waters - A river, ocean, stream, or other sanitary sewersUnderground pipes that watercourse into which wastewater or treated carry off only domestic or industrial waste, effluent is discharged. (See: Q55 59 66 92) not storm water. (See: Dos & Don'ts) recharge The processes involved in the addition sediment - Fragmented organic or inorganic of water to the zone of saturation; also the amount material derived from the weathering of soil, of water added. (See: Q7 15 / 7 18 22 82; alluvial, and rock materials; removed by Groundwater System diagram) erosion and transported by water, wind, ice, and gravity. (See: Q15 43-45 57 58 60-62 66 recyclable - Refers to such products as paper, 81 88 126) glass, plastic, used oil, and metals that can be reprocessed instead of being disposed of as waste. sedimentation - The deposition of sediment (See: Dos & Don'ts) from a state of suspension in water or air. (See: Q72) renewable resourceNatural resource (e.g., tree biomass, fresh water, fish) whose supply can seiche A periodic oscillation, or standing essentially never be exhausted, usually because it wave, in an enclosed water body the physical is continuously produced. (See: Q80) dimensions of which determine how frequently the water level changes. reservoir - A pond, lake, or basin (natural or (See: Q129) artificial) that stores, regulates, or controls water. (See: Q7 60 92 109 115 116 120 122) septic tank - Tank used to hold domestic wastes when a sewer line is not available to resource A person, thing, or action needed for carry them to a treatment plant; part of a living or to improve the quality of life.(See: rural on-site sewage treatment system. Preface; Introduction; Q4-8 14 15 31 33 34 72 80 (See: Q37)

68 A Primer on n-esh Water Water Glossary

sewage - The waste and wastewater produced by be applied to discharge whether or not it is residential and commercial establishments and affected by diversion or regulation. (See: Q7 discharged into sewers. (See: Q22 52 54 55 115) 9 19 92; Hydrologic Cycle diagram) sewage system - Pipelines or conduits, pumping surface water - All water naturally open to stations, force mains, and all other structures, the atmosphere (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, devices, and facilities used for collecting or streams, impoundments, seas, estuaries, conducting wastes to a point for treatment or etc.); also refers to springs, wells, or other disposal. (See: Q33) collectors which are directly influenced by surface water. (See: Q16 19 22 71 123) sewer - A channel or conduit that carries wastewater and storm water runoff from the suspended solids (SS) - Defined in waste source to a treatment plant or receiving stream. management, these are small particles of (See: Q30 37 52 54; Dos & Don'ts) solid pollutants that resist separation by conventional methods. SS (along with BOD) sewerage - The entire system of sewage collection, is a measurement of water quality and an treatment, and disposal. (See: Q37: Dos & Don'ts) indicator of treatment plant efficiency. silt - Fine particles of sand or rock that can be (See: Q43 55 66) picked up by the air or water and deposited as sediment. (See: Q14 62) sustainable development - Development that ensures that the use of resources and the sludge - A semi-solid residue from any of a environment today does not restrict their use number of air or water treatment processes. by future generations. (See: Introduction; Q87) (See: Q54) swamp - A type of wetland that is dominated solvent - Substances (usually liquid) capable of by woody vegetation and does not accumulate dissolving or dispersing one or more other appreciable peat deposits. Swamps may be substances. (See: Q1; Dos & Don'ts) fresh or salt water and tidal or non-tidal. (See: Q71) spoilsDirt or rock that has been removed from its original location, destroying the composition of T the soil in the process, as with strip-mining or dredging. (See: Q61-63) temperature - The degree of hotness or spring - An area where groundwater flows coldness. (See: Q5) naturally onto the land surface. (See: Q14 18 19 thermal pollution - The impairment of water 68 70) quality through temperature increase; usually storm sewer - A system of pipes (separate from occurs as a result of industrial cooling water sanitary sewers) that carry only water runoff from discharges. (See: Q59) building and land surfaces. (See: Dos & Don'ts) toxic - Harmful to living organisms. stream - Any body of running water moving under (See: Preface: Q22 29 43 44 52 62 66 67 72 gravity flow through clearly defined natural 76 77 81 122 125 137; Dos & Don'ts) channels to progressively lower levels. (See: Q17 23 43 44 54 58 70 77 83 101 105 112 132; Dos & transpiration - The process by which water Don'ts) absorbed by plants, usually through the roots, is evaporated into the atmosphere from the streamflow - The discharge that occurs in a plant surface, principally from the leaves. natural channel. Although the term "discharge" (See: Hydrologic Cycle diagram) can be applied to the flow of a canal, the word "streamflow" uniquely describes the discharge in a tributary - A stream that contributes its water surface stream. The term "streamflow" is more to another stream or body of water. general than the term "runoff " as streamflow may (See: Q132)

A Primer on Fresh Water 69

BEST COPYAVAILABLE Water Glossary tsunami - A Japanese term which has been adopted water contamination - Impairment of water to describe a large seismically generated sea wave quality to a degree which reduces the usability which is capable of considerable destruction in of the water for ordinary purposes, or which certain coastal areas, especially where sub-marine creates a hazard to public health through earthquakes occur. (See: Q11) poisoning or spread of diseases. (See: Q21 78; Groundwater System diagram) turbidity - Cloudiness caused by the presence of suspended solids in water, an indicator of water water management The study, planning, quality. (See: Q44) monitoring and application of quantitative and qualitative control and development U techniques for long-term, multiple use of the diverse forms of water resources. (See: Q82 underground storage tank - A tank located all or 95 99-101 111 115-119 121) partially underground that is designed to hold gasoline or other petroleum products or chemical water pollutionIndustrial and institutional solutions. (See: Q21) wastes, and other harmful or objectionable material in sufficient quantities to result in a urban runoff Storm water from city streets and measurable degradation of the water quality. adjacent domestic or commercial properties that (See: Q55) may carry pollutants of various kinds into the sewer systems and/or receiving waters. (See: Q43) water quality - A term used to describe the chemical, physical, and biological V characteristics of water with respect to its suitability for a particular use. (See: Q42-47 49 58 60 65-67 81 84 101 112 118 120 125 vapour - The gaseous phase of substances that are 126 137) liquid or solid at atmospheric temperature and pressure, e.g., steam. (See: Q1 4) water quality guidelines - Specific levels of water quality which, if reached, are expected w to render a body of water suitable for its designated use. The criteria are based on waste disposal system A system for the disposing specific levels of pollutants that would make of wastes, either by surface or underground the water harmful if used for drinking, methods; includes sewer systems, treatment works, swimming, farming, fish production, or and disposal wells. (See: Q37) industrial processes. (See: Q46-48 51 56 112 137) wastewater Water that carries wastes from homes, businesses, and industries; a mixture of water and water supply system - The collection, dissolved or suspended solids. treatment, storage, and distribution of potable water from source to consumer. (See: Q30) wastewater treatment plant - A facility containing a series of tanks, screens, filters, and other water table The top of the zone of saturation. processes by which pollutants are removed from (See: Q14 15 17; Hydrologic Cycle and water. (See: Q55) Groundwater System diagrams) water (Hp) An odourless, tasteless, colourless watershed - The land area that drains into a liquid formed by a combination of hydrogen and stream. (See: Q65 96) oxygen; forms streams, lakes, and seas, and is a major constituent of all living matter. (See: g/...) well A pit, hole, or shaft sunk into the earth to tap an underground source of water. water conservation - The care, preservation, (See: Q15 30; Groundwater System diagram) protection and wise use of water. (See: Q38-41; Dos & Don'ts) wet deposition - See acid rain. (Q64)

70 A Primer on Fresh Water 7 Water Glossary wetlands - Lands where water saturation is the YE - Y - dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal zooplankton - Tiny aquatic animals eaten communities living in the surrounding environ- by fish. (See: Q70: Bioaccumulation and ment Other common names for wetlands are Biomagnation diagram) bogs, ponds, estuaries and marshes. (See: Q70-74) zone of saturation A subsurface zone in withdrawal use The act of removing water from which all the pores or the material are filled surface or groundwater sources in order to use it. with groundwater under pressure greater (See: Q23) than atmospheric pressure.

Sources: Durrenberger, Robert W. Dictionary of the UNESCO; World Meteorological Organization. Environmental Sciences. Palo Alta, Ca.: National International Glossary of Hydrology. Geneva, Press Books, 1973. Switzerland, 1974.

Government of Canada. "Glossary of selected US Environmental Protection Agency. terms." The State of Canada's Environment. Glossary of Environmental Terms and Acronym Ottawa, 1991. List. Washington, D.C., 1989.

North Dakota State Water Commission. Water Whittow, John. The Penguin Dictionary of words: a glossary of water-related terms. Bismark, Physical Geography. Markham: Penguin 1988. Books, 1984. Parker, Sybil P. (Ed). McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.

A Primer on Fresh Water 71

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A Primer on Fresh Water 73

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