The Origin and Historical Development of Prominent Professional Black Choirs in the United States Isaiah R

Home , Carl Gordon (actor), Eric Ericson, Eva Jessye, Fisk Jubilee Singers, Hall Johnson, Harry Burleigh

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Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School

2007 The Origin and Historical Development of Prominent Professional Black Choirs in the United States Isaiah R. McGee

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COLLEGE OF MUSIC

THE ORIGIN AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PROMINENT PROFESSIONAL

BLACK CHOIRS IN THE UNITED STATES

ISAIAH R. MCGEE

A Dissertation submitted to the College of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2007

The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Isaiah R. McGee defended on the 30th day of August, 2007.

______André J. Thomas Professor Directing Dissertation

______Michelle Stebleton Outside Committee Member

______Kevin Fenton Committee Member

______Judy Bowers Committee Member

Approved:

______Don Gibson, Dean, College of Music

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

ii This dissertation is dedicated to To my parents, Lillie Ruth and R.A. McGee, sister Nicole Anita McGee, and to the memory of Isaiah and Estella McGee, Beatrice and Hillard Miller

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my major professor, Dr. Andre J. Thomas, for his encouragement and wise counsel during the completion of this study and throughout my matriculation at Florida State University. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee; Dr. Judy Bowers for her constant concern for my happiness as well as always being straightforward and honest, Dr. Kevin Fenton for his many words of wisdom to grow not only as a conductor but as a scholar, and Ms. Michelle Stebleton for her assistance and guidance. In addition I must thank Dr. Clifford Madsen, Dr. Kimberly VanWeelden and Dr. Marcia Porter for their constant reminder that it can be done and unwavering support throughout my studies and Dr. Andra Cevasco, for editorial assistance. Special thanks to Dr. Lekita V. Scott and Lori D. Spears for their unending motivation to complete this dissertation; Joan Williams, for the ability to find the humor in every circumstance regardless of how stress or frustrated I was; Dr. Arthur L. Evans, for his mentorship and being like a father to me, and the Claflin University family, especially the Tisdales for their continued support, whether it was financial or spiritual. I would like to thank my family for its encouragement, prayers, and faith in me. And finally to Dr. Chaka K. Bundrage, thank you for EVERYTHING! You are my rock, and I love you.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES vii ABSTRACT viii

1. INTRODUCTION 1 Purpose of the study 1 Research Questions 2 Definition of Terms 2 Delimitations 3 Significance of the Study 4 Methodology 5 Treatment of Data 6 Reporting of the Data 6

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 8 Introduction 8 Overview of the Literature 10 Reference Text 11 Periodicals 17 Interviews of Conductors of Professional Choirs 20 Dissertations 22

3. INVESTIGATION AND OVERALL REVIEW: PROMINENT BLACK PROFESSIONAL CHOIRS FROM 1925-1960 25

The Origin and Development of the Hall Johnson Choir 25 Operational Procedure 30 Organizational Structure 32 Hall Johnson the Conductor 34

The Origin and Development of the Eva Jessye Choir 38 Operational Procedure 43 Organizational Structure 44 Eva Jessye the Conductor 45

The Origin and Development of the Wings Over Jordan Choir 50 Operational Procedure 56 Organizational Structure 60 Rev. Glen T. Settle the Conductor 62

The Origin and Development of the Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir 67 Operational Procedure 71

v Organizational Structure 72 Leonard de Paur the Conductor 72

4. INVESTIGATION AND OVERALL REVIEW: PROMINENT BLACK PROFESSIONAL CHOIRS FROM 1960-1998 77

The Origin and Development of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers 77 Operational Procedure 80 Organizational Structure 81 Albert McNeil the Conductor 82

The Origin and Development of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale 85 Operational Procedure 88 Organizational Structure 89 Brazeal Dennard the Conductor 91

The Origin and Development of the Moses Hogan Singers 95 Operational Procedure 99 Organizational Structure 100 Moses Hogan the Conductor 102

5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 108 Summary 108 Conclusions 110 Value of the Study 111 Recommendations for Future Research 112

APPENDICES A. TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW with Brazeal Dennard 112 B. TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW with Albert McNeil 129 C. TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW with Leo Davis 134 D. TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW with Damon Dandridge 139 E. ALPHABETIZED DATABASE OF REPERTOIRE AS PERFORMED BY PROMINENT PROFESSIONAL BLACK CHOIRS IN THE UNITED STATES 142

F. DISCOGRAPHY 163

REFERENCES 166 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 199

vi LIST OF FIGURES

1. The Hall Johnson Choir...... 25 2. Hall Johnson……………………………………………………………….. 34 3. Eva Jessye………………………………………………………………….. 45 4. The Wings Over Jordan Choir……………………………………………... 50 5. The Wings Over Jordan Choir……………………………………………... 50 6. Rev. Glenn T. Settles………………………………………………………. 62 7. The Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir……………………………………….. 67 8. The Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir……………………………………….. 67 9. Leonard de Paur……………………………………………………………. 72 10. The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers…………………………………………77 11. Albert McNeil...... 82 12. The Brazeal Dennard Chorale ……………………………………………....85 13. Brazeal Dennard…………………………………………………………….91 14. Moses Hogan...... 102

vii ABSTRACT

The history, culture, and tradition of professional black choirs have had a great influence on choral music through the twenty-first century. During its 80 year history, professional black choirs have gained both a national and international reputation performing a wide array of choral music, both accompanied and a cappella with emphasis on the Negro Spiritual. Although there are a number of professional black choirs that have emerged in the U.S. over the past eighty years, the author selected the choirs based on their national reputation along with those that fall within two time periods. The choirs that were selected were founded, active and highly visible between 1) 1925 -1960 and 2) 1960-1998. Scholarly research on the development of professional choirs in the United States is limited. Even less was found in terms of academic resources on black professional choirs. Information about the origin, development, success, reputation, unique style and repertoire of these selected professional black choirs does not exist in any one place, and where it does exist, it is not in a scholarly format. This study marks the first time such information has been brought together in one source. In order to preserve the history of professional black choirs and, in particular, their unique contribution to the broader phenomena of professional choirs, this historical paper documents the origin and development of prominent professional black choirs‘ in the United States: the Hall Johnson Choir, the Eva Jessye Singers, the Wings Over Jordan Choir, the Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir, the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers, the Brazeal Dennard Chorale, and the Moses Hogan Singers. This study found that the selected black professional choirs were created primarily to preserve one of America‘s oldest music genres, the spiritual. One way these choirs sought to do this was by programming Negro spirituals consistently in their performances; Hall Johnson, Eva Jessye, and Rev. Glenn T. Settle exclusively programmed Negro spirituals. Because most of the conductors arranged the Negro spirituals which they performed, audiences and researchers alike can now know and see what the leaders of these choirs pictured as the ideal representation of the spiritual. Hall Johnson and Moses Hogan set out with the specific intent of recording the work of their ensembles to maintain authenticity of this genre of music.

viii While preservation of the spiritual was the shared principal mission and purpose of these choirs, there were different events and trends that attributed to their beginnings. Each conductor saw him or herself as filling a need, whether it was for the community or for the preservation of the Negro spiritual as art. In addition, the leaders of these black professional choirs shared similar backgrounds; all of them studied music at some point in their lives with several of the conductors studying music at the college level, and they all wanted to re-create the music they heard at a young age. Business practices were compared and variation in practice was noted. However, most of the choirs that came into existence in the latter part of the twentieth century have been professionally managed. The impact of their work is not limited to the celebration and preservation of the Negro spiritual. The creation of these ensembles also has led to many opportunities for African- Americans in the world of music and beyond. These conductors have also supported world peace by being ambassadors for the United States in foreign countries.

ix CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of professional choirs in the United States during the twentieth century has been a major development in this country‘s musical history.1 Moreover, the history, culture, and tradition of professional black choirs are emerging phenomena that have had great influence on choral music in the twentieth century. During eighty years of history, professional black choirs have gained an international reputation for performing a plethora of choral music, both a cappella and accompanied, throughout the United States and abroad. Such repertoire ranged from music written in the standard western European tradition to the works composed by African- Americans, namely the Negro spiritual. Although there are a number of professional black choirs that have emerged in the U.S. over the past eighty years, the author selected the choirs based on their national reputation along with those that fall within the two divisions of time periods. The choirs that were selected were founded, active and highly visible between 1) 1925 -1960 and 2) 1960-1998. The origin and historical development of prominent professional black choirs in the United States was the focus of this study.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this historical study was to document the origin and development of prominent professional black choirs‘ in the United States. This study, by its very nature, should make a significant contribution to Afro-American history, the history of professional choirs, and the field of choral music. Information about the origin, development, success, reputation, unique style and repertoire of these selected professional black choirs does not exist in any one place and where it does exist, it is not in a scholarly format. This study aimed to create such information. In order to preserve the history of professional black choirs and, in particular, their unique contribution to the broader phenomena of professional choirs, this historical study documented the origin and development of prominent professional black choirs in the United States. A thorough investigation of previous research indicated that there is limited information regarding the development of professional black choirs. This dissertation provides an historical

1 Phillip Morrow, —The Influence of the Robert Shaw Chorale, The Roger Wagner Chorale and the Gregg Smith Singers on the Professional Chorus in the United States“ (D.M.A. diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1993). P.1.

1 perspective of the origin and development of prominet professional black choirs in the United States. It should serve as a valid resource for choral musicians studying cultural trends of the twentieth century.

Research Questions

Within this study are details that pertain to the origin and development of prominent professional black choirs in the United States. These details were addressed in the following research questions: 1. What events led to the development of the choirs?

2. What is the purpose/mission of the choirs?

3. What were the musical and professional backgrounds of the conductors?

4. What were the major events and influential persons that help shape the history of the choirs?

5. What was the organizational structure and business arrangements for the choirs?

Definition of Terms The terms —Negro,“ —Afro-American,“ and —black“ refer to Americans of African and European-African origins. These terms will be used interchangeably throughout the study, regardless of any period. Before the 1960s, however, the terms Afro-American, colored, and Negro were more prominent. Since the 1960s the terms Negro and colored have been used less than the terms black, Afro-American, and African-American. The term —spiritual“ is a nineteenth-century word used for songs with religious texts created by African slaves in America. 2 Credit for the creation of these songs can not be given because the composers were unidentified. These songs were a part of the slave culture mainly in the southern regions of the United States. Spirituals, Negro folk songs, and slave work songs, as

2 Arthur L. Evans, —The Development of the Negro Spiritual as Choral Art Music by Afro-American Composers with an Annotated Guide to the Performance of Selected Spiritual.“ (Ph.D diss., The University of Miami, 1972). pp. 47-50.

2 early as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, continued the African oral tradition of communal creativity, spontaneity, expressiveness, and rhythmical communication.3 The —Negro Folk Song“ means songs sung by slaves and retained by generations of former slaves. After the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, these songs were performed as a way of solace and passed on in history through the oral tradition. —Non-spiritual Composition“ is a term that refers to songs written by African-American composers in the western European style. These songs are not based upon Negro folk songs or spirituals and their composers are usually identifiable. The term —professional“, is defined by Webster as: A) participating for gain or livelihood in an activity or field of endeavor often engaged in by amateurs, and B) engaged in by persons receiving financial return.4 In this study the term —professional choir“ refers to a choir that pays a percentage of their singers, pays all of their singers, or the choir as a group is paid for rendering professional services. In addition, the term —chorus“ is used synonymously and interchangeably with the term —choir“ throughout the study.

Delimitations Though there was not a substantial amount of research investigating the development of professional choirs, the purpose of this study was not to analyze all of the professional choirs in the United States. While this researcher documented a complete general history of each choir presented in this study, the techniques each conductor used such as vocal production, diction, approach in tone, and conducting gesture were not investigated. Furthermore, no attempt was made to discuss professional choir developments outside the United States, nor were conductors of non-black or community choirs interviewed. This study was based on data solicited from conductors of prominent professional black choirs, periodicals, research publications (including limited dissertations on professional choirs) and various other sources. A complete repertoire of each choir presented was beyond the scope of this study and therefore not included.

3 Ibid.

4 Webster Dictonary

3 Basic Assumptions It was assumed that professional black choruses in the United States represent an important segment of the history of choral music in America. Therefore, this topic was worthy of in-depth, scholarly study.

Significance of the Study Research in the area of professional choirs is relatively new; therefore, scholarly resources were limited. The need for such a study was supported by Morrow (1993), Hill (1980), Shrock (1990), and Black (1986). Phillip Morrow, in his historical study of the influence of three distinguished professional choirs upon the broader phenomenon of professional choir development, noted that the emergence of professional choral ensembles in the United States during the twentieth century has been a major development in this country‘s musical life. He recommended that more research should be conducted in the area of professional choirs as the population of these ensembles increase.5 Paul Hill in his article entitled, —The Professional Choir in America: A history and a report on present day activities,“ noted that in recent years there have been efforts to address, albeit briefly, the history of professional choruses in America, yet there is still a need for thorough historical accounts on the development of American professional choirs.6 When Dennis Shrock interviewed Vance George, conductor of a professional choir, George stated that the historical development of professional choral singing in America was a fascinating topic rich with information. This type of research would provide a much needed chronicle of very important events in the life of choral music.7 More specifically, in Phillp Morrow‘s dissertation, he emphasized that historical research on any number of prominent professional choirs would yield meaningful historical knowledge

5 Phillip Morrow, —The Influence of the Robert Shaw Chorale, The Roger Wagner Chorale and the Gregg Smith Singers on the Professional Chorus in the United States“ (D.M.A. diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1993).

6 Paul Hill, —The Professional Choir in America: A History and a Report on Present Day Activities.“ Choral Journal 20(8) 1980, 10-16.

7 Dennis Shrock, —An Interview with Vance George, Michael Korn and Dale Warland: Professional Choirs.“ Choral Journal, 30 (1990), 5-11.

4 and documents. Furthermore, Donald Black suggested that future dissertations should probe more in the organizational structure and business arrangements of professional choirs.8 The availability of modern research on the development and experience of professional choirs remains limited. Therefore, this study on the origin and historical development of selected professional black choirs in the United States will offer a large body of knowledge to choral musicians. This information maybe valuable to conductors as they plan for the future, and it will also make a significant contribution to the study of professional choirs. This investigation will document and present in a historical perspective the origin and development of selected professional black choirs in the United States. Additional material, such as a discography of each choir presented, sample programs, photos, and organizational structure, if available, will also be included in the study.

Methodology 1. The preparation of a bibliography and review of literature began with a broad search of comprehensive sources, i.e. dissertations on CD-ROM in Strozier Library on the Florida State University Campus, Dissertation Abstracts International, Digital Dissertation, Library Users Information System (LUIS), various university library collections, and major research centers on black American culture. 2. Sources such as The Music Index, Newspaper Abstracts, Newspaper Index, Music Education Search System (MESS), Index to the New York Times, Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), International Repertory of Music Literature (RILM), Books in Print, and international periodical indexes were examined to compile data regarding published articles. 3. Unpublished sources pertaining to professional black choirs and their directors presented in this study was accessed through inspection of personal papers, scrapbooks, and photos of former members and current professional black choir conductor‘s personal archives. 4. Some former members were interviewed by telephone, e-mail, mail, and when possible, in person. These interviews provided useful confirmation of facts and offered many personal anecdotes. 5. The organization of materials was arranged in the following system:

8 Donald Black, —The Life and Work of Eva Jessye and Her Contributions to American Music.“ (Ph.D. diss., The University of Michigan, 1986).

5 The Primary sources for the study were obtained from: 1) personal interviews with Brazeal Dennard and Albert McNeal, 2) interviews with present and former members of professional black choirs, 3) recorded interviews and transcriptions housed in library collections and major research centers about black culture and 4) photographs, personal scrapbooks, multi-media/electronic sources and program notes. Secondary sources were obtained from the following: 1) research publications, 2) textbooks, 3) encyclopedias, 4) dissertations, 5) thesis, and 6) reviews of performances written by critics of newspapers and both scholarly and general journals.

Treatment of Data Data concerning the historical background of the Eva Jessye Singers, Hall Johnson Choir, Wings Over Jordan Choir, Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir, Albert McNeil Singer, Brazeal Dennard Chorale, and Moses Hogan Singers were used to establish a timeline for the origin and development of each choir. Such a timeline was helpful in establishing dates, contribution to the field of choral music, nature and degree of success, achievement of a national or international reputation, unique style and repertoire, business arrangements and commitment to the preservation of Negro folk songs and spirituals. Data gathered from interviews were the most crucial material in this project. The data provided not only a primary source but validation of secondary sources. In analyzing the data, there was evidence of certain influences upon professional black choirs and their conductors. Although influences were not a focus of the study, they assisted in tracking the development of each choir.

Reporting of the Data Chapter One introduces the study and states the purpose, significance, methodology and procedure used in the study. This chapter also clarifies terminology and lists research questions. Chapter Two provides a report of existing literature on the history of choral art music by African-Americans, history of professional choirs in the United States, and history of professional black choirs in the United States.

6 Chapter Three is devoted to the investigation and overall review of professional black choirs from 1925-1960. This chapter documents the origin and development of the Eva Jessye Singers, Hall Johnson Choir, Wings Over Jordan Choir, and Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir. The author notes each choir‘s activities, accomplishment and possible influences and includes a biographical sketch of each conductor. Chapter Four presents the investigation and overall review of professional black choirs from 1960-1995. This chapter documents the origin and development of the Albert McNeal Jubilee Singers, Brazeal Dennard Chorale, and the Moses Hogan Singers. The author notes each choir‘s activities, accomplishments, and possible influences and includes a biographical sketch of each conductor. Chapter Five posits conclusions related to the findings and the historical development of the professional black choirs in the United States. It also contains concluding statements about the state of professional black choral activity today, addresses limitations of the study and specifies other aspects of professional black choir development that are worthy topics for future studies.

7 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction Choral music can be defined as music that is written in parts and designed to be performed with several voices on each part.9 A product of the mid-fifteenth century, Choral music is one of the oldest genres of music literature.10 Much of the choral literature during this time was sacred in function, written to be performed in a service of worship. During its long history the number of parts for which it was written has varied from two to a dozen or more, and the number of voices required for each part has been similarly unstandardized. Choral music in the United States is a relatively young artistry expression. In fact, two centuries ago organized choral singing consisted of a handful of church and community groups located in the eastern United States.11 As one of the major influences upon early American choral music, the singing schools that were established by New England clergyman to improve the music in the church not only provided some aspects of musical training, but had social implications as well. Organized choirs did not began to appear until around the middle of the eighteenth century, when as a result of singing schools and other efforts of musical reformation, churches and communities throughout New England began to establish them.12 These schools provided a worthwhile reason for people to assemble, which led to the eventual move of vocal music beyond the sacred walls of the church.13 As vocal music began to move beyond the parameters of the church, another major growth phase occurred early in the nineteenth century. Boston musician and educator, Lowell Mason, along with Thomas Hastings and William Bradbury led the —better music movement“ as they promoted a more refined approach to music than what the earlier singing schools

9 Homer Ulrich, —A Survey of Choral Music“ (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973.) 10 Ibid. 11 James Smith and Thomas Brawley. —Choir.“ The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, vol. 1. Ed. H. Wiley Hitchcoch and Stanley Sadie ( London: MacMillan Press, 1986). pp. 430-434. 12 H. Wiley Hitchcock. —Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction,“ 3rd ed., Prentice Hall History of Music Series (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988), pp.21. 13 Ray Robinson and Allen Winold, —The Choral Experience“ (New York: Harper‘s College Press, 1976), pp. 20.

8 produced.14 They fostered a more European approach to musical style than the primitive style of the previous century. They also placed emphasis on music literacy. Mason introduced a new seven-shape notational system that was more reflective of European standards versus the old four note system.15 Mason also led the movement to incorporate music education into the Boston public school curriculum. This program was to teach every child how to sing and read music. Mason later founded choral societies and long-term and short-term educational programs similar to conventions and festivals of the late twentieth century. Early in the nineteenth century, America began to reap the benefits of the aforementioned developments. Most churches were beginning to see the difference between the trained choirs and the congregation. The choirs used two different types of hymn books. One contained artistic and refined hymns of the day and the other housed camp meeting and revival songs. Various cultural and religious groups from foreign countries that settled in America such as the Shakers, and Ephrata cloister began to flourish. One that had the richest and most sophisticated musical culture was that of the Moravians. They were responsible for the first American performance of Handel‘s Messiah (1770) and Haydn‘s The Creation (1811).16 With a shift from the church to the schools and the amateur choral society, choral music in America grew rapidly. Choral societies were being established more frequently with one of the most important being the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston (1815). These societies‘ main functions were to cultivate performances of sacred music. By the midœnineteenth century, more ethnic-based choral societies were forming with a dedication to preserving their musical heritage and the performance of choral masterworks.17 The late-nineteenth century saw the development of larger choral societies with the specific purpose of performing large-scale choral works. There was also a rise in the importance of musical studies in higher education when university choral unions and societies began to appear. Several of these societies were from black colleges that found the benefit of using their musical groups to raise money for the institution. Such institution like Hampton University, Tuskegee University

14 Smith and Brawley, —Choral Music,“ pp. 430-431.

15 Ibid., pp.431. This new system was developed as a result of the —better music movement“.

16 Karl Kroeger, —American Moravians,“ The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 12, ed. Standley Sadie (London: Macmillan Publishers, 1980), pp 562-563.

17 Robinson and Winold, Experience, p. 26.

9 and Claflin University created a quartet or a small ensemble that not only raised money but also promoted black music, namely the spiritual. The first of these universities were Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. Fisk had a choir of African-American students known as the Fisk Jubilee Singers, who raised the consciousness of post-Civil War America to the black spiritual by touring both in the United States and in Europe around 1871.18 During the early twentieth century, another important development was the a cappella choir movement.19 This movement began with Peter C. Lutkin at Northwestern University in 1906, which spawned two other important collegiate choirs: the St. Olaf Lutheran Choir, established in 1912 by F. Melius Christiansen, and the forerunner to Westminster Choir College, founded by John Finley Williamson in 1926.20 The development of these two choirs was so influential that two specific schools of thought regarding approaches to vocal production, blend, and choral tone have been attributed to them.21 By the end of World War II, the a cappella movement began to decline and the professional choirs began to tour with a more balanced program of both a cappella and accompanied music. Two choirs of African-American singers, the Eva Jessye Singers and the Hall Johnson choir, are among the first truly professional choirs in the United States.22

Overview of the Literature While literature related to this study does not provide indepth information regarding all professional black choirs and the professional choir movement, it is evident that the professional choir movement benefited from the singing schools, choral societies, and the a cappella choir movement, which raised the standards of choral music. Researchers that have written about professional black choirs in the U.S. have focused on the conductors of each choir; books tend to reference professional black choirs; available articles have reviewed performances or highlighted

18 Hitchcock, Music in the United States, p. 112.

19 Noble Cain, —Choral Music and Its Practice“ (New York: M. Witmark and Sons, 1942), pp. v-viii.

20 Robinson and Winold, Experience, p. 21.

21 Phillip Morrow, —The Influence of the Robert Shaw Chorale, The Roger Wagner Chorale and The Gregg Smith Singers on the Professional Chorus in the United States“ (D.M.A. diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1993).

22 Smith and Brawley, —Choral Music,“ pp. 433-434.

10 major accomplishments of a specific choir and the conductor, but there are fewer sources that provide information specifically related to the professional choir movement and the professional black choir. These writings fall into four categories: 1. Reference text that deal with featured articles about professional choirs in the United States and provide some historical background about choral music in America from a black perspective. 2. Periodicals that present reviews of performances, biographical sketches of conductors of professional choirs, highlights of various aspects of the choirs, and the conductor‘s career and contribution to the history of choral music. 3. Interviews of conductors of professional choirs. 4. Dissertation topics related to professional choirs, conductors of professional choirs in the United States, and research of professional black choirs in the United States. The review of literature was centered on the body of writings, interviews, and the few studies that address the topic of professional black choirs in the United States. The literature review was divided into the four categories as identified above. For clarity, subheadings delineate the areas being reviewed.

Reference Text Gilbert Chase explained in his book that music of the United States is made up of many different ideas, trends, sounds, voices and expressions that extend from many different levels of society.23 America‘s music is made and is continuously used by the people of the United States and with other people who have come from many different regions of the earth to build a new civilization and create a new society. Chase discussed the Puritans and how the use of their psalmody has helped the growth and progression of choral music as it exists we know it today. According to James Smith and Thomas Brawley, beginning in the 17th and 18th centuries, American choral music grew out of the congregational singing practiced by early settlers in New England. Using editions and revisions of the Psalters brought from Europe,

24 Gilbert Chase, America‘s Music, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988).

11 congregations learned the tunes by rote because of a lack of sound musical training.24 The authors also documented the establishment of early choral societies and their role in the development of professional choirs. H. Wiley Hitchcock presented how Puritan ministers were not satisfied with the poor level of musical knowledge and singing among their members which resulted in the beginning of American music schools and music instruction books. These schools, better known as singing schools, were a way to learn, practice, and demonstrate the skill of reading music at sight. In 1720, Rev. Symmes asked the question: Would it not greatly tend to promote singing of the psalms if singing schools were promoted? …if people who want skill in singing, would procure a skillful person to instruct them, and meet two or three evenings in the week….and spend their time learning to sing?25

Around 1722, Boston had a Society that promoted regular singing by those who had learned to read music.26 Hitchcock continued by providing a broad view of music history in the United States in his book, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction, which provided detailed background information for this study.27 James Smith and Percy Young noted that the beginnings of the professional choirs started with the early establishments of choral societies that were named after and devoted to performing the works of individual great European composers of earlier times. 28 Among the earliest were the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston (1815) and the Sacred Music Society of New York (1823). The development of the choral Festival, based on the British and German models, began

24 James Smith and Thomas Brawley. —Choir.“ The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, vol. 1. Ed. H. Wiley Hitchcoch and Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan Press, 1986.

25 H. Wiley Hitchcock. —Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction,“ 3rd ed., Prentice Hall History of Music Series (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988) p. 7.

26 H. Wiley Hitchcock. —Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction,“ 3rd ed., Prentice Hall History of Music Series (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988).

27 Ibid.

28 James Smith and Percy Young. —Chorus.“ The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed. vol 5. Ed. Standley Sadie. London: MacMillan Publishers, 1980.

12 to emerge in the United States.29 Two of the largest Festivals held in the United States were the Peace Jubilees, which were held in Boston in 1869 and 1872. There were more than 10,000 choristers and 1,000 instrumentalists in 1869 and the numbers doubled in 1872. The Music of Black Americans was a chronological study of the history of black music in America.30 The research spans from the African heritage prior to 1619 and continued up to the twentieth century. Eileen Southern discussed how small ensembles, church, and school related troupes dominated the touring circuit before 1920s. Southern also noted that professional black choirs did not begin to appear regularly on the concert and theatrical stages or in film until the 1920s. Chase discussed the Fisk Jubilee Singers and their quest to raise money for Fisk University. This small ensemble of ex-slaves eloquently presented the tradition of black spirituals to audiences throughout America, Germany, and Britain on their tour. Although considered the first professional ensemble in the U.S., they had a connection with an educational institution which falls outside of the parameters of what chorus America considered a professional choir. This small ensemble‘s initial effort brought $40,000.00 to the school and immediate recognition as artists.31 Chase noted that it was in 1878 that the Jubilee Singers severed their connection with the school and reorganized as a stock company.32 J.B.T. Marsh documented a more expanded section on the personal histories of each Jubilee Singer, as well as additional songs arranged for and sung by the group.33 Marsh documented more background information on Fisk University and the campaign for twenty thousand dollars. Even though this source documented the precursor of the professional choir, it did not discuss the development of the professional black choir and the influence the Jubilee Singers had on the professional choir movement.

29 Ibid.

30 Eileen Southern. —The Music of Black Americans: A history“. 3rd ed. W.W. Norton & Co. New York, New York, 1997. pp. 420-422.

31 Gilbert Chase.

32 Ibid.

33Gustavus Pike, —Jubilee Singers and their campaign for twenty dollar“ Boston: Lee, Shepard, and Dillingham, 1969.

13 Eileen Southern defined the term Afro-American music and provided an historical overview of music development from the colonial times until after 1968.34 In part 2 of this article she mentioned the Fisk Jubilee Singers and their tour abroad. Southern noted that after the Jubilee Singers‘ popularity grew, other professional black groups began following their lead in every aspect. In part 3 of this article, Southern explained how black musical nationalism reached its peak as all of the folk idioms were employed in symphonic music and larger choral works. One of the composers the author referenced was Hall Johnson. He was the founder and conductor of the Hall Johnson Choir, which was all black and professional. Daniel Kingman35 discussed the Afro-American Folk tradition in America in his book. Kingman addressed the spirituals as religious folk music and how they were adapted and disseminated throughout the United States and Europe. He noted how the Jubilee Singers helped save their school, Fisk University, by singing spirituals which were sung by slaves during the post-civil war period. After the Jubilee Singers achieved great notoriety, other predominantly black universities started their own touring groups to raise funds for their schools. Kingman also reported that in 1925 Hall Johnson started his own choir as a professional troupe that helped further establish a new tradition of choral spiritual singing. Smith and Young stated that by the end of the 19th century, entrepreneurial and state supported professional choruses were being established in all countries in which Western music was performed. They noted that by the end of the 20th century, the number of professional choirs increased in the United States, that an umbrella organization was formed to support the growth and development of the professional chorus. Chorus America (formerly known as the Association of Professional Vocal Ensembles) was founded in 1977 by Michael Korn. They also noted that because of an increase of professional choirs in the United States, the standards of amateur choral music were raised due to the professional models‘. Through scholarly research and in-depth study over the years, black music gained more attention. In America‘s Black Musical Heritage 36 Brooks discussed various black musical genres

34 Eileen Southern, —Afro-American music.“ The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, vol. 1. Ed. H. Wiley Hitchcoch and Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan Press, 1986.

35 Daniel Kingman. —American Music: A Panorama“. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1979.

36 Tilford Brooks. —America‘s Black Musical Heritage“, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1984, pp. 183.

14 such as jazz, blues, spirituals, and black musical comedy. He also included information on selected composers and their impact on American society and America‘s musical heritage. Although black music had such a great impact on America, very little was known about it. Brooks credited that some of the awareness to the various entities like the black college musical groups and the professional black ensembles. Downey and Oliver‘s defined the term spiritual as a type of folk song that originated in American revivalist activity between 1740 and the close of the 19th century.37 They discussed the term in two categories: White Spirituals and Black Spirituals. The authors continued by noting that the black spiritual constitutes one of the largest bodies of American folksongs that have survived to the 20th century.38 With the popularity of the spiritual increasing, black composers such as Hall Johnson, Nathaniel Dett, and Eva Jessye started arranging more spirituals. Most of the above composers founded and conducted professional black choirs. However, Downey and Oliver did not provide any concrete information on the development of professional black choirs in the United States. The International Dictionary of Black Composers contains essays on composers of African-American heritage.39 Each entry includes a biographical sketch, photo and/or illustration of the composer, a list of compositions, a bibliography, critical essays about the compositions, and a list of sources used to prepare the essays. This resource also details black composers of popular and vernacular musical forms and styles. Some of the composers listed were founders and/or conductors of professional choirs in the United States, such as Hall Johnson and Leonard de Paur. Southern‘s book Readings in Black American, 40 that companions her Music of Black Americans, 41 contained selected writings by prominent black musicians and non-musicians that covered a wide range of topics on black American music. She briefly noted professional black

37 James Downey and Paul Oliver, —Spirituals.“ The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, vol. 4. Ed. H. Wiley Hitchcoch and Stanley Sadie. London: MacMillan Press, 1986.

38 Ibid

39 Marva Carter, —Hall Johnson.“ ed. Samuel Floyd, International Dictionary of Black Composers. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1999.

40 Eileen Southern. —Readings in Black American Music“, 2nd ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1983.

41 Eileen Southern. —The Music of Black Americans“, 3rd ed., New York: W.W. Norton 1997.

15 ensembles as a driving force in the development of black music. From those black professional touring ensembles grew black professional choirs such as the Hall Johnson Choir, the Original Dixie Jubilee Singers (Eva Jessye Singer), and the Wings Over Jordan Choir. In her companion book Readings in Black American of the above, Southern presented a more in-depth look at a new movement toward developing concert choral groups and the two pioneers of this new movement. Hall Johnson and Eva Jessye started the new movement by forming professional concert choral groups larger then 10 to 12 members.42 Hall Johnson, known as the preserver of the Negro spiritual, formed his choir because he had a strong opinion about how Negro folksong should be sung. —…The conscious and intentional alterations of pitch often made…. The unconscious, but amazing and bewildering counterpoint produced by so many voices in individual improvisation….The absolute insistence upon the pulsing, overall rhythm, combining many varying subordinate rhythms.“43

According to Southern, Eva Jessye was the first black woman to conduct a professional choir.44 Her singers, first named the Original Dixie Jubilee Singers and then the Eva Jessye Choir, appeared on many radio programs. She was requested by prominent conductors and producers to direct many musical productions. Background information on the two pioneers of the new movement along with Rev. Glenn T. Settle and Wings Over Jordan choir were also described. The author noted that Wings Over Jordan was highly recognized from 1930-1940 because of a radio program called the Wings Over Jordan Hour on the CBS national radio network.45 Periodical articles A large amount of information on professional black choirs was available through featured newspaper articles and reviews. Various magazines and journals, such as Ebony and the Choral Journal, discussed Afro-American music and spirituals and also featured professional black choirs. The spiritual was said to be the largest single body of folk-song arrangements in

42 Eileen Southern, —The Music of Black Americans,“ pp. 422.

43 Eileen Southern, —Quotations from Hall Johnson Notes on the Negro Spiritual,“ RBAM, pp. 273-280, quoted in Eileen Southern, The Music of Black Americans, pp.420.

44 Eileen Southern, —The Music of Black Americans,“ pp. 422.

45 Ibid., 423.

16 Western choral art literature. Patricia Trice‘s article about the Choral Arrangements of Spirituals: Birth and Perception of a Genre,46 reflected upon the birth of this unique genre called the spiritual and its effect on African-Americans and noted that the spiritual was a form of musical expression that enabled slaves to not only document their lives but also express their dreams and hopes for the future. During the nineteenth century only the college choirs from historically black colleges and universities performed the spiritual. George White from Fisk University realized the appeal of the spiritual and dedicated more of the Jubilee Singers program to them, which helped them to raise money to build Jubilee Hall. The contributions of the professional choir towards the preservation of the spiritual were also discussed. Trice noted that professional ensembles specializing in spirituals were not established until the 1920s and 1930s. Two choirs mentioned were the Eva Jessye Singers and the Hall Johnson Choir. According to Paul Hill, the history of professional choral singing in the United States didn‘t begin until around the 1920s.47 Hill named 12 professional choirs such as the Hall Johnson Choir and the Eva Jessye Singers, both of which were black, whose singers were on the choir‘s payroll. He also addressed the status of professional choir activity at that time. The Hall Johnson Legacy 1889-1970, an article in the Choral Journal in January 1971, presented biographical information about the composer/conductor along with commentary about his music.48 Simpson explored Johnson‘s stylistic musical features as well as other influences. The author concluded with a historiography regarding the professional Hall Johnson Choir. In 1974, the Choral Journal published an article entitled The Three Schools of Black Choral Composers and Arrangers from 1900 to 1970.49 Harris categorized black choral composers into three distinct schools: Trailblazers, Nationalists, and Innovators. Although a professional black choir was not discussed, Harris provided a biographical summarization of a selected group of black composers from each of the above schools. Hall Johnson was one

46 Patricia Trice. —Choral Arrangements of Spirituals: Birth and Perpetuation of a Genre.“ Choral Journal, 37 (1) pp. 9-13.

47 Paul Hill. —The Professional Choir in America: A history and a report on present day activites.“ Choral Journal, 20 (8), pp. 10-16.

48 Eugene Simpson. —The Hall Johnson Legacy 1889-1970.“ Choral Journal, 11 (5), pp. 10-11.

49 Carl Harris. —Three Schools of Black Choral Composers and Arrangers 1900-1970.“ Choral Journal, 14/8, pp. 11-18.

17 composer mentioned and he was also the conductor of a professional black choir. This article helped trace the development of black choral music from 1900-1970. In a 1951 issue of Ebony, an article highlights how America‘s Most-Booked Concert Unit Comes Long Way since Birth in Back Room.50 The De Paur Infantry Choir was one of America‘s popular all male professional singing ensembles; they set a record of performing over 180 concerts in the United States and abroad during their 5th season. Although they were popular, their success did not come easy. The author noted that the choir dealt with racism and segregation, mostly in the southern states, during their tours. Leonard De Paur, founder and conductor, formed this professional black choir using thirty-two former military men. In a 1999 article written in the Michigan Chronicle, Alexander discussed how Brazeal Dennard and his chorale embraced the spiritual tradition, which was to perform spirituals in an authentic style as a way of preserving this art form. 51 The author noted that every season Brazeal Dennard devoted a portion of his concert programs to various African-American spiritual composers of this genre. The article also included historical background about the chorale as a professional choir that was based in Detroit, Michigan. Betty DeRamus wrote an article in the Detroit News about how society usually turns to music during difficult times, noted that the Brazeal Dennard Chorale helped Detroit sing through its joys and troubles.52 In 1972, times were so bad that it was like —… a symphony without strings or a choir without enough singers… “.53 During this same year, Brazeal Dennard founded his professional ensemble. With a mission of singing unlimited repertoire with emphasis on music by African-American composers, this was his way of helping the city through the best and the worst of times. This professional black choir continued to thrive as they formed a partnership with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. The partnership helped create a —Grass-Root Series“ with

50 —De Paur Infantry Choir: American‘s Most-Booked Concert Unit Comes Long Way Since Birth in Back Room.“ Ebony, December, 1951, pp. 42-46, 48-49.

51 Ericka Alexander. —Brazeal Dennard and his chorale embrace spiritual tradition.“ Michigan Chronicle, pp. 1B. November 23, 1999.

52 Betty DeRamus. —Detroit Chorale has helped city sing through its joys and troubles.“ Detroit News, May 30, 2002, pp. 1E.

53 Ibid.

18 the purpose of presenting music composed or arranged by African-American composers for orchestra and choir. The Detroit News published an article about the mission of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale and how they brought attention to the musical contributions of African-Americans.54 Rhonda Bates-Rudd noted that this professional choir formed many partnerships such as the one with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. Together they performed rarely heard as well as well-known works composed by African-American‘s for orchestra and choir. She also highlighted that the membership of the chorale consisted of persons from various backgrounds who had a love for choral music. Leonard Feather wrote an article featuring the twenty-fifth anniversary of one of Los Angeles, California‘s professional black choirs. The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers celebrated their anniversary with three concerts.55 Feather briefly discussed the life of Albert McNeil and the founding of his Jubilee Singers. Throughout the article, Feather continued highlighting some of the accomplishments of the Singers as they continued their devotion of preserving the music of African-American composers and arrangers. John Henken also did a review of the Jubilee Singers‘ 33rd anniversary, consisting of a marathon of songs displaying musicianship and showmanship.56 Henken noted that this professional black choir‘s repertoire was drawn mostly from the African-American tradition. In 2002, Moses Hogan and the Moses Hogan Singers were highlighted as a part of the National Convention preview in the Choral Journal.57 The choir was noted as one of the outstanding professional choirs scheduled to perform at the 2005 American Choral Directors‘ Association National Convention. ACDA is the non-profit education organization whose central purpose is to promote excellence in choral music performance, composition, publication, research, and teaching. Because of the untimely death of Mr. Hogan on February 11, 2003, the

54 Rhonda Bates-Rudd. —The Brazeal Dennard Chorale.“ Detroit News, pp. 6S.

55 Leonard Feather. — McNeil‘s Jubilee Singers in 25th Year: Message Rings True.“ Los Angeles Times, VI pp.1.

56John Henken. — MUSIC REVIEWS: Jubilee Singers Celebration in Style.“ Los Angeles, pp. 3.

57 —2002 National Convention Preview: Moses Hogan and the Moses Hogan Singers.“ Choral Journal, 43 (1), pp. 35-36.

19 choir did not perform. The choir started in 1980 as the New World Ensemble and was later renamed the Moses Hogan Singers.

Interviews of Conductors of Professional Choirs In 1982, Wyman interviewed Eric Ericson, who was the director of the Swedish Radio Choir, and published the interview in the Choral Journal in two parts. In part one, Ericson was asked about his musical background, work with professional choirs, and views on the —American Choral Sound“.58 He explained there are different types of choral sounds in America. One type of choral sound he focused on was what he called the national sound, from professional choirs like Fred Waring and the Pennsylvanians and Norman Luboff Chorus. Neither of the two choirs mentioned were black choirs, but Ericson noted that they had been influenced in some way by the professional black choir to create this —American Choral Sound“. In part two, Ericson mentioned various influences, including different composers, techniques, and the use of different repertoire.59 Ericson also suggested that America needed professional choirs in each state so that affluent colleges and universities would have some place to send students whom they taught how to sing. In 1990, Dennis Shrock wrote two articles in which he interviewed several professional choir directors. In one article, Shrock interviewed Anders Ohrwall, who was the founder of the Stockholm Bach Choir and was named the musical director of the professional Phoenix Bach Choir.60 Shrock asked Ohrwall to describe his experiences with the Stockholm Bach Choir and compare them to those with the Phoenix Bach Choir. He expressed his love for Baroque music, which was the focus of the Stockholm Choir, especially the music of Handel and Bach. He hoped to bring more variety to the programming of the Phoenix Choir but still focus on Baroque music. Ohrwall also discussed the financial arrangements of his singers. All of his singers in the Stockholm choir participated as professional singers and were salaried. He anticipated that he could do something similar with the Phoenix choir, but understood the differences. All of the professional choirs in the United States do not have full state or government funding like most

58 William Wyman. —An Interview with: Eric Ericson-Part I.“ Choral Journal, 23 (1) pp. 5-7.

59 William Wyman. —An Interview with: Eric Ericson-Part II.“ Choral Journal, 23 (2) pp. 13-14.

60 Dennis Shrock. — An interview with Anders Ohrwall, founder of the Stockholm Bach Choir, present director director of the Phoenix Bach Choir.“ Choral Journal, 31 (5).

20 European professional choirs, which are supported by the government or province for which they are housed. In another article, Shrock interviewed Vance George, Michael Korn, and Dale Warland on their thoughts on all aspects of professional choirs.61 Shrock asked each conductor about the type of training their choir members had received, if their members were paid to sing, the frequency of their performances and the history of the development of choral singing in America. Vance George said, —The history and development of professional choirs is fascinating and very colorful. It would make a great topic for a thesis or dissertation that would provide a much needed chronicle of very important events in the life of choral music in America.“62 Although the conductors interviewed and the choirs discussed were not black, the author discussed the personnel and financial components that all professional choirs must deal with in their development. K. Romey interviewed Moses Hogan, a conductor of a professional black choir, in an article entitled Music Down in My Soul; for the Choral Journal 2003.63 This interview was just before the Sixth World Symposium on choral music in 2002 that was held in Minneapolis, MN. Hogan was commissioned to write a choral piece for the event titled Music down in my Soul. He discussed his process of writing and arranging choral music.

Dissertations Phillip Morrow‘s document is the only extensive study that specifically has examined the professional chorus in the United States.64 He examined the influence of the Robert Shaw Chorale, the Roger Wagner Chorale, and the Gregg Smith Singers on the professional choir development in the United States. This work included a general overview of the history and the development of professional choruses in the United States and historical information about each

61 Dennis Shrock. —An interview with Vance George, Michael Korn, and Dale Warland: Professional Choirs.“ Choral Journal, 30 (2) pp. 5-11.

62 Ibid, pp.7

63 Kathy Romey. —Music down in my soul.“ An interview with Moses Hogan. Choral Journal, 44 (1) pp. 19-25.

64 Phillip Morrow, —The Influence of the Robert Shaw Chorale, The Roger Wagner Chorale and The Gregg Smith Singers on the Professional Chorus in the United States“ (D.M.A. diss., Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1993).

21 of the choruses specifically to the origins and their purposes, with particular attention given to the extraordinary accomplishments and innovations of each choir. Furthermore, Morrow interpreted the data that was collect from a survey of 56 American professional choruses. The study concluded that each has exerted positive influence upon professional choir development in America. Carl Harris investigated the characteristic stylistic trends found in choral works of a selected group of African-American composers and arrangers.65 The study traced the development of choral works by the selected composers beginning from the late nineteenth century through the mid-twentieth century. The author also classified the selected composers into categories such as Trailblazers, Nationalists, or Innovators. In the next part of the study, Harris documented the performance history of the African-American spiritual by ensembles. Harris specifically mentioned the Hampton Institute Choir, the Fisk Jubilee Singers, the Tuskegee Institute Choir, the Wings Over Jordan Choir, and the Hall Johnson Choir. The study concluded with an analysis of selected choral works by the composers and arrangers of the study. The Negro Spiritual: From the Southern Plantations to the Concert Stages of American was a dissertation that examined the performance aspects of the Negro spirituals and how they grew from simple plantation melodies to arrangements heard in various performance venues.66 Pamela Burns‘ analysis compared the elements that were found in the traditional and non- traditional spiritual arrangements. Some of the arrangements compared were of noted composers like H.T. Burleigh, Hall Johnson, Nathaniel Dett, Margaret Bonds, William Dawson, and Undine Moore. The study concluded with a brief historical account of the Fisk Jubilee Singers and other historically black choirs that followed in the footstep of the Jubilee Singers. Arthur Evans‘ dissertation, The Development of the Negro Spiritual as Choral Art Music by Afro-American composers with an Annotated Guide to the Performance of Selected Spirituals, provided information and musical examples that expanded the horizon and experiences of choral

65 Carl Harris, —A Study of Characteristic Stylistic Trends Found in the Choral Works of a Selected Group of Afro-American Composers and Arrangers“ (D.M.A. diss., University of Missouri at Kansas City, 1972).

66 Pamela Burns, —The Negro Spiritual: From the Southern Plantations to the Concert Stages of American“ (D.M.A. diss., University of Alabama, 1993).

22 teachers, along with aiding college teacher training programs that include black music.67 Evans discussed Africa‘s contribution to the growth and development of Afro-Americans music, the spiritual that grew out of the experiences Africans endured after being brought to America, and how the spiritual was refined and became art music for trained choirs. The study concluded with an annotated performance guide of selected four part mixed chorus arrangements of spirituals by composers wuch as Eva Jessye, Hall Johnson, and Leonard de Paur, just to name a few. Donald Black‘s dissertation, The Life and Work of Eva Jessye and Her Contributions to American Music, was particularly significant to the present study.68 This article provided detailed background on the life of Eva Jessye and included the founding of the Original Jubilee singers, which later became known as the Eva Jessye Singers. Black‘s study revealed that Eva Jessye had a brief teaching career in the public school system and a one year appointment as a college choir director. Most of Jessye‘s contribution to American music was through finding and conducting the Eva Jessye Singers. Gaining an international reputation, Jessye was the first black female to conduct her own professional choir, and she was asked to be the choir master for the famous Gershwin opera Porgy and Bess. Carter‘s thesis, Hall Johnson (1888-1970): Preserver of the Old Negro Spiritual, examined the life and selected works of Hall Johnson.69 The author introduced the Hall Johnson Choir, a professional ensemble, which was established for the purpose of preserving the Negro folk songs, followed by a chronological detailing of Johnson‘s career as an instrumentalist, choral conductor, composer, and arranger. A discussion on the historical development of the Spiritual provided the reader the opportunity to understand its significance to the African- American culture. Carter‘s methodology varied, but historical data was principally collected from personal interviews with those who knew Hall Johnson, newspaper articles and reviews, and his printed music.

67 Arthur L. Evans, —The Development of the Negro Spiritual as Choral Art Music by Afro-American Composers with an Annotated Guide to the Performance of Selected Spiritual.“ (Ph.D diss., The University of Miami, 1972).

68Donald Black, —The Life and Work of Eva Jessye and Her Contributions to American Music“ (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1986).

69 Marva Carter, —Hall Johnson (1888-1970): Preserver of the Old Negro Spiritual“ (master‘s thesis, New England Conservatory, 1970).

23 Samuel Barber, in his dissertation entitled The Choral Style of the Wings Over Jordan Choir, addressed the style and brief history of the choir Wings Over Jordan.70 As one of the most celebrated professional black choirs of the time and a link to the black choral past, this study examined the major events, activities, and choral style of this choir. The author gave a succinct biography of Rev. Glenn Tom Settle, founder of the choir, and background information for understanding the history of the choir. Barber noted that this was a dream of Rev. Settle as a young boy growing up in North Carolina to start his own choir that would support his ministry. He was most inspired by his mother‘s singing of old Negro spirituals as she completed chores around the yard. Rev. Settles, like many other composers, wanted to maintain the tradition of the singing of the spiritual because of its power to effect change on people. Timothy Woods researched the career of Leonard de Paur, the founder and conductor of the all-male professional choir, the De Paur Infantry Chorus. The author particularly focused on his work in choral music, in which he has been an important figure as a composer and arranger.71 Woods provided biographical data and some of the major influences on his career. Analytically, the author discussed seven of de Paur‘s spiritual and work song arrangements and four African song arrangements that revealed musical elements from both the Western and African traditions. The author concluded that de Paur‘s compositional style of arranging illustrates his artistic links and progression to two of the important leaders of the African-American folk tradition, John Work of the Fisk Jubilee Singers, and Hall Johnson, of the professional Hall Johnson Singers.

70Samuel Barber, —The Choral Styles of the Wings Over Jordan Choir“ (DMA diss., University of Cincinnati,1979), 14.

71 Timothy Woods, —Leonard De Paur‘s Arrangements of Spirituals, Work Songs, and African Songs as Contributions to Choral Music: A Black Choral Musician in the Mid-Twentieth Century“ (D.M.A. diss., University of Arizona, 1998).

24 CHAPTER THREE

INVESTIGATION AND OVERALL REVIEW: PROMINENT BLACK PROFESSIONAL CHOIRS FROM 1925-1960

Introduction

Between 1925 and 1960, various black choirs were established. Some of them were professional and some were community based. The purpose of this study was to focus on the choirs that considered themselves professional and to select the choirs that were prominent in choral music development in the African-American community, and the in the United States. Chapter three will provide detailed information regarding the following choirs: (1) Hall Johnson Choir, (2) Eva Jessye Choir, (3) Wings Over Jordan Choir, and (4) Leonard De Paur Infantry Choir. This information will include the origin and development, organizational structure, and operational procedures of each choir. In addition, a section containing biographical information for each choir conductor or founder is included.

The Origin and Development of the Hall Johnson Choir

Figure 1. The Hall Johnson Choir mid 1950s

Hall Johnson Choir After its debut in Harlem, New York on February 29, 1928, one critic wrote the following about the Hall Johnson Choir:

25 American Negro Spirituals… are rarely presented with the fidelity that marked this ensemble… In natural harmony of humble religious expression, as in spontaneous attack, dying pianissimo and above all, communicative diction, the compact chorus distinguished itself and its leader.72

During the following months, they performed at various public and private venues. Having built a solid reputation for itself, the Hall Johnson Choir appeared on radio, in theatres, sang on Broadway with some of the major orchestras of that time and made its first recording with the RCA Victor label.

Purpose Although the Hall Johnson Choir had built a national reputation through various mediums, Johnson‘s purpose for starting the choir was to begin the preservation of Negro music in the traditional style. Johnson felt that with societal changes around 1925 that any spirituals that were in existence would be found only in libraries with no documented knowledge of how they were sung. It was this thought that propelled Johnson to assemble a group of eight Negro singers. Johnson soon realized that eight voices were not sufficient to reproduce the true spirit and soulful fervor of the camp meeting. So, he increased the size of the choir to twenty voices. Hall Johnson felt by using a larger ensemble, he came really close to reproducing the sounds and conditions under which the songs were originally created.73

Founding and Location Hall Johnson‘s dream of reproducing the sounds of his forefather‘s music began in New York with the founding of the Hall Johnson Choir on September 8, 1925. Johnson moved to New York City in 1914 to continue his musical studies and to find employment because there was a demand for Negro musicians to play in dance orchestras in the north. He worked with several bands and orchestras that played Negro folk music among them included the New York Syncopated Orchestra. Johnson then organized a Negro String Quartet in 1923. The quartet concertized in various cities, appearing with pre-eminent black contralto Marian Anderson and renowned black tenor Roland Hayes, rendering a set of Negro spirituals arranged for solo voice

72 De Lerma, Black Music in Our Culture, 207. 73 Hall Johnson, —Notes on the Negro Spiritual 1965,“ Readings in Black American Music, p. 272.

26 with string accompaniment. After those various experiences, Johnson realized that he should form a choir to preserve the integrity of Negro folk music.

Performance Practices Having grown up hearing the songs of ex-slaves in his family and his father‘s African Methodist church, Johnson realized that he had the perfect opportunity to recreate the sounds of these songs in the performances of the Hall Johnson Choir. Johnson believed that in order to find that true meaning and understanding of the spiritual, one must know the story behind the text of the song. It was not unusual for him to spend an enormous amount of rehearsal time explaining the text or in some instances, one word to his choir members. Hall Johnson believed in perfection with regards to diction and rhythm. The majority (if not all) of the Negro folksong arrangements performed by the Hall Johnson Choir were arranged by Hall Johnson. In some instances the words and music were originally composed in the style of Negro Spirituals. Johnson categorized the Negro Spiritual into three general classes:74 devotional songs, episodic songs and songs of religious experience. The devotional songs include songs of general prayer or praise and contain no special personal or strong interest. A particular scriptural narrative is conveyed in the episodic75 song with the application of the story often embodied in the refrain. In the songs depicting religious experiences, the text is always intensely subjective, telling just how the —po‘ pilgrim“ is feeling at that particular stage of his —journey home.“ Johnson and his choir members were engaged in a continual pursuit of more songs for more material.

In the performances of the Hall Johnson Choir, Hall Johnson was sometimes described as pulling the music from the throats of his singers. Standing at six feet two inches, Hall Johnson had long arms which he could show with his gestures, very long and expressive lines in the music. Johnson apparently was an individual who could show the warmth of the music through his fluid and controlled gesture. He was usually diplomatic and tactful with his remarks, except

74 See program notes in —Hall Johnson“ clipping file at the New York Public Library œ Schomberg Collection.

75 The word episodic is not used in the musical sense as in a section of a fugue, but in the general literary sense of an event or incident.

27 in circumstances when his choir was not totally focused or involved in the music.76 Johnson used verbal communication very often trying to get the choir to understand his interpretation of the music. In Johnson, one finds a deep-rooted appreciation for the multiple musical descendants of the spirituals. Because many of the qualities of the spirituals defy musical notation, he dedicated his life to recreating that —traditional“ sound through his choirs and his students (both voice and conducting). Though Johnson was unable to make a record library which would be a model on the performance practices of Negro folksongs, he has transmitted his ideas orally to literally hundreds of singers.

Choir Activities The activities of the Hall Johnson Choir are numerous. Some of these praiseworthy events deserve to be mentioned. After the choir‘s founding in 1925, it was not until 1927 that the choir made its first public performance. The Hall Johnson Choir was invited to sing at the funeral services of Florence Mills (the famed singerœdancer from Shuffle Along, the first all black show appearing on Broadway).77 Hall Johnson met Mills as they worked together with Shuffle Along early in his career. After months with no engagements, the choir was invited in January of 1928 by retired singer Cobina Wright to entertain her guests at a party honoring the French composer Maurice Ravel.78 This event gave the choir the much needed exposure for which they had been working. Shortly after the party for Ravel, William C. Gassner, a concert manager, took notice of the Choir and invested money to assist them with their first downtown concert. With the support of Mr. Gasser, on July 23, 1928, the Hall Johnson Choir appeared with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra at the City College of New York‘s Lewisohn Stadium.79 After their initial performance, they were re-scheduled to appear at the Stadium the following evening. This was the beginning of six consecutive annual summer appearances at the Stadium.

76 Arvey, —Hall Johnson and His Choir,“ p. 151.

77 James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan, p. 200

78 The Pittsburgh Courier, Vol. XXII, August 1, 193, Sect. 2, p. 8, col. 1.

79 Ibid.

28 Due to the success of the Choir, Johnson was asked on January 18, 1930 to be the musical director of the play, The Green Pastures by Marc Connelly. Johnson‘s responsibilities were to employ and train a 30 voice choir, and write all of the musical arrangements used in the production.80 The Hall Johnson Choir was the nucleus of the choir for this production. The singing was an integral part of the drama. Although the singers were in the orchestra pit, their singing of the spirituals brought out the meaning of the lines and served as a vital link to what was happening on stage.81 The Green Pastures was a very successful play and ran for 640 performances after its opening night. It was revived in 1935 and 1951. In 1935, Warner Brothers made a film version of The Green Pastures with the assistance of Marc Connelly. Hall Johnson went to Hollywood with fifty singers to appear in the film.82 The Choir not only participated as singers, but actors as well. This production led to the Choirs‘ involvement in other various productions such as Hearts Divided, The Bowery Princess, Banjo on my Knee, Lost Horizons, Way Down South, Swanee River and Cabin in the Sky. In addition, Johnson acted as advisor on various other pictures and sequences about the Negro life. During the years of 1941-1951, Hall launched several projects that continued to shape and define his overall abilities. In 1941, he established the Negro Festival Chorus of Los Angeles, that no longer exist, which was —a large training chorus dedicated to the general cultural development of the Negro community.“83 The Hall Johnson Choir took several European tours. One tour in particular assumed after they were asked to represent the United States at the International Festival of Fine Arts in Berlin, Germany in 1951.84 Although there were other U.S. participants, the Hall Johnson Choir was —the most successful of all the American attractions, not only because of their novelty and

80 Gassner, in a letter of August 28, 1930, to the Harmon Foundation.

81 Marva Griffin Carter, —Hall Johnson–Preserver of the Old Negro Spiritual,“ Thesis New England Conservatory, 1970 p. 20.

82 Current Biography, —Hall Johnson,“ p. 23.

83 Current Biography, —Hall Johnson,“ p. 23.

84 Robert Schnitzer, —Report on United States Contributions to the Berlin Festival,“ October 17, 1951. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Department of State, Washington, D.C.

29 personal appeal, but also because of their musicianship.“85 Because of their success, the choir was featured in several radio and television broadcast during their visit.86

Contributions and Achievements As the literature about the Hall Johnson Choir qualifies, it was one of the most versatile choral ensembles in the United States. Because of their popularity, they were in the forefront of creating opportunities for Negro musicians. Those opportunities rewarded them for all their hard work. One of their achievements included their performance in The Green Pastures winning a Pulitzer Prize during the 1929-1930 theatrical season. In 1930, The Green Pastures opened in the Mansfield Theatre with an all-black cast of ninety-five actors and singers. The play was successful, with 640 performances after opening night. In 1932, the Choir had an opportunity to sing in the Roxy Theatre in honor of Lincolin‘s birthday. Johnson assembled a 200 voice choir for the presentation of —Let Freedom Sing“. Also in the same year, a smaller unit of the Choir went on their first transcontinental tour to California. Another great achievement was in January of 1946 when Johnson established the Festival Negro Chorus of New York City.

Operational Procedures

Audition Procedures

There were no known audition procedures for the Hall Johnson Choir, but the singers responding to the call for auditions were mostly trained singers who were unemployed.

Rehearsals The rehearsal site was usually at Johnson‘s studio, located at 117 West 141st Street in Harlem NY. Choir members gave freely of their time, participating in rehearsals that were described by some members as marathons lasting four or five hours. The Choir rehearsed religiously for two years, which helped with the style and manner of the presentation of the

85 Schnitzer, —Report on Berlin Festival.“

86 Ibid.

30 spirituals. 87 The traditional presentation of singing the spirituals, usually unaccompanied, required pitch accuracy, precise rhythms, and a tight ensemble sound.

Repertoire In an interview, Johnson describes the source of his repertoire as follows:88 The songs come from all sorts of sources. Of our several hundred singers, each is a committee of one, in constant search for fresh but authentic tunes. Sometimes we hear about a tune that is being sung at such and such a meeting in Brooklyn or rural New Jersey and the next Sunday some of us will hustle out on the quest. In this way ”John de Revelator and ”Elijah Rock‘ were dug up in Keyport (NJ) revivals.

The majority of the Negro folksongs performed by the Hall Johnson Choir were arranged by Hall Johnson. Johnson is quoted as having arranged between 400-500 songs for his singers and knowing of nearly 100 more that he wanted them to learn.89 The programs of the Choir included comical numbers, as well as deeply serious selections. Many of their concerts included the composition St. James Infirmary Blues. In this song, when the text dealt ludicrously with death, a sly quotation from Chopin‘s Funeral March crept in.90 Another work entitled Scottsboro, which represented a true contemporary folksong, was also a part of the Choir‘s repertoire. Some of the songs that were not authentic spirituals (composers unknown) were songs with music and words originally composed in the style of Negro Spirituals. Some of these songs were used in —The Green Pastures“ such as Hail: The King of Babylon and Hallelujah which both were composed by Johnson. Concert reviews and printed programs substantiated the claim that Negro Spirituals dominated the choir‘s repertoire.

87 Marva Griffin Carter, —Hall Johnson–Preserver of the Old Negro Spiritual,“ Masters Thesis New England Conservatory, 1970 p. 16.

88 New York Times, Sunday, July 30, 1933, sect. 2, p. 4, col. 2.

89 Washington Tribune, July 7, 1936.

90 New York Times, LXXXI, April 6, 1932, p. 22, col. 3

31 Organizational Structure

Hall Johnson was the founder and leader of the Hall Johnson Choir. He made all major decisions that concerned the Choir.

Original Membership Johnson‘s dream started when he assembled eight Negro singers, first called the Harlem Jubilee Singers, to present and preserve the traditional style of Negro music which was established by its original creators.91

Business Arrangements The business arrangements for the Hall Johnson Choir were handled mostly by Hall Johnson. Whether it was finding an engagement for which his choir could perform or booking accommodation for performances‘, he found it efficient to take care of things himself, in addition to the time it took to conduct and compose for the choir. Conductors The conductors of the Hall Johnson Choir were easier to document than the membership of the Choir. The six conductors included two women and four men, all of whom were black. Hall Johnson was the founder and primary director of the Hall Johnson Choir. Throughout the choir‘s history, he enlisted the services of various musicians to serve as assistant conductors. Most assistants either sang in the choir or were part of a particular production for which Hall Johnson was hired to assist. Leonard de Paur served as assistant conductor of the Hall Johnson Choir from 1932- 1936. De Paur was responsible for rehearsing the men‘s portion of each concert, while working as a copiest and taking theory and arranging lessons from Johnson. Assisting Hall Johnson also meant doing all the things Johnson did not want to do. For instance, Johnson had no interest in the technical aspects of recording and radio. Doing tasks gave de Paur knowledge of and access to those in the recording and radio industry. This exposure would later benefit de Paur.

91 Marva Griffin Carter, —Hall Johnson–Preserver of the Old Negro Spiritual,“ Thesis New England Conservatory, 1970 p. 15.

32 Jester Hairston spent thirteen years as an assistant conductor of the Hall Johnson Choir, where he often arranged music and conducted the Choir in Broadway productions. Jester Hairston first met Hall Johnson when he moved to New York looking for work in the theatres. Johnson hired Hairston for the production of —The Green Pastures“ in 1930 and soon after asked him to be his assistant. Hairston, from time to time, found himself leading the Choir while Hall Johnson would take another group of singers on tour. In 1935, the Hall Johnson Choir was invited to California by Warner Brothers to be the Choir of all Negro singers as they turned —The Green Pastures“ into a movie. It was during this trip that Jester Hairston met a Russian film composer named Dimitri Tiomkin and a partnership was born. This partnership produced a movie called —Lost Horizon,“ which won an academy award for its music. It was Hall Johnson‘s teaching that led to Jester Hairston‘s love and respect for the Negro spiritual. John Motley was a prominent choral director in the state of New York. Motley formerly supervised music for the New York City public schools and served as conductor of the All-City High School Chorus. He also founded the All-City High School Chorus that served as singing ambassadors honoring visiting dignitaries. Hall Johnson invited Motley to co-conduct —Son of Man,“ a cantata written by Hall Johnson. John Motley is considered the leading interpreter of Hall Johnson‘s music Assistant and conductor Juanita Hall was first a member of the Hall Johnson Choir as she performed in the production —The Green Pastures“ in 1930. Because of —The Green Pastures“ success in New York, Hall Johnson‘s engagements increased throughout the country. During this period, Johnson asked Juanita Hall to be an assistant conductor as he continued rehearsals of the choir in New York and started on the music for the new play he wrote around 1933, entitled —Run Little Chillun.“ Juanita Hall was an excellent musician and she was someone Hall Johnson trusted. She attended the Juilliard School of Music and had appeared in a number of Broadway shows before being heard by Hall Johnson. Evelyn —Hot Shot“ Burwell, one of Hall Johnson‘s singers for several seasons, also got her chance to conduct the Hall Johnson Choir when they were contracted to sing in the play —The Green Pastures“ in 1930. Although Johnson had coached the Choir several weeks before the opening of the show, Burwell conducted the Choir during the performance. The pit was so dark that she used an electric bulb on the tip of her baton, so the singers and actors could see her.

33 Hall Johnson the Conductor

Figure 2. Hall Johnson

Hall Johnson believed he was born at the right time and place suited to study the Negro spirituals92. Even though his training and experience with music had prepared him to become an instrumental performer, he had a deep-rooted interest in Negro choral music. Growing up with relatives and church members that were slaves, he was exposed to the singing of slave songs. Johnson felt that the music of his people offered a rich and untapped field. He said: —I want to give this music to the world.“93 On March 12, 1888,94 Francis Hall Johnson was born in Athens, Georgia to Reverend William Decker Johnson and Alice Virginia (Samson) Johnson. Johnson‘s father, Reverend

92 Hall Johnson, —Notes on the Negro Spiritual [1965], —Readings in Black American Music, p. 272.

93 Hall Johnson quoted by Alexander Kahn, Daily Worker New York, Vol. XVI, November 8, 1939, p.7, col. 3.

94 —Hall Johnson,“ Current Biography IV, (January, 1945), p.22

34 William Johnson, was born in Baltimore, MD to free parents and took every opportunity available to blacks during that time.95 A graduate of Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, Rev. Johnson became one of the best known ministers in the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Hall Johnson‘s mother, Alice, had a different beginning. She was born a slave and remained in slavery until the age of eight, when slavery was abolished. Alice attended Clark University in Atlanta, GA soon after it was established by the American Missionary Association in 1865. Hall Johnson‘s maternal grandmother had a large influence on the life of her grandson. Mary Hall Johnson was a slave until age thirty and she shared the Negro songs and stories with him. Her direct influence guided young Johnson into what was to become his life‘s work. Hall Johnson states of his grandmother, —Every night, she would sing the beautiful songs to us as she would sing them all day long at work, half consciously to herself.“ The impact of Johnson‘s grandmother was later personified by the Hall Johnson Choir as they performed songs which he had heard from his grandmother while growing up. Hall Johnson was born into an educated, artistic and musical family. He was introduced to French and German phonetics at a young age by his father who was an devoted reader and a student of Hebrew. Johnson rarely, if ever, used the name Francis, but seemed to have preferred being called Hall Johnson.96 In 1894, at the age of six, Johnson entered Knox Institute and two years later began to study piano with his sister, Mary Elizabeth. He began composing tunes under the guidance of his father. At the age of fourteen, Johnson‘s mother purchased a violin for him, but there was no one in Athens to teach him how to play it. His inspiration to play the violin was birthed after hearing the virtuoso playing of the violinist, Joseph Douglass.97 In 1903 at the age of fifteen, Hall Johnson graduated from Knox Institute and entered Atlanta University as a freshman. The

95 Hall Johnson, —Biographical and General Notes,“ (September 7, 1943). Obtained from the Hall Johnson clipping file, New York Library for the performing arts–Theater Division.

96 The only source in print which makes references to the name Francis was found in an interview by Floyd J. Calvin in The Pittsburgh Courier on August 1, 1931. There is no birth certificate to verify his full name. Mrs Sara Jo Granade (Supervisor of Vital Records), in a letter of March 7, 1975 indicated that the State of Georgia did not begin filing birth records until January 1, 1919. An interview with his sister (Alice Foster) confirmed that her brother was christened Francis Hall Johnson.

97 In an interview with Eileen Southern on December 16, 1947, she indicated that Joseph Douglass, the grandson of Frederich Douglasss, was the first Negro violinist to tour the United States. Hall Johnson expressed the influence of Joseph Douglass upon his life to Southern in an interview with him.

35 following year, Hall Johnson‘s father became president of Allen University98 in Columbia, South Carolina. After completing one year at Atlanta University, Hall transferred to Allen University, where he began an intense study of music. Johnson‘s formal training began in piano, however he purchased an edition of Winner‘s Self-Instructor for Violin from a dime store and began to teach himself how to play the violin. Johnson quickly learned to play second violin parts in a dance orchestra, which he did for three consecutive summers at a resort in Blowing Rock, NC. In 1908, Hall graduated from Allen University and relocated to Philadelphia the following September. He then entered the Hahn School of Music99 studying violin and theoretical studies. This music school was established in the best traditions of the European conservatories. Johnson studied violin with Frederick Hahn, a German trained violinist. Hahn had been tutored in violin by his father Henry, later studying with Hans Stitt, Adolphe Brodsky and Franz Kneisel.100 In 1909, Johnson took a summer course in composition under Dr. Hugh A. Clark at the University of Pennsylvania covering the first two years of theory and composition. Johnson then completed the next two years at the University of Pennsylvania and received the annual Senior Simon Haessler prize for the best composition for chorus and orchestra.101 On November 4, 1912, Johnson married Celeste Corpening at the age of twenty-four. Celeste was his sweetheart from his youthful days at Blowing Rock summer resort. During World War I, the army wanted to start a Negro band for the enlistees. The problem was that there were few Negro musicians that wanted to enlist. Hall Johnson was one of the individuals who refused to go to war. Instead, he joined the New York Syncopated Orchestra (later called the American Syncopated Orchestra or the Southern Syncopated Orchestra) under the direction of Will Marion Cook. This orchestra was made up of some of the best musicians in the country, including Sidney Bechet, Buddy Gilmore, William Tyers and Tom Fletcher. In addition to touring for four months across the United States, they also traveled to London and

98 Allen University‘s history dates from July 1870 under the name Payne Institute in Cokesbury, South Carolina. In 1880 it merged into Allen University at Columbia, South Carolina.

99 Frederick Hahn established a private music school in 1908 which merged in 1917 with the Zecker Academy (est. 1870): it became the Zecker-Hahn Philadelphia Musical Academy and renamed again to the Philadelphia Musical Academy.

100 Philadelphia Musical Academy catalogue 1935-36, p.5.

101 —Hall Johnson,“ Current Biography IV, (January, 1945), p.22.

36 Paris. Johnson kept very busy at this stage in his life; he taught violin and composition during the day and played in the orchestra at night. Hall‘s career continued to flourish as he joined the famous Negro revue, —Shuffle Along,“ which opened at the Sixty-Third Street Theatre on May 23, 1921.102 —Shuffle Along“ broke through the stereotypical —black face“ minstrel and presented black artistry. It introduced ragtime and jazz dancing to Broadway, along with genuine Negro folk humor. After completing 504 performances, the Shuffle Along Company began a national tour that lasted until 1923.103 After the completion of a national tour with —Shuffle Along,“ Johnson decided to study composition with Percy Goetschius at the New York Institute of Musical Art (now known as the Juilliard School of Music). Goetschius was a composer, critic, and an author of many music related books. During the time Johnson was studying with him, Goetschius was head of the theory composition department at the New York Institute of Musical Art. In the nineteen thirties, Johnson took the expert compositional training he acquired and engaged in larger musical compositions. Because of his early success, Johnson was asked to be the musical director of a play called —The Green Pastures.“104Hall Johnson was asked to find, employ and train thirty singers, to write all of the musical arrangements that would be used in the production and contribute two original compositions. Johnson arranged 23 Negro spirituals and the two original compositions entitled —Hail King of Babylon“ and —Hallelujah, King Jesus.“105 During the same period, Johnson was given the Harmon Award for his musical achievements as a choral conductor, composer and arranger. This award was given by the William E. Harmon Foundation for distinguished achievement among Blacks. Johnson received many honors and awards for his achievements, including the Holstein Prizes for composition (1925, 1927); the Harmon Award (1931); an honorary doctorate in music from the Philadelphia Academy of Music (1934); a citation from the city of New York (1954); and the Handel Award–New York‘s highest and most coveted award (1970).

102 —Shuffle Along“ was the first all-black show to arrive on broadway. —Shuffle Along“ was written by Noble Sissle and Eubie Blake.

103 Kimball and Bolcom, Reminisciry, p. 148.

104 Gassner, in a letter on August 28, 1930, to the Harmon Foundation

105 Hall Johnson, The Green Pastures Spirituals, arranged for voice and piano, (Carl Fisher, 1930).

37 Regardless of his many awards and contributions to the Negro folksongs, Johnson felt he failed, because there were no adequate recordings reserves to indicate the traditional performance practices of the Negro folksongs. In 1965, Johnson wrote —Why [do I] have this definite and desperate sense of having failed in my life-work?106 It is because the signs I saw forty years ago are coming true. In a few more years, nobody-not even the Negro singers-will be able to sing any one of the dozen properly. Because they will have never heard them and there are NO RECORDINGS!“ Hall Johnson died a tragic death on April 30, 1970 at the age of 82 when he fell victim to a fire in his apartment. Fire officials indicated that he may have gone to sleep with a burning cigarette.107 Ironically, many of Johnson‘s compositions used —fire“ as subject matter, including the operetta entitled —Fi-yer“ (1941).

The Origin and Development of the Eva Jessye Choir

Eva Jessye Choir The Eva Jessye Choir was a community group that Eva Jessye was asked to conduct.108 The ensemble began singing as the Dixie Jubilee Singers. As the choir excelled as a group that would perform between motion pictures in New York, opportunities for other engagements became available to them. It was at this time the group was renamed the Eva Jessye Choir.

Purpose The purpose of the Eva Jessye Choir was to perform folk music and lighter music for civic functions in the Baltimore community.109 But as the Choir gained popularity, Jessye saw this as a vehicle to perpetuate the growth of Negro music and musicians. This Choir not only exerted positive influences on the general public‘s awareness of black choral music, it provided young black college graduates the opportunity to pursue a professional career in music.

106 See Program Notes, —A Musical Tribute to Hall Johnson, —April 19, 1970, The Salem Methodist Church, New York.

107The New York Amsterdam News, May 9, 1970.

108 Donald Black, The Life and Work of Eva Jessye and Her Contributions to American Music, p.27. 109 Ibid. p.28.

Founding and Location The Eva Jessye Choir was founded in Baltimore, Maryland in 1930. During this time, Jessye was working as a proofreader for a weekly newspaper called the Baltimore Afro- American.110 She was promoted to a staff writer‘s position, which allowed her to attend events and write articles on Negro society in the area. Becoming well known in the community, Eva Jessye was then asked to direct a community group called the Dixie Jubilee Singers which performed for Negro events in the Baltimore area. As the Singers‘ popularity grew, their engagements were scheduled in a variety of venues, such as church services and programs, radio broadcast concerts, patriotic programs, and movies. The Dixie Jubilee Singers were renamed the Eva Jessye Choir just after the film —Hallelujah.“111 One of the Jubilee Singers‘ most important engagements outside of Baltimore was singing at the Capital Theatre between films.112 The theater scheduled varied program which included orchestral selections, ballet, and organ music. From this performance, the Singers‘ were invited to work in a variety of capacities throughout the 1940s and 1950s under the name of the Eva Jessye Choir.113 Although the Choir existed before Eva Jessye, it was not until her directorship that the community group moved from local performances to regional and national prominence.

Performance Practices The repertoire of the Eva Jessye Choir varied in style, but consisted mostly of black folk songs that contained a historical authenticity. They would frequently use semi-classical vocal and instrumental repertoire and occasionally perform large masterworks.

110 Donald Black, The Life and Work of Eva Jessye.

111 After the 1929 film Hallelujah, the Dixie Jubilee Singers were renamed the Eva Jessye Choir; however, there are occasional programs which list the group as the Dixie Jubilee Singers or some variant (e.g., 1931, and the Lincoln Jubilee Singers).

112 Capital Theatre, Program, New York, March 21, 1926.

113 After the film Hallelujah, the Dixie Jubilee Singers were renamed the Eva Jessye Choir. On various programs during that time, the group was listed as the Dixie Jubilee Singers.

39 The Eva Jessye Choir was known for presenting Negro music with dialect and historical authenticity. A major part of the Choir‘s repertoire was the Negro spiritual. Eva Jessye took advantage of the Choir‘s professionalism to help perpetuate the preservation of the spiritual. Most of her singers were older and had attended or completed college with some musical training. Some of the choir members had been slaves or were offspring of former slaves. They either heard or sang the spiritual at some time during their adolescent or adult years. This helped in the authentic historical presentation of the music. Although most of the concerts varied in musical style, they were mostly folksongs of the Negro people. Jessye‘s Choir was well prepared for each performance they presented. She prepared them for all situations in any production or performance. The singers got a crash course in drama, acting and stage effects. Jessye would even add choreography or movement to certain selections to assist with the delivery of the text. Eva Jessye demanded memorization of all music for better communication between her and the Choir. This allowed the choir to be versatile and more marketable. This preparation was one of the reasons Virgil Thomson decided to use this choir in his opera —Four Saints in Three Acts“ He was impressed by the choir‘s many talents and the richness of their voices. 114 Thomson was advised to consider Eva Jessye‘s Choir because of their vocal skills and ability to sight-read music. Thomson decided to use this all Afro-American choir after seeing Hall Johnson‘s choral play —Run Little Chillun.“

Choir Activities The Eva Jessye Choir was one of the most active early black professional choirs from 1926 to 1970. Through all the Choir‘s activities are praiseworthy, only a few will be highlighted. After Eva Jessye became the director of the Dixie Jubilee Singers, their first and most important engagement was at the Capitol Theatre in New York NY in 1926.115 This performance was secured by Phillip Patterson, a member of the Jubilee Singers. Mr. Patterson was visiting New York, NY when he heard about a possible audition for warm-up performances before and between motion pictures. The Singers passed the audition and sang short programs that consisted of folk songs and light classical music. The Capitol Theatre was a major influence on the Dixie

114 Gertrude Stein, Four Saints in Three Acts (New York: Random House, 1934), pp. 5-7.

115 Capital Theatre, Program, New York, March 21, 1926

40 Jubilee Singers‘ career, as they found out that the manager of the theatre, Edward Bowes, was also the Vice-President of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). Not only was he the Vice-President of MGM, but he had his own radio show entitled —The Major Bowes Family Radio Hour,“ which he hosted. In 1929, Bowes recommended the Dixie Jubilee Singers to provide the music for his film —Hallelujah.“ The film was one of the earliest musicals in motion picture that portrayed blacks in a more positive light than previous pictures. The choir served as the nucleus for a larger chorale that would be auditioned and trained by Eva Jessye. Most work for the film took place in Hollywood, California at the MGM studios. In the 1930s, the choir was engaged in more radio performances, premieres and a national tour. In February of 1931, the choir performed a radio broadcast concert in honor of Abraham Lincoln‘s birthday titled —Three Centuries of Negro Music.“ This broadcast took place in the Wanamaker Department Store in New York City. The concert surveyed the music of the Negro in an historical perspective. During this concert, Eva Jessye even performed some of her arrangements, folk songs and her original compositions. Those songs would eventually become a part of the choir repertoire for their national tour from November to December of 1934. The national tour took the choir along the east coast with various stops in New York, New Jersey, Washington, DC, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia. As the choir‘s success continued to grow, they became more in demand and started to premier in operas such as —Porgy and Bess“ (1935). Eva was asked to serve as the choral director for George Gershwin‘s production because he heard that Eva Jessye‘s choir presented Negro music with dialect. Gershwin was convinced, after seeing —Four Saints,“ that an all Negro cast would work well for his opera, which was based in Charleston, SC. The Eva Jessye Singers would again provide the nucleus of the choir, though Jessye auditioned more singers to augment the chorus. During the 1940s and 1950s, the choir continued its cross country tours and increased their radio and church performances. In May of 1942, the choir performed William Grant Still‘s cantata —And They Lynched Him on a Tree“ in a radio broadcast on an NBC network. The choir, during this performance, worked with Leopold Stokowski, conductor of the NBC Symphony. Stokowski commented that the Eva Jessye Choir was well prepared and he enjoyed working with them. In 1955, the choir performed at First Calvary Baptist Church in Lawrenceville, Massachusetts. This was one of the first times that Eva Jessye used a theme for a

41 concert. This concert was titled —The Life of Christ in Spirituals.“ The concert was based around spirituals that dealt with the life of Jesus Christ, as depicted in the Bible. By 1970, Eva Jessye disbanded the Choir to began focusing her energies towards personal appearances such as guest conducting, artist-in-residence and choral consulting to professional production companies.

Contributions and Achievements The contributions of the Eva Jessye Choir did not just touch audiences in the United States but also across the world. As the Eva Jessye Choir was the earliest black professional touring choir, its achievements were vast and worthy of study. During the 1930s, the Choir expanded the nature of its programming from African- American folk songs to a varied repertoire, along with a wider variety of venues rather than local churches. In 1937, the Eva Jessye Choir appeared in Morehead Minnesota at the Western Division Meeting of the Minnesota Education Association, which was a part of the National Education Association.116 The Choir of thirteen sang to a hushed, but packed house, and their attention was held with the Choir‘s dramatic presentation. This performance created a portrait of Negro life in the United States, from slavery to modern days, and from spirituals to folk and love songs. This marked a first for the Minnesota Education Association; it had never featured a black choir during their divisional meeting. The Choir was sponsored on a Good Will Tour of Russia by the United States Department of State and the Russian government in 1955. In 1959, Langston Hughes, an influential African-American poet during the Harlem Renaissance, requested that Eva Jessye conduct her choir and others in his musical Tambourines to Glory in New York. In 1963 the Eva Jessye Choir was the official choir for Dr. Martin Luther King‘s Civil Rights March on Washington. The Choir went abroad spending three months in the cities of Haifa and Tel-Aviv in Israel in 1966, performing Porgy and Bess. One writer noted how the Choir drew a parallel between the dire economic and social conditions portrayed in the opera with the present condition of Negroes in the United States.117

116 —Jessye Choir Leases with Moorhead Concert,“ Fargo Forum, October 21-22, 1937. 117 Jerusalem Post, August 5, 1966, The Eva Jessye Collection, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas.

42 Operational Procedures

Audition Procedures Eva Jessye‘s audition procedures contributed to the success of her choir. Each singer was not selected for his or her vocal qualification alone, but had to pass certain tests for imagination, originality and dramatic expression. Each must have provided a distinct color for her vocal canvas. One person may be chosen for his artistry, and another for his hearty, vocal tone. Some were chosen for the ministerial manner and another for expression of a different mood. There were some singers that had a light, modern or heavy jazz style or timbre voice. They were carefully weighted and utilized to the best interest of the presentation for each performance. Eva Jessye noted that each performance was different and called for a different voicing and sound.

Rehearsals Rehearsals of the Eva Jessye choir ranged from limited meeting just before an engagement to extended months of preparation. Eva Jessye believed that a choir singing for an audience was better than a choir not singing at all. Meaning that a prepared choir would be hired for performances and a choir not prepared would not be hired or rehired. Thus, she took great measure to ensure her choir was prepared. In one instance, Jessye received the music for a production a few days previous to the audition. She called an early morning rehearsal to familiarize the choir with the music before the audition. A couple of hours later, the choir auditioned with the composer by sight-reading the music. After the first reading, the composer was impressed and offered the choir a contract. Months of preparation usually meant that Eva Jessye had auditioned new singers for various productions for which she had been contacted. During these auditions, Jessye would make sure that each singer not only had the vocal qualifications but also selected singers based on their skills and possible contribution to the literature Eva Jessye had chosen. Because of these various skills, all of the choir‘s special features were created during rehearsals. One singer might begin a melodic line and another one would continue or complete the line. Even the choirs interesting use of choreography or movements during the concerts was created by the singers during rehearsals, with the approval of Eva Jessye.

43 Repertoire Although the choral repertoire was determined based on Eva Jessye‘s desire to preserve the authentic folk songs of African-American people, it still represented a great variety. The choir frequently performed both folk and semi-classical repertory. On some occasions the group performed large masterworks.

Organizational Structure

Original Membership The original members of the Eva Jessye Choir were Edward Jones, Charles Parker, Bertha Powell, Rosa White, Gladys Cook, Purnell Hall, Phillip Patterson, and Eva Jessye as the conductor and pianist.118 Most of these singers were members of the original group called the Dixie Jubilee Singers. After becoming the director, Eva Jessye would augment this group, depending on the type of engagement. She used various methods for auditioning new members. Most of the original members and new members were either college graduates or professional singers that were without jobs at the time or just loved to sing music of their heritage.

Business Arrangements The Eva Jessye Choir was managed by Eva Jessye and others. At various times, the choir was promoted by Vera Bull Hull of New York during the early 1930s, the Columbia Lecture Bureau (special events) in the 1940s and by Redpath Concert Bureau in the 1960s. The Columbia Lecture Bureau was a division of the prestigious Columbia Artists, Inc., which provided management and managed attractions (lectures, musical presentations, etc.) of a more popular, semi-classical nature. This type of music appealed to a wider variety of audiences in comparison with the Columbia Artists, Inc. (the parent division), which promoted concert artist and groups (classical music) exclusively. The Eva Jessye Choir was under the personal management of Isabel R. Scott of the Columbia Lecture Bureau, according to a listing on a 1941 concert program. Eva Jessye arranged to have her singers paid individually during the production of Virgil Thomson‘s —Four Saints.“ This would continue to be the practice of the Choir throughout the

118 Donald Black, —The Life and of Eva Jessye p. 28

44 Choir‘s history. During the Choir‘s early arrangements performed for the opera, Jessye negotiated the salary for herself and her singers and they agreed upon a salary of $15 per week.119 This was a milestone in that this was the first time that a professional choir would be paid for both rehearsal and performance time. The standard at the time was to be paid for the performance only.

Conductors According to the historical documentation, The Eva Jessye Choir had only one director, which was Eva Jessye. Throughout the 44 year history of the Choir all of the conducting was done by her.

Eva Jessye the Conductor

Figure 3. Eva Jessye

On January 20, 1895, Eva Alberta Jessye was born in Coffeyville, Kansas to Albert Jesey and Julia Jessye.120 Eva Jessye‘s father and mother were descendants of black migrants known as Exodusters, who moved from Alabama and other southern states to Kansas.121 Eva‘s father was a

119 Gertrude Stein, Four Saints in Three Acts (New York: Random House, 1934), pp.5-10 120 State of Kansas Census, vol. 135, County of Labette, Kansas, March 1, 1885, pp. 70-71.

121 The spelling of Jesey was changed to Jessye by Eva Jessye in the late 1920s. According to Jessye, people consistently mistook jer last name for her first name. So for professional reasons she decided to change the spelling of her last name to avoid confusion.

45 chicken picker by trade in his hometown of Coffeyville, Kansas. Eva Jessye‘s mother and father separated in 1898 and Eva was left in the care of her grandmother and several aunts. Eva Jessye‘s maternal grandmother, Mollie Buckner, was one of sixteen children, all of whom would eventually help raise Eva Jessye. Most of her summers were spent with her great aunt Harriet in Cheney, Kansas, but her younger years were spent with her aunt Mae Buckner Knight. Jessye recalls that between the years of 1898 and 1902, the greatest influence on her life was her Aunt Mae. She taught Eva Jessye to respect the family name by the way she (Aunt Mae) would raise her own children. Aunt Mae would also give Eva Jessye sound advice on making decisions based on her own life experiences.122 Although Eva Jessye was guided by wisdom, it was the family‘s strong singing and dancing background that had the most influence on her life. Eva recalls her great-uncle Holliday, who was a very well known singer. One of Eva‘s earliest musical experiences was hearing the singing of Negro spirituals by her great-aunt Harriet. However, it was Julia, Eva‘s mother, who provided the money for Eva Jessye‘s piano lessons. She started studying piano with a German teacher by the name of Laird. Eva Jessye recalls, —he gave me very difficult music, not knowing that I was playing mostly by ear.“123 Her keen aural ability had come from her family‘s diverse musical talents. At the age of seven, Eva lived two years with her mother in Seattle, Washington, from 1902-1904. While in Seattle, two very important experences influenced Jessye. For the first time, Eva came to love and respect her mother Julia, even though they had been apart for several years; and secondly, she was inspired to write poetry. Eva Jessye was introduced to poetry by Tom Brown, a railroad porter who lived near the family in Seattle, that brought discarded poetry magazines to the —little Miss Jessye“. She read and copied the various styles until she created her own style. Eva Jessye would develop a strong interest in and a love for poetry that would later assist in her own original compositions. Her first poem was entitled, —To the Virgin Mary.“124 In 1908, Eva Jessye was only thirteen, but was admitted into Quindaro State School for the Colored in a suburb of Kansas City. The school was jointly maintained by the state of

122 Eva Jessye, audiotape interview, March 18, 1983, Pittsburg, Kansas. 123 Ibid.

124 Jessye, Letter to Donald Black, April 10, 1984.

46 Kansas and the African Methodist Episcopal Church.125 This school made an age exception for her because Eva Jessye‘s home town did not provide a high school for Negroes. Only the elementary school was integrated and high schools were for whites only. Being the eager student she was, Eva Jessye completed the high school course work and continued her studies at the college level at Quindaro. By this time, it was quite evident that Eva was an intelligent child who did well in school. Her own realization of her intellectual ability must have given her pause. She recalled a vision she had while recovering from typhoid fever. Eva Jessye interpreted the vision as a warning that despite one‘s eagerness to acquire knowledge, that there are humanitarian needs, such as love and understanding, which are equally important and should not be forgotten. It was during this time that Eva Jessye‘s musical talent was discovered. She majored in poetry and oratory and came close to completing the piano requirements at Quindaro. Eva Jessye recalls that her teachers determined that her music reading was not advancing because she was imitating their demonstration of the lesson. They stopped demonstrating each lesson and Eva Jessye could not prepare the advanced lessons, which held her back from completing the requirements. She did complete the course requirements in harmony, composition, chorus, and music history, however. Completing the chorus requirement in her first year at Quindaro included sight singing (solfege) and applied voice. Eva Jessye became the soloist for spirituals and classical works with the concert choir. She helped coach the male quartet, a female group, and conducted the chorus several times during the illness of R.G. Jackson, the choral director and the head of the department of music. Even during this time Eva Jessye demonstrated strong musical leadership qualities. In 1908, the famous conductor, composer, and violinist, Will Marion Cook, asked her to assist him by serving as his music copyist. Cook encouraged his young copyist to pursue music as a career and some years later became her mentor and composition teacher in New York City.126 Eva Jessye regarded meeting Cook as a turning point in her decision to become a

125 The name of the school was changed in 1919 to Western University. The industrial curriculum was maintained by the state of Kansas and the academic curriculum was maintained by the African Methodist Episcopal Church(AME). 126 Gladys M. Mundt, —What‘s the Matter with Now?-Eva Jessye,“ The Little Balkans Review, Summer 1981, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.1-18.

47 musician. In 1911, her —Ode to Methodism“ took first prize in a concert commemorating a century of Methodism as practiced by the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1914, Eva Jessye graduated with honors in poetry and oratory from Quindaro. She immediately enrolled in Langston University, where she earned her B.A. and a permanent teaching certificate in Oklahoma, after attending three consecutive summer sessions.127 From 1914-1919, Jessye was active as a public school teacher. She taught arithmetic and calisthenics in the towns of Taft, Haskell, and Muskogee, Oklahoma. While teaching regular classroom subjects, she also organized a girl‘s glee club in each of the schools. Her choral groups gave singing performances for school and community functions in all three towns.128 In 1919, Eva Jessye applied for the position of department head of music at Morgan College in Baltimore, Maryland. She had no trouble securing the head position in the music department. Eva Jessye had to forge her age, adding five years, so university officials would think she was mature enough to serve as head of the department and be the counselor to nineteen young college women. The Morgan College Choir quickly developed a reputation as an outstanding group that sang spirituals, folk songs, anthems, and choral masterworks for concert programs, churches, and commencement exercises throughout the city, The college president insisted the choir sing only spirituals; however, Miss Jessye felt the choral students should be challenged to perform all types of music. Limiting the choral repertory to spirituals merely perpetuated the myth that blacks could and should only sing spirituals.129 She would not comply with the request of the president and this was forced to resign. After resigning from Morgan College in 1919, completing less than one year, Jessye returned to Oklahoma where resumed teaching in the public schools in Tullahassee. During this time, she not only taught classroom subjects, but trained vocal groups for creative programs and school-community functions, and also served as president of the Literary Society at Flipper Key Davis AME Church School. Jessye taught here from 1920-1925. One of her colleagues at Flipper Key Davis was Richard B. Harrison, who later became a distinguished actor who earned fame for the role of De Lord in the film The Green Pasture.

127 Jessye, audiotape interview, March 18, 1983, Pittsburg, Kansas. 128 Jessye, audiotape interview, March 18, 1983, Pittsburg, Kansas.

129 Ibid.

48 Eva Jessye‘s national reputation as a choral conductor emerged from the excellent direction she provided the choir. Her reputation created opportunities for her to work in various mediums, such as radio, film, and stage. Eva Jessye was the head music director for several broadcast radio shows such as the —Major Bowes Family Radio Hour“ and the —General Motors Hour.“ She also worked on several film projects such as —Uncle Tom‘s Cabin,“ and —Hallelujah,“ which was the first film featuring an all black cast. Finally, she was appointed choral director for the —Four Saints in Three Acts“ stage play, and then was selected by George Gershwin to be choral director for the original production of his folk opera —Porgy and Bess.“ Eva Jessye was also involved in humanitarian efforts. Her experiences as a black woman during the Jim Crow era influenced her involvement in the Civil Rights movement. She collaborated with strong political figures such as Marian Anderson, Mary McLeod Bethune, Langston Hughes, Paul Robeson, and Martin Luther King Jr. Dr. King invited the Eva Jessye Choir to perform during the historic March on Washington. During Eva Jessye‘s lifetime she received numerous awards and citations. Wilberforce University, Allen University, and Southern University bestowed upon her honorary degrees, including a doctorate. She also received a citation from the governor of Kansas as the Kansas Ambassador for the Arts. In a 1984 interview by Jacob Gordon, Jessye was asked what she considered some of the drawbacks of being black and elderly in Kansas Her reply was, —I often think if I had been white, where would I have been? Perhaps not anywhere. Because I think I had it made, you know. Who‘s that who said he took the path less traveled by? Robert Frost? I took the color less desirable and it made all the difference.“

Eva Jessye died on February 21, 1992 at the age of 97 in Ann Arbor, Michigan.

49 The Origin and Development of the Wings Over Jordan Choir

Figure 4. Wings Over Jordan Choir

Figure 5. Wings Over Jordan Choir during a live television broadcast.

Wings Over Jordan Choir The views of founder and director Reverend Settle, regarding of the genesis of the Wings Over Jordan Choir can be determined in the following historical and theological reference. —When a Negro dies, it is said that he has crossed the River Jordan. This famed stream is thought of as the dividing line between this earth and the promised eternal reward. In days of slavery, freedom could be obtained only through death, and around the Biblical promises of an eternal reward, songs were sung in plantation cabins, denoting faith in eternity--- a place of music, happiness, and enjoyment of the Lord‘s presence. One passed from this earth into eternity. It was his hope that he would hear the winged chorus of angels, singing the praises of the Most High, calling the earth-worn traveler to his

50 place of rest. Hence, Wings Over Jordan, the choir of angels God‘s children will hear as they cross from earth to heaven.“130

”Wings Over Jordan,‘ as envisioned by Reverend Glenn Tom Settle, was the choir of angels, which God‘s children heard as they crossed from earth to heaven. This thought was a symbol of the greatness of the past and the hope of the future. In 1935, Reverend Settle was searching for ways to reach the masses in his newly appointed position as pastor of Gethsemane Baptist Church in Cleveland, Ohio. Not one of the more prominent congregations, it consisted of mostly migrant families in search of better economic, social, and educational opportunities for themselves and their children. Despite those obstacles, the church had a good choir that was filled with rich, natural, clear, and untrained voices. They were known for singing Negro spirituals in the authentic tradition passed from generation to generation. Negro spirituals, during this time in history, were undergoing serious mutations.131 Various vocal groups and bands were performing Negro spirituals in a type of burlesque style. This was very disheartening to Reverend Settle and he wanted to restore the dignity and maintain the musical tradition which had been an inspiration to the black race. At a very early age, Rev. Settle recognized the magical powers of the medium of music. He used music as a vehicle to instill in his membership pride, self-confidence and dignity that had been lost with social unrest in the city of Cleveland. Thus, he founded the ”Negro Hour,‘ a local radio program focusing attention on the interest, needs, aspirations, and positive accomplishments of Negroes also saught to inspire and encourage. This program featured the then Negro Choir performance of spirituals as they were traditionally sung. After several successful programs, the ‘Negro Hour‘ moved to a national level and the name was changed to the ”Wings Over Jordan‘ program. The Wings Over Jordan Choir is known as one of the —world‘s greatest Negro choirs“132 and —most outstanding singing groups in America.“133 The choir enjoyed great success, even without the support of Historically Black Colleges and Universities and without benefit of

130 —Wings Over Jordan,“ Newsweek, May 18, 1941, p. 17. 131 Interview by Samuel Barber with Mrs. Williett F. Thompson, former conductor, assistant conductor, and accompanist of the Negro Hour and the Wings Over Jordan Choir in Cleveland, Ohio, November 7, 1975.

132 Handbill advertisement, n.d.

133 Columbia Broadcasting System New, New York, N.Y., January 7, 1947, p.1.

51 wealthy patrons. The choir was first aired nationally on January 9, 1938 from WGAR, Cleveland, Ohio on the new program called the ”Negro Hour.‘ From this point, Wings Over Jordan became a household name as it represented a monument to the progress and heritage of a great race. Because of the courage and faith of the choir‘s membership, many of Reverend Settle‘s and Mr. Worth Kramer‘s dreams came to fruition.

Purpose The purpose of the Wings Over Jordan Choir was to preserve the tradition of singing Negro spirituals in an authentic manner and to maintain the spiritual as an art form of dignity and honor. The Negro spiritual served as an alternative form of communication, with text and melodies conveying the concepts of freedom, hope and deliverance. The spiritual‘s text, usually religious, enhanced an atmosphere already fraught with emotional fervor. Wings Over Jordan was noted for capturing this emotional atmosphere typical of the black church tradition in many of its performances. One of the hallmark features of the choir‘s style was the creation and control of an intense emotional climate. To become a great minister, Reverend Settle learned to be very sensitive to the emotional demands of an audience. This trait enabled him to capitalize on and to exploit the emotional needs of the audience through carefully designed arrangements that elicited and sustained an emotional atmosphere.

Founding and Location The Wings Over Jordan Choir was founded during hard times economically, socially, spiritually, and educationally for blacks in America. It was in 1935 that Rev. Settle accepted a position at Gethsemane Baptist Church in Cleveland, Ohio and to his surprise; they had a very good choir with strong voices, although untrained.

Performance Practices The performance practices of the Wings Over Jordan Choir supported historically accurate interpretation of the repertoire, mostly Negro spirituals and gospel music. The Wings Over Jordan choir alternated between gospel and spiritual arrangements, depending on the type of audience and the type of performance. One of the hallmark features of the choir was the

52 establishment and maintenance of an intense emotional climate. With a keen sensitivity to the demands of an audience, Rev. Settle was able to exploit their emotional needs. He was able to control this climate through a prearranged set of finger signals designed to indicate appropriate songs that elicited and sustained an emotional atmosphere. Not only was music prearrange to maintain control, but the delivery of songs was also different. In complete contrast to that of European performing ensembles, the Wings Over Jordan Choir performances were transparent in texture, limited in learned musical devices, limited in melodic range and harmonic interest and usually sung without instrumental accompaniment. They used fermatas very often, along with chromaticism as modulatory devices, to achieve interest. Unlike European music that employed complex musical devices to enhance the text, the color and timbre of African-American voices that changed to create a variety of moods. If the musical text of the music spoke about death or sorrow, the singers could use the natural richness of their voices to project a darker tone that would represent darkness.

Choir Activities As historical information confirms, no other choral group in the history of the United States was as versatile as the Wings Over Jordan Choir. Although the influence of the Choir was far reaching, it was the repeated request for concerts in many different cities that encouraged Reverend Settle to explore every opportunity available for the Choir. The primary activities of the choir were to perform on the radio, make political and civic appearances, attend educational and social benefits, organize the Spiritual Preservation Fund, found a Scholarship Fund, and make phonograph recordings and movies. The activities are numerous, and selected activities the choir performed merit more detail. In 1938, the Wings Over Jordan Choir made its initial tour to Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Reverend Settle‘s home town. The singers performed in several churches, including Rev Settle‘s home church. Because this first tour was so well received, Rev. Settle took an extended tour in late October of the same year. This tour was a nine-day tour of the deep south that covered cities such as Lexington, Kentucky; Chattanooga, Knoxville, and Nashville, Tennessee; and Montgomery and Tuskegee, Alabama.134 This tour was a monumental task for the Choir.

134 Diary of the Wings Over Jordan Choir activities p. 18.

53 Because the south was still so severely segregated, Rev. Settles devised a plan to protect his singers. In the contracts, Settle stipulated that each sponsoring organization would provide room and board for the Choir. Sponsoring organizations could not provide housing in the beginning, but that did not stop the tour. Choir members stayed in the homes of black families in the early cities of the tour.135 In 1940, the choir was contracted to perform in front of a record breaking crowd for the New York Worlds Fair.136 This performance propelled them to larger engagements, such as a colossal performance at Cleveland Stadium where more than 75,000 people paid to hear the Wings Over Jordan Choir in 1941. Beyond the many paid attendees, there were more than 25,000 turned away. As the choir‘s popularity grew, plans for an anniversary program to culminate the year‘s events. In 1941, the Wings Over Jordan Choir closed the year with an electrifying anniversary program that featured the Honorable John H. Bricker, Governor of the state of Ohio, as the guest speaker.137 This particular anniversary program was broadcast directly from the auditorium of the Antioch Baptist Church. This broadcast was the first remote broadcast in the choir‘s history.138 This remote broadcast, as well as many others, created many more radio opportunities for the group. In 1942, the choir appeared on Columbia‘s —School of the Air“ series. This series was a cultural program broadcast throughout the North and South America. These broadcasts enabled the choir to become known internationally.139 Due to this international appeal, the choir was invited to make a global tour of the GI bases for the War Department in 1945.140 On this tour, the choir participated in a special

135 Diary of the Wings Over Jordan Choir activities, p. 18.

136 —Joe Louis on Radio; Wings Over Jordan Gives Press Recital,“ Cleveland Call and Post, July 5, 1940, p. 5.

137 —Gov. Bricker is Anniversary Speaker on ”Wings‘ Program at Antioch Bpt., —Cleveland Call and Post, January 11, 1941, p.1.

138 Ibid.

139 —‘Wings Over Jordan‘ Makes History for the Negro,“ Cleveland Call and Post, December 11, 1942, p. 3A.

140 —Jordan Choir Readies for Global Tour of GI Bases,“ Cleveland Call and Post, February 24, 1945, p. 1A.

54 Christopher Columbus Memorial Ceremony in conjunction with the all black 92nd Infantry Division in Genoa, Italy. This service marked the restoration of Christopher Columbus to the original resting place.141 In 1947, the Choir continued to tour, but because of a premeditated no-show on the part of the singers for a performance, CBS decided to dismiss the choir from the broadcasting network. Rev. Settles thought that they would lose their audience, but instead they gained new listeners.142 By 1953 the choir made a tour to Korea and Japan. It was during this tour that Wings Over Jordan was invited to make several appearances on NHK-TV in Tokyo, Japan. This was the first time the Choir had been invited to perform on T.V., both in the United States and abroad.143

Contributions and Achievements The Wings Over Jordan Choir spanned nearly forty years of continuous activity and is of unparalleled stature among black choirs. During this time, the choir contributed to the fields of music, religion, African-American history, radio broadcasting and international goodwill. They also received various awards for their many achievements and contributions. In 1939, Wings Over Jordan was selected as the first Choir in WGAR‘s history to be signed as an exclusive feature.144 From this signing, the choir began its broadcasting as a local program that featured the Wings Over Jordan Choir as they performed in an authentic manner the songs Africa Americans called spirituals.145 Due to this featured program, the choir was cited as a major reason for CBS winning the 1941 George Foster Peabody Radio Award for outstanding meritorious public service to the

141 —‘Wings Over Jordan‘ Choir Resumes CBS Broadcasts March 3; Group Spent 10 Months Entertaining GIs All Over Europe,“ The Columbia Broadcasting System News, February 14, 1946, p. 2.

142 —‘Wings Over Jordan‘ Dismissed by CBS,“ Los Angeles Sentinel, October 30, 1947, p. 21. 143 Glenn T. Settle, —The Spiritual Preservation Fund Plan and Purpose“ (Los Angeles, California, n.d.), p. 2.

144 —‘Wings Over Jordan‘ Signs as Exclusive WGAR Feature,“ Cleveland Call and Post, October 26, 1939, p.1.

145 Ibid.

55 community.146 In the same year, Governor John Bricker proclaimed September 29th as Wings Over Jordan Day in Columbus, Ohio. Significant to African-American history, the choir inaugurated the first public forum called the Negro Progress Hour. This program was designed to enlighten the citizens of Cleveland, Ohio about the contributions and achievements of Negro culture and history. The singing of Negro spirituals by the Choir helped to tell the stories of slaves and their journey to freedom.147 Although the choir helped create a social consciousness about the history of African- Americans, it was also their sincere passion and spiritually evoking presentations that enabled them to be goodwill ambassadors for the United State Government. In 1938, the Wings Over Jordan Choir was invited to participate in a Goodwill Exchange Program that was broadcast around the world on short wave radio by the British Broadcast Company (BBC).148 In 1941, the choir was cited in the Annual Race Relations Polls as the choral and religious-educational broadcast to reach more listeners in this country and abroad than any other program of its kind.149

Operational Procedures

Audition Procedures Reverend Settle wanted to attract the best natural talent that Cleveland had to offer, so he created policies and procedures for attracting and auditioning singers from around the area. These policies and procedures created a very competitive climate that served to maintain a consistent high level of excellence within the choir. These procedures were made evident when Reverend Settle published an advertisement in the Cleveland Call and Post, on April 6, 1939. —Reverend Glenn T. Settle… will hold auditions for persons who desire to join this famous group. He stated that they were seeking natural voices of all

146 —Winners of the George Foster Peabody Radio Awards,“ School and Society, 53 (April 5, 1941), p. 435.

147 —Overflow Crowd Inaugurates First ”Negro Progress Hour,‘“ Cleveland Call and Post, November 10, 1939, p. 3.

148 —WGAR to Resume Broadcasting of ”Jordan‘ Program“ Cleveland Call and Post, June 30, 1938, p. 2.

78—Reddick Releases Annual Race Relations Honor Roll,“ Cleveland Call and Post, February 14, 1942, p. 12A.

56 types, both men and women. Applicants for auditions should be between the ages of 18 to 25 and be available for traveling. The auditions will be held beginning at noon on Monday, at Gethsemane Baptist Church, East 30th Street and Scoville Avenue.“150

There were very little changes in personnel during the first four years of the choir‘s existence. In order not to discourage new talent from auditioning and to ensure the old members not get complacent, Reverend Settle strategically placed the following notice in the Cleveland Call and Post:

Once a year, Wings Over Jordan Choir holds a session of auditions to build up a reserve list of outstanding voices to be added to this world famous singing aggregation. This year, the auditions will be held beginning tomorrow, Friday, September 19, 1941, and will continue through Tuesday, September 23, 1941. The auditions will be managed by Worth Kramer, the choral director of the distinguished ensemble….

Applicants wishing to join this choir are requested to have a recommendation from their local pastor. The age limit is thirty years. Any individual who is accepted will travel with the choir through its North and South American Tours which will be made this season.151

Most of the early auditions were administered by Worth Kramer in Cleveland. It was not until the rapid decrease in the original membership of the choir that Reverend Settle decided to intensify the recruiting efforts by expanding the search for singers in 1942. An article in Readers Digest gives another account of the audition process: —Settle holds an audition in every city where a concert is given, and any Negro boy or girl with ambition and a voice has a hearing. About 20 of its present members were recruited in that way. Fifteen states are now represented in the membership.“152 By the end of one of the European Tours, the Choir‘s membership had dropped to fifteen. The Choir did not suffer much because of Reverend Settle‘s recruiting efforts. Because of his new auditioning practices and the popularity of the Choir, eager new young voices where ready to fill the vacant slots. Because of the high turnover ratio, by 1947, over 250 different singers had once been members of the Wings Over Jordan Choir.153

79‘Wings Over Jordan‘ Seeks New Talent; Offering Auditions, —Cleveland Call and Post, April 6, 1939, p.1.

151 —Wings Over Jordan Gives Auditions,“ Cleveland Call and Post, September 20, 1941, p. 9A.

152 McDermott, p. 99.

153 —Wings Over Jordan Choir Splits Over Pay Fight,“ Los Angeles Sentinel, August 28, 1947, p. 1.

57 Over the next couple of years, the choir‘s turnover ratio continued to increase. It was during the 1950s and 60s that no auditions were required. Singers were in such great demand that a person wanting to audition for the Choir would only have to provide a letter of recommendation from the auditioning person‘s pastor. Reverend Settle took very little time in integrating the new members into the full activities and policies of the Choir. Once they were accepted, they had to learn the repertoire quickly or would be left to pantomime during performances. These practices proved to be detrimental to the choirs singing quality and performances. The choir took on a different sound and style due to the excessive personal changes. This was a tremendous blow to the principles on which the choir was founded, because most of the new singers were young and inexperienced at singing the traditional Negro Spiritual. Hence, much of the authentic character and spirit of the Spirituals was lost. Due to high turnover rates, a complete roster of the membership of the Wings Over Jordan Choir is not available.

Rehearsals The rehearsals of the Wings Over Jordan Choir were not strenuous, but rather open and free. This allowed for each choir member to share a rich musical heritage, fostered confidence and helped to build a cohesive unit. In the beginning, the choirs rehearsals were held at Gethsemane and later moved to the CBS studios in Cleveland, Ohio. Most of the rehearsals were held in the evening to accommodate those members that had day jobs. The choir had a very intense rehearsal schedule: they rehearsed from eight to eleven on Tuesday evenings, from eight to ten thirty on Thursday evenings, and eight to nine twenty on Sunday morning, just before broadcast time. These rehearsals were necessary because musical performances on the radio during this time were live broadcasts. After the choir achieved national acclain and became incorporated, it moved to a daily rehearsal schedule in order to maintain high quality performances. Most of the repertoire was a cappella, which was more demanding and called for more attention to correcting individual and ensemble problems. The conductor did appoint section leaders to assist in correcting problems and to teach literature. 154

154 Demott, p. 99.

58 Repertoire The Wings Over Jordan Choir‘s repertoire was varied, but dominated by Negro spirituals. The choir had over 300 spirituals in their repertoire and most were arranged by Kramer and/or choir members. One reason for the choirs information choir was to preserve traditional performance of the Negro Spiritual, passed down orally from one generation to the next. Also, this music was easier for travel because it did not require instruments to be carried on the tours. The following list of songs was compiled from two different programs to reflect the choir‘s basic repertoire.155

1. Wheel In a Wheel

2. My Lord‘s Gonna Move This Wicked Race

3. Nobody Knows The Trouble I‘ve Seen

4. Does Anybody Here Know My Jesus

5. Where Shall I Go To Ease My Tremblin‘ Mind

6. I‘ve Got A Home In The Rock

7. You Can Tell The World

8. Live A Humble

9. Shine On Me

10. True Religion

11. Wanna Go To Heaven When I Die

12. Sweet Turtle Dove

13. The Old Ship Of Zion

14. You Better Mind

15. New Born Again

16. We‘ll Understand It better By And By

17. Give Away Jordan

18. I Want Two Wings

155 Barber, Samuel, —Wings Over Jordan Choir,“ pp. 90-91.

Organizational Structure

The organizational structure of the Wings Over Jordan Choir was basically a hierarchy of one, Reverend Settle. He was the undisputed leader of the choir. All major decisions were approved by him. Although he was known in the Cleveland area for his fatherly image, he ran the choir‘s operations, including the membership, in a tightly controlled and efficient manner.

Original Membership The Wings Over Jordan Choir‘s initial membership numbered twenty-five. The choir‘s original name was the Gethsemane Choral Society, chosen by Reverend Settle to attract natural talent from various local churches in the Cleveland area. The initial membership increased to well over fifty voices by when the choir made its radio debut.156 The choir attributed its great success to the quality of their performances and the excellent management practices established by Reverend Settle. The choral ensemble was made up of laborers, housewives, maids, elevator operators, beauticians and truck drivers.157 All gave their services without pay. The choir was a traveling self-help operation. Almost everywhere they performed, church members gave free food and lodging to the Choir. Throughout the years, the Choir had many membership turnovers. In some ways, the turnover was good for the Choir as fresh, trained voices added to the overall quality of the sound produced. Some of the talented members of the choir received national and international attention, such as Ruth L. Wyatt, who became a featured soloist with the Duke Ellington Band,158 Gladys Knight, of the popular Rhythm and Blues group named Gladys Knight and the Pipps,159 Grace Bumbry, an opera singer.160

156 Cleveland, Ohio, photographic sources.

157 McDermott, September, 1942, p. 98.

158 —Former ”Wings Over Jordan‘ Soloist Now Training In WAAC at Des Moines,“ Cleveland Call and Post, April 10, 1943, p. 9B.

159 Newberry and Brooks interviews, January 3, 1976.

160 Ibid.

Business Arrangements

Singing in the Wings Over Jordan Choir was strictly voluntary.161 When concerts and tours increased due to popularity of the choir, it caused some conflicts with employed choir members and those with a family. Most members kept their day jobs while traveling and singing with the choir. Because of the increased engagements, many singers quit their jobs to complete a mission of fulfilling a Christian commitment and earn a salary while doing it. Rev. Settle realized that concertizing could not be successful promising to compensate the singers for their hard work.

Conductors From the number of conductors, it is evident that Reverend Settle had a high regard for the quality performances by the Choir, regardless of race or gender of the conductor. During this time in history, there were few women conducting choral ensembles with international distinction and even fewer black women. This proved to be a very progressive move on the part of Reverend Settle, as he appointed three black women to lead the Wings Over Jordan Choir. The Choir‘s first conductor, Worth Kramer, was one of two white conductors of this all black choir. Although Kramer‘s appointment as conductor was viewed as political, causing some unrest within the choir and the Negro community, it was his sensitivity as a musician and knowledge of radio production that set a standard the other conductors would emulate. The appointment of Kramer was somewhat controversial. Record has it that Kramer was the first conductor of the Wings Over Jordan Choir, but James Tate, who was listed as the third conductor, was the original conductor of the Negro Hour Choir when it first aired on the Negro Hour Program. It was not until the radio program was syndicated that the name of the choir and the radio program changed to Wings Over Jordan. Worth Kramer was on the staff at WGAR, where he was the producer of the Negro Hour. Because of Kramer‘s experience in directing choral music, knowledge of radio production and musical insight, Reverend Settle appointed Kramer for four weeks to prepare the choir for national broadcasting. At that time, James Tate relinquished his position to the choir could benefit from Kramer‘s knowledge. During this time, Kramer was assisted by Firmbanks and this collaboration resulted in numerous musical

161 Samuel Barber, —The Choral Style of the Wings Over Jordan Choir“

61 compositions of merit. By the fifth week, Kramer showed no signs of relinquishing his position as director, so James Tate decided that it was time for him to leave the choir. Reverend Settle was feeling pressure from choir members, community leaders, and lay people regarding the appointment of Kramer, so he had to find a way of diffusing the problem to save his reputation within the Negro community. He relieved Kramer as director and Firmbanks was appointed and then also relieved within two weeks. Mr. James Tate returned and was re-instated, only to quit after just one month. Kramer was reappointed and became the permanent conductor for more than four years.162 After Kramer resigned his position in 1941, Dr. Frederick D. Hall of Alabama State College became his successor, with Gladys Jones as the assistant. Due to the heavy commitments at Alabama State, Dr. Hall resigned after one month and Jones became the next permanent conductor.163

Rev. Glenn T. Settle the Conductor

Figure 6. Formal portrait of Rev. Glenn T. Settle‘s

From a red clay plantation in north central North Carolina, Glenn Tom Settle climbed to recognition, achievement, and success as one of the most brilliant pioneers of black culture and

162 Barber, Samuel, —Wings Over Jordan Choir“ p. 85.

163 Barber, Samuel, —Wings Over Jordan Choir“ p. 86.

62 human rights of the twentieth century. He assumed a pivotal position in helping to shape and to mold American history. On October 10, 1894, in the log cabin of a destitute sharecropping family, Glenn Tom Settle was born in Nubbin Ridge, near Reidsville, North Carolina to Ruben and Mary B. Settle.164 Settle‘s father, grew up as an —illiterate sharecropper“ and later became disenchanted with the unbearable conditions of a sharecropper‘s life and abandoned it for a better, or at least different, lifestyle. Glenn Settle‘s mother, attended and graduated from Bennett College in Greensboro, North Carolina.165 Glenn Settle‘s grandfather, Tom Settle, strongly impressed Glenn, greatly influenced his life and was the topic of many stories told by his mother. She would tell the stories of family history, the importance of black children getting an education, black culture, and black folklore, which helped the family remain in high spirits and have unity during the hard times. One story that stood out for Glenn was the legend of his grandfather. Glenn Settle‘s grandfather was an African prince that was captured in a tribal war, sold into slavery and brought to America around 1850. Tom was purchased by Judge Settle, a man of letters from North Carolina, from which Glenn‘s family received their Christian name.166 The Judge owned a large plantation and needed a slave of Tom‘s size and character as an overseer. According to the legend, before reaching the plantation, Tom told the Judge that he would prefer death before working in a field.167 The Judge was so impressed with Tom‘s intelligence and integrity; he relaxed long established rules in order for Tom to become an overseer. Religious training and hard work were two constants indelibly imprinted on the minds of the Settle children. Glenn was deeply entrenched in both exercises. Beginning at the age of four, he worked regularly in the tobacco fields with his father where, with the aid of a mule, they eked out a living for the family on an impoverished plot of land.168

164 Correspondence with the office of Vital Statistics in Worthington, North Carolina, county seat of Rockingham County where Glenn was born.

165 Bunton, interview, May 3, 1976.

166 Aummen, Thunder, p. 32.

167 Ibid.

168 McDermott, p. 21.

63 In 1902, Glenn‘s father, Ruben Glenn, was not happy with a sharecropper‘s life, so he moved the family to Uniontown, Pennsylvania, where he began working in mining camps.169 Ruben found this was much better for his family because of the availability of consistent work and the ability to earn a wage sufficient to support his family. Later he encouraged his sons to work at the mines, as it would teach life‘s lessons of hard work and dedication. It was in Uniontown that Glenn Settle received both his early and middle years of education at Parks Elementary School from 1902 to 1909 and Central Junior High School from 1909 to 1911. In 1911, Settle entered Central High School, only to leave in 1912 to aid his mother and the family due to the death of his father.170 When Glenn Settle left school he had to get three jobs, one in a hardware store, one in a furniture store and another one in the coke mines. This way, he earned enough money to help support his mother and the rest of his siblings. In 1917, Glenn Settle married Mary Elizabeth Carter, a local Uniontown girl. Soon after this union, Settle moved to Cleveland, Ohio, in pursuit of better educational and economic opportunities.171 After arriving in Cleveland, he began working several jobs, such as a janitor, superintendent of an apartment building, truck driver, warehouseman, and molder, before becoming permanently employed with Bissett Steel Company in 1923.172 Because of his religious upbringing, Settle affiliated himself with the Mt. Haven Baptist Church and was named co-superintendent of the Sunday School.173 During his affiliation with the church, Glenn Settle became a lifelong friend and mentee to his pastor, Reverend Charles H. Crable. Under Crable‘s guidance, Settle became an astute student of the bible and in 1922, he became an ordained minister and the Assistant Pastor of Mt. Haven Baptist Church.174

169 Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Permanent School Record, Uniontown Public Schools.

170 Ibid.

171 Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Memorandum of Marriage License Record in the Orphans‘ Court Division of Fayette County; and Neil Collins, —Wings Over Jordan,“ Radio Guide, Chicago, Illinois, n.d., p. 7.

172 Cleveland, Ohio, Bissett Steel Company Employment Record. Employed from March 23, 1923, to June 30, 1931.

173 Cleveland, Ohio, —Santa‘s Parcel Post,“ Program dated December 27, 1917.

174 Lewiston (Ida.) Morning Tribune, July 15, 1952, p. 6.

64 After becoming an ordained minister, Reverend Settle accepted a job in 1928 as Pastor of the St. Johns Baptist Church in Painesville, Ohio.175 With his strong work ethic and determination, Reverend Settle turned a small, stagnant parish into a thriving, up-and-coming parish by remodeling buildings, adding new pews and carpet.176 Although he was only there for two years, he influenced the spiritual, educational, economic, and social development of all his parishioners. In 1929, Settle enrolled in a correspondence course at the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, Illinois. Between his work load at the church, his full time job at Bissett Steel Company and trying to study for his course, it became too much. Reverend Settle decided it was best for him to resign from the plant to allow more time for studying and devote more attention to his ministerial duties at the church. In 1930, Reverend Settle was offered and accepted a position at the Bethany Baptist Church in Elyria, Ohio.177 Because of his popularity and religious connections, many believed that this appointment was political. This caused traumatic experiences for both the congregation and Reverend Settle.178 Even with all of this conflict, Reverend Settle‘s tenure at Bethany was marked by notable accomplishments in welfare, youth, and musical activities. In the end, the tension was too enormous and caused the church to split. On February 5, 1933, the Second Baptist Church was organized and Reverend Glenn Settle was appointed as the first minister.179 As pastor of this newly organized church, he felt it was his duty to help resolve some of the tension he helped to create. He designed several activities to transcend the un- Christian evils that had plagued the Baptist community for sometime.180 While at Second Baptist Church, one of the many ways he used to transcend the devil was the positive spiritual fortitude that was generated by his dynamic and provocative preaching skills. Some of his sermons helped in the reduction in racial tension, intensive social and welfare

175 Interview with Mrs. Azalee Yarbrough, former church clerk, Elyria, Ohio, April 18, 1976.

176 Dermott, p. 97.

177 Columbus, Ohio, committee Report of the Northern Ohio District Sunday School Convention, June 30, 1930.

178 Yarbrough, interview, October 24, 1975.

179 Ibid

180 Ibid

65 reform programs and social unrest. By this time he had established a positive reputation in Elryia through his organizational, operational, and logistical skills. This led to another appointment as minister of Gethsemane Baptist Church in Cleveland, Ohio. By October 1935, Reverend Glenn T. Settle had accepted the appointment as Pastor of the Gethsemane Baptist Church of Cleveland, Ohio. Not a very prominent church, Gethsemane had a congregation full of transplanted plantation hands who migrated to Cleveland in search of better opportunities for themselves and their children. The church did not have very strong ministries, but had a good choir. Almost all had been blessed with rich, natural though untrained voices. Immediately, Reverend Settle envisioned the restoration of a musical tradition which had once been an inspiration. Settle thought, —If only it could get some radio time, it would be the start of the spreading of my message.“ —I had a vision to convince the world that the Negro race is not made up of hoodlums and chicken thieves, but of hard-working citizens worthy of this free land.“

The choir was already singing Negro spirituals in the authentic manner of their ancestors, but did not have any direction in terms of organization or leadership. This particular ministry was difficult because of the hard times, but Settle would meet the challenge through the use of music as a vehicle with his musically-adept congregation to educate and obtain an awareness of economic and social changes. Through personal experiences and contact with radio personalities, Reverend Settle was aware of the powerful influence of radio in uplifting, inspiring, and instructing people. There were various hour format radio programs that dealt with a variety of subjects concerning various cultures. Some examples of successful —Hour“ programs are The Catholic Hour, The Lutheran Hour, and the Protestant Hour. But of all the —Hour“ programs, none directed or focused attention on the interests, needs, aspirations, or the positive accomplishments of Negroes. On the national level, the —Hour“ programs were dominated by classical or European music and were directed toward an elite audience of both races. Several comedy hours directed their attention to the lower and middle class white society and minstrel music pervaded these programs. Any programs on which Negroes appeared were of the entertainment variety, in which they performed in a demeaning and burlesque manner. Reverend Settle strongly objected to this type of performance, especially those which treated lightly the Negro Spiritual. To

66 preserve the black choral tradition, Settle inaugurated a Negro Spiritual Preservation Movement. He advocated the restoration of the Negro Spiritual to a position of dignity and honor. The Negro Hour was indeed a celebrated victory for Reverend Settle and the people of Cleveland. For the first time in radio history, Reverend Settle and his aides produced and directed an autonomous black radio program. This program served to break the radio cartel that had dominated the radio industry for over a decade.

The Origin and Development of the Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir

Figure 7. The de Paur Infantry Choir Figure 8. The de Paur Infantry Choir during a sectional rehearsal

The Infantry Choir The de Paur Infantry Choir was more than just a professional all male musical organization of talented singers. It was also a socially-conscious organization that did much to pave the way for other Negro concert groups. It was an organization that sold itself through musical ability alone. There were no theatrics, no dancing, no fancy lighting. Whether singing 16th Century polyphony, such as Palestrina‘s Adoramus Te Christe or West Indian Calypso like Ugly Women, critics from coast to coast named them the best of all choral groups.

Purpose The initial purpose of the Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir, later to be known as the de Paur Chorus, was to boost the morale of the soldiers in European battle areas during World War II.181 They performed in hospital wards, on the decks of battleships, on hidden bomber bases, in

181 Kupferberg, Colliers Magazine, p. 29.

67 submarine pens, and in drab army supply bases.182 Sometime they would average six shows a day, totaling well over two thousand concerts, for this morale boosting unit. The chorus became a popular attraction among the men and women of the United States Armed Forces because of the variety of music they shared with them, which reminded them of positive experiences at home in the United States.

Founding and Location The founding of the de Paur Infantry Choir was unique, courtesy of an interesting turn of events. It was not long after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941 that four soldiers were singing in a boiler room at Fort Dix in New Jersey. They were members of the 372nd Infantry Regiment, a Negro National Guard Unit which liked to sing. From their love of singing grew a Glee Club that sung to anyone who would listen. They quickly gained a reputation as the best singing outfit in the East, and the USO and the War Bond campaigners began to bid for their appearance. The 372nd Negro reserve unit was being reassigned to Fort Huachuca, Arizona on their way to active duty in the Pacific where they would eventually meet their musical leader, Captain Leonard de Paur. Captain de Paur was being transferred to serve with the 372nd Infantry Division when Lieutenant Colonel Barrow recognized de Paur‘s musical background and gave him an additional assignment of conducting the 372nd Glee Club in 1944. It was the Colonel‘s intent that his 372nd Glee Club would become nationally known.

Performance Practices The performance practice of the Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir was unique in several ways. One way the choir was unique was the all male membership, thus the voices and types of repertoire performed were different. It was not the usual soprano, alto, tenor, bass or mixed voices, which would include female voices. Because of the gender of the ensemble, many of the musical selections they performed had to be arranged Another unique attribute was that de Paur decided the choir would not necessarily perform the standard —Negro“ literature, nor would concerts end with the requisite spirituals and work songs. This idea was very different from the norm for Black performing artists and ensembles, such as Harry T. Burleigh, Marian Anderson, Paul Robeson, Roland Hayes, Fisk

182 Concert Program for the 1951 tour, p. 4.

68 Jubilee Singers, Eva Jessye Singers, and the Hall Johnson Choir. Most of these Black artists had only performed Negro folk music or at least would end each program with a group of spirituals.183 It was this dream of performing all types of music that was a huge deviation from de Paur‘s musical training. Most of the performances of the de Paur Infantry Choir consisted of five sets. The first half of the program contained three sets and the second half of the program contained the final two sets usually followed by several encore selections. Usually the choir performed with about 35 voices, mostly due to the size of the touring bus, which would only hold that exact number of persons. The venues varied because of the type of performing ensemble. Sometimes they would perform in a concert hall and other times would be on the deck of an aircraft carrier.

Choir Activities The de Paur Infantry Choir was known as one of America‘s most booked concert units during its operation. Records indicate that the Choir performed over two thousand concerts. Due to the number of estimated performances and activities, only a few will be mentioned. In early 1945, the de Paur Choir performed on the NBC Army Hour and The Stage Door Canteen, two national programs that gave support for the troops at war. This not only provided stateside morale boost, but helped Lt. Col. Barrow‘s vision of having the choir become nationally known. Also in the same year, they sang for the fourth Inaugural Ball of President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D.C. In the spring of 1945, the Choir received orders to replace another division in the Pacific Theater. While there, they performed for General Robert C. Richardson, Jr., Commander of all U.S. Army Forces in the Mid-Pacific, who detached all of the choir members from active duty and assigned them to the Special Services Unit. This unit was responsible for traveling and entertaining the troops at war as a morale booster.184

183 —…In those days if you were a black performer regardless of who you were, you were supposed to close your performance with spirituals. Even Marian Anderson, Roland Hayes, real artists, were to close their program with [spirituals]. I said, I‘ll be damned if I will. …I damned well don‘t intend to. If you want spirituals you sing them. (And I could find a lot of ways to express this œ mostly profane, and they finally let me alone.) Personal interview, 1/27/93, p. 9. 184 Kupferberg, Colliers Magazine, p. 29.

69 In 1946, the Choir was so successful in the Pacific Theater, the 35 member de Paur Chorus was discharged together in New York City where they immediately had a successful audition with Columbia Arts Management and Columbia Records.185 The fall of 1947, General Richardson arranged a three month tour for the choir with the USO in Europe. Because of their quality performances, the contract and the tour were extended for an additional three months. The high point of the choir‘s history was when the United States Information Agency (USIA), which was a branch of the State Department, sponsored a tour of 18 African nations in 1966. The tour ended in Dakar, Senegal, the site of the First Festival of African Arts, which de Paur co-chaired along with Duke Ellington.

Contributions and Achievements Besides being known as one of America‘s most booked concert units, the de Paur Infantry Choir‘s contributions and achievements are vast. After they were discharged from the Army in 1947, the choir was signed by Columbia Arts Management Company and Columbia Records and all 35 members received a contract for two years, which was unheard of during those times. In one of Columbia Records‘ news releases describing the signing of the de Paur Infantry Choir, they stated: —The Infantry Choir repertoire, unlike that of most Negro Choruses, features no spirituals, but includes music from many lands the soldiers have visited.“186 According to Variety Magazine, The de Paur Chorus —turned out to be the biggest moneymaker on the roster of Columbia Artists Management.“187 In 1954 the —Calypso Christmas“ album became Columbia Record‘s number one selling album. For ten years, the de Paur Chorus was Columbia‘s top performing group. They set records for Columbia in concert dates and receipts. Not only did the de Paur Chorus set records with Columbia, they completed a number of recordings. The Chorus recorded 12 albums. Ten of those were under the Columbia Records label and two were under Philips-Mercury Records, one of which, Sound Off, was on the Best Sellers List in New York for six weeks.

185 —Columbia signs de Paur‘s Infantry Chorus.“ News release, circa 1947, p. 29.

186 Ibid.

187 Adul, Amsterdam News, p. 23.

70 Operational Procedures

Audition Procedures According to sources related to the Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir, there were no specific audition procedures for the Choir. In 1946, after the Choir was discharged from the Army, they all resided in New York, where they soon auditioned for Columbia Arts Management and Columbia Records and were hired. Most of the soldiers that sang with the chorus were discharged and remained with the chorus as their full time jobs. Even in 1957 when he disbanded the Infantry Choir, there is no indication that de Paur held auditions for the Opera Gala or the de Paur Chorus. However, it is noted that he utilized the services of his former members and soloists of the Infantry Chorus.

Rehearsals The Leonard de Paur Infantry Choir‘s early rehearsals where held in the barracks where the soldiers were stationed. Subsequent rehearsals were held in any vacant room or space available. Many times, the choir rehearsed on the bus while traveling. After signing with Columbia, various studio spaces became available to them for practice purposes.

Repertoire The repertoire of the de Paur Infantry Choir incorporated the gamut of musical styles and genres, including art song repertory that was followed by Caribbean folk music and then Calypso songs. The choir frequently ended the first half with jazz and popular arrangements performed by a small group of five singers and a guitarist, all from within the choir ranks. The second half of their program consisted of Negro Spirituals and work songs, ending the concert with military songs. Leonard de Paur did not end his programs with Negro Spirituals, as was the norm for most black musicians and historically black colleges and university choirs, because he wanted to be known first as a musician and then by his nationality or race and not vice-versa. It was his intent not to be solely involved in —Negro music“ but to perform any music which interested him as an artist. They frequently performed both vocal and semi-classical repertory. On some occasions, the group performed large masterworks.

71 Organizational Structure Original Membership The original membership of the de Paur Infantry Choir included four men who were members of the 372nd Regiment œ Charles Ernie, Tommy Harris, Allen Ferguson, and Sidney Greenard. Later the group expanded to 32 men with various musical backgrounds.

Business Arrangements Shortly after members of the Infantry Choir were discharged from the U.S. Army, they needed to find a job to stay financially stable. While most of the members were in New York, de Paur had gathered the group and auditioned for Columbia Records. The record executives were impressed and signed the chorus to do a recording and a tour in 1947. Most if not all of the business arrangements for the Infantry Chorus was handled by Columbia Records and Columbia Arts Management who managed the chorus for 10 years. The details of each contract were not discovered during this research.

Conductors The only conductor of the de Paur Infantry Chorus was Leonard de Paur himself. He did most, if not all, of the conducting for the group. From time to time he would assign persons to be assistant conductors who oversaw the music while he was out handling the business of the Chorus. The name that continues to surface as Assistant Director is Clarence Jacobs. Leonard de Paur the Conductor

Figure 9. Leonard de Paur

72 On November 18, 1914, Leonard de Paur was born in Summit, New Jersey to Ernst and Hettie de Paur.188 Leonard de Paur‘s father, was active in Republican politics and became a clerk for the State Supreme Court. Later, Leonard de Paur‘s parents separated and he lived with his mother, who moved to Jersey City where she had relatives. 189 De Paur began his early education by attending the Nixon School and Lincoln School in Summit, New Jersey. After his parent‘s separation, de Paur attended PS34 at Clairmont and Rose, and later attended PS14 on Union Street in Jersey City. His musical studies began at the Manual Training Institute at Bordentown, New Jersey, a military academy and industrial school. The ensembles at the school received great attention, as they were popular throughout the state because of their stellar performances. The director of the Bordentown music program was Frederick Work. Frederick was the brother of John Work, II and the uncle of John Work, III. The Work‘s were responsible for the great tradition of the spirituals at Fisk University.190 While attending the Manual Training Institute he learned to play several instruments, sang in the Glee Club and took music theory lessons.191 According to de Paur, he was expelled from the Bordentown Manual Training Institute prior to his graduation. After leaving the school, de Paur became a janitor for Loew‘s Theatres and soon became a singing usher. Classifying himself as a baritone, Leonard found work in Jersey City, New York, Baltimore, and Washington, D.C. on the vaudeville circuit of the Loew‘s Theatre chain. Following a tour, de Paur was introduced to Hall Johnson by friends of his mother.192 They arranged a meeting during a rehearsal of Hall Johnson‘s second chorus, the —Concert Chorale.“193 Leonard de Paur performed for Johnson and was invited to observe a rehearsal. After that initial observation Johnson said: —Their work was stunning œ almost shattering. I had never heard the human voice do anything like that.“

188 Personal Interview with Timothy Woods, 11/12/94, tape 1, p.2.

189 Personal Interview with Timothy Woods, 11/12/94, tape 1, pp. 7-8.

190 John Lovell Jr., Black Song: The Forge and the Flame, New York, p. 451.

191 John Lovell Jr., Black Song: The Forge and the Flame, New York, p. 451.

192 —A conversation with Leonard de Paur,“ (sound recording), The Hatch-Billops Oral History Collection of Black Culture, interviewed by Annette Eccles, New York, February 22, 1974.

193 Hall Johnson had several choirs. His first, and finest, performed in Broadway shows and in films. The Concert Chorale was the touring choir and his second choir.

73 Hall Johnson then casually invited de Paur to join the rehearsal. He was placed in the baritone section beside Jester Hairston, Hall‘s assistant conductor. Later, during his tenure in the choir, de Paur would become the other assistant conductor and assume responsibility for rehearsing the men‘s chorus portion of the concerts. He also served as Hall Johnson‘s copyist while receiving lessons from him in theory and arranging. As Johnson‘s assistant conductor, de Paur gained knowledge of and access to those in the recording and radio business, from which he would later benefit. Even though de Paur was doing a great job with the Hall Johnson Choir, Hall Johnson still believed in a good education. Because Hall Johnson had a close relationship with Leonard de Paur‘s mother, the two of them began planning Leonard de Paur‘s education. Hall Johnson was very instrumental in de Paur completing his high school diploma and then helped him gain entrance into Columbia University and later the Institute of Musical Arts, now known as The Julliard School of Music.194 In 1936, de Paur became the musical director of the Negro Unit of the Federal Theater Project in New York City.195 The Federal Theater Project was an integral part of developing young Black artists in the performing arts and spurred the eventual integration of Broadway casts and audiences.196 The first production that de Paur directed musically was Macbeth. This production was presented in the Lafayette Theater in Harlem to a sold-out audience and received critical national attention. Some of the other productions in which de Paur was involved were (Androcles and the Lion, Dr. Faustus, Conjure Man Dies, Haiti, and Natural Man.) Of the Federal Theatre Project experience, de Paur said: I grew up musically and every other way with the Federal Theater. What years they were…1936 to 1939! I did so much composing, even more conducting. One year I was knee-deep in fourteen different productions. And did we experiment! A whole manner of things never attempted before in theater bloomed there.197

194 —An interview with Leonard de Paur,“ (video recording), Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture; interviewed by Jean Blackwell Hutson, 1980, 1981.

195 This position came by way of a recommendation from Hall Johnson.

196 Gill, Freedomways, p. 242.

197 Hanly, West Side TV Shopper, p. 17.

74 By 1939, the Federal Theater Project was dismantled, but not before de Paur capitalized on the experiences of the project. De Paur used all of the opportunities, music that he wrote and the connections he made through his involvement with the project, to secure various jobs after the project stopped. After the project, de Paur began preparing choruses and arranging music for the stage, working as an actor, musician, recorder and producer in radio. In 1942, de Paur enlisted in the Army, entered Officers‘ Training School and graduated with the rank of Captain in 1943. His first assignment was to a special unit of the Army Air Corps as choral director of the air corps musical —Winged Victory.“ This particular production toured the United States from west coast to east coast and then ended up in Los Angeles for filming. After —Winged Victory“ completed its run, de Paur requested active duty and was assigned to the 372nd Infantry Regiment. During this time, de Paur was excited about the possibility of fighting Germans, which was his main reason for enlisting. Soon after being assigned to the 372nd, Lieutenant Colonel Herbert A. Barrow, Executive Officer of the 372nd, looked at de Paur‘s records and saw his musical background. He quickly asked de Paur to become director of the regiment‘s Glee Club who agreed to direct the choir as they took part in war bond rallies and radio programs. (Records indicate that the 372nd ensemble performed over two thousand concerts.) Although de Paur had great success with all of the choirs he conducted, he always continued his training as conductor and musician. In 1956, upon Virgil Thomson‘s recommendation, de Paur began studying conducting with Pierre Monteux. This training led to changes in his musical career. During this time, de Paur was introduced to the world of opera. By 1957 he created the de Paur Opera Gala, using some of the singers and soloists of the Infantry Choir. Though de Paur had an ensemble devoted to opera, he also was doing outside work as a musical director. He was hired in 1958 and 1959 by Hallmark to be the musical director for a television presentation of Marc Connelly‘s —The Green Pastures.“ The show aired for two years before being removed from the air. By the early 1960s, many men‘s choruses, such as Don Cossack‘s, had been dismantled. Leonard de Paur was convinced by Freddie Schang, President of Columbia Artist Management, that there was a market for a professional men‘s chorus, so de Paur investigated and agreed to

75 form the de Paur Chorus.198 A major highlight of the de Paur Chorus was the invitation to tour 18 African Nations in 1966, sponsored by the State Department. Throughout his career, Leonard de Paur had numerous activities beyond work with his professional chorus. He was the guest conductor for many orchestras and Broadway shows, such as the Cincinnati Orchestra, the Orchestra of America, the Buffalo Philharmonic and —Purlie.“ He has appeared as a lecturer at the University of Colorado, Lewis and Clark College and Ohio State University, and de Paur recorded ten albums with the Infantry Chorus and two albums with the de Paur Chorus. In 1968, de Paur disbanded the chorus and began his association with the Lincoln Center. During his first years of association with the Lincoln Center from 1970 to 1975, he was hired as Associate Director of the Lincoln Center International Choral Festival. In 1971, de Paur was promoted to the position of Director of Community Relations. It was during this time that Leonard created the Lincoln Center Out-of-Doors Festival and the Community Holiday Concert Series. During Leonard de Paur‘s lifetime, he received numerous awards and honors. Lewis and Clark College and Morehouse College both awarded him honorary Doctor of Music degrees. He also received the New York Mayor‘s Award of honor for Arts and Culture. The transformation of Leonard de Paur from Black artist to artist without color distinction simply evolved. He credited music for his success in the field and his direction:

Music was the oxygen in which I existed, … it sort of evolved œ like an act of nature.199

In the spring of 1987, de Paur suffered a stroke and retired from the Lincoln Center in 1988. Leonard de Paur died on October 7, 1998.

198 Under a similar agreement to that of the Infantry Chorus, the de Paur Chorus toured half of each year for Columbia Artists‘ Management. 199 —An interview with Leonard de Paur,“ (video recording), Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture,; interviewed by Jean Blackwell Hutson, 1983.

76 CHAPTER FOUR

INVESTIGATION AND OVERALL REVIEW: PROMINENT BLACK PROFESSIONAL CHOIRS FROM 1960-1998

Introduction

Between 1960 and 1998, various black choirs were established. Some were professional and some were community based. The purpose of this study was to focus on choirs considered to be professional. Thus, choirs selected for this study were selected based on meeting professional criteria and whether the choirs that were prominent in choral music development in the African-American community as well as the in the United States. Chapter four provides detailed information regarding the following choirs: (1) Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers, (2) Brazeal Dennard Chorale and (3) Moses Hogan Singers. This information will include the Origin and Development, Organizational Structure, and Operational Procedures of each choir.

The Origin and Development of the Albert McNeal Jubilee Singers

Figure 10. The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers

The Albert McNeal Jubilee Singers

Over the past 36 years the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers have accomplished many feats and traveled to perform nationally, and internationally. The ensemble has performed in 70 countries, including Eastern and Western Europe, the Middle East, North and West Africa. The

77 Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers completed three successful tours to South Africa in 1997 as well as multiple transcontinental tours of the United States, Canada and Hawaii.

Purpose The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers is an ensemble dedicated to upholding a choral tradition of excellence through the presentation of the concert spiritual and the ever increasing contributions of African-American composers of concert music, opera and theatre music. They perform both on the road and in their homebase, Los Angeles, CA. The traveling group consists of 12 to 15 participants and the residential group consists of 29. Both groups have garnered international acclaim and focused worldwide attention on the vast body of folk music termed —The African-American Spiritual.“

Founding and Location The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers, based in Los Angeles, CA, was created by Albert McNeil in 1968. The idea for this ensemble developed while McNeil was pursuing his doctoral degree in musicology, literature and conducting at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. —The first season was in 1968 and we performed in nine countries and that was when it all happened for us,“ said the group‘s founder Albert McNeil.200 —Essentially it was just 14 friends of mine who sang spirituals and performed in tuxedos and gowns. The European audiences went ape,“ said McNeil.201 The group was originally named the McNeil Singers but he later chose to call the group the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singer of Los Angeles. This choice of name was influenced by his manager, Irwin Parnes of Beverly Hills, CA, because he had been calling the group the Los Angeles Jubilee Singers. One of the reasons that McNeil started his own group was that he became frustrated by always being asked to suggest singers from his church choir for certain Hollywood studio motion pictures. Initially, his ensemble membership was chosen from members of Albert McNeil‘s church, The People‘s Independent Church. The church was a societal institution that attracted not only the average church member, but —show business“ as well, especially actors and actresses from Hollywood studios.

200 Albert McNeil, interview by the author, March 1, 2006

201 Ibid

78 Performance Practices The performance practice of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers varies in style, depending on the genre of music they are performing. They mostly perform a cappella, in the style made famous in the late 1800s by the Fisk Jubilee Singers. The majority, if not all, of the works they perform are creations of African-American composers. The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers is known consistently for its energy, excitement, honesty, integrity and sincerity in every performance. 202McNeil believes that the choirs‘ music is emotionally connected to everyone who hears it.

Choir Activities

The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers remains one of the most active professional black choirs in the United States. All of the choir‘s activities deserve acknowledgement, but a few will be highlighted. After the Jubilee Singers initial European tour in 1968, it was seven years later before the Jubilee Singers would perform at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in LA, which was their big break. Herbert Fox, Vice President of Columbia Concerts, asked the group to perform for his organization, forming a deal that continued through 1982. In 1998, the Jubilee Singers performed excerpts from the concert version of Gershwin‘s opera Porgy and Bess with the Honolulu Symphony. The choir performed to a sold-out audience in the renovated Hawaii Theatre. In 1999, the Jubilee Singers appeared at Carnegie Hall for Mid-America Productions where they sang the works of Nunes-Garcia and Larry Farrow to a packed house. Their 1999 season ended with a return trip to Japan and Europe. This was their fourth trip to Japan. During this same tour in Europe, the Jubilee Singers performed in the prestigious Mozarteum in Salzburg and the new concert hall in Zurich, The Kultureise. In the summer of 2000, they were invited to represent North America in Taipei, Taiwan, at the International Choral Festival.

Contributions and Achievements Although McNeil‘s parents wanted him to be a medical doctor, attorney, accountant or teacher, he developed into a well-known choral director, with his ensemble becoming well- known in the choral community. The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers has been honored on four occasions with —Command Performances“ before the prestigious American Choral Directors

202 Albert McNeil, interview by the author, March 1, 2006

79 Association: in 1981 in New Orleans; in 1985 at the Salt Lake City Convention; at the 1997 San Diego, California Convention and more recently at the 2000 Western Division held in Los Angeles, California. The was selected three times to serve the U.S. State Department and the United States Information Service Cultural Exchange Program in areas of the world that were considered hostile. In April of 1988, the Singers were headliners at the First Choral Festival in Jaffee, Israel. On Martin Luther King Sunday, they performed with the world famous Mormon Tabernacle Choir on a program aired by CBS Radio and Television. In the summer of 1992, The Singers made their first far East Tour of Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan. During that season they performed in Spain and completed concerts at the XXII Semana de Musica de Camara in Segovia in the Real Colisco Carlos III in El Escorial, where they performed their usual program of spirituals but also the Siglo de Oro Espanol (Renaissance music of Victoria and Morales). During the Jubilee Singers‘ winter tour of 1994, the singers presented their first performance in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and their first in the Caribbean Islands. Although the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers has made numerous appearances in New York City, it was not until 1995 that these singers made their debut at the Kennedy Center. The Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers also participated in two National radio programs. One series titled —Beverly Sills Presents“ featured the Jubilee Singers on a two hour broadcast of their concert and the Smithsonian‘s twenty-six-week series —Wade in the Water.“ In 2002, the Jubilee Singers made a return trip to Spain for a debut performance in Las Palmas‘ spectacular concert hall on the island of Gran Canarias, one of the seven Canary Islands off the coast of Morocco. Operational Procedures

Audition Procedures Auditions have been handled by Albert McNeil on an as- needed basis. The group does not advertise for positions because word of mouth has worked extremely well over the years and it saves the ensemble money for music and travel. Because of the choir‘s popularity and reputation, McNeil has been constantly bombarded with requests to audition. In order to audition for the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers, individuals must submit a resume. During the auditions, candidates are expected to perform three solos: an operatic or oratorio excerpt, an art song (in any language) and a spiritual and/or gospel. The vocal range is then determined by

80 Albert McNeil through a series of vocalizes. The candidate is also required to perform a melodic memory test (random melodies including unusual intervallic leaps), a review of rhythmic memory examples and finally a sight-singing exam of several pieces, not necessarily a spiritual.

Rehearsals Rehearsals are generally held on Saturdays for three and a half hours in the Hollywood Methodist Church in the heart of Hollywood. This central location is ideal because it is well known to musicians and singers in the Hollywood area.

Repertoire The repertoire of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers is focused on the rich genre of African-American music known as Negro Spirituals, an extensive repertoire reflective of the times. Other works in their repertoire outside of the spiritual include Handel‘s —Messiah,“ Mendelssohn‘s —Elijah,“ and Strainer‘s —Crucifixion.“ They also have programmed William Grant Still‘s rarely performed —And They Lynched Him on a Tree,“ with Dr. Still and his wife Verna in the audience. Other works included Debussy‘s —The Prodigal Son“ and Nathaniel Dett‘s —Ordering of Moses.“

Organizational Structure

Original Membership The original membership of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers was chosen from members of the People‘s Independent Church choir. The church was a societal institution that well known in the Hollywood community that attracted people from all walks of life, including the actors and actresses from various Hollywood studios.

Business Arrangements Since their inception, the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers have been under artist management. Irwin Parnes of Beverly Hills, California, who was an impresario that booked talent for major productions, managed McNeil. Irwin was also responsible for booking the last European Tour for the Fisk Jubilee Singers while John Work was still the conductor. Although professional, the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers do not have a board or officers. Almost all of the booking and monetary negotiations are handled by McNeil and the management company. All of

81 the arrangements with regard to payment of singers are handled by McNeil. Presently the Singers are managed by Aya World Productions and Century Artist Bureau, Walter Gould.

Conductors Albert McNeil has been the only conductor for the ensemble since its inception. Although he has been the only conductor, there were assistant conductors that provided leadership when McNeil was away. Three of those persons are Paul Smith, Neil Walker, and Douglas Griffin. Paul Smith began his career as a young piano student of Margaret Bonds, the late African-American pianist/composer. His formal education began as an undergraduate at Chapman University and earned a Masters and did doctorial work at the University of Southern California. He has been performing since the age of 16 with noted groups such as the Roger Wagner Chorale and the William Hall Chorale. Over the past 16 years, he has served as assistant conductor of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers. Currently he serves as Associate Professor of Music and Director of Choral Activities at California State University at Northridge. Nell Walker is another current assistant conductor of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers and Dougles Griffin is also serving as assistant conductor for the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers. Albert McNeil the Conductor and Founder

Figure 11. Albert McNeil

On February 14, 1924, Alfred Morales Sanchez was born in Los Angeles, CA. His adopted parents were Rhodier D. Robertson and John Joseph McNeil. At the time of adoption Alfred‘s name became Albert John McNeil. Albert was adopted into an educated and musical

82 family. His mother Rhodier, was born in the French Quarters in New Orleans, LA. She was a graduate of Old Strait College in New Orleans. In later years his mother was a social case worker for the Children‘s Home Society of California which was an adoption agency. John, Albert‘s adopted father, only completed high school but became a very successful business man and a drummer with the Silas Green Minstrel Show from New Orleans. Both of his parents were active vaudevillians and traveled with Silas Green. They traveled extensively with shows both nationally and internationally before he was born. Because he was adopted, he didn‘t know his parents biological parents and only had one sister, Dorothye Marie McNeil-Hanley, the only biological daughter of his adopted parents. Albert had a musically enriched life from a young age and was always drawn to music because his parents were very musical. He had the opportunity to study piano beginning at age nine and was fortunate to study piano for the next seven years. He attended parochial (Catholic) St. John‘s Military Prep Academy until the 11th grade, and then he persuaded his parents to enroll him in public high school. At the age of fourteen, McNeil‘s mother took him to his first opera, —Carmen“ by George Bizet. During Albert‘s childhood, musicians continually his visiting house because his mother worked as an assistant casting agent for Central Casting (Hollywood). His mother assisted in sending potential extras and actors to perform in predominately African-American films. It was through his mother‘s association that he was able to meet Hall Johnson at age 13 and to hear the great Hall Johnson Choir. Although McNeil had a love for music, educationally he decided to pursue a medical degree. Albert won a four year scholarship to University of California in Los Angeles (UCLA) as a pre-med student. However, his desire to pursue a music career soon took precedence over his medical studies. He changed his major to music, graduated from UCLA and attended graduate school at UCLA where he received his masters degree in choral conducting. After completing his bachelors and masters degrees, Albert was accepted into the doctoral program at the University of Southern California (USC). While pursuing his doctoral degree, he began his musical career as an instructor. His first teaching position was with the Los Angeles Unified School District as an elementary music teacher where he taught grades four through six. He taught music education in one of the largest all-Spanish speaking schools in Los Angeles. Prior to his position as an elementary teacher,

83 McNeil took and passed the secondary teacher examination. He had the second highest score out of 150 participants. Even with such a high score, the music supervisors told him there were no jobs because of his ethnicity. Having determined to one day teach in Los Angeles, McNeil took an 18 week course at the University of Southern California to obtain elementary teaching credentials which were required for a permanent position. It was during this time that McNeil found out that he was adopted. Needing a passport, McNeil could not find his birth certificate. After visiting the bank and reviewing some documents, he found his adoption papers. He quickly started inquiring about his adoption with family members, because his adopted mother and father were both deceased. His aunts and uncles whom had been very closed mouth about the subject soon told him that his mother had literally —dropped dead“ sometime after his birth. After learning of his adoption and securing his passport, McNeil was given the opportunity to study musicology, literature and conducting at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. This opportunity was made possible through a full scholarship provided by the Westminster Choir College and Dr. J. Finley Williamson, the director. This experience was life changing because it gave Albert the opportunity to determine how to utilize his music education. During this experience, the seed of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers was planted. The McNeil Jubilee Singers is his creation and he has dedicated himself to upholding a choral tradition of excellence with the presentation of the concert spiritual and the ever- increasing contributions of African-American Composers of concert music, opera and theatre music. Under his direction, the group, now in its 36th year, has performed in 70 countries, including Eastern and Western Europe, the Middle East, and North and West Africa. During the summer of 1997 they completed their third tour of South America after numerous transcontinental tours of the U.S., Hawaii, and Canada. In addition to his work at the university and conducting the Jubilee Singers, Professor McNeil has other musical work. He has been an author and editor for a series of music education textbooks published by Silver-Burdett-Ginn Publishing Company. He co-authored an educational packet for Bowman Publishing Company as well. His arrangements can be found in the Gentry and Lawson-Gould catelogues. McNeil also serves as a church choir conductor, currently the Director of Music at the Founder‘s Church of Religious Science in Los Angeles.

84 He is in demand as an adjudicator and clinician and is often invited to conduct honor choirs throughout the United States and abroad. In January 1993, he was a headliner at the Eleventh Annual Federation for Choral Music in Seoul, Korea, and in August 1993, he presented sessions on African-American Spirituals and Art Songs at the World Symposium on Choral Music in Vancouver B.C. The Origin and Development of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Figure 12. The Brazeal Dennard Chorale

The Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Purpose The purpose of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale initially was to fill a gap from one generation of musicians to the next generation with quality choral music by African-American composers.203 At an early age, Brazeal Dennard heard his church choirs sing a variety of choral music. As he grew older and started participating in various professional organizations, such as the National Association of Negro Musicians, he seldom heard those songs. It was then he decided to form a group just for that purpose. —At first, I wanted to do those compositions that I‘d heard before.“204 Over the years, the purpose shifted as the chorale developed. Today, the

203 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

204 Ibid

85 chorale‘s purpose and mission have evolved to performing unlimited choral repertoire with an emphasis on African-American music.205

Founding and Location In the fall of 1972, the Brazeal Dennard Chorale was founded in Detroit, Michigan. The chorale started as a local amateur ensemble that performed at various functions throughout the city of Detroit. It is named after its founder and musical director, Brazeal Dennard. —Most of the groups around during that time had someone‘s name attached to it and I said well, let me put my name on it.“206 Since then Dennard has tried to remove his name but was met with resistance from members of the chorale and the board of directors. The dream of starting the chorale evolved after many years of discussing the matter with his wife and friends. —When my wife and I were alone, it was always Brazeal, you really need to think about starting your own group. You have all of this information, knowledge and skills - you should do it.“207 One Sunday afternoon, his wife and two of their close friends (Gelacy and Naomi Peters) sat him down on the couch and said: —…you are going to start this group and were going to help you.“208 To this day, they are still very active with the chorale. Over the years, the Brazeal Dennard Chorale has developed two additional ensembles. The Brazeal Dennard Youth Chorale, founded in 1982, trains singers from ages 14 -19 to produce a good choral and soloistic sound, to sight read and to perform in larger halls with instrumental accompaniment. Another ensemble is the Brazeal Dennard Community Chorus that was formed as a community outreach program made up of singers from many of the area church choirs who have the ability and will to do more than just contemporary gospel music.209 They also are learning to read music, and some hope to eventually gain the skills necessary for placement in the chorale because of their desire to reach a higher level of musicianship.

205 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

206 Ibid

207 Ibid

208 Ibid

209 Ibid

86 Performance Practices The performance practices of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale consist of performing music by African-American composers, primarily spirituals, to further the awareness of this music as an art form. Almost every season, a portion of the program is devoted to the various African- American spiritual composers. After hearing many of these songs as a child, Dennard wanted to reproduce the sounds he heard. To do this, the choir needs singers with full, rich voices that can deliver a melody with understanding of the textual meaning as well as a personal meaning.

Choir Activities Since its inception, the Brazeal Dennard Chorale has been very active. It has performed for both regional and national American Choral Directors Association Conventions (ACDA). The group also has performed for other conventions, such as the National Association of Negro Musicians (NAMN), the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) and the opening for various sorority conventions. The Dennard Chorale was invited to perform at Carnegie Hall in 2001, but due to the attack on the World Trade Center, the event was cancelled. On a regular basis, the chorale performs for local and state events. It has its own series with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra called the Classical-Roots Series, and a Christmas Concert. The singers also have performed with many other orchestras, such as the Grand Rapids Symphony, the Louisville Orchestra, the Oakland Symphony Orchestra and many smaller chamber ensembles.

Contributions and Achievements One of the major collaborations between the choir and community has been the Detroit Symphony and the Classical-Roots series. This series is dedicated to preserving the roots of the African-American choral heritage. The Brazeal Dennard Chorale has added to the body of recorded choral literature by producing four CD‘s. The first was entitled —Remembering, Discovering, Perserving œ Songs of African-American History.“ This recording recreates and shares some of that body of work which is so important to American music. It is meant to document and present for posterity some of the most powerful music ever heard. The second CD titled —Remembering II-Significant Spirituals“ is a follow up to the earlier recording. It has 14 authentic songs that are filled with feeling, strength, love, and faith. The next CD titled —Hush - Somebody‘s Calling My Name“ is another powerful collection of Negro spirituals that grew out

87 of the cries of slavery. The last CD —In Silent Night“ is a Christmas CD along with more traditional African-American spirituals. The Chorale has also produced a DVD —Bridging Generations-Passing the Torch“ which is an inspirational and informative documentary on slavery in the United States. It starts with printed images of slavery and moves through some of the music of that time performed by the Brazeal Dennard Chorale and Youth Chorale. There are also interviews with Baritone Robert Sims, Dr. Roland Carter, Dr. Brazeal Dennard and 93 year old Irma Hollingsworth, on growing up with that music.

Operational Procedures

Audition Procedures The audition procedures for the Brazeal Dennard Chorale were created so Dennard could structure the chorale for success. By auditioning the singers, he was aware of the strengths and weaknesses of each singer he accepts. This information was valuable when Dennard begins planning for repertoire and concert programs. During the auditions, potential members are asked to do a series of singing techniques which demonstrate vocal ability and voice quality. They are given a series of rhythmic and melodic exercises which also show music reading ability. Auditions and special invitations to join the chorale are still held annually so that none will become complacent in the chorale. As some members‘ voices become unstable, they are asked to either move to another section that is not so strong, to consider serving the chorale in another capacity, or move to the Community Chorus.

Rehearsals In the fall of 1972, the initial site for rehearsals was Plymouth Congregational Church. Since then, the chorale has moved their rehearsals to several different locations. After the initial site, the rehearsal moved to St. John St. Michael Presbyterian Church in Detroit, then to Metropolitan Baptist Church, Brazeal Dennard‘s home church, until the church established a charter school and consequently needed the space that was once the chorale‘s library to use as a classroom. Presently the Chorale rehearses at St. John‘s CME Church. The rehearsals generally lasted two and a half to three hours. Dennard‘s basic outline of a rehearsal begins with warm-up exercises. These exercises generally serve to prepare the voices for singing the first few songs during the rehearsal. After the warm-ups, Dennard move to a

88 familiar piece they have been working on or a piece that is medium in difficulty level. Next he moves to a new song or very difficult pieces. Finally, Dennard closes the rehearsal with a very familiar song so the singers end with a sense of accomplishment. There may or may not be a break during the rehearsal. A major focus of Dennard is timbre and tone for each line and phrase. He is particularly meticulous about diction.

Repertoire The initial repertoire of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale was Negro spirituals. Over the years it has changed to be more inclusive of all genres of choral literature, but with a strong commitment to the preservation of music by African-American composers. Although the chorale is dedicated to developing choral art music to its highest professional level, the Chorale researches, commissions, develops and performs new, rare and historically significant choral works by African-American composers. Programming also reflects a firm commitment to works by women and minority composers. The Chorale frequently performs large masterworks in conjunction with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra.

Organizational Structure

Original Membership The original membership of the chorale numbered about forty-five, with the nucleus being the stronger singers from Brazeal Dennard‘s church choir. Each year after that, the chorale would post announcements in the local newspaper about open auditions. Dennard also sent special invitations to those singers from the area that he knew were very talented and would add to the quality of sound and musicianship of the Chorale.

Business Arrangements Although the Brazeal Dennard Chorale is a professional ensemble, they are not under any professional management company, but rather led by officers and a board. The officers of the chorale include Executive Director and Administrative Assistant. The Executive Director is responsible for handling all of the business arrangements, from contracts to lodging and transportation. The Administrative Assistant handles all of the office and correspondence work. This work can range from ordering music to maintaining a calendar.

89 The board‘s primary responsibility is to raise money for the chorale and their projects. There are a total of 21 board members and they handle the election process when selecting a new board member. There are limits on the terms a member can serve on the board. The maximum is three years and then the board member must rotate off. The Brazeal Dennard Chorale is a fully paid professional ensemble. Each of the chorale members is paid, based on a fee structure set by the board and the artistic director. They are paid based on the number of performances in which they participate.

Conductors The Brazeal Dennard Chorale has had only one director, Brazeal Dennard. Throughout the chorale‘s 34 years of music making, it has been led by the founder. Dennard has added three assistant conductors over the years: in Dr. Cheryl Hardin, Dr. Augustus Hill and Ms. Nina Scott. The assistant conductors are noted musicians in the Detroit area. Dr. Hardin is the conductor of the Cass Technical High School choir, which is located in Detroit, Michigan. She received her Doctor of Musical Arts degree from Northwestern University. Dr. Augustus Hill is on the music faculty at Wayne State University and is also the full time conductor of the Brazeal Dennard Community Chorus. Ms. Nina Scott, Director of the Renaissance High School choir, is the conductor of the Youth Chorale. Damon Dandridge, a former student of Ms. Scott, also sang in the Youth Chorale as a high school student in Detroit and sometime returns to help Brazeal when needed. Either one of these conductors will be asked at any given time to conduct the Chorale.

90 Brazeal Dennard the Conductor

Figure 13. Brazeal Dennard

Brazeal Wayne Denard was born in Detroit, Michigan on January 1, 1929 to Ezekiel and Bertha Brazeal Dennard. Brazeal‘s father, was from Brunswick, Georgia and his mother, was from Hawkinsville, Georgia. They had five children: three daughters, Bertha, Rae, and Louise; and two sons, the fathers namesake, Ezekiel and Brazeal, the youngest child. Neither parent was a college graduate, although Dennard‘s father completed elementary school before running away from home to Savannah to make money working on the docks. Brazeal‘s mother completed a high school education. Dennard had a brief relationship with his grandparents, although his maternal grandmother, who lived with them, made the prediction that he would become a musician one day. Though Dennard‘s grandmother, died when he was four, she made this assumption because young Brazeal had a vivid imagination and mimicked playing the piano while sitting at a small table. When his sisters and brother picked on him, his grandmother would say —Let him alone. One day he is going to be a musician.“210 Although Dennard‘s father did not demonstrate any musical abilities, he contributed through providing opportunities. A deacon in the church, he was sometimes responsible, for

210 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

91 leading the devotional part of the service. The devotion held prior to the actual church service or evening programs was a way to usher in the spirit and to prep the mind body and soul for worship. This was usually done through songs and prayer. During these times, he would have Brazeal help line or sing the hymns. However, Dennard‘s mother was the most influential family member on his musical development. Bertha, his mother, sang alto in the church choir in Georgia before they migrated to Detroit. At the same time, her former choir director also moved to the Detroit area where they reunited and collaborated again. She eventually became a part of the G-Clef Singers, which was a performing group of women who traveled throughout the Midwest catering to local churches. Dennard was drawn to music at a very young age. He often times attended choir rehearsal with his mother, and this became the primary source for nurturing his musical growth. Dennard remembers sitting in the choir rehearsals enjoying the wonderful experience of hymns and anthems such as —Amazing Grace“ and —Inflamatus.“ He recalls scurrying to church on Sunday mornings, getting a seat on the front pew simply so he could enjoy the choir. —I kinda grew up with music in my blood“ said Dennard.211 Attending the choir rehearsals was also a time for him to learn about Negro folk music and how it was sung. As he listened, Dennard heard longing and pain coming from the voices in the choir, as most of them were share croppers or one generation removed from slavery. As this was during the depression years, times were hard and folk tunes were a way for them to sing their troubles away. The choir would sing Negro spirituals, hymns and anthems. By age 11, he was playing the piano and by 13 he was playing for Sunday school and church services. Dennard began formal piano lessons with Robert Nolan at age 14. Nolan became a major influence in Dennard‘s life as a mentor, even through college. Robert Nolan also had a choir in which many community kids have participated. —He controlled our lives“ Dennard recalled.212 —We had to show him our grades to participate in the choir.“213 He did not spare any challenge for Dennard to learn and created a vigorous curriculum for him to follow. The curriculum included sight playing, transposition up and down, sight singing,

211 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

212 Ibid.

213 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004.

92 solfeggio, —so consequently when I went to college, I tested out of several beginning courses in the curriculum.“214 Drawn to music at an early age, Dennard carried his early musical experiences into high school. He attended Union High School in Detroit, Michigan and was a part of the music department. Though the school was predominantly white, he was able to become a soloist in the choir. After graduating from high school in 1948, Dennard became the director of the youth choir while continuing to play for Sunday school. For three years Dennard continue his job at the church, until he was drafted into the military in 1951. Dennard was stationed at Fort Belabor, outside of Washington, D.C.. His responsibility was directing the battalion chorus which participated in all of the large military extravaganzas held on the steps of the capital. After fulfilling his military obligations, Dennard enrolled at Wayne State University to pursue the Bachelors of Arts degree in music education. He attended college on the GI Bill while continuing his work at the church. While at Wayne State University, he met Harry Langsford, director of the men‘s glee club. In 1957, Langsford and the Wayne State University Men‘s Glee Club, were the first university ensemble to tour Europe under state department sponsorship. After completing his bachelor‘s degree, Dennard continued his education at Wayne State by pursuing the Masters of Arts degree in music education. Although he was a fulltime student, Dennard continued his duties at People‘s Baptist Church as choir director. As he recalls, —This was a unique experience. That choir developed into a wonderful oratorical choir along with all of the spirituals that we sang.“215 Although most of the singers were blue collar people, all had a sequential development of music from grades one through twelve in the Detroit public school system. This training enabled them to read music on which Dennard capitalized by having them participate in the church choir. Upon completing his masters degree, Brazeal Dennard married Murdice Vallery in 1959. She attended Wilberforce University and sang alto with the Wilberforce Singers, along with noted opera singer, Leontyne Price. They were married for thirty years before her death.

214 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

215 Ibid

93 Dennard was gainfully employed while he was completing his Bachelors and Masters degrees. It was not until 1973 that he decided to resign from his church job because he was running for office in the National Association of Negro Musicians (NANM). The first time he ran for office, he was elected as a board member, then he moved up to First Vice President and finally national president. He was President of NANM until 1979. In the fall of 1972, Dennard organized the Brazeal Dennard Chorale. While he was going to the NANM meetings, he recalled the songs he had heard his church choir sing during his childhood. Unfortunately, this repertoire was not performed by the current day singers. The lack of this repertoire encouraged Dennard to contemplate establishing a group that would fill the gap and give experiences to which singers would not other wise be exposed. Although this was important to Brazeal, the driving force was his wife. She would constantly encourage him to start his own group. She stated, —You have all of this information, the knowledge and the skill and you should do this“.216 Other influences included the Kenneth Jewel Chorale, The Thomas Turner Chorale and Cantata Academy, which are still in existence. Brazeal‘s career led him full circle from being the Department Head at Northwestern High School to becoming an adjunct professor at Wayne State University, where he taught choral conducting from 1987-1989. Some of Brazeal‘s best experiences as a teacher, composer and choir director were when he saw his students obtain, retain and achieve. One of his students became an outstanding soloist in the state of Michigan, went on to perform at the Michigan youth arts festival and at that time was the only African-American to compete and win throughout the state. Several notable students that were stars in Brazeal‘s classes were Dr. Nora Duncan, currently the Assistant Chair at Wayne State University and Samuel McKelson, is one of the trainees of the present tour company of the Lion King. Throughout Brazeal Dennard‘s career, he has served in many roles, such as guest conductor, clinician, lecturer, teacher, and church choirmaster. Some of his professional affiliations include the National Endowment of the Arts; Department of Cultural Affairs for the city of Detroit; Advisory Committee of the Detroit Community Music Schoo; former chairman of the Music Advisory Committee for the Michigan Council for the Arts; the Board of Directors of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra; and the National Association of Negro Musicians, Inc. Dennard has received numerous awards and citations. He was listed in the 1978 edition of —Men

216 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

94 of Achievement,“ and is the recipient of the Maynard Klein Award in recognition of artistic excellence in the field of choral music. In May of 2000, Dennard received an Honorary Doctorate of Music from Olivet College. Dennard‘s philosophy of music education is simple, —to do music at its highest level, the very best you can do and enjoy doing it.“217 Robert Nolan was the strongest force which assisted in Dennard adopting this philosophy. Dennard watched him perform with grace, dignity and sheer enjoyment. —Nolan was never recognized for his genius. He could only study at Julliard during the summer, but while studying, he played at the White House as early as 1937 and still pursued, his musical craft with gusto. It didn‘t make any difference whether he made the major stage or not. That wasn‘t important to him and to witness that became a part of my life.“218 Dennard feels it is important to enjoy what you are doing because, —if it‘s drudgery, then after a while it will wear you out.“219 Dennard lives by the mantra —A charge to keep I have, to serve this present age, my calling to fulfill, with all my powers engaged to do my Master‘s will.“220 And this mantra supports valuable lessons that he has learned in life, and that is, to be the best that you can be.

The Origin and Development of the Moses Hogan Singers

The Moses Hogan Singers The Moses Hogan Singers grew out of Hogan‘s desire to have a professionally trained ensemble that would reproduce and recreate the music of his past. The Moses Hogan Singers have built a reputation of musical excellence that reaches across not only the United States but throughout the world. From international tours to regional and national American Choral Directors Association conferences, the singers have maintained a high musical standard while singing their unique repertoire of Negro spirituals.

217 Brazeal Dennard, telephone interview by the author, December 21, 2004

218 Ibid.

219 Ibid.

220 Ibid.

95 Purpose The purpose of the Moses Hogan Singers was to continue the preservation and celebration of the heritage of the African-American choral tradition at a high level. Because of a growing popularity and demand for performances, Hogan felt he needed a group of young singers (mostly trained and without family obligations) that could travel easily and prepare with a minimum amount of rehearsals. 221 He chose mostly college graduates and pre-professionals that either had a degree in music or had excellent sight-reading skills. He soon realized that because of his requirements, the pool of singers from the New Orleans area was limited. This ensemble would to recruit singers from a broader geographical base.

Founding and Location Founded in New Orleans, Louisiana, the Moses Hogan Singers was a nationally auditioned group of 20 to 25 professional or pre-professional singers that grew out of the Moses Hogan Chorale. They made their debut in 1998 at Alice Tully Hall during the World Projects Corporation New York Choral Festival.222 Moses called the group —the international touring ensemble from Hogan‘s Society of Vocal and Choral Music.“ It was clear that the group had to be multi-faceted and malleable to fit the various projects in which he was involved.

Performance Practice The performance practice of the Moses Hogan Singers was to always present the Negro spiritual and music of African-American composer with a more classical sound and in an authentic manner. Hogan wanted a sound that was different then that of the chorale. He wanted a sound in the same style the Fisk Jubilee Singers had made so famous.223 Although he wanted a more classical sound, Hogan believed that the most important aspect of the Negro spiritual is the text. Emphasis on the text was the focal point in delivering the true meaning of the text, which

221 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music“(M.M. thesis, State University of New York at Binghamton, 2005). P.63.

222 Anonymous, —2002 National convention preview: Moses Hogan and the Moses Hogan Singers.“ Choral Journal, 43(1), pp. 35-36.

223 McKenna, June 23, 2004. Brendolyn is one of the few singers who sang with Hogan through his entire choral conducting carreer.

96 usually is biblically related. The Singers, because of their previous vocal training, focused less on vocal techniques and more time on delivery of the text and its meaning.

Choir Activities The Moses Hogan Singers were a very active professional ensemble that garnered the attention on many noted conductors and singers, as well as participated in various national and international music festivals. Although all of the activities are noteworthy, only a few will be highlighted. As the popularity of the Moses Hogan Singers increased, the group attracted the attention of acclaimed operatic soprano Barbara Hendricks. Hendricks contacted Moses Hogan about recording several of his arrangements.224 Thus, in 1998 the Moses Hogan Singers made its recording debut on the EMI record label with Give Me Jesus, recorded at the Academy of Arts and Letters and featuring Barbara Hendricks.225 During the same year, the singers made their live performance debut in New York at Alice Tully Hall during the World Projects Corporation New York Choral Festival.226 World Projects was established in 1984 as a company specializing in the organization of performance tours originally for American and Japanese student programs. Its aim is to present music events for instrumental and choral groups that provide musicians with inspirational performance opportunities.227 After the release of Give Me Jesus and the performance at Alice Tully Hall, the Moses Hogan Singers was highlighted in February, 1999 at the American Choral Directors Association National Convention in Chicago. They performed at the renovated Chicago Symphony Center and the Medinah Temple where they presented newly arranged music by Hogan.228 Both performances found the halls filled to capacity with both seasoned and amateur musicians as they were amazed by the vocal delivery and interpretation of the repertoire performed by the singers.

224 Leo Davis, —The Choral Music of Moses George Hogan,“ (D.M.A. diss., The University of Memphis, 2006) p.12.

225 Ibid

226 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 p.63.

227 World Projects International Music Production, —About World Projects“, http://world-projects.com

228 Leo Davis, —The Choral Music of Moses George Hogan.“ 2006 p.13.

97 Following their recording project and ACDA performance in Chicago, the Moses Hogan Singers took its first international tour to Europe for performances with Barbara Hendricks in July of 2000. They performed at the Rheingau Musik Festival in Oestrich-Winkel, Germany, the Lugano Festival Jazz in Lugano, Switzerland, and the San Sebastian Jazz Festival in San Sebastian, Spain.229 The Singers made one other international tour with Barbara Hendricks to the Netherlands and Belgium in December 2001.

Contributions and Achievements The Moses Hogan Singers, with a mission of preserving the African-American spiritual, has made significant contributions to the world of choral music. These contributions and achievements ranged from recordings to performing before a royal family. The Moses Hogan Singers‘ 1995 PBS Documentary, The American Promise was truly an achievement. The soundtrack was released separately by Windham Hill records under the title —Voices.“ The Singers recorded several of Hogan‘s arrangements that he was commissioned to write. During one of the singers‘ international tours to the Netherlands, the group performed at the Saint Jan Cathedral and the Grote Kerk for a —special relations“ program. In attendance at the performance were Cabinet Ministers and members of the Royal Family. The singers‘ success at both national and international levels enabled the founder/director to guest conduct other famous choirs. One of the high points of Hogan‘s career was his invitation to guest conduct the famed Mormon Tabernacle Choir.230 Craig Jessop, director of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, met Hogan and invited him to come and conduct the choir on their radio program —Music and the Spoken Word.“ Hogan was honored and when asked how he hoped to draw —soul from the Mormon Tabernacle Choir“, he replied with humor, —All good music has soul. There‘s soul in Mozart, soul in Bach. The only difference here is the color of the voices.“231

229 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 p.64.

230 Mike Dunham, —Spirituals Speak to Former Pianist,“ Anchorage Daily News, April 17, 1998.

231 —Hogan Was Among the Heroes,“ editorial The Desert News (Salt Lake City, UT) November 14, 2002.

98 Operational Procedures Audition Procedures Although literature about the Moses Hogan Singers states that they were a professionally auditioned ensemble of about 20-25 singers, Moses had no set audition procedures. During the developmental stages of forming this elite ensemble he sought to secure the best singers at his disposal. One way he assembled the best singers was to hear them sing and investigate their musical background. This was a difficult situation because most of the loyal singers from the well established Moses Hogan Chorale, which was a strong community group, would not make his new ensemble. With the focus of —it‘s all about the music“, Hogan decided to keep the singers that had some professional/classical training and were excellent sight-readers, and then he invited singers he knew or met from his travels of that same caliber to join. Many of the invited singers were from as far east as Washington, D.C. and as far west as Dallas, Texas.232 As singers would have to leave the ensemble for various reasons, auditions were not held; singers were only found as they were needed. 233 According to Leo Davis, a former choir member, —sometimes he would invite singers to sing while we were at a performance.“234

Rehearsals With his increasing success and the various requests for participation in many choral events, Moses didn‘t have a lot of time for rehearsals. This was the reason for forming the choir of members who were professionally trained. He envisioned an ensemble that could learn the music on its own and maybe have one or two run-throughs at the performance venue before the performance.235 Moses would send the scores and a tape of the selections to be performed to the singers ahead of time.236 Then the singers, coming from various parts of the country, would meet

232Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 p.63

233 Leo Davis, telephone interview with the author, April 25, 2007.

234 Ibid

235Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 p.63

236 Leo Davis, telephone interview with the author, April 25, 2007.

99 in a hotel of the performance city and run through the music before the performance the next day.237

Repertoire The Moses Hogan Singers are dedicated to the preservation, integrity and excellence of the performance of music by African-American composers, more specifically, the spiritual. Their repertoire has incorporated music of various black composers such as William Dawson, R. Nathaniel Dett, Hall Johnson, Leonard DePaur, Robert Morris, and Andre Thomas as a way to preserve this genre of music. Not only do they perform works of black composers but also have a special repertoire emphasis that focuses on the choral music of its founder Moses Hogan.238 He wanted to protect the integrity of this art form by teaching the correct performance practice of the spiritual and also record performance models so that these songs would not be lost.239

Organizational Structure The organizational structure of the Moses Hogan Singers was essentially a structure of one, Moses Hogan. He was the founder and leader of the choir. All major decisions were approved by him. —Although he was seen as a man of few words, he ran the Choir‘s operations, including the membership, in a controlled and efficient manner.“240

Original Membership The original membership of the Moses Hogan Singers numbered about 20 to 25, with the nucleus being the stronger singers from the Moses Hogan Chorale.241 Each year after the founding of the Moses Hogan Singers, Hogan would invite singers to audition for the ensemble. Moses would also send special invitations to those singers from outside of New Orleans that he

237 Ibid

238 Moses Hogan, —The Singers,“ http://www.moseshogan.com/moses_hogan_singers.htm. 2006

239 Leo Davis, telephone interview with the author, April 25, 2007.

240 Ibid

241 Ibid

100 knew were very talented and would add to the quality of sound and musicianship of the ensemble.

Business Arrangement Moses Hogan was one of a few musicians that had his own music companies. It was because of his obsession with being a master planner who was well organized that he decided if it was going to be done his way, he needed to do it himself. In 1987, Moses developed MGH Historical Music Society and, soon after, MGH Records. All of the business arrangements for the Moses Hogan Singers were handled mostly by Moses through MGH Historical Musical Society. His full-time assistant, Dominic Fernandez, was responsible for taking orders for the record company along with processing all faxed orders and sorting various e-mails and requests. Between the two of them, they booked, planned, and coordinated all of the music, travel, lodging, meals, rehearsals, and honorarium arrangements of the Moses Hogan Singers.242

Conductors

The only conductor of the Moses Hogan Singers was Moses Hogan. He did most, if not all, of the conducting for the ensemble. The only time the group performed without Moses Hogan was when he was sick in the hospital and Brian Stratton conducted the performance of the choir just prior to Moses‘ death.

242 Leo Davis, telephone interview with the author, April 25, 2007.

101 Moses Hogan the Conductor

Figure 14. Moses Hogan

On March 13, 1957, Moses George Hogan, one of four children, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Gloria T. and Moses H. Hogan. Moses G. Hogan‘s mother worked as a nurse‘s aide in a charity hospital while his father was a World War II veteran who worked in the Domino sugar factory.243 Hogan‘s father, conceived two daughters from a previous union before marrying Hogan‘s mother. Their names were Wanda and Almontine Hogan. Three more children were born into the Hogan household; Karen, Ava and Jeffery.244 The Hogan family had deep religious beliefs and a profound appreciation for music. As dedicated Christians, they were always in church. The family attended Rev. A.L. Davis New Zion Baptist Church in New Orleans. The church, named after the late Rev. Abraham Lincoln Davis (1914-1978), a major African-American leader in New Orleans history, was the center for political and social action during the civil rights movement in New Orleans and the nation.245 The worship service at New Zion would last at least two hours but was filled with spirited singing in which a member of the Hogan family played some role. Moses H. Hogan, the father of Moses Hogan, sang bass in the church choir that was led by his brother, Edwin B. Hogan, who was the Minister of Music at the church. Hogan‘s mother played the piano for the

243 Gloria T. Hogan, mother, personal and telephone interview by Theresa Lee-Whiting. June 20, 2004.

244 Ibid.

245 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 pp. 15-16.

102 congregation and Moses‘s older half-sister, Wanda, is the current Minister of Music at the church.246 As a child Moses always showed an appreciation and love for music. While attending church, Moses at a young age would conduct the choir from the pews.247 His strong musical interest began at the age of two, when Moses received his first ninety-eight cent plastic piano.248 He would use the piano to mimic what he would hear played at church on Sundays. Although Moses demonstrated an excellent ear, his mother wanted him to learn to read music and not be limited to only playing by —ear“. She enrolled him in the Xavier University Junior School of Music, paying twenty-five dollars per semester.249 He was not very receptive to learning to reading music until he was encouraged by Donald Richardson, band director, to play the oboe at Andrew J. Bell Junior High School. From his encouragement to play the oboe, Moses was now playing in several ensembles such as the orchestra, the marching band, the stage band, and the jazz band. 250It was his involvement with the orchestra that would lead him to his future piano teacher. While playing in the school‘s orchestra for an assembly, he heard Mrs. Marie Morten play the Rachmaninoff Prelude in C-sharp Minor. Moses was so deeply moved by her playing, that he went up to her and asked her to teach him piano. Mrs. Morten taught Moses the piano for 6 years. The practices with Mrs. Morten initially were on Saturday and evolved into daily practices.251 She eventually gave him a key to her home for him to practice free at will.252 He was like a family member to Mrs. Morten. She never charged the Hogan family for the lessons.253

246 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 pp. 15-16.

247 Walter Bonam, —A Tribute to Music Genius Moses Hogan (1957-2003),“ Tribune (New Orleans), March/April, 2003, 22

248 Leo Davis, —The Choral Music of Moses George Hogan.“ 2006 p.5.

249 Gloria T. Hogan, mother, personal and telephone interview by Theresa Lee-Whiting. June 20, 2004.

250 Pat Sims, —Slice of Life: Homegrown Talent,“ Times-Picayune, September 11, 1983.

251 Gloria T. Hogan, mother, personal and telephone interview by Theresa Lee-Whiting. June 20, 2004.

252 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 p. 20.

253 Leo Davis, —The Choral Music of Moses George Hogan.“ 2006 p.5.

103 Moses Hogan‘s musical skills continued to improve with every lesson he received from Mrs. Morten as he prepared to enter high school. Moses attended Alcee Fortier High School near the Carrollton section of New Orleans. During his sophomore year at Alcee, Moses auditioned for the New Orleans Center for Creative Arts (NOCCA) High School. The New Orleans Center for Creative Arts was developed out of a federally funded program whose mission was to bring jazz into the public schools. A decision was made to expand its offerings to include instrumental and vocal music, theater and visual arts.254 Mrs. Morten prepared Moses for the audition and he was fully accepted into the first class of this new school. After being accepted, Moses learned that the program was very demanding. It was more demanding for him because every morning he would attend Alcee Fortier High School near where he lived and then travel across town by bus to NOCCA. Because of the rigorous program, Moses‘ hard work paid off by winning the New Orleans Philharmonic Symphony Louisiana Youth Auditions at age seventeen.255 This achievement afforded him the opportunity to perform with the Symphony. In another competition, young Moses was co-winner of the New Orleans Civic Orchestra concerto competition in the same year.256 To complete his recent accomplishments, Moses Hogan graduated from Alcee Fortier High School and received a certificate from NOCCA as a member of the first graduating class in May of 1975.257 In the Fall of 1975, Moses Hogan was awarded a full scholarship to attend Oberlin Conservatory of Music. While attending Oberlin, he studied piano with Joseph Schwartz, who was a Juilliard graduate. Under his tutelage, Hogan‘s musical knowledge increased and piano skills expanded. During his tenure at Oberlin, Moses received numerous honors. He was inducted into the music honor society, Pi Kappa Lambda, he was awarded the Rudolph Serkin award and received the Faustina Hurlbutt Prize for outstanding senior.258 He also won the annual concerto competition by playing Beethoven‘s Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major, Op. 58, that he

254 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005 p. 22.

255 Leo Davis, —The Choral Music of Moses George Hogan.“ 2006 p.6.

256 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005. p. 23.

257 Ibid.

258 Moses Hogan alumni file, Oberlin Conservatory of Music.

104 later played with the university orchestra. In May of 1979, Moses received his Bachelor‘s degree. In 1980, Moses Hogan started his graduate studies at Juilliard School of Music where he had been offered a scholarship.259 After a year of studying at Juilliard he ended his studies because the school did not meet his expectations. He then turned his attention toward traveling to Vienna and studying with Paul Badura-Skoda, a leading Mozart interpreter. One of Moses Hogan‘s favorite composers was Mozart and he thought there could be no better place to study his work than in Austria.260 After studying at the Universitaet Fuer Musik Anton-von-Webern-Platz, Moses returned to New Orleans to attend Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge and study with Dr. Jack Guerry.261 He was given an entrance exam and did so exceptionally well that the Graduate Committee felt that the Master‘s Degree would be a waste of time so they accepted him into the doctoral program.262 He started out as a full time student that required commuting 80 miles. The next year he went part-time as his performance engagements increased. Finally, Moses felt that he did not need an additional degree because he was doing what he wanted to do and left the program in 1986. Prior to leaving the graduate program at Louisiana State University, Moses was invited to perform a benefit concert for St. Luke Episcopal Church in New Orleans. Moses gathered a small group of singers to form a choir. He decided to program music that featured works by noted African-American composers. The concert was a great success and following the concert, performance participates wanted to continue the ensemble. In 1980, this ensemble became known as the New World Ensemble. This was Moses Hogan‘s first venture into the realm of choral music. After the success of the New World Ensemble, Moses would go own to create three more ensembles. In September of 1992, an article in the Times-Picayune announced the debut of

259 Leo Davis, —The Choral Music of Moses George Hogan.“ 2006. p.6.

260 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005. p. 35.

261 Ibid.

262 Ibid.

105 Hogan‘s next choral group in a concert.263 This concert introduced the New Orleans Heritage Singers. This ensemble was made up of less experienced singers who mostly came from various local church choirs. Although he organized the group around 1990, it wasn‘t until 1992 that he settled on the name New Orleans Heritage Singers. It had gone by other names, including —The Greater St. Stephen‘s Heritage Singers“ and the —Voices of Freedom.“ Ironically, after the struggle to find a name for the group was complete, the group didn‘t exist for very long.264 The third choral group that he created was the Moses Hogan Chorale. In 1993, Moses Hogan combined the New World Ensemble and the New Orleans Heritage Singers together to form his first large community group. This group consisted of singers ranging in age from late teens through the late sixties and consisted of a cross section of the community. They had tremendous success, and were heard at a Music Educators National Conference in New Orleans. Moses Hogan and the Chorale were invited to sing for the 1994 Southern Division of American Choral Director Association Regional Convention in Knoxville, Tennessee. They performed mostly music arranged by Moses Hogan. After this stunning performance, Dr. Andre Thomas complemented him on the performance and informed him that he would be using his —Elijah Rock“ too close the Texas All-State Chorus performance. The Texas All-State Choir then contacted Moses Hogan for 30,000 copies. Moses stated that at that time he was Xeroxing his music. Hal Leonard was then contacted and they agreed to publish the music for Moses. This began his association with Hall Leonard Publishing Company. This performance created a huge publishing and buying frenzy for his music. The fourth and final ensemble to be created was the Moses Hogan Singers. This was his professional ensemble that would meet the demands of numerous concert and workshop requests. Over the years of Moses Hogan‘s life he accomplished much, performed and received many honors. Moses Hogan‘s discography includes various recordings of his arrangements. A collection of thirty-nine spirituals are featured in the Moses Choral Series 2002. He has published over 70 works and was an editor for the new Oxford Book of Spirituals which is published by the Oxford University Press. Hogan‘s arrangements have become greatly used by choral musicians world-wide.

263 Theresa Lee-Whiting, —Moses Hogan: The Man and His Music.“ 2005. p. 54.

264 Ibid.

106 On Tuesday, February 11, 2003, Moses Hogan died at St. Elizabeth‘s Nursing Home in New Orleans at the age forty-five.

107 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The purpose of this historical study was to document the development of selected professional black choirs in the United States. To accomplish these goals, the author gathered data from all available sources pertaining to each of the selected black professional choirs including: (1) the founder‘s life and career, (2) the conductors of the choirs, (3) events that the choirs participated in, (4) achievements of the choir and the conductors, (5) concert reviews, (6) recordings, (7) programs and tours, (8) the repertoire chosen for performances, (9) movies and Broadway shows the choirs performed in and (10) newspaper and articles about the choirs. The study sought to answer the following research questions: 1. What events led to the development of the choirs? 2. What is the purpose/mission of the choirs? 3. What were the musical and professional backgrounds of the conductors? 4. What were the major events and influential persons that help shape the history of the choirs? 5. What was the organizational structure and business arrangements for the choirs?

Summary

Chapter One contained an introduction to the study and described the purpose, research methods, research questions, definitions, study significance, treatment and reporting of the data. Chapter Two provided an introduction and overview of related literature. The review of literature determined that documentation and details about the selected black professional choirs were widely scattered among various publications, books, encyclopedias, journals and newspaper articles. Personal interviews with the founders, personnel associated with each choir, personal memoirs and reviews of performances were also located or carried out. The task of locating written sources for documentation proved a challenging. Until the implementation of

108 this study, no attempt had been made to gather information such as dates, locations, singers, conductors and business arrangements into one source. Chapter Three addressed selected choirs that were established between 1925 and 1960. The Hall Johnson Choir, founded in 1925, saw its popularity grow after its performance for the premiere of Marc Connelly‘s play The Green Pastures. Its status as a premier choir enabled other Negro musicians to have opportunities that previously were less accessible. The repertoire of the Hall Johnson Choir consisted of Negro folk songs and spirituals, many of which were arranged by Johnson himself. Eva Jessye founded her choir in 1930 for the purpose of performing folk music and lighter music for civic functions in the Baltimore community. As the choir became better known, its purpose evolved into the perpetuation of Negro music. The Eva Jessye Choir is noted not only for its sheer number of performances during its active years, but also because it attracted the interest of George Gershwin when he was putting together the production of Porgy and Bess, for which Eva Jessye was asked to be its musical director. The Wings Over Jordan Choir, unlike the previously mentioned choirs, has its roots directly in a church choir. Rev. Glenn Settle, pastor of Gethsemane Baptist Church of Cleveland, Ohio, had a choir that consisted of exceptionally talented members. Settle led his choir around the community for various church and civic functions, using traditional renditions of Negro spirituals to spread joy throughout the area, which was struck especially hard by the Great Depression. Worth Kramer, the program director for WGAR radio of Cleveland, was impressed enough to set aside a —Negro Hour“ in which Settle‘s choir performed. It was during this time around 1935, that Settle was inspired to change the name of his choir to Wings Over Jordan. This name came from the idea of Negroes crossing the River Jordan on their ascent to heaven. Leonard de Paur‘s Infantry Choir was an all-male group whose purpose was to raise morale among the troops during World War II. They began touring after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. It has its beginnings in the 372nd Negro reserve, whose members enjoyed singing in their leisure time. After performing extensively with the USO, De Paur‘s choir became one of the most sought after groups when its military service was complete in 1947. The choir went on to become one of the most booked concert units in history, concertizing up to six times a day. It was also one of the first choirs to be professionally managed. The Infantry Choir‘s repertoire was also especially vast, not only performing Negro spirituals but all musical styles.

109 Chapter Four discussed the black professional choirs that were established in the latter part of the twentieth century, between 1960 and 1995. Albert McNeil was inspired to start a choir after becoming frustrated with Hollywood studios approaching him to find singers to perform in various productions. The personnel of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers were either members of his People‘s Independent Church choir or were working or had worked in show business. Coming from a musical family, McNeil had been exposed to the vaudevillian and burlesque styles all of his life. The Jubilee Singers integrated these types of theatrics into their many performances of principally Negro spirituals. Brazeal Dennard grew up during a time in which Negro spirituals were the songs sung in black church environments. The middle of the twentieth century was the dawn of gospel music moving into the church. Dennard was then motivated to establish an ensemble to bring not only Negro spirituals back to the forefront, but also all types of choral music by African-American composers. The nucleus of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale was made of members of the Metropolitan Baptist Church of Detroit, of which he was a member. Conductor Moses Hogan was the director of several choirs, but wanted to designate a choir especially for singing Negro spirituals at a consistently high level. The Moses Hogan Singers, which began as such in 1998, consisted not only of members the Moses Hogan Chorale of New Orleans but also of singing from all over the country. The shared trait of the personnel was that they were all well-trained musicians who could perform at a moment‘s notice, which was necessary due to Moses Hogan‘s exploding popularity and many requests for performances. The tenure of the Moses Hogan Singers was cut short by his untimely death.

Conclusions This study found that the selected black professional choirs were created primarily to preserve one of America‘s oldest music genres, the spiritual. One way these choirs sought to do this was by programming Negro spirituals consistently in their performances; Hall Johnson, Eva Jessye, and Rev. Glenn T. Settle exclusively programmed Negro spirituals. Because most of the conductors arranged the Negro spirituals which they performed, audiences and researchers alike can now know and see what the leaders of these choirs pictured as the ideal representation of the spiritual. Hall Johnson and Moses Hogan set out with the specific intent of recording the work of their ensembles to maintain authenticity of this genre of music.

110 While preservation of the spiritual was the shared principal mission and purpose of these choirs, there were different events and trends that attributed to their beginnings. Each conductor saw him or herself as filling a need, whether it was for the community or for the preservation of the Negro spiritual as art. In addition, the leaders of these black professional choirs shared similar backgrounds; all of them studied music at some point in their lives with several of the conductors studying music at the college level, and they all wanted to re-create the music they heard at a young age. Business practices varied between each of the selected black professional choirs. For instance, Hall Johnson, who can be considered the pioneer of the black professional choir, handled all of the administrative work of his ensemble personally. It can be inferred that Johnson saw this as a necessity due to the period in which his Choir was active; outside help could have been viewed as a hindrance to his mission. However, most of the choirs that came to existence in the latter part of the twentieth century have been professionally managed. The impact of their work is not limited to the celebration and preservation of the Negro spiritual. The creation of these ensembles also has led to many opportunities for African- Americans in the world of music and beyond. These conductors have also supported world peace by being ambassadors for the United States in foreign countries.

Value of the study This study will serve as a resource for those interested in studying the origin and development of selected professional black choirs in the United States. In addition, choral conductors, music educators, community choirs, touring musical organizations and other professional choirs can learn from the experiences of these selected black professional choirs. Choral conductors at the professional or collegiate level can benefit from the experiences, methods, programming, scheduling rehearsals and trials and tribulations of each selected professional black choirs. Conducting and music education students will gain valuable insight into problems and solutions of starting a community or professional choral organization.

111 Recommendations for Future Research This study revealed that few studies have sought to consider specific issues related to black professional choirs in the United States. Several areas of future research seem to have been generated from work on this study:

1. While in more recent years there have been efforts to briefly address, the history of professional choruses in America, a thorough historical account of the development of all American professional choirs is yet to be done.

2. A more focused historical project might be the growth and development of professional choirs within the last twenty years, to reveal the impact of Chorus America.

3. A philosophical approach might be done to answer the question, —Why have professional choirs?“ The focus of this project could be to identify the role (or function) of the professional chorus in America society.

4. A comparison study relating representative professional choirs from the United States to selected professional choirs of other countries is needed. The critical issue of funding should be investigated, with the objective being the identification of the most effective methods and ideas thereof.

5. Historical research focusing on prominent professional choirs who do other music genres could yield meaningful historical documents. A group such as The Spirit Chorale of Los Angeles who are highly regarded by both their peers and the music world in general, would be a worthy subject for this type of study.

112

APPENDIX A

TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW WITH BRAZEAL DENNARD

113 INTERVIEW 1

Interview with Mr. Brazeal Dennard, December 21, 2004. Interviewer is Isaiah R. McGee and this tape number is #1. BD=Brazeal Dennard; IM=Isaiah McGee. Tape recorder used was a General Electric —Variable Speed Playback“ portable cassette recorder.

Mr. Brazeal Dennard is Professor Emeritus at Wayne State University where he retired in 2001. In this interview, Dennard talks about his family, his early years, his education and career.

The interview was taken over the telephone.

IM: First I want to let you know that I‘m recording the session so that we can have it transcribed and as a part of the documents as well. And I want to thank you for agreeing to allow me to interview you and to be a part of my dissertation. And we‘ll start with the opening question œ what is your full name?

BD: Brazeal. My middle name is Wayne Dennard

IM: Okay and what is your birth date and birth place, Mr. Dennard?

BD: Birthdate is 1-1-29 and my birthplace is Detroit, Michigan

IM: So you were born in Detroit?

BD: Right.

IM: Okay. In a hospital there?

BD: Yes.

IM: And the name of that place…

BD: (Laughs) The hospital is no longer in existence. I really can‘t think of the name.

IM: That‘s fine. What are your parents‘ names?

BD: My father‘s first name was Ezekiel Dennard and my mother‘s full name was Bertha Brazeal Dennard.

IM: Will you give me some background information on your parents, starting with their birthplaces and/or dates?

BD: My father was born in Brunswick, Georgia in the 1880s, around 1888 I think it was, and my mother was born in Hawkinsville, Georgia about the same time. My father went as far as the early elementary grades and he ran away from home to Savannah to work on

114 the docks so he could make some money. My mother went to high school. Obviously, neither of them went to college.

IM: Sounds similar œ my father only has a sixth grade education as well, but my mother went on to high school. What about their musical abilities?

BD: My father had none, but my mother was a singer and ironically, sang in the church choir and she and the choir director migrated to Detroit about the same time and became partners again in the church choir.

IM: Was she a soprano?

BD: She was an alto.

IM: Okay. Any other fond memories of your parents…

BD: My mother sang in the G-Clef Singers. It was a group of women and they rehearsed in our home and they traveled through the Midwest as a performing ensemble.

IM: Were most of their performances in churches?

BD: Yes, very much so.

IM: What about your father œ he didn‘t have a love of music?

BD: Oh, well he loved it. He just had no skill at it.

IM: So, you got most of your musical ability from mother?

BD: Right. We had to line the hymns with him because he was a Deacon in the church and engaged in the devotional services of the church

IM: And what was the nickname of those…

BD: Longmeter hym.

IM: Yes, longmeter and shortmeter. Did you have any brothers and sisters

BD: Yes. There were five of us œ three sisters and one brother.

IM: And what were there names?

BD: My oldest sister‘s name was Bertha. My next oldest sister was Rae and my, the youngest sister was Louise and my brother is named for my father, Ezekiel.

IM: And you were the…

115

BD: Youngest

IM: Describe your grandparents and what influences or impact they had on your life

BD: Now, I did not know my father‘s parents. My mother‘s mother lived with us. I did not know her because she died when I was four. However, there was a table at which I was told I used to sit as a very small child and I would pretend I was playing the piano and she admonished my sisters and my brothers who were picking at me, obviously, saying —Let him alone. One day, he‘s going to be a musician.“

IM: How about that. What about your educational background, starting with high school or when you were first drawn to music?

BD: Well actually, I was drawn to music at a very, very young age because I went to choir rehearsal with my mother, being the youngest. And I heard these wonderful songs being rehearsed and performed by the church choir at a very, very early age. Obviously my sisters and my brothers didn‘t want to baby-sit, so I went with my mother and it was a wonderful experience sitting and listening to those songs of our people as they were rehearsed along with all the other anthems like Inflamatus and those kinds of things. And I kind of grew up with it in my blood and would always sit on the front seat at church just to hear the choir.

IM: And that was in Detroit?

BD: Yes. And the thing that was so important is all of those people in that organization were at least share croppers and some just one generation removed from slavery.

IM: Wow. How about that.

BD: So they had a great impact on my life, it was like they were singing for survival. Times were hard, this was during the Depression and they could come or go to rehearsal or go to church and sing in the choir and kinda sing all those troubles away

IM: It was a way of relief for them.

BD: Right. But they very early on, established a concert season. And periodically, they would have those concerts which were called —pleasant Sundays“ and those people who were still vocalists would sing solos and the choir would have special performances œ that‘s the first time I heard Inflamatus.

IM: Okay. Do you remember the high school you went to?

BD: Yes, Eastern High School here in Detroit and I was a part of the music department and the school was predominately white and I was able to become a soloist in high school

116 IM: What years were you there?

BD: I graduated in 1948.

IM: Were you a special assistant to the Director or do anything else?

BD: No.

IM: After high school, what did you pursue? Your Masters or Bachelors?

BD: Actually, I started playing piano when I was eleven and by age thirteen or fourteen, I had started playing for Sunday School and church. By the time I was seventeen, I became Director of the Youth Choir.

IM: Did that lead to a scholarship for a Bachelor‘s in undergrad?

BD: (Laughter). There were no scholarships back then. I went to college on the GI Bill with the military. And while in the military, I had the Battalion chorus and the chapel choir.

IM: And you enlisted directly after high school?

BD: No, I had to work. And while I was working, I was drafted.

IM: And do you remember the year that you were drafted and about how long you served?

BD: ‘51 to 1953 and did music.

IM: Did you move around or were you stationed in one area?

BD: I was stationed at Ft. Belabor, which is right outside of Washington, DC. We used to do all those big extravaganzas that you now see on television on the steps of the capital because I had the battalion chorus and we participated in those activities.

IM: And you did that from the time that you were drafted until the end?

BD: Yes.

IM: With the end of your military duties, you then pursued the Bachelors…

BD: Right.

IM: What school was that?

BD: Wayne State University, for both my bachelors and my masters.

117 IM: And both were in music?

BD: In Detroit, Michigan.

IM: Do you remember the choir director? Did he have an impact on you?

BD: Yes, Harry Langsford who was the men‘s glee club director and I guess it was 1957, we were the first University to go on a state department tour of Europe.

IM: And that degree was the Bachelor of Arts, as well as the Master of Arts in Music Education?

BD: Right.

IM: Any influential teachers in that period?

BD: Actually, the piano teacher that I started with when I was about fourteen, I kept all the way through college and not only was he a piano teacher, he was a mentor and my lessons consisted of playing whatever the material was. Also it included site playing, transposition up and down; site singing; solfeggio; so consequently when I went to college, I tested right out of

IM: And his name was?

BD: Robert Nolan.

IM: Any other special training outside of those piano lessons?

BD: Our head of choir and he controlled our lives. We had to show him our grades to participate in the choir and he said to me, I guess when I was finishing up high school, most of his students went to Howard University because he was a Howard grad who actually performed for the President of the United States back in 1937, so you know he must have been fabulous. He always sent the students to Howard. He said to me one day —Brazeal, I do not recommend that you go away to school. There is something very special here for you. I don‘t know what it is, but you need to stay here“. That‘s the kind of insight this man had and how involved he was with our lives.

IM: So, you were able to attend college on the GI Bill as you said previously.

BD: Yes

IM: Other than the GI Bill, did you have to support yourself by jobs?

BD: Oh yes, I had a church job. I had a church choir.

IM: And the name of that church?

118

BD: People‘s Baptist Church

IM: You were the minister of music or the director of the choir there?

BD: Right. You need to experience, that choir developed into a wonderful oratorical choir, along with all the spirituals that we sang. You know the Brahms Requiem and the Mozarts Requiem

IM: Yes.

BD: Every year for Palm Sunday and Christmas there was a special offering and these were basically blue collar people but they all had music in the public schools, Detroit public schools had sequential development from grades one through twelve and people came out who participated in music able to read music. So, we capitalized on that.

IM: On a side note, I would like your opinion. As I‘ve done my studies and my educational journey, noticing how the black churches of years past would do those major works and various programming, what do you think the issue is now with our black churches where the music is not like that anymore with majority or some

BD: It‘s a direct result of music being taken out of our public schools and people no longer are exposed. Kids now go through high school without having a music class and that was not the case, at least there was a time when you had music in the elementary grades, junior high and high school. That is no longer the case. There are many schools that do not have a music teacher. Which is sad.

IM: Yes, very sad. What generation of your family were you to receive a degree?

BD: Actually, three of us received college degrees. Three out of five. And the others had special training in the medical field

IM: Did you have a family, a wife?

BD: Yes, I was married for thirty years and my wife is now deceased.

IM: Sorry to hear that. And her name was?

BD: Murdice Vallery Dennard, who was a wonderful alto. She went to Wilberforce and sang in Wilberforce Singers with Leontyne Price.

IM: When did you get married?

BD: 1959.

IM: You want to talk about some of your employment and career history?

119

BD: I was employed early on as a teenage at church as a church choir director, a job which I kept all the way through and after graduation, after my Masters and I resigned the positioning 1973 because I was running for office in the National Association of Negro Musicians (NANM). I was traveling and all those kinds of things, so I needed to give up that position. Reluctantly, for them and for me.

IM: After, and I‘m assuming you were elected into that office…

BD: Right. I was elected first as a Board member, then I moved up to First Vice President, and then President

IM: What years were you elected to those positions?

BD: Let‘s see. I was President until 1979, I think it was. That‘s when I left office and everything else took place somewhere in the 1970s.

IM: Okay. I probably can find out. I received the dissertation for NANM œ I think Dr. Patterson did that œ and I think that might be in there. So, following NANM, I‘m presuming that you didn‘t really have a job since you resigned the church

BD: I had started the coral.

IM: What is your most significant accomplishment as a professional?

BD: I think being able to inspire young people. That‘s not necessarily profound, but it‘s true.

IM: It is, it is. A lot of professors want to inspire, hopefully.

BD: Yes, and a lot of those young people have gone on to do, enjoy significant accomplishments.

IM: I can definitely relate to that. Dr. Evans is always on my case saying —Make sure you do this now, make sure“ so he‘s keeping his hands on me to say this is one that‘s going somewhere to do something.

BD: Right.

IM: Who would you say might have had the greatest influence on your career?

BD: Robert Nolan.

IM: When did you realize that you wanted to become a teacher, composer, and/or choir director?

120 BD: Actually, I just fell into it because I was an accomplice to the youth choir when the director became ill. And they asked me if I would take on the choir and that was an opportunity, so I said yes. This was when I was seventeen years old, so I took that on and I started remembering the little blue book that the choir director when I used to go to choir rehearsal with my mother, I used to see her go into this little blue book, pull out these little melodies, and arrange them. I started doing the same thing. And I was just trying to see what I could do to recall those songs and pass them on. Because by that time, those choir members were either deceased or retired from singing. But I wanted to recall those wonderful songs that I‘d heard.

IM: Age seventeen?

BD: Yes.

IM: What were some of your best experiences as a teacher, composer, or choir director?

BD: I think seeing some of my students really achieve and being recognized for their achievements, such as the outstanding soloist in the state of Michigan and performing in the Michigan youth arts festival. And that was, they were the only African-Americans throughout the state to compete and win.

IM: Did you ever teach on the collegiate level?

BD: Yes. At Wayne State University, I taught choral conducting.

IM: Do you remember the years of that?

BD: 1989, 1990. No, no. ‘87, ‘88, ‘89.

IM: Do you recall the names of any of those students that you hopefully mentored that have gone on to do those great things that you just spoke about?

BD: Yes, as a matter of fact, the gentlemen who is the Assistant Chair at Wayne State University now, Dr. Nora Duncan.

IM: Any others that you would like to mention?

BD: Samuel McKelson, who is like one of the trainees of the present tour company of the Lion King and there are others that I just can‘t think of.

IM: That‘s okay. What would you say is your philosophy of music education?

BD: I‘ve grappled with that question. To do music to its highest level, the very best that you can do. And enjoy doing it.

121 IM: What were some of your early childhood experiences that helped shaped your philosophy?

BD: Watching people like Mr. Nolan who was never recognized for his genius. He could only study at Julliard during the summer and to watch this man, who played at the White House as early as 1937, still pursue with gusto, his musical craft. And it didn‘t make any difference whether he make major stage or not. That wasn‘t important to him. To see that, that became a part of my life.

IM: And he made sure that music was always done at its highest level?

BD: Oh yes.

IM: Has your philosophy remained the same over the years?

BD: Right. And I guess I‘ve added, now at this stage in my life, to make sure that you have fun and enjoy what it is that you‘re doing. Because if it‘s drudgery, then after a while it will wear you out.

IM: What place does religion have in your life?

BD: Oh, very important. My mantra is a charge to keep I have, a God to glorify with all my powers engaged to do my Master‘s will.

IM: Alright. That‘s my Sunday morning lesson (laughter)

BD: (Laughter) Let‘s see, did I say that right. To serve this present age, my calling to fulfill, with all my powers engaged to do my Master‘s will. That‘s it. And that way, I think you remain fresh. Needless to say, it is a charge that I have. You know the hymn?

IM: Yes. What would you say are the most formative lessons you‘ve learned in life?

BD: To always do and be the best that you can.

IM: When did you found the choral? Do you remember the specific date?

BD: Yes, in 1972.

IM: Particular month?

BD: The fall of 1972.

IM: You want to go on into the choral? Okay. What events led to the development of the choral?

122 BD: Well, I was going to the National Association of Negro Musicians and recalling those songs that I heard early on in my childhood by the church choir. I heard all of this repertoire and when I would go to hear major choral groups, I would never hear that repertoire that I had heard as a youngster or at the National Association of Negro Musicians. And I said what I needed to do then is form a group that will fill that gap and to give the experiences to singers that otherwise wouldn‘t happen.

IM: So you were going to, how did you become aware of this organization?

BD: Well, the Detroit Musicians Association is probably one of the oldest in the National and my, again Mr. Nolan and all the other people that I was associated with, the adults, they were members of the Detroit Musicians Association and every year they went off to the National and I wanted to be a part of that. So, I started going right after I came out of the service.

IM: What is the genealogy behind the name of the choir? I know that it‘s your name, but was there any particular reason why you wanted to put your name onto the Choral or was there any story behind that?

BD: No, no real story. Most of the groups around had someone‘s name on it and I said well, let me put my name on it. And I have tried to change that and they said oh no, no, no. The choral members said —We can‘t do that. This is what you stand for.“ So they said no. I even approached the Board level and they said no, we won‘t even hear of that.

IM: Do you remember where you might have been when this revelation came about, and you thought I really need to try to do this?

BD: It just kind of evolved after so many years and then my wife and two other people who are still alive and very much supportive of the Choral really sat me down one day and said listen, you have all this knowledge, you‘re always talking about it, you are going to form this Choral. And that was in the living room of my home. And my wife was the one who spearheaded this.

IM: I assume that would be the history attached to the Choral. Is it spoke about often?

BD: Yes.

IM: Would you say your wife would be the initial seed?

BD: Absolutely. Because when we were alone, it was Brazeal, you really need to think about starting your own group. You have all of this information, you have the knowledge and you have the skill and you should do this. So she called these two members who were very dear friends who were very involved in music over on a Sunday afternoon. They sat me down on the couch in the living room and said you are going to start this group and we‘re going to help you.

123 IM: Do you mind mentioning their names?

BD: They are Gelacy and Naomi Peters.

IM: Musicians themselves?

BD: Both singers.

IM: Were there any other choirs œ Black, White, professional, amateur that influenced the origin and development of the choral?

BD: Yes, there were quite a few choirs in Detroit at that time. None of which, were doing what I just described œ the music of the African-American. And it‘s strangely enough, most of them are all defunct.

IM: Do you recall their names?

BD: There was the Kenneth Jewel Choral, the Thomas Turner Choral, Cantata Academy œ they‘re still going and several more

IM: What was the Choral‘s initial repertoire?

BD: Certainly spiritual.

IM: Has it changed any?

BD: Yes, because I‘m thinking through and trying to really develop a sound choral organization the, our mission statement reads: to perform unlimited choral repertoire with an emphasis on African-American music.

IM: And that statement is definitely on the website. I remember seeing that.

BD: Yes

IM: How many singers did you accept in the choir in the beginning?

BD: I think about forty-five.

IM: Has that changed?

BD: The numbers, no, because when we travel, we travel by bus. So I have to be careful about that. And plus, that‘s a manageable number.

IM: And you just told me the purpose and the mission statement of the choir, which is on the website. Was that the purpose and mission statement from the beginning?

124 BD: No it evolved. You have to get people going and working and seeing where all this is headed and you know, trial and error and you finally say this is what I think it should be and this of course, was with the help of other people in discussion.

IM: So what would you say your main theme, your mission, your purpose might have been in the beginning before it started to evolve?

BD: Well, first of all, I wanted to do those compositions that I‘d heard before.

IM: What was the time and location of the first couple of rehearsals?

BD: The time was in the fall of 1972 and the place was Plymouth Congregational Church.

IM: Did a choir start as a professional choir?

BD: No.

IM: As an amateur community chorus?

BD: Right. Which is now developed into three ensembles. We have the youth Choral which, basically they‘re training to first produce good sound, both choral and solo, to site read, and to perform in some larger spaces with instrumental accompaniment. We have a community chorus œ they are singers in many of the area church choirs œ who have the ability to more than just the contemporary music and they enjoy the challenge yet their reading level is not where those members of the Choral are. And they‘re learning to read and there are people that actually move up from the community chorus to the Choral because of training and their desire to reach a higher level.

IM: Do you remember around the time you started the additional ensembles?

BD: The youth choral started in 1982 and the community chorus started in 1985 and one of the reasons that happened was we‘d established a series with œ and I guess this goes into number twelve, some of the major accomplishments. We formed a partnership with the Detroit Symphony to perform works written for chorus and orchestra for African- American and now that‘s a yearly presentation at the Symphony. At first it was not in the Symphony season, it was a separate concert and I called it a segregated concert. It is now moved into the regular subscription series with basically, African-American conductors.

IM: Could you recall some of the conductors that may have participated in this?

BD: Yes, Isaiah Jackson, Paul Freeman, Leslie Dunn, Kermit Moore, and presently, Thomas Wilkins. Edward Lee, K. George Roberts, Willie Waters, just a host of them

IM: What about the major changes that may have affected the choir over the years?

BD: Some of the major collaborations?

125

IM: Major changes. What helped the choir evolve to where it is today? Sometimes you say I had too many sopranos this year, I know not to add more. Various changes, sources of income…

BD: I think as you go along you expect more, at least I do, and you pick up the level of participation and encourage people to keep those skills up by studying, all those kinds of things, constantly evaluating, trying to move the group to a higher level. I just returned from the World Choral Symposium in Japan and just when you think you‘ve got it made, you go and see somebody work at another level and you go back and kick butt some more.

IM: Raise the bar again…

BD: Yes, raise the bar again, so here we are. And they‘re afraid to see me right now (laughter).

IM: They know you have a bag of tricks now.

BD: Right

IM: Now, one of the major collaborations, one of them would be the Detroit Symphony.

BD: Right. And other Symphony Orchestras. We‘ve performed with any number of orchestras throughout the years now as a result of having performed with the DSO.

IM: Could you name some of those Orchestras?

BD: Yes, the Grand Rapids Symphony, the Louisville Orchestra, the Oakland Symphony Orchestra. There were any number of smaller ensembles, Chamber ensembles, the Detroit Symphony Civic Orchestra œ we‘ve done several things with them.

IM: What about major or large venues that the Choral may have performed at. Could you name some of those and the year?

BD: Two ACDA National Conferences and I‘m sure at least four ACDA Regional Conferences. We‘ve done performances for major conventions, the opening of the sorority conventions, you name it.

IM: Have you done anything at Carnegie or Kennedy?

BD: No, we were invited to but that was the year of 9-1-1 and unfortunately, it was cancelled out because of that. We were invited to take part in the Carnegie series.

IM: Now we‘re going to move into the structure of the Choral, starting with the personnel. How was the initial membership of the choir selected?

126

BD: We announced in the paper auditions and people responded to that. Plus, some special invitations.

IM: To those you knew you wanted in the choir.

BD: Right. And my church choir was basically the nucleus, those people who were really very, very talented.

IM: Did you or do you have officers?

BD: Yes, we have an Executive Director who handles all of the business and an Administrative Assistant.

IM: And the Administrative Assistant handles all correspondence, letters and things?

BD: Right.

IM: Does the Choir have a Board?

BD: Yes and their primary function is to fundraise.

IM: How many people are on that Board?

BD: I think twenty-one.

IM: Do they go through an election process?

BD: They handle that themselves.

IM: Are there cycles for serving on the Board?

BD: Yes there are terms. I think the longest term is three years.

IM: Three years and then you have to rotate off?

BD: Yes.

IM: Audition procedures. Where were your first auditions and what are the audition procedures for potential choir members?

BD: Announcements in the paper and then by word of mouth and at performances, people are constantly asking when are auditions.

IM: Now, if you have a slot œ you usually cap it off at forty œ do you audition each year?

127 BD: Yes I do.

IM: So, nobody‘s seat is permanent?

BD: No.

IM: So you have auditions every year.

BD: Right. Now, that means I have a waiting list because generally people don‘t get out of the choral unless I invite them out.

IM: Now, what happens when you think a voice œ how do you deal with those sensitive issues when the voice is beginning to be a little wobbly now?

BD: If it‘s a soprano I‘ll move them into the alto section or I‘ll ask why don‘t you consider becoming a part of the Library Staff so that they can continue to play some role because nine times out of ten, they know.

IM: Have you ever had situations where you moved them to the Community Chorus?

BD: Yes. I have one I‘m moving now.

IM: And then from that, you go back to your waiting list?

BD: Yes.

IM: When one comes to audition for the Choral, do you have to do a series of techniques to see where they stand?

BD: Right. The first thing I do is have them sing a song to hear the voice quality. Then I will check the ear and the musicianship to see if they read and how well. And give them a series of rhythmic exercises to perform.

IM: I guess you don‘t have to do very much in terms of recruitment, it recruits itself.

BD: Right.

IM: Conductors. How many conductors has the choir had since its founding? Just you primarily?

BD: Yes, but I have two assistants. Dr. Cheryl Hardin. Cheryl has her DMA from Northwestern University and Dr. Augustus Hill. Gus actually conducts the Community Chorus, that‘s his full-time job plus he assists me with the Choral. He is on Music faculty at Wayne State University. Cheryl Hardin is conductor of the Cass Technical High School choir.

128 IM: I know of that school.

BD: And Nina Scott is conductor of our Youth Choral.

IM: And she‘s the Director at Renaissance.

BD: Right, Renaissance High School. And any of them, at any give time, will be asked to conduct the Choral. As well as Damon Dandridge has over this past year.

IM: Those have been the only two since the inception of the Choral?

BD: Right.

IM: And you said that the initial rehearsals were held at Plymouth.

BD: Right.

IM: Where are they held now?

BD: At Metropolitan Methodist Church. I‘m just not so sure how long we‘re going to be there. They‘ve taken on a charter school. They moved in and they‘re usurping some of the space. And we have a huge library and right now, that room has been arranged for a classroom so we‘ve got to move our library and I‘m just not quite sure what we‘re going to do yet. We‘re having a Board meeting this afternoon just to discuss that.

[end]

129

APPENDIX B

TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW WITH ALBERT MCNEIL

130

INTERVIEW 2

Interview with Dr. Albert McNeil, March 1, 2006. Due to Albert McNeil busy schedule, he opted to answer the interview questions via email. AM=Albert McNeil; IM=Isaiah McGee. Dr. Albert McNeil is Professor Emeritus at University of California at Davis where he retired in 2001. In this interview, McNeil talks about his family, his early year, his education and career. He also provided information regarding the Operational procedures and organization structure of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers.

IM: What is your full name?

AM: Albert John McNeil (born Albert Morales-Sanchez–I was adopted)

IM: What is your birth date and birth place?

AM: February 14, 1924, Los Angelos, California

IM: What are your parent‘s full names?

AM: (Mother) Rhodier D Robertson (Father) John Joseph McNeil

IM: Will you give me some back ground information about your parents starting with: Birth place and dates Education Musical abilities Describe your parents. What did they do?

AM: My mother (adopted) was born in French Quarter, New Orleans. I am not sure of her correct birth, neither my father (adopted). My mother was a graduate of Strait College, New Orleans, my father, only a High School graduate. My parents were vaudevillians, having traveled with Silas Green from New Orleans Minstrel Shows. In later years, my mother was a social case worker for the Children‘s Home Society of California (an adoption agency), my father became a salesman and a drummer. My parents traveled extensively with shows both in this country and in Europe and the Caribbean before I was born.

IM: Do you have any brothers or sisters? If so what are their names?

AM: Dorothyea Marie McNeil-Hanley (4 years younger than I) deceased

131 IM: Are you the oldest sibling?

AM: Yes I am the oldest.

IM: Describe your grand parents and what influences or impact did they have on your life?

AM: I had no living grandparents.

IM: Please discuss your educational background starting with high school or when you were first drawn to music? Please provide the following information: cities or towns school names dates degree Influential teachers any special training

AM: Educational background: I had the opportunity of studying piano beginning at the age of 9, for about 7 years. I attended parochial schools (Catholic) until I reached the 11th grade when I persuaded my parents to allow me to go to Public School. I was in a parochial prep school (St. John‘s Military Academy for 4 years). I have always been drawn to music because my parents were very musical. My mother took me to my first opera (Carmen) when I was 14. We always had musicians of various abilities visiting us in our home during my entire childhood. My mother also worked as an Assistant Casting Agent for Central Casting (Hollywood), helping to send potential extras and other actors to perform in predominantly African-American films. It was through my mother‘s association with films that I was able to meet Hall Johnson when I was 13, and to hear the Great Hall Johnson Choir. IM: How were you able to attend college? Did you put yourself through school, or were you supported by your parents?

AM: Kind of, I won a 4-year scholarship to UCLA where I was originally Pre-Med. Finally, after changing my major from Pre-Med to music, attended graduate school at USC receiving the Masters Degree in choral conducting, and began the Doctoral program during the same time after graduation.

IM: Talk about your employment/career history. Please include names, dates, and places.

AM: I began teaching in the Los Angeles Unified School District as an elementary music teacher, teaching 4th through 6 grades. I had passed the secondary examination to teach High School, but I was told by the music supervisors that even though I passed with the second highest score out of a field of 150 candidates, because of my race, there were no jobs. I was still determined to teach in Los Angeles so I work toward an elementary credentials required for a permanent position. This I completed during an 18 week course

132 at the University of Southern California. I taught Elementary music education in one of the largest schools in Los Angeles. The school was an all Spanish speaking school of over 1,700. It was during this period that I found out that I was adopted. My mother had literally —dropped dead“. No one in my family had ever mentioned the fact that I was adopted. Needing a passport, I could not find my birth certificate. After going to the bank and reviewing some documents I found my adoption papers. With my adopted parents were both dead, and uncles and aunts were closed mouth about my birth.

IM: What were some of your best experiences as a teacher, composer, and choir director?

AM: One was when the Westminster Choir College and Dr. J. Finley Williamson had given me the opportunity to study musicology, literature, and conducting at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland all on scholarship. This really changed my life, because looking back at the States; I had plenty of time to determine what I wanted to do with choral music. That is were the seed for the birth of the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers was planted. I finally was asked to take the Secondary music exam once again, which I did reluctantly. I passed and taught in one of the largest High Schools, Susan Miller Dorsey High School. I also was one of the youngest director of a major church choir, the People‘s Independence Church which was a break from my old AME church were I was filling in for the regular director because they were on sabbatical. This opportunity gave me the chance to do complete works as fastest as I would learn new repertory at the University. The minister was also quite young and was eager for daring opportunities for this church that had about 5,000 members. What a great chance for me to do the first complete performance of the Messiah in an African-American Church in Los Angeles. This was followed by other works such as Mendelssohn‘s Elijah, Stainer‘s, Crucifixion, William Grant Still‘s and They Lynched Him On A Tree with Dr. Still and his wife in attendance. This was an unprecedented performance with an all-white choir, and predominantly all-white orchestra. The 60s was one of the most exciting period in American history replete with assassinations, and great Civil Rights activity. I continued to present such works as Debussy‘s The Prodigal Son, Nathaniel Dett‘s Ordering of Moses, and an all William Grant Still Festival devoted to much of his music, piano, vocal, and shorter choral works.

IM: What about the organizational structure of the Jubilee Singers, How was the initial membership of the choir selected?

AM: Initially the membership of the choir was chosen from members of my church choir. The church, People‘s Independent Church, was a societal institution, than attracted not only the average church goers, but —show business“ people, and especially actors, actresses, from Hollywood studios. It was natural for the church to be asked for singers for certain motion pictures. I got tired of suggesting some of my singers, so I decided to form my own group, originally called the McNeil Singers, after being approached by an impresario, and after my year of study in Europe, University of Lausanne, Switzerland under the sponsorship of the Westminster Choir College, I elected to call the group the Albert McNeil Jubilee Singers of Los Angeles, since my manager, Irwin Parnes of

133 Beverly Hills, had been calling the group the Los Angeles Jubilee Singers. He had Booked the final tour of the Fisk Jubilee Singers with John Work as conductor, on their last tour of Europe. My

IM: Does the choir have a board? Do you have officers, and what are their roles?

AM: My choir is not a group with a board, officers, etc. it is a thoroughly professional choir, with an assistant conductor, accompanist, and librarians.

IM: What are your audition procedures for potential choir members?.

AM: I handled the auditions as needed. My auditions require a resume, before a date is announced to the candidate, then singers are required to present three solos: operatic or oratorio excerpt, an art song (in any language), and a spiritual and or Gospel. I review the vocal range through a series of vocalizes, there is a melodic memory test (random melodies including unusual intervallic leaps), a review of rhythmic memory examples and finally a sight-singing exam of several pieces, not nessarily a spiritual.

IM: Do you advertise the auditions?

AM: No it is by word of mouth and that has work superbly. I am constantly bombarded with requests to audition. Audition information is handled via e-mail, and via the webpage.

IM: How many conductors have the choir had since its founding?

AM: I am the only conductor and the founder of the group.

IM: Where are the rehearsal held and how often?

AM: Generally our rehearsals are on Saturdays, 2:00 until 5:30 in the Hollywood Methodist Church, in the heart of Hollywood. The location is well-known to musicians and singers in the area.

[end]

134

APPENDIX C

TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW WITH LEO DAVIS

135 INTERVIEW 3

Interview with Dr. Leo Davis, April 25, 2007. Interviewer is Isaiah R. McGee and this tape number is #3. LD=Leo Davis; IM=Isaiah McGee. Tape recorder used was a General Electric —Variable Speed Playback“ portable cassette recorder.

Dr. Leo Davis is Minister of Music at Mississippi Boulevard Christian Church. In this interview, Davis talks about the Moses Hogan Singers while he was a member from 1999 to 2003.

The interview was taken over the telephone.

LD: Dr. Leo Davis

IM: Were there any other choirs (black, white, professional or amateur) that influence the origin and development of the Moses Hogan Singers.

LD: Moses talked about the influence of Noah Rider and the Depaur Infantry Choir. They were a positive influence which also encouraged he to write several spiritual arrangements. He made a copy of that tape and I never will forget it. Of course Mormon Tabernacle Choir, Tuskegee Choir and Morgan State all were major contributing factors in the development of the Moses Hogan Chorale and Singer. But he really raved about the Mormon Tabernacle experience. I remember him coming back and saying —Leo I couldn‘t believe the whole experience.“

IM: Did he talk about the purpose and or the mission of the choir?

LD: Oh, I think his purpose was to… well he started the New World Ensemble back in the 80s after he finished undergraduate school and went to graduate school for a minute at Julliard and came back the New Orleans and he wanted to start an ensemble that would preserve African-American music, black music. At first he was just doing music by black composer, not so much of his music, and then he began writing some of his arrangements and started the Moses Hogan Chorale. But then he began to write more of his own arrangement and his gifts began to spin out more and more music would evolve. I think his primary goal was to document the arrangements… he made sure that every arrangement that he has written was recorded. And that was a major, major incentive for him, he wanted to make sure that people knew how to interpret his music. He was intentional about they had to know how to interpret his and other African-American composers music. I hope that answered your question.

136 IM: Yes, definitely. Were the choir members paid at all?

LD: Yes. He would give us stipends like one hundred dollars. But it wasn‘t so much (for me that is) about that because I was just so honored to be a part. When he called me and asked me to be apart I was just elated about that.

IM: So there was not really a fee structure or process in place?

LD: No no no he gave us like one hundred dollars but you stayed in very nice hotels, accommodations was taken care of to include all of our meals. So no it wasn‘t anything … but we understood cause we loved doing his music. We were performing at major venues. The experience itself was just just… wow was just grateful for those four or five years.

IM: Was the one hundred dollars on a per performance or per engagement type of situation?

BD: Yes it was.

IM: How was the initial membership of the Moses Hogan Singers selected?

LD: The singers were kind of auditioned but there were singers he would hear. You know like he worked with Morgan State that was another choir he talked about Morgan State. When he would hear some of these singers he would get four or five of them like some of those at Morgan State that were top singers and was trilled to sing with him. Then he would go around …it was more so out of his experience… he hand picked, he knew who had the style and could deliver the kind of things he was looking for

IM: Did the choir have officers?

LD: No. Oh no it wasn‘t structured at all, I mean not structured in the since of officers and positions but it was very organized.

IM: So that means that he didn‘t have a board? He was the primary contact

LD: He was it. There were people that assisted him but he was it.

IM: Okay. Did he ever advertise for auditions or anything like or was it just word of mouth?

LD: Probable did but he would switch out singer but mostly we stayed together. Those of us that was with he we were it.

IM: So their was not a schedule were he would hold auditions every year?

LD: NO nothing like that. As he found a singer as he needed a singer that was it.

137

IM: as he traveled he would….?

LD: Yeah as he traveled he may run into … yeah I have even heard of him inviting singers while we were in concert and they would sing for him.

IM: How many conductors has the singers had?

LD: It was just Moses and very few time I saw Brian the Tenor I can‘t think of his last name. Brian only conducted when Moses was sing and that was the last concert they had without him. IM: And he was one of the assistant…

LD: Well not really he didn‘t have one. We never thought anything was going to happen to Moses.

IM: Do you know were the initial rehearsals were held for the singers?

LD: We really didn‘t operate like that. He would send the music and he sent a tape and just when you met for the engagement that‘s when you rehearsed.

IM: So basically it was at the performance site?

LD: Right Right.

IM: And was that the only time that you would rehearse was when he was preparing for a performance you were the…

LD: Right!!!

IM: Did he talk about or do anything with the seating or placement of the singers? Was he big on placement?

LD: Yeah he was. He had a specific placement.

IM: Maybe for this song or it varied depending on the hall?

LD: No not for each selection but basically men in the back and women in the front

IM: Ok ok all right. Oh did religion play a major part of his life?

LD: Yes. He acknowledges God for his gifts he always acknowledges pray prior to performances. Yes he did.

IM: Did he talk about who was the biggest influence in his career?

138 LD: His uncle Edwin B. Hogan. I put that in my dissertation

IM: You did your dissertation on?

LD: The Choral Music of Moses Hogan

IM: I found another dissertation by Teresa Whiting. A lady in NY from new York.

LD: Oh wow really. Did you read it? How was it?

IM: It was good. She spent a lot of time with the family and interviewed several members of the family. Went to church with them … they are suppose to do some type of celebration in April.

LD: Yeah I have to call them I think Mr. Hogan (dad) is really sick. So I need to call them

IM: Well I think you answered all of the question I had for you?

LD: Ok I hope I did. Now when do you finish?

IM: Well I am trying to finish this summer? I really do appreciate you taking this time out of your busy schedule to answer these few questions. And how long did you sing with the Moses Hogan singers?

LD: From 1999 to 2003.

IM: Tenor section?

LD: Yeah No .. I think I was tenor and sometime baritone.

IM: Now you are a full time Minister of Music there at Mississippi blvd Baptist church?

LD: Yes it a lot of work but a lot of good work.

IM: Are you at a church there?

LD: No because the choir at Claflin usually travels heavily on Sundays.

IM: Thank you again and I will stay in touch.

LD: Ok Isaiah best of luck take care and if you need anything else let me know..

(end)

139

APPENDIX D

TRANSCRIPT OF INTERVIEW WITH DAMON DANDRIDGE

140 INTERVIEW 4

Interview with Damond Dandridge, March 18, 2007. Interviewer is Isaiah R. McGee and this tape number is #4. DD=Damond Dandridge; IM=Isaiah McGee. Tape recorder used was a General Electric —Variable Speed Playback“ portable cassette recorder.

Damon Dandridge is Director of Choral Activities at Cheney University, Philadelphia, PA. In this interview, Dandridge talks about the Brazeal Dennard Chorale while he was a member of the Chorale and the Youth Chorale which is a developmental ensemble under the Chorale. The interview was taken over the telephone.

IM: First I want to let you know that I‘m recording the session so that we can have it transcribed and as a part of the document as well. And I want to thank you for agreeing to allow me to interview you and to be a part of my dissertation. I only have a few questions that I would like to ask you. And we‘ll start with the opening question œ what is your full name?

DD: Damon Dandridge

IM: How would you say that the Brazeal Dennard Chorale is unque?

DD: It is totally voluntary but maintains a high quality of musicianship. It is also unque in that it has the same leader since its inception.

IM: What would you say the performance practice of the Brazeal Dennard Chorale is?

DD: Brazeal tried to stay close to the practice of the particular genre of music that he was teaching to the Chorale. He was very sensitive o what was happening vertically as well as horizontal.

IM: How does Brazeal Dennard recruit for his Chorale?

DD: It was mostly done by invitation or from hearing a singer at various concert appearances. He really never had to audition people because they were there waiting on a slot to open or if he really like the voice and thought that it would be an asset, he would invite them to join.

IM: Could you give me an example of an announcement or audition form ?

DD: No there was none that I could think of.

IM: How long were rehearsals??

DD: generally about two and a half to three hours long.

141 IM: Can you give me a brief example of how a rehearsal would be ran?

DD: He would start with a warm-up and then move to a song that was some what similar to them. He then would move to the unfamiliar or new song and then end with a song that everybody knew.

IM: What are some of the things Brazeal would focus on?

DD: He would focus on timbre and color. Not just the entire choir but each section and how each line or phrase move throughout the entire piece of music.

142

APPENDIX E

ALPHABETIZED DATABASE OF REPERTOIRE AS PERFORMED BY SELECTED PROFESSIONAL BLACK CHOIRS IN THE UNITED STATES

143 Alphabetized Database of Repertoire as Performed by Selected Professional Black Choirs in the United States

Title Voice Composer/Arranger Professional Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

A Morning Song TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Agadat Kinneret TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Ain‘t Got Time to Die SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ake (Ilori) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Alexander TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

All ”Round de Glory Leonard de Paur Infantry

Manger TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Amen SATB Jester Hairston Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ani Ma-Amin TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ave Maria (Bach/Gounod) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Battle of Jericho SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Blessed Quietness SATB Larry Farrow Singers

Breeze and I SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

144 By Heck SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

Bye and Bye SATB Noah Ryder Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Calla, No Llores (Andre) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Carmen Jones SATB RodgerHammerstein Singers

Casinha Pequenina Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Gurgel) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Cert‘ ny Lawd SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Cert‘ n‘y Lord SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ch‘ i Lai TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Christ be thine the Glory SATB Schutz Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Christmas Present for Leonard de Paur Infantry

Sallie TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

City Called Heaven SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Climbin up the Mountain SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Climbin‘ up the mountain, chillun SATB William Smith Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Coco do Norte (Gurgel) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Corrido de Cananea TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

145 Leonard de Paur Infantry

Credo (Gretchaninoff) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Crossin Ovah SATB Richard Jackson Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Crucifixion SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Daniel Daniel, Servant of the Lord SATB arr. Undine Moore Brazeal Dennard Chorale

De Blin‘ Man Stood on De

Road An‘ Cried SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

De Virgin Mary Had a Leonard de Paur Infantry

Baby Boy TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Dear Lord and Father of Leonard de Paur Infantry

Mankind (Whittier-Maker) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Deep River TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Deep River SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Dere‘s No Hidin‘ Place

Down Dere SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Didn‘t it rain SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Didn‘t my Lord deliver

Daniel SATB Harry Burleigh Wings Over Jordan Choir

Do Lord, Remember Me SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Does anybody here know my Jesus SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

146 Don‘t stay away SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Don‘t you get weary SATB Hall Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Don‘t You Hear Yo‘ Po‘ Leonard de Paur Infantry

Mother Callin‘ TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Down By the Riverside SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Dry Bones SATB Albert McNeil Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Eh Onchiri Oyo TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

El Yiv‘ ne Ha Galil TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Eli Eli (Schindler) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Elijah Rock SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Elijah Rock SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ev‘ ry Mail Day (Work) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Ev‘ ry Time I Feel The

Spirit SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Everytime I feel the spirit SATB William Dawson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Ezekiel Saw De Wheel SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Fare Ye Well SATB Brazeal Dennard Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Fix Me Jesus SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

147 Fi-yer (Fire) SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Folga Nego (Gurgel) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Get on board, little children SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Git on Down Dat Road TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Give away, Jordan SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Give Me Jesus SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Glory, Glory, Glory to the

New Born King SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Go Down Moses SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

God is with Us (Kostalsky) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

God Rest Ye Merry, Leonard de Paur Infantry

Gentleman TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Gods Gonna Set this

World on Fire SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Gonna Journey Away SATB arr. Noah Ryder Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Good New, The Chariot‘s is Comin SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Great Day SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Great Day SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

148 Great Day SATB Brazeal Dennard Brazeal Dennard Chorale

He‘ ll understand and say

—well done“ SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Hear My Prayer SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

He‘s got the whole world Albert McNeil Jubilee in his hands SATB Margaret Bonds Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

His name so Sweet TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

His name so Sweet SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

His name so Sweet SAA Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

His name so Sweet TTBB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Hol‘ de Light SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Hold On SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Hold On SATB James Furman Singers

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Hold out your light SATB Albert McNeil Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Honor, Honor TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Honor, Honor SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Honor, Honor SSA Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Honor, Honor TTBB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Hosanna to the Son of SATB Gibbons Brazeal Dennard Chorale

149 God

Hush! Somebody‘s callin my name SATB Brazeal Dennard Brazeal Dennard Chorale

I am leaning on the Lord SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I belong to the Band SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

I Can Tell the World SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I Cannot Stay Here by

Myself SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

I Coundn‘t Hear Nobody

Pray SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I Got A Home In A Dat

Rock SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I Got A Robe SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I Know the Lords Laid His

Hands on Me SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I‘ m bound to leave this world SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I‘ m going to die with that staff on my hand SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I‘ m gonna wait till the day is done SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I‘ m on my way SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I‘ m troubled SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

150 I‘ m working on the building SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I must keep a‘movering‘ along SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I Stood on the River of

Jordan SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I‘ ve Been Buked SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

I‘ ve got a home in that rock, don‘t you see? SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

I‘ ve Got Sixpence TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

I want Jesus To Walk with Leonard de Paur Infantry

Me TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

I want Jesus To Walk with

Me SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I Want to Be Ready SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I want to be ready SATB William Dawson Wings Over Jordan Choir

I want to cross over to see my Lord SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

I want to die easy when I die SATB Hall Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

I Want to Thank You, Lord SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I Wonder as I Wander TTBB Leonard de Paur Leonard de Paur Infantry

151 (Niles) Choir

I‘ll never turn back no more SATB arr. Hall Johnson Brazeal Dennard Chorale

I‘m Gonna Sing Til The

Spirit SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

I‘m Gonna Sing Til The Albert McNeil Jubilee

Spirit SATB Moses Hogan Singers

In that great @he Rev up Albert McNeil Jubilee mornin SATB Jester Hairston Singers

In the year of Jubilee SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

It‘s my desire SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Jerry TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Jesus Lay Your Head in de Winder SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Jesus Lay Your Head in the Window SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Jesus Lay Your Head in Albert McNeil Jubilee the Window SATB Hall Johnson Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

John Henry TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

John the Revelator SATB Albert McNeil Singers

152 Albert McNeil Jubilee

John the Revelator SATB Albert McNeil Singers

Just a closer walk with thee SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Keep a Inchin Along TTBB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Keep me from sinking down SATB Nathaniel Dett Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Kowe, Kyere Meni No TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Kro Kro, Hihn Hihn! TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Kwagyansa, Menna Bio TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

La Llorona TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

La Virgen Lava Panales TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Le Chant de la Liberation Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Marly) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Let me ride SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Lift Every Voice for

Freedom SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Lili Marlene (Schulz/Leip) TTBB Leonard de Paur Leonard de Paur Infantry

153 Choir

Lily of the Valley SSAA Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Lily of the Valley SATB arr. Wendel Whalum Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Little David, Play on Your

Harp SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Little David, Play on Your

Harp SATB Jester Hairston Wings Over Jordan Choir

Lo, How a Rose E‘er Leonard de Paur Infantry

Blooming TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Lord I want to be a

Christian in my heart SATB Brazeal Dennard Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Lord Jesus think on me SATB Robert Elmore Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Lord, I Don‘t Feel Noways

Tired SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Lord, I Want to Be a

Christian SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Lord, I Want to Be a

Christian SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Marry a Women Uglier Leonard de Paur Infantry

Than You TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Mary Had A Baby SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Mary, Mary Where is Your Leonard de Paur Infantry

Baby (Hairston) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

154 Mary‘s Little Boy Chile Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Hairston) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Meadowland (Song of the Leonard de Paur Infantry

Plain) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Mister Banjo SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Money is King TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Move! Let me shine SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

arr. Damon

My God is a Rock SATB Dandridge Brazeal Dennard Chorale

My soul is a witness for my Lord SATB Noah Ryder Wings Over Jordan Choir

My Soul‘s Been Anchored SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

My Soul‘s Been Anchored SATB arr. Glenn Jones Brazeal Dennard Chorale

New-born again SATB Kenneth Billups Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

No Bottom (Wolfe) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

No Hidin‘ Place SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Nobody Knows de Trouble Leonard de Paur Infantry

I See TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Non Qon Quo SATB Larry Farrow Singers

Now all my woes are over Double J.M. Bach Brazeal Dennard Chorale

155 Chorus

O God Our Help In Ages Leonard de Paur Infantry

Past (Watts-Craft) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

O Happy Day SATB Larry Farrow Singers

Albert McNeil Jubilee

O Mary, Don‘t you weep SATB Albert McNeil Singers

O, my good Lord SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Obi Ji La Kwelegi TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Oh Lord Have Mercy on

Me SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Oh Mary, Don‘t You Weep SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Oh, Freedom SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Oh, Holy Lord SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Oh, Po‘ Little Jesus TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Oh, what a beautiful city SATB William Dawson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Old Time Religion SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

On God and not on

Human Trust SATB Pachelbel Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Open the window, Noah SATB Albert McNeil Singers

156 Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ose Yei TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Pauline, Pauline TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Please search my heart SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Plenty Good Room TTBB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Precious Lord SATB Arnold Sevier Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Prenda Minha (Gurgel) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Quiet Flows the Don Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Qzerzhinsky) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Ride on Jesus SATB arr. Roland Carter Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Ride on King Jesus SATB Hall Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Ride On, king Jesus SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Ride The Chariot SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Rio Que Pasas Llorando TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Rise An‘ Shine TTBB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Rock my soul SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Rock, Mt. Sinai SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

Rock-a my soul SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

157 Albert McNeil Jubilee

Rock-a my soul SATB Howard Roberts Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Rodger Younger (Loesser) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Run Li‘l Chillun SSATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Run, sinner, run SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Same train carried my mother SATB J. Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Sarape Oaxaqueno Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Mondragon) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Show me the way SATB Norman Merrifield Wings Over Jordan Choir

Silent Night, Holy Night Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Gruber) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Siyahamb‘ ekuhanyen‘ Albert McNeil Jubilee kwenkho SATB Singers

Somebody touched me SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Something SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Sometimes I Feel Like A

Motherless Child SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Sometimes I feel like a motherless child SATB Hall Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Son of Man (Easter

Cantata) SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

158 Spiritual Reflection SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Stand by me SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Standing in the Need of

Prayer SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Standing in the Need of

Prayer SATB Howard Roberts Wings Over Jordan Choir

Steal Away SATTBB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Steal Away SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Steal Away SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Steal Away TTBB Brazeal Dennard Brazeal Dennard Chorale

arr. Brazeal

Steal Away TTBB Dennard Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Surely He Died on Calvary SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Sweet Home SATB arr. Whalum Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Sweet Little Jesus Boy Leonard de Paur Infantry

(MacGimsey) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Swing Low, Sweet Chariot TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Take me to the water SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Take My Mother Home SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Thanks be to God (Elijah) SATB Mendelssohn Brazeal Dennard Chorale

Leonard de Paur Infantry

The Duckworth Chant TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

159 Leonard de Paur Infantry

The First Nowell TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

The Heavenly Father SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

The Lord is my Shephard SATB Thomas Matthews Brazeal Dennard Chorale

The Lord will provide SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

The Lord‘s Prayer Leonard de Paur Infantry

(Malotte) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

The old ship of Zion SATB William Handy Wings Over Jordan Choir

The Song of the French Leonard de Paur Infantry

Partisan TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

The Word was God SATB Rosephanye Powell Singers

There must be a God somewhere SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

There‘s a city called Albert McNeil Jubilee heaven SATB Robert Page Singers

There‘s plenty good room SATB William Smith Wings Over Jordan Choir

This Little Light of Mine SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Through the Storm SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Tis the old ship of Zion SATB William Handy Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Tol‘ My Cap‘n TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Trampin SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

160 Trampin‘ SATB Hall Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Trashin‘ the Camp SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Trying to get ready SATB Norman Merrifield Wings Over Jordan Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Turn the world around SATB Harry Belafonte Singers

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Vidalita TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Wade in the Water SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Wade in the water SATB Harry Burleigh Wings Over Jordan Choir

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Wake me up Lord SATB Uzee Brown Singers

Walk Together, Children SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Walk Together, Chillun SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Walk together, chillun SATB Hall Johnson Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Waltzing Matilda (Cowan) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Want to go to heaven when I die SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Water Boy (Robinson) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Way Over In Beulah Land SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Way Up in Heaven SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

We Shall Walk Through SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

161 the Valley

We Shall Walk Through the Valley SATB Undine Moore Wings Over Jordan Choir

Were You There SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Wheel in the middle of the wheel SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

When I was Sinking Down SATB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

When the saints go marching in SATB Eva Jessye Wings Over Jordan Choir

When the saints go marching in SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

Where shall I be when the first trumpet sounds SATB William Still Wings Over Jordan Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

White Christmas (Berlin) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

Who Built de Ark TTBB Hall Johnson Hall Johnson Choir

Who Built the Ark SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Who is that Yonder SATB Eva Jessye Eva Jessye Singers

Albert McNeil Jubilee

Who‘ll be a witness SATB Larry Farrow Singers

Witness TTBB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Witness (from H. Johnson) TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

162 Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ye ke, Omo mi SATB Leonard de Paur Choir

Leonard de Paur Infantry

Ye ke, Omo mi TTBB Leonard de Paur Choir

You Better Min‘ How You

Talk SATB Moses Hogan Moses Hogan Chorale

You can tell the world about this SATB Margaret Bonds Wings Over Jordan Choir

You know, Lord SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

You must have that true religion SATB Wings Over Jordan Choir

163

APPENDIX F

DISCOGRAPHY OF SELECTED BLACK PROFESSIONAL CHOIRS

164

DISCOGRAPHY

This list provides the recording dates and names of the original companies associated with the recording.

1. Listed by Artist, Recording Titles and numbers

HALL JOHNSON CHOIR —The Hall Johnson Negro Choir“, Victor 4460 —The Hall Johnson Negro Choir“, Victor 4497 —The Hall Johnson Negro Choir“, Victor 36020 —The Hall Johnson Negro Choir“, Victor 36047 —The Hall Johnson Negro Choir“, RCA Victor 4553-A.

EVA JESSYE CHOIR —Porgy and Bess“ original cast album with Todd Duncan, Ann Brown, and the Eva Jessye Choir, Decca DL 79024

WINGS OVER JORDAN CHOIR —Wings Over Jordan Choir“, Columbia Broadcasting Masterwork Series of 1941, New York, N.Y.

LEONARD DE PAUR INFANTRY CHOIR —A Choral Concert: Songs of Faith“, Columbia MM 709 Reissue: Columbia ML 4144 [1949]

—Choral Caravan“, Columbia MM 831 Reissue: Columbia AAL22 [1949] —Work Songs and Spirituals“, Columbia MM 919 Reissue Columbia ML 2119 [1951] —Latin American Songs“, Columbia ML 4144 [1949] —Swing Low“, Columbia AAL 45 [1954] —The Spirit of Christmas, God is with Us“, Columbia CL 725 [1955] —Calypso Christmas“, Columbia CL 923 [1956]

165 —Songs of New Nations“, Mercury SR 90382 [1964] —Danse Calinda‘ The De Paur Chorus Sings Creole Songs, Work Songs and Spirituals“, Mercury, MG 50418, SR 90418 [1965]

—Love‘s Old Sweet Songs“, Columbia AAL 42 [1957]

ALBERT MCNEIL JUBILEE SINGERS —The Best of Jubilee“ Vol. 1 Ayaworld — Best of Jubilee“ Vol. 2 , Ayaworld [2005]

BRAZEAL DENNARD CHORALE —Remembering, Discovering, Preserving œ Songs of African American History“ —Remembering II Significant Spirituals“ —Hush œ Somebody‘s Calling My Name“ —In Silent Night“ [1995]

MOSES HOGAN SINGERS —Ezekiel Saw de Wheel: A Collection of Spirituals. New Orleans: MGH Records, 2001. MGH7000.

—Deep River: Featuring 10 Spirituals Arrange for Solo Voice and Piano from the Deep River Collection (Volume One).“ Featured soloist: Henrietta Davis, Robert Sims and Alfred Walker and Eight Choral Arrangements by Moses Hogan. Sung by the Moses Hogan Singers. Moses Hogan, Conductor/Pianist. New Orleans: MGH Records, 2000. MGH5000.

—Give Me Jesus/Spirituals. Barbara Hendricks and the Moses Hogan Singers.“ New York: EMI, 1998. EMI7243 5 566683 2 5.

—Home In That Rock, A : A collection of Spirituals and Songs of Faith Arranged and Conducted by Moses Hogan.“ New Orleans: MGH Records, 1999. MGH3000.

—Lift Every Voice For Freedom: A Collection of American Folk Songs, Hymns, Poetry, and Songs of Faith and Patriotism.“ Sung by the Moses Hogan Singers. New Orleans, MGH Records, 2001. MGH9000.

—Moses Hogan Choral Series 2003: This Little Light of Mine. New Orleans: MGH Records, 2002. MGH10000.

166 REFERENCES

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169 Brafford, C. Benjamin, III. —The Origins, Performance and Dissemination of the African- American Spiritual: Personal Papers, Scores and Media in Collections of Selected Libraries in Chapel Hill, Durham and Salisbury, North Carolina.“ D.M.A. dissertation, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2002.

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Bricker, John, former Governor of Ohio, Columbus, Ohio. Interview, October 1976.

Broder, Nathan. —The Bach B Minor–Two New Sets and a Plenitude of Riches.“ High Fidelity Magazine, 12 (February, 1962), 78.

Brooks, Sophia, former choir member, Youngstown, Ohio. Interview, January 3, 1976.

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Bunton, Mildred, sister of The Reverend Glynn T. Settle, Washington, D. C. Interview, April 22, 1976.

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170 ______. —Hall Johnson Has Made Spiritual Famous,“ Pittsburgh Courier, XXII, August 1, 1931, sect. 8, p. 1, cols. 1-2 1942.

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Carter, Marva Griffin. —Hall Johnson–Preserver of the Old Negro Spiritual,“ Thesis New England Conservatory, 1970.

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______. —Spirituals Come to Wings Over Jordan Through Tradition,“ Cleveland, Ohio, n.d.

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171 Connelly, Marc. —Mr. Connelly Delivers A Tardy Curtain Speech,“ New York Times, LXXIX/26,335, Sunday, March 2, 1930, sect. 9, p. 1, cols. 3-6.

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172 Davis, Alton, former booking agent, Boston, Massachusetts. Interview, July 1976.

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______. —Reviews.“ Musical America, 84 (December 1964), 194, 243.

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174

Downes, Olin. —Eva Jessye Choir Heard.“ New York Times, October 29, 1948. Listed in Music Reporter, Inc., p. 53.

______. —Infantry Chorus at Carnegie Hall.“ New York Times Jan. 9, 1950:29 Drake, St. Clair and Horace Cayton. Black Metropolis. New York: Harper and Row, 1962.

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______. —Choral Conductors Forum: The Question of the Professional Chorus.“ American Choral Review, 17 (Summer 1975), 26-28.

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175

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177

Glass, Herbert. —Two Worth-While Versions of the B Minor Mass.“ The America Record Guide, 28 (May 1962), 712-713.

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Granger, Don. —Eva Jessye Brought 65 Years of Show Business Back Home.“ The Wichita Eagle-Beacon, Kansas, October 12, 1980, p. 1.

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Greene, Patterson. Los Angeles Examiner, April 5, 1949. Quoted by Paul Salamunovich in The Choral Journal, 22. (August 1991), 16.

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178

—Hall Johnson Choir Featured in Bobby Breen‘s Latest Melody Drama, ”Rainbow on the River‘,“ New York Amsterdam News, January 9, 1937.

—Hall Johnson Choir Heard,“ New York Times, LXXIX/26,413. May 19, 1930, p. 21, col. 4.

—Hall Johnson Choir in Stephen Foster Film,“ Daily Worker, New York, November 8, 1939.

—Hall Johnson Choir on Mall,“ New York Times, XCIII/31,602, August 2, 1944, p. 18, cols. 5-6.

—Hall Johnson Choir will give the 1st Program in a Lecture Recital Conducted by Olin Downs,“ New York Evening Post, October 14, 1933.

—Hall Johnson Choir Sings in Nave of Riverside Church,“ New York Herald Tribune, May 8, 1948.

—Hall Johnson Easter Cantata [announcement],“ New York Times, XCV/32,222, April 14, 1946, sect. 2, p. 5, col. 4.

—Hall Johnson Gathers 2,000 Choristers for Summer Festival,“ New York Amsterdam News, June 8, 1935.

—Hall Johnson has come home to Harlem from Hollywood,“ New York Post, Sunday, August 11, 1943, sect. 3, p. 39.

—Hall Johnson Honored at Scholarship Benefit,“ Pittsburg Courier, July 7, 1962, p. 15. 1931, p. 18. col. 2.

—Hall Johnson [Obituary],“ Jet Magazine, May 21,. 1970, p. 45.

—Hall Johnson [Obituary],“ New York Amsterdam News, May 9, 1970.

—Hall Johnson Negro Choir Sings,“ New York Times, LXXVII/ 25,624, March 21, 1928, p. 30, col. 4.

—Hall Johnson Negro Choir Sings,“ New York Times, LXXVIII/ 25,944, February 4, 1929, p. 21, col. 3.

—Hall Johnson Negro Choir Sings,“ New York Times, LXXXI/ 26,940, October 28,

—Hall Johnson to Receive a Citation for his Contributions to Music,“ New York Post, May 10, 1963.

179

—Hall Johnson‘s Review of ”Negro Songs of Protest‘,“ New York Amsterdam News, August 8, 1936.

—Hall Johnson Shows Fine Balance,“ New York Times, LXXVII/ 25,604, March 1, 1928, p. 29, col. 4.

—Hall Johnson Singers Finding New Songs,“ New York Times, LXXXII/27,581, July 20, 1933, sect. 2, p. 4, col. 2.

—Hall Johnson Will Give Concert at Westchester County Church,“ New York Herald Tribune, September 30, 1934.

Hallowell, Emily. Calhoun Plantation Songs. Boston: C. W. Thompson, 1901.

—Hands of Hall Johnson on view at Museum of Modern Art,“ New York Post, June 20, 1962. Hankerson, Mamie, Secretary of the Reverend Charles H. Crable, Cleveland, Ohio. Interview, October 12, 1978.

Hay, John. —Age No Barrier for Eva Jessye.“ The Morning Sun, Pittsburg, Kansas, April 5, 1984, p.29-B.

Hay, John. —Eva Jessye Honored in Washington.“ Morning Sun, Pittsburg. Kansas, November 4, 1982, p. 26.

______. —Memphis Recognizes Eva Jessye‘s Contributions.“ Morning Sun, December 1, 1983.

Handy, W. C. Father of the Blues [autobiography]. New York: Collier Books, 1941.

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199 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Isaiah R. McGee is a native of Anderson, South Carolina and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from South Carolina State University in Orangeburg, South Carolina, a Master of Music degree in vocal performance with an emphasis in Opera Theatre from the University of South Carolina, in Columbia, South Carolina. He has directed ensembles in performances at the local, state, and regional conferences and conventions. Isaiah has served as clinician for numerous workshops, honor choirs, and clinics. He has also co-authored an article that will appear in the International Journal of Music Education. As a vocalist, Isaiah made his opera debut as the Conte in the 1994 Studio Lirico production of Cimarosa‘s Il Convito at Teatro Signorelli in Cortona, Italy. For the South Carolina Opera Theater in Columbia, he received rave reviews for his portrayal of Doctor Malatesta in Donizetti‘s Don Pasquale and was equally well received by audience and critics alike for his portrayals of Maesetto in Mozart‘s Don Giovanni and Bardolfo in Salieri‘s Falstaff. Isaiah was the 1993 winner of the William L. Dawson Vocal Competition at Tuskegee University and one of the 1997 winners of the Opera Carolina‘s Young Artist Recital Program. He is a member of the American Choral Directors Association, Opera America, College Music Society, Music Education National Conference, National Association of Negro Musicians, Phi Mu Alpha Professional Music Fraternity and Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc,. Prior to the completion of the Ph.D in Music Education with Choral Conducting emphasis from The Florida State University he was appointed Assistant Professor of Music and Director of Choral Studies at Claflin University. At Claflin University he directs the Concert Choir, University Chorale, and the Men and Women ensembles along with teaching applied voice, and courses in both general and choral conducting.

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