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ISSN 2520-2073 (print) ISSN 2521-442X (online) TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

‘Language is the most massive and inclusive art we know, a mountainous and anonymous work of unconscious generations’ ‒ Edward Sapir

Vol. 4 Issue 2 2020

Issue DOI: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 The quarterly journal published by Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) ISSN 2520-2073 (print) AIMS AND SCOPE TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ISSN 2521-442X (online) Training, Language and Culture (TLC) is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to promote and disseminate research spanning the spectrum of language and linguistics, education and culture studies with a special focus on professional communication and professional discourse. Editorial Board of A quarterly journal published by RUDN University Training, Language and Culture invites research-based articles, reviews and editorials covering issues of relevance for the scientiﬁc and professional communities. EDITORIAL BOARD Dr Elena N. Malyuga Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation FOCUS AREAS Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London, London, UK Training, Language and Culture covers the following areas of scholarly interest: theoretical and practical perspectives in language and linguistics; Dr Michael McCarthy University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK culture studies; interpersonal and intercultural professional communication; language and culture teaching and training, including techniques and Dr Robert O’Dowd University of León, León, Spain technology, testing and assessment. Dr Elsa Huertas Barros University of Westminster, London, UK Dr Olga V. Aleksandrova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation LICENSING Dr Lilia K. Raitskaya Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russian Federation All articles and book reviews published in Training, Language and Culture are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li- Dr Alex Krouglov University College London, London, UK cense (CC BY 4.0). This means that people can share the material (copy and redistribute in any medium or format), as well as adapt it (remix, trans- Dr Igor E. Klyukanov Eastern Washington University, Cheney, USA form, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially) as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and in- Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting, London, UK dicate if changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorsement. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as the license terms are being followed. Dr Joongchol Kwak Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea Dr Chai Mingjiong Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China Dr Claudia Schuhbeck International Certiﬁcate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Mexico City, Mexico INDEXATION Dr Enrique F. Quero-Gervilla University of Granada, Granada, Spain The journal is currently indexed in DOAJ, Ulrich’s Web, Linguistics Abstracts Online (Wiley), Google Scholar, EBSCO, Russian Science Citation In- dex, ROAD, Cyberleninka. Dr Iván Vicente Padilla Chasing National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia

ADVISORY BOARD ACCESS TO PUBLICATIONS Robert Williams University of Westminster, London, UK Training, Language and Culture offers Platinum Open Access to its content which means that both readers and authors are granted permanent and 100% free access to the published material. Authors are not charged article processing fees, or publication fees, or article submission fees, or any Anthony Fitzpatrick International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany other type of fees. Authors retain copyright of their work and allow it to be shared and reused, provided that it is correctly cited. All content publis- Myriam Fischer-Callus International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany hed in the journal is available immediately upon publication. Following the Budapest Open Access Initiative’s definition of Open Access, readers of Training, Language and Culture are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the journal's articles and use EDITORS Elena N. Malyuga, Editor-in-Chief (RUDN University) [email protected] them for any other lawful purpose. All and any publication costs associated with journal's operation are covered by the publisher – Peoples’ Fri- Barry Tomalin, Co-Editor (ICC) [email protected] endship University of Russia (RUDN University). Elizaveta G. Grishechko, Executive Secretary (RUDN University) [email protected] PEER REVIEW COMPUTER DESIGN Elizaveta G. Grishechko Training, Language and Culture is committed to ensuring a fair and productive peer review process to secure the integrity of the scholarly record. The purpose of peer review is to assist the Editors in making editorial decisions and through the editorial communications with the author it may FOUNDERS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) also assist the author in improving the paper. Training, Language and Culture uses double-blind review, which means that reviewers are unaware of 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation http://eng.rudn.ru/ the identity of the authors, and authors are also unaware of the identity of reviewers. The typical period of time allowed for reviews is 3 weeks. International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC) Bochum, Germany https://icc-languages.eu/ PUBLICATION SCHEDULE AND VOLUME The journal is published quarterly (four issues per year coming out in March, June, September and December) with each issue incorporating 6 to 8 PUBLISHER Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation original research articles, 1 to 4 reviews on relevant books and other publications on the subjects within the Aims and Scope of the journal, as well 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation as reports on events and latest news. Print will be available on demand.

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Printed at RUDN University Publishing House: Online archive of all issues published in Training, Language and Culture is available at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org/archive.html. 3 Ordzhonikidze str., 115419 Moscow, Russian Federation Ph.: +7 (495) 952-04-41; Email: [email protected] Publishing Agreement (Public Offer) to Publish an Article in the Academic Periodical ’Training, Language and Culture’ is available online on the journal website at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org/publication-policy.html. © Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, 2020 ISSN 2520-2073 (print) AIMS AND SCOPE TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ISSN 2521-442X (online) Training, Language and Culture (TLC) is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to promote and disseminate research spanning the spectrum of language and linguistics, education and culture studies with a special focus on professional communication and professional discourse. Editorial Board of A quarterly journal published by RUDN University Training, Language and Culture invites research-based articles, reviews and editorials covering issues of relevance for the scientiﬁc and professional communities. EDITORIAL BOARD Dr Elena N. Malyuga Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation FOCUS AREAS Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London, London, UK Training, Language and Culture covers the following areas of scholarly interest: theoretical and practical perspectives in language and linguistics; Dr Michael McCarthy University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK culture studies; interpersonal and intercultural professional communication; language and culture teaching and training, including techniques and Dr Robert O’Dowd University of León, León, Spain technology, testing and assessment. Dr Elsa Huertas Barros University of Westminster, London, UK Dr Olga V. Aleksandrova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation LICENSING Dr Lilia K. Raitskaya Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russian Federation All articles and book reviews published in Training, Language and Culture are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li- Dr Alex Krouglov University College London, London, UK cense (CC BY 4.0). This means that people can share the material (copy and redistribute in any medium or format), as well as adapt it (remix, trans- Dr Igor E. Klyukanov Eastern Washington University, Cheney, USA form, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially) as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and in- Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting, London, UK dicate if changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorsement. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as the license terms are being followed. Dr Joongchol Kwak Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea Dr Chai Mingjiong Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China Dr Claudia Schuhbeck International Certiﬁcate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Mexico City, Mexico INDEXATION Dr Enrique F. Quero-Gervilla University of Granada, Granada, Spain The journal is currently indexed in DOAJ, Ulrich’s Web, Linguistics Abstracts Online (Wiley), Google Scholar, EBSCO, Russian Science Citation In- dex, ROAD, Cyberleninka. Dr Iván Vicente Padilla Chasing National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia

culture, history of the Italian language, the prob- About our lem of rationing and standardisation of the Italian CONTENTS language. contributors Heiner Böttger Full Professor of English Didactics and EFL at the 5 About our contributors Elena V. Voevoda Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germa- 7 Introduction to Issue 4(2) by Barry Tomalin DSc in Education, Professor in English Language ny. Chairman of the Early Language Learning Ad- Dpt, Head of the Dpt of Pedagogy and Psycho- visory Board, founded in Munich. Present research logy, Moscow State Institute of International Rela- focuses on the preconditions for language learning tions (MGIMO University). Research interests within the language acquisition process. Explores Original Research cover culture studies, foreign language teaching, how children develop communicative competen- 11 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION SPACE history of university education, theory and metho- ces, which language strategies they use and when, by Elena V. Voevoda dology of higher education. Editorial boards and the brain processes underlying language development and the jigsaw pieces for acquiring three or 21 ANGLICISMS AND LOANWORDS: THE CONTRIBUTION OF ENGLISH EXEMPLIFIED BY memberships include Journal of Intercultural Com- CONTEMPORARY ITALIAN TOURIST TERMINOLOGY munication (Sweden), Modern Communication more languages. Has published over 190 papers by Alla G. Sokolova Studies (Russia), Russian International Studies As- on English didactics and language research. sociation (RISA). 31 COMPANY NAMING STRATEGIES IN THE ITALIAN INTERIOR DESIGN INDUSTRY Deborah Költzsch by Daria A. Shevliakova Alla G. Sokolova Research assistant and doctoral candidate at Hei- DSc in Technical Sciences, Associate Professor in ner Böttger’s LEARLab at Catholic University of 43 THE FEAR FACTOR: XENOGLOSSOPHOBIA OR HOW TO OVERCOME THE ANXIETY OF SPEAKING the Department of Foreign Languages and Profes- Eichstätt-Ingolstadt. Currently completing her FOREIGN LANGUAGES teacher training as well as her PhD thesis on the by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch sional Communication at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering. Holds an administrative posi- promotion of creativity in the English language 56 GLOCALISATION IN ACTION: ‘LESS IS MORE’ ENGLISH COURSEBOOK SERIES tion of a deputy-director of the Institute of Funda- classroom. Using mobile eyetracking and EEG de- by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey mental Education responsible for scientific and re- vices, she also focuses on evidence-based findings search work. Currently a student of the Master pro- regarding the neural network of the human brain 67 MANAGING DIVERSITY IN THE CLASSROOM gramme Intercultural Communication and Profes- in regards to language learning. Prospectively, will by Deborah Swallow sional Translation at Peoples’ Friendship Universi- focus on studying bilingualism and multilingua- ty of Russia (RUDN University) in Moscow. Started lism with a special focus towards creativity. her language teaching career in 2012 and has been lecturing in higher educational institutions Tuncer Can Book Reviews such as Higher School of Economics (HSE), Rus- DSc in Education. Professor in the ELT Dpt of Is- 81 Bagels, bumf and buses: A day in the life of the English language (a review) sian University of Transport (RUT MIIT), and Rus- tanbul University – Cerrahpasa (Turkey). Received original work by Simon Horobin reviewed by Maurice Cassidy sian New University. The disciplines she covers a Fulbright Scholarship (FLTA) in 2005, spent a year at Syracuse University, NY, where he taught 84 Language unlimited: The science behind our most creative power (a review) include English for Specific Purposes, Tourist Des- Turkish via videoconferencing. Besides training original work by David Adger reviewed by Barry Tomalin tinations (in English), Management in the Sphere of Tourism (in English), Profession-Oriented Transla- pre-service language teachers, has organised tion, and the Italian language. teacher training courses at the Language Centre of Istanbul University since 2007. Has managed and News & Events Daria A. Shevliakova partnered many projects such as Establishing the 87 ICC News by Barry Tomalin DSc in Culturology, Professor, Head of the Dpt of Virtual Campus of Istanbul University on Second Italian, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Areal Life funded by Istanbul University Research 87 EUROLTA News by Myriam Fischer Callus Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University Centre, and CAMELOT, TABLIO, GUINEVERE, YouRNI, ArtiCULan and YouALLS projects funded 88 RUDN University News by Elena Malyuga (Russia). Research interests cover cultural anthropology, ethnology, theory and history of Italian by the EU Commission. Director of Istanbul Uni-

4 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 5 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org versity Continuing Education Centre and Vice-di- Currently reading for a Master’s in Adult Learning dimensions created by Hall, Hofstede, Lewis and rector of Istanbul University School of Foreign and Global Change at the Department of Beha- Introduction to Trompenaars, she explores the different characte- Languages. viour Science and Learning at Linkoping Universi- ristics of students from different regions and coun- ty, with a thesis exploring how teachers interpret tries in four Russian universities, interviewing stu- Sarah Frazier their roles. Academic interests include continued Issue 4(2) dents, conducting surveys and analysing the re- Teaches English as a foreign language at Istanbul professional development, communities of prac- sults. In doing so, she observes considerable lin- University’s Language Centre (Turkey). Prior to tice, classroom methodology and approaches to by Co-Editor Barry Tomalin guistic and communication barriers between stu- that, she taught English to refugees in the United learning. dents and academic and administrative staff. The States. Studied applied linguistics and received a Welcome to Issue 4(2) of Training, Language author identifies a major change in university Master’s degree in TESOL from Portland State Uni- Deborah Swallow and Culture. Italy features strongly in this issue structure as universities internationalise, and stres- versity. Co-author of the EFL coursebook series DSc in Education, writer, trainer and university with two articles on the terminology used in the ses how universities need to go beyond a standard Less is More and Swifts. Research interests include lecturer specialising in management and intercul- Italian tourist and furniture and interior design in- one-size-fits-all view of university education and glocalisation, world Englishes, and English as a lin- tural communication. Teaches at Glasgow Caledo- dustries and the importance of loanwords in orga- work on improving eliminating communication gua franca. nian University London and is the author of Diver- nisational naming to ensure more effective interna- barriers in what she describes as the multi-ethnic sity Dashboard: A Manager’s Guide to Navigating tional marketing. Multicultural teams in business education space of universities. In her research, Colette McManus in Cross-Cultural Turbulence. Member of SIETAR, and students from many countries in our class- Elena Voevoda interviewed over 280 students English language instructor at Istanbul University’s the Society for International Education, Training rooms are an important trend in the globalisation aged between 18 and 21 either personally or Language Centre (Turkey). Was born in Ireland and Research and director of the training company age, and this issue explores how to teach manage- through social media and asked them to comment where she lived until she moved to Turkey in 4CInternational. ment diversity in the workplace with teams made on 28 statements divided into three parts. Part A 2014. Has a BA Degree in English, Media and Cul- up of different nationalities, as well as the issues of asked students to disclose details of their ethnic tural Studies from Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art, Maurice Cassidy communication in multicultural classrooms and background. Part B asked them to agree or dis- Design and Technology and an MA in Develop- Senior English as a Foreign Language international how to manage them. This issue also explores the agree (yes/no answers) with statements by Hall, ment Studies from University College Dublin, Ire- consultant, specialist in ELT and former Director of problem of xenoglossophobia (fear of learning lan- Hofstede and Trompenaars. Part C contained land. Since training as an English teacher, has the Executive Centre at International House Lon- guages) and how to help people, especially stu- questions focused on the Lewis model of linear-ac- worked mostly with university students in prepara- don. Past Chair of Business English UK. Has travel- dents in the classroom, overcome it. Textbooks are tive, multi-active and reactive cultures. She then tory courses but also has experience with young led widely internationally, inspecting language the basis of much of our teaching, and teachers analyses the results to establish a picture of diffe- learners in private schools. Has extensive experi- schools and training teachers. have had to face the problem of textbooks which rent cultural approaches to university life. What ence in assessment and curriculum design. Has ignore local geography and social customs and be- the author ultimately learns is that students experi- co-authored various English coursebook series in- Barry Tomalin haviour. We explore this challegne and introduce ence difficulty in adapting to Russian as the main cluding the Less is More series, Swifts series and Joint Managing Editor of Training, Language and the principles behind new materials for the language of tuition, while teachers often fail to the upcoming Full Circle series. Research interests Culture and a board member of ICC. A specialist teaching of English in local environment. Our re- make allowances and do not realise that apparent include intercultural awareness and promoting cri- in international communication, cultures, soft views this month explore linguistics, in particular lack of enthusiasm is often culturally motivated. tical thinking in the classroom. power and media. Founder and facilitator of the the continuing relevance of Noam Chomsky’s con- What needs to happen is that academic and admi- Business Cultural Trainers Certificate. Teaches at cept of a universal grammar and the etymology of nistrative staff need training to understand and ma- Alex Rey Glasgow Caledonian University London, the Aca- everyday words and phrases in English that we use nage cultural differences among their university English teacher at Istanbul University’s Language demy of Diplomacy and International Governance without thinking but really don’t understand how students in order to break barriers and improve in- Centre and Cambridge certified teacher trainer. at Loughborough University. they came about. Finally, gathered together are the tercultural communication and, as a result, achie- most relevant news about RUDN University ve stronger student engagement and better acade- (Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia) and ICC- mic results. Languages and EUROLTA international language Next, in Anglicisms and loanwords: The contri- teacher training programmes. bution of English exemplified by contemporary Ita- Our first article in the issue titled Intercultural lian tourist terminology, Alla Sokolova examines communication in multicultural education space how English words have been adopted into the Ita- by Elena Voeveda explores how students coming lian international transportation, accommodation from different regions in Russia and from different and food and hospitality industries but also notes countries get on in Russian universities. Using the how English words introduced into the Italian lan-

6 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 7 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org versity Continuing Education Centre and Vice-di- Currently reading for a Master’s in Adult Learning dimensions created by Hall, Hofstede, Lewis and rector of Istanbul University School of Foreign and Global Change at the Department of Beha- Introduction to Trompenaars, she explores the different characte- Languages. viour Science and Learning at Linkoping Universi- ristics of students from different regions and coun- ty, with a thesis exploring how teachers interpret tries in four Russian universities, interviewing stu- Sarah Frazier their roles. Academic interests include continued Issue 4(2) dents, conducting surveys and analysing the re- Teaches English as a foreign language at Istanbul professional development, communities of prac- sults. In doing so, she observes considerable lin- University’s Language Centre (Turkey). Prior to tice, classroom methodology and approaches to by Co-Editor Barry Tomalin guistic and communication barriers between stu- that, she taught English to refugees in the United learning. dents and academic and administrative staff. The States. Studied applied linguistics and received a Welcome to Issue 4(2) of Training, Language author identifies a major change in university Master’s degree in TESOL from Portland State Uni- Deborah Swallow and Culture. Italy features strongly in this issue structure as universities internationalise, and stres- versity. Co-author of the EFL coursebook series DSc in Education, writer, trainer and university with two articles on the terminology used in the ses how universities need to go beyond a standard Less is More and Swifts. Research interests include lecturer specialising in management and intercul- Italian tourist and furniture and interior design in- one-size-fits-all view of university education and glocalisation, world Englishes, and English as a lin- tural communication. Teaches at Glasgow Caledo- dustries and the importance of loanwords in orga- work on improving eliminating communication gua franca. nian University London and is the author of Diver- nisational naming to ensure more effective interna- barriers in what she describes as the multi-ethnic sity Dashboard: A Manager’s Guide to Navigating tional marketing. Multicultural teams in business education space of universities. In her research, Colette McManus in Cross-Cultural Turbulence. Member of SIETAR, and students from many countries in our class- Elena Voevoda interviewed over 280 students English language instructor at Istanbul University’s the Society for International Education, Training rooms are an important trend in the globalisation aged between 18 and 21 either personally or Language Centre (Turkey). Was born in Ireland and Research and director of the training company age, and this issue explores how to teach manage- through social media and asked them to comment where she lived until she moved to Turkey in 4CInternational. ment diversity in the workplace with teams made on 28 statements divided into three parts. Part A 2014. Has a BA Degree in English, Media and Cul- up of different nationalities, as well as the issues of asked students to disclose details of their ethnic tural Studies from Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art, Maurice Cassidy communication in multicultural classrooms and background. Part B asked them to agree or dis- Design and Technology and an MA in Develop- Senior English as a Foreign Language international how to manage them. This issue also explores the agree (yes/no answers) with statements by Hall, ment Studies from University College Dublin, Ire- consultant, specialist in ELT and former Director of problem of xenoglossophobia (fear of learning lan- Hofstede and Trompenaars. Part C contained land. Since training as an English teacher, has the Executive Centre at International House Lon- guages) and how to help people, especially stu- questions focused on the Lewis model of linear-ac- worked mostly with university students in prepara- don. Past Chair of Business English UK. Has travel- dents in the classroom, overcome it. Textbooks are tive, multi-active and reactive cultures. She then tory courses but also has experience with young led widely internationally, inspecting language the basis of much of our teaching, and teachers analyses the results to establish a picture of diffe- learners in private schools. Has extensive experi- schools and training teachers. have had to face the problem of textbooks which rent cultural approaches to university life. What ence in assessment and curriculum design. Has ignore local geography and social customs and be- the author ultimately learns is that students experi- co-authored various English coursebook series in- Barry Tomalin haviour. We explore this challegne and introduce ence difficulty in adapting to Russian as the main cluding the Less is More series, Swifts series and Joint Managing Editor of Training, Language and the principles behind new materials for the language of tuition, while teachers often fail to the upcoming Full Circle series. Research interests Culture and a board member of ICC. A specialist teaching of English in local environment. Our re- make allowances and do not realise that apparent include intercultural awareness and promoting cri- in international communication, cultures, soft views this month explore linguistics, in particular lack of enthusiasm is often culturally motivated. tical thinking in the classroom. power and media. Founder and facilitator of the the continuing relevance of Noam Chomsky’s con- What needs to happen is that academic and admi- Business Cultural Trainers Certificate. Teaches at cept of a universal grammar and the etymology of nistrative staff need training to understand and ma- Alex Rey Glasgow Caledonian University London, the Aca- everyday words and phrases in English that we use nage cultural differences among their university English teacher at Istanbul University’s Language demy of Diplomacy and International Governance without thinking but really don’t understand how students in order to break barriers and improve in- Centre and Cambridge certified teacher trainer. at Loughborough University. they came about. Finally, gathered together are the tercultural communication and, as a result, achie- most relevant news about RUDN University ve stronger student engagement and better acade- (Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia) and ICC- mic results. Languages and EUROLTA international language Next, in Anglicisms and loanwords: The contri- teacher training programmes. bution of English exemplified by contemporary Ita- Our first article in the issue titled Intercultural lian tourist terminology, Alla Sokolova examines communication in multicultural education space how English words have been adopted into the Ita- by Elena Voeveda explores how students coming lian international transportation, accommodation from different regions in Russia and from different and food and hospitality industries but also notes countries get on in Russian universities. Using the how English words introduced into the Italian lan-

6 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 7 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org guage have morphed into authentic Italian expres- learning languages, xenoglossophobia, can be par- dustry is still dominated by western values both in countries has outlawed discrimination on the sions through the use of phonetic, orthographical ticularly debilitating. This phobia is investigated the situations discussed in language teaching dia- grounds of race, religion, gender, age, disability and grammatical assimilation. One example that and discussed by Heiner Böttger and Deborah logues and in the types of events and exchanges and sexual orientation, and cases may be based on sticks in my mind is the morphing of il barman Költzch in The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or and even the geographical environment in which the use of language, behaviour or just plain negli- into barista, to describe a trained maker of coffees how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign exchanges are situated. For Tuncer Can, Sarah Fra- gence. Ignorance is not an excuse. This is why di- in a coffee bar. Although the influence of English languages. They begin by examining the neurolo- zier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey in Istanbul in versity management training is becoming a basic is criticised by some linguists, given its current po- gical foundations of language anxiety and by ex- Turkey a global approach to language textbooks training programme in international companies sition of a world lingua franca in international ploring the symptoms. Xenoglossophobia doesn’t fails to engage students and that what is needed is and also for university teachers and staff. Dr Debo- communication, in particular through the World just stop people learning foreign languages but it a localisation process. Teachers find that negoti- rah Swallow is a leading university lecturer and in- Wide Web, its importance as a means of filling se- also inhibits foreign language speakers using the ating global projects, such as climate change, in ternational trainer specialising in management and mantic and lexical gaps in the national language languages they have learned, avoiding foreigners textbooks, although important is frustrating. They diversity issues. Her paper on Managing diversity where a corresponding word does not exist cannot and travel abroad. Explaining the symptoms of xe- find that students often shy away from exchanging in the classroom reviews the main issues and theo- be overestimated. noglossophobia, the authors show how foreign ideas on global topics and fail to practise their lan- ries of diversity and applies them to higher educa- Italian business has an established reputation language learners suffer from pounding heart, ra- guage skills in the process. The answer is glocali- tion and adult education sectors. After defining di- for quality and a hand-made feeling based on a pid breathing and stomach distress and in the sation – how to localise textbook material and versity, the author shows how stereotyping, preju- long tradition of small family companies and re- classroom try and avoid speaking, participating or make it more accessible to learners by relating the dice and unconscious bias result in discrimination, gional loyalty. Nowadays the companies’ family working in groups, preferring to stay silent. They language to their own concerns and their local en- sometimes consciously but also unconsciously on members may be long gone and the business itself may also find it impossible to sit still in class, play- vironment. Despite research into Turkish language the part of tutors and administrators. The misuse of international, but the name remains an ironclad ing with their pen, and cannot say sounds calmly education by international bodies such as the Bri- language can also be a key factor in destroying guarantee of quality and workmanship. However, and clearly. The authors conducted a survey of tish Council and fairly high levels of exposure to trust and relations that are language-dependent, in international marketing, company and product 108 prospective English language teachers in train- English language teaching (4-12 hours per week and Deborah Swallow explores the use of political names may be adapted to aid brand recognition in ing. Although demonstrating a greater professional starting at the age of 10 in state schools), students correctness in language use and behaviour in the other countries. Using Italian company names and mastery of their subject, the English language, than get to understand English but find they have diffi- classroom and the institution, and discusses the le- products displayed in trade fairs in Russia, Daria most people, they were still prone to anxiety over culty speaking it. The answer is to produce course- gal consequences that may result from discrimina- Shevliakova, in her article Company naming stra- issues like making mistakes, even if they knew the book materials which reflect learners’ social back- tion. She presents the Competency Framework de- tegies in the Italian interior design industry, exa- correct answer to a question being asked. Finally, grounds and interests. Tuncer Can and his team veloped by Spencer-Oatey and Stadler and offers a mines how names are simplified and loanwords, the authors address the issue of how to help stu- have developed a course which combines global training structure to apply it to the classroom to mainly from English, are adopted as part of a dents suffering from xenoglossophobia. A key fac- themes where needed but also focuses on local overcome cultural differences. As the author con- brand strategy. She explains the theory of ‘naming’ tor is mindfulness and emotional intelligence, dis- life and experience, discussed in Glocalisation in cludes, the key to successful management of mul- to create an acceptable brand name, looks into the cussing and exploring the psychological factors in- action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series. ticultural classrooms and companies lies in deve- sources of the brand names of a large number of hibiting the student and helping them to reframe The materials set out to teach grammar with refe- loping intercultural effectiveness as a core compe- exporters in the Italian furniture and interior design their view of their language learning ability rein- rence to local lifestyles and put stress on student tence – not just knowing but being able to do. industry, and shows how they simplify their names force their self image as a foreign language user. interaction and language use. The books start with Have you ever used a word or phrase in English using words in everyday use, focusing on one or The authors stress the importance of positive cor- local content and gradually introduce global edu- and asked yourself, ‘Now I wonder where that two key words, sometimes just one, and relying on rective feedback and the avoidance of criticism or cation themes as students advance and their ability came from’? Maurice Cassidy’s review of Simon alliteration and onomatopoeia to create a rhythm sarcastic comments, emphasising the student’s increases. The teacher’s books, instead of spoon- Horobin’s Bagels, bumpf and buses: A day in the and make a product or company name easier to strengths and weakness in a balanced way and feeding teachers with strict lesson plans, encour- life of the English language is a gift for teachers, say and remember. Daria Shevliakova identifies helping them adopt a problem-solving and com- age them to be creative in how they use the teach- students, etymology specialists and indeed anyone four main ways of adapting a company or product municative approach to avoid being locked into ing materials and adapt to the requirements of interested in the origins of popular words and name for international markets and even domestic xenoglossophobia. This is an important contribu- their students’ local environments. Firmly based in phrases. Rather than taking an alphabetical ap- markets, most commonly encountered in Italian: tion to the understanding of foreign language pedagogical theory and good practice, this analy- proach, listing each term in alphabetical order, proper nouns, words and phrases in everyday use, learning and finding out why some students may sis of how to create ‘localised’ teaching materials Horobin groups words and phrases according to abbreviations and geographical names. not be responsive in language learning classes. is both practical and timely. the time of day in which they are most likely to be Many children (and, obviously, adults) suffer Part of the ongoing intercultural debate to this A key issue in modern business is the issue of commonly used. To take just one example, bumpf, from phobias of different school subjects, but in day takes place in schools regarding the creation diversity law and diversity management in organi- meaning irrelevant information or publicity, fits our age of international communication, fear of and use of textbooks. The language textbook in- sations. Diversity law in Europe and in western into the Work chapter. However, the origin is a re-

8 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 9 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org guage have morphed into authentic Italian expres- learning languages, xenoglossophobia, can be par- dustry is still dominated by western values both in countries has outlawed discrimination on the sions through the use of phonetic, orthographical ticularly debilitating. This phobia is investigated the situations discussed in language teaching dia- grounds of race, religion, gender, age, disability and grammatical assimilation. One example that and discussed by Heiner Böttger and Deborah logues and in the types of events and exchanges and sexual orientation, and cases may be based on sticks in my mind is the morphing of il barman Költzch in The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or and even the geographical environment in which the use of language, behaviour or just plain negli- into barista, to describe a trained maker of coffees how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign exchanges are situated. For Tuncer Can, Sarah Fra- gence. Ignorance is not an excuse. This is why di- in a coffee bar. Although the influence of English languages. They begin by examining the neurolo- zier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey in Istanbul in versity management training is becoming a basic is criticised by some linguists, given its current po- gical foundations of language anxiety and by ex- Turkey a global approach to language textbooks training programme in international companies sition of a world lingua franca in international ploring the symptoms. Xenoglossophobia doesn’t fails to engage students and that what is needed is and also for university teachers and staff. Dr Debo- communication, in particular through the World just stop people learning foreign languages but it a localisation process. Teachers find that negoti- rah Swallow is a leading university lecturer and in- Wide Web, its importance as a means of filling se- also inhibits foreign language speakers using the ating global projects, such as climate change, in ternational trainer specialising in management and mantic and lexical gaps in the national language languages they have learned, avoiding foreigners textbooks, although important is frustrating. They diversity issues. Her paper on Managing diversity where a corresponding word does not exist cannot and travel abroad. Explaining the symptoms of xe- find that students often shy away from exchanging in the classroom reviews the main issues and theo- be overestimated. noglossophobia, the authors show how foreign ideas on global topics and fail to practise their lan- ries of diversity and applies them to higher educa- Italian business has an established reputation language learners suffer from pounding heart, ra- guage skills in the process. The answer is glocali- tion and adult education sectors. After defining di- for quality and a hand-made feeling based on a pid breathing and stomach distress and in the sation – how to localise textbook material and versity, the author shows how stereotyping, preju- long tradition of small family companies and re- classroom try and avoid speaking, participating or make it more accessible to learners by relating the dice and unconscious bias result in discrimination, gional loyalty. Nowadays the companies’ family working in groups, preferring to stay silent. They language to their own concerns and their local en- sometimes consciously but also unconsciously on members may be long gone and the business itself may also find it impossible to sit still in class, play- vironment. Despite research into Turkish language the part of tutors and administrators. The misuse of international, but the name remains an ironclad ing with their pen, and cannot say sounds calmly education by international bodies such as the Bri- language can also be a key factor in destroying guarantee of quality and workmanship. However, and clearly. The authors conducted a survey of tish Council and fairly high levels of exposure to trust and relations that are language-dependent, in international marketing, company and product 108 prospective English language teachers in train- English language teaching (4-12 hours per week and Deborah Swallow explores the use of political names may be adapted to aid brand recognition in ing. Although demonstrating a greater professional starting at the age of 10 in state schools), students correctness in language use and behaviour in the other countries. Using Italian company names and mastery of their subject, the English language, than get to understand English but find they have diffi- classroom and the institution, and discusses the le- products displayed in trade fairs in Russia, Daria most people, they were still prone to anxiety over culty speaking it. The answer is to produce course- gal consequences that may result from discrimina- Shevliakova, in her article Company naming stra- issues like making mistakes, even if they knew the book materials which reflect learners’ social back- tion. She presents the Competency Framework de- tegies in the Italian interior design industry, exa- correct answer to a question being asked. Finally, grounds and interests. Tuncer Can and his team veloped by Spencer-Oatey and Stadler and offers a mines how names are simplified and loanwords, the authors address the issue of how to help stu- have developed a course which combines global training structure to apply it to the classroom to mainly from English, are adopted as part of a dents suffering from xenoglossophobia. A key fac- themes where needed but also focuses on local overcome cultural differences. As the author con- brand strategy. She explains the theory of ‘naming’ tor is mindfulness and emotional intelligence, dis- life and experience, discussed in Glocalisation in cludes, the key to successful management of mul- to create an acceptable brand name, looks into the cussing and exploring the psychological factors in- action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series. ticultural classrooms and companies lies in deve- sources of the brand names of a large number of hibiting the student and helping them to reframe The materials set out to teach grammar with refe- loping intercultural effectiveness as a core compe- exporters in the Italian furniture and interior design their view of their language learning ability rein- rence to local lifestyles and put stress on student tence – not just knowing but being able to do. industry, and shows how they simplify their names force their self image as a foreign language user. interaction and language use. The books start with Have you ever used a word or phrase in English using words in everyday use, focusing on one or The authors stress the importance of positive cor- local content and gradually introduce global edu- and asked yourself, ‘Now I wonder where that two key words, sometimes just one, and relying on rective feedback and the avoidance of criticism or cation themes as students advance and their ability came from’? Maurice Cassidy’s review of Simon alliteration and onomatopoeia to create a rhythm sarcastic comments, emphasising the student’s increases. The teacher’s books, instead of spoon- Horobin’s Bagels, bumpf and buses: A day in the and make a product or company name easier to strengths and weakness in a balanced way and feeding teachers with strict lesson plans, encour- life of the English language is a gift for teachers, say and remember. Daria Shevliakova identifies helping them adopt a problem-solving and com- age them to be creative in how they use the teach- students, etymology specialists and indeed anyone four main ways of adapting a company or product municative approach to avoid being locked into ing materials and adapt to the requirements of interested in the origins of popular words and name for international markets and even domestic xenoglossophobia. This is an important contribu- their students’ local environments. Firmly based in phrases. Rather than taking an alphabetical ap- markets, most commonly encountered in Italian: tion to the understanding of foreign language pedagogical theory and good practice, this analy- proach, listing each term in alphabetical order, proper nouns, words and phrases in everyday use, learning and finding out why some students may sis of how to create ‘localised’ teaching materials Horobin groups words and phrases according to abbreviations and geographical names. not be responsive in language learning classes. is both practical and timely. the time of day in which they are most likely to be Many children (and, obviously, adults) suffer Part of the ongoing intercultural debate to this A key issue in modern business is the issue of commonly used. To take just one example, bumpf, from phobias of different school subjects, but in day takes place in schools regarding the creation diversity law and diversity management in organi- meaning irrelevant information or publicity, fits our age of international communication, fear of and use of textbooks. The language textbook in- sations. Diversity law in Europe and in western into the Work chapter. However, the origin is a re-

Educational migration and academic mobility have turned national universities into multi-ethnic and multilingual educational institutions. With international students coming from abroad and a growing number of students from the various regions of Russia, intercultural communication has become a feature of academic practices for both students and teaching staff. The paper addresses culturally determined specifics of academic communication in the multicultural education space of Russian universities. The purpose of the paper is to present the results of research carried out with the aim of defining the types of cultural indices applying classifications suggested by Edward Hall, Geert Hofstede, Fons Trompenaars and Richard Lewis, and analyse the influence of cultural and ethnic specifics on intercultural communication in the university. Imple- mentation of research on the basis of four Russian universities included surveying and interviewing students as well as analysing the results obtained and case analysis. The key findings made it possible to classify and give a detailed description of the cultures of the post-soviet states as well as several regional cultures of Rus- sia with regard to behavioural patterns. The paper further discusses reasons for communicative failures in the classroom, including linguistic barriers, and ways of preventing and overcoming them. The paper argues that awareness of ethnic and cultural specifics helps to break barriers in intercultural communication in the university and streamline the teaching process.

KEYWORDS: intercultural communication, behavioural pattern, survey, interview, communication failure, misunderstanding, cultural barrier

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

1. INTRODUCTION and faculty at the home and international level, World migration processes, including internal although it is yet another form of migration – edu- migration, serve as one of the speciﬁc features of cational, or academic migration (Weaver, 2014). It the 21st century necessitating revision of priorities is important to stress that it is culture as a system in university communication practices. These of concepts, values and behavioural patterns that days, speaking about migration, we often tend to deﬁnes the vector and boundaries of behaviour of forget about academic mobility of both students an individual in a certain environment (Dahl,

© Elena V. Voevoda 2020 10 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 11 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-11-20 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org ference to toilet paper an abbreviation of the origi- gy, linguistics, research into animal behaviour and nal 19th century description of bum fodder, bum child language understanding and use of language, meaning buttocks or a drunk. You can see why Adger supports Noam Chomsky’s 1950s concept bumpf has a derogatory association in English to- of a universal grammar and the principle of Original Research day. ‘Merge’, taking similar words and structures and David Adger’s Language unlimited: The science combining them to produce correct sentences. A behind our most creative power (reviewed by Bar- wide-ranging and fascinating thesis. ry Tomalin in this issue), on the other hand, is As is customary, the issue also comes with re- Intercultural communication in multicultural more for the student or teacher of linguistics but is cent and most relevant news from ICC, EUROLTA education space immensely varied and readable. Its thesis is that all and RUDN University. live beings struggle to make sense of their environ- Training, Language and Culture welcomes by Elena V. Voevoda ment, and the brain itself has a mechanism which contributions in the form of articles, reviews and Elena V. Voevoda Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University) [email protected] allowa them to do this. The book explores human correspondence. Details are available online at Date of submission: 22.02.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 1.06.2020 but also animals’ experience of understanding and rudn.tlcjournal.org. Feel free to contact us at Recommended citation format: Voevoda, E. V. (2020). Intercultural communication in multicultural education space. using language. Covering neuroscience, psycholo- [email protected]. Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 11-20. Doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20

KEYWORDS: intercultural communication, behavioural pattern, survey, interview, communication failure, misunderstanding, cultural barrier

2016; Hall, 1989). Although it is common practice culture, we can assume that a typical high-profile dition of cultural interaction is real intercultural pact on behavioural practices in academic dis- to help international students adapt to the new university has a multi-ethnic student body (Valee- communication based on mutual comprehension course. The cultural specifics of regional diversity education space (Keles, 2013; Coward & Miller, va & Valeeva, 2017; Voevoda et al., 2016). and respect. have seldom or never been studied before (Nau- 2010), preparing home-based students for facing Most Moscow-based universities enrol a sub- As a result of the changes, intercultural commu- mov, 2000). Considering the various aspects of the the cultures represented by their peers from the va- stantial number of students from the post-soviet nication in the modern university has acquired a suggested classifications, it was decided to inter- rious regions of the country and the neighbouring countries (Belarus, Lithuania, Moldova, Ukraine, new aspect – teaching students and the faculty to view students and conduct a questionnaire survey, states is rather an exception than a rule. Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, understand the implications of communication not analyse the results and see how various classifica- Speaking about the problem of exploring re- Tajikistan) and the neighbouring states (Finland, only with foreign students but also with their peers tions can be used for teaching purposes and for fa- gional cultures and putting to use the results ob- China, Mongolia, Iran, Korea, etc.) as well as nu- from the various regions of Russia. A basic precon- cilitating communication between students and tained, Kashima et al. (2004, p. 816) rightfully merous applicants from the regions of Russia. Tra- dition of successful intercultural communication is lecturers in the multicultural education space of point out that ‘although differences in self-concep- ditional historical ties between the countries, low- understanding and interpreting implications. the university. In total, over 280 university stu- tion across cultures have been well researched, re- er tuition fees and the absence of negligible lan- Socio-cultural specifics have a direct impact on dents aged 18-21 were interviewed – from gional differences within a culture have escaped guage barriers attract students to the universities of communication and interaction between students Moscow State Institute of International Relations attention’. They further go on to say that the exis- Russia, especially from the former Soviet as well as between students and teachers. That (MGIMO University), Peoples’ Friendship Univer- ting ‘research tradition has not paid sufficient at- republics. As for the citizens of the country, for concerns behavioural patterns, status and gender sity of Russia (RUDN University), Yesenin Ryazan tention to regional variation within a country. That them getting an education in the central regions of norms, communicative styles, etc. ‘While cultural State University and the State University of Ka- is, there may be regional differences in self-con- the country is not only a matter of prestige but a competence focuses on individual cultural ice- rachay-Cherkessia. That made it possible to ana- ceptions, which could confound the research on break away from regional and ethno-cultural isola- bergs, intercultural competence involves the use of lyse the behavioural communicative practices of culture and self’ (Kashima et al., 2004, p. 817). tion and sometimes isolationism. a horizontal model which can predict what will the respondents and define the types of cultures Hence, ‘in a world that is still fraught with cultural It is often taken for granted that the people from happen when people of different cultures interact they belong to. Among the respondents were re- prejudice it is crucial to help students to see them- the post-soviet states, let alone people from Russia, – when icebergs collide (Weaver, 2014, p. 96-97). presentatives of Caucasian, Central Asian states, selves and others in a manner that will break down will follow the same cultural and behavioural pat- As educational migration cannot be stopped, and Turkey, Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova as well as barriers that have been at the core of such preju- terns, no matter where they work or study. But the internationalisation of university education is on the Russian, Caucasian, Kalmyk, Tatar, Bashkir dice through history’ (Beaven & Borghetti, 2015, situation that used to exist in Soviet universities is the rise, it is necessary to work out strategies for and Yakut cultures of Russia. p. 5). a thing of the past. In the 20th century, university preventing and eliminating communication barri- The research rests on Edward Hall’s theory of Traditionally, universities aimed to prepare stu- staff considered the needs of the average student ers in the multi-ethnic education space of universi- high and low context cultures, Geert Hofstede’s dents for intercultural communication abroad in paying little attention to the cultural factors in edu- ties. theory of cultural dimensions, Fons Trompenaars’ view of further effective professional communica- cation or professional communication. That was Most universities in Russia have plenty of inter- model of national culture differences and the mo- tion (Bücker & Korzilius, 2015), while today, when explained by the common corporate university national students as well as students from the va- del of cross-cultural communication developed by Russia numbers hundreds of multi-ethnic and mul- culture and provided for a unified communication rious regions of the country. Classes are mixed, Richard Lewis. Although Hall, Hofstede and Trom- ticultural companies and organisations both in the model both for the students and the faculty. Today with a multitude of cultures, and teachers never penaars have received criticism in recent decades private and state sectors, it is necessary to train the practice shows that those common social and cul- know where the students come from unless they (Cardon, 2008; McSweeney, 2002), there is no de- personnel for communication within the organisa- tural norms as well as social behavioural patterns ask. Addressing cultural diversity in the classroom nying the fact that they have made a significant tions proper (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, have been replaced with specific cultural and eth- is viewed both as a challenge and an opportunity contribution to communicative studies and their 2012; Sani, 2015). nic traditions. to develop cultural awareness. It is necessary for classifications make sense. The above-mentioned Schools and universities make no exception. Belogurov (2002) speaks about a split in the teachers to overcome the existing cultural stereo- theories were applied to the field research. The Russian Federation can boast a diversity of formerly unified supra-ethnic field and, as a result types. For that matter, it is important to know how ethnic cultures – from minor communities in re- of divergence, the emergence of independent eth- to deal with representatives of various cultures in 3. STUDY AND RESULTS mote towns and villages (Tver Karelians, a Finno- nic fields. The stress is placed on respecting ethno- order to let them feel at ease and achieve better re- 3.1. General observations Ugric ethnic subgroup that migrated from the Ka- cultural originality of students and faculty which sults. The questionnaire contained three parts with relian Isthmus to Central Russia in the mid-17th helps individuals to preserve their cultural identity. 28 questions (in the form of statements), which the century after the Ingrian war) to whole republics Any individual’s behavioural pattern is only one of 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS respondents were asked to answer. The statements (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Kalmykia, Sakha a multitude of psychological typologies and the The research carried out by a group of universi- described characteristics of the selected types of Yakutia, Caucasian republics, etc.). Bearing in existing models of reality, but their knowledge of ty professors and students in 2016-2019 aimed at culture and their applicability to the respondents. mind the cultural diversity of the Russian Federa- other cultures and the practices of co-existence are defining the cultural imperatives of the students in In Part A the students were requested to indicate tion itself with various, and often different types of not the same as they used to be. The essential con- multicultural universities in Russia and their im- their ethnic identity. Part B contained 17 yes/no

12 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 13 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Intercultural communication in multicultural education space Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Elena V. Voevoda questions which addressed the culture types sug- tive and re-active cultures. Questions 5-7 and 9-10 seriously. They value a certain orderliness and do gested by Hall and Hofstede. Their classifications ‘Addressing cultural diversity in the go back to conversation interruptions, punctuality, not like interruptions. Polychronic students will do describe the following indices: high and low con- classroom is viewed both as a challenge the use of gestures and planning (cf.: 5 – In a con- multiple things at the same time. They manage in- text; power distance; collectivist-individualist; fe- and an opportunity to develop cultural versation with my friends, I often / seldom / never terruptions well with a willingness to change plans minine-masculine, and uncertainty avoidance interrupt the speakers; 6 – In class, I often / often and easily. The overwhelming majority of (which was not considered). Out of the seven di- awareness. It is necessary for teachers to seldom / never interrupt my fellow-students; 7 – I students from Russia and the near abroad repre- mensions suggested by Trompenaars, we took only overcome the existing cultural stereotypes. am punctual / not always punctual / never punctu- sent polychronic cultures. two: individualism vs. communitarianism, which For that matter, it is important to know al; 9 – Representatives of my culture gesture a lot / Individualist and collectivist cultures. Students largely overlaps with the collectivist-individualist do very little gesturing / do no gesturing; 10 – Re- belonging to individualist cultures (again Finland indices of the first two authors, and universalism how to deal with representatives of presentatives of my culture stick to the plan / and the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Li- vs. particularism. Part C contained 11 questions various cultures in order to let them feel at change plans easily / make adjustments to plans). thuania) emphasise the priority of individual needs defining the three types of cultural norms specified ease and achieve better results’ In this way, the respondent’s attitude to planning, over group needs. In collectivist cultures the situa- in the model developed by Lewis: linear-active, which first appears in question B-11 is double- tion is just the opposite. These are Russians, multi-active and re-active. ly determined personal qualities as integrity, can- checked in question C-10. Belarusians, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Caucasi- dour and openness – that makes them give an- ans and Transcaucasians, Moldavians, and Central 3.2. Procedure swers that are dictated by their ethnic behavioural 3.3. Findings Asians – Uzbek, Tajik, Turkmen, Kirgiz and Ka- The questionnaire was offered to the respond- patterns. The analysis of the data received as the result of zakh students. It is worth mentioning Yakuts, Bu- ents in paper form, by e-mail and social net- The students’ affiliation with monochronic and the survey made it possible to affiliate the respond- ryats and Kalmyks who have traits both of indivi- working, in Google Forms. polychronic cultures was defined on the basis of ents with the types of cultures given below. dualistic and collectivist cultures. The students who agreed with the statement ‘I answers to questions 4, 9-14 (cf.: 4 – I don’t like High and low power distance cultures. Students speak openly and directly’ were seen as belonging when people interrupt each other in a conversa- 3.3.1. Correlation between typological and of high power distance cultures (Russia and the to low context cultures, while their peers who tion; 9 – I think that every person should be given ethnic cultures majority of the neighbouring states) believe in marked that they used implications, polysemy and an opportunity to express their view, the speaker High and low context cultures. The analysis of strict authority and hierarchy while those represen- hints were ultimately grouped as high context re- should not be interrupted; 10 – I don’t like to be the data received through the survey showed that ting low power distance cultures (Finland and the presentatives. Further on, questions 5-8 double interrupted in the process of any activity; 11 – I students belonging to high context cultures are Baltic states) profess egalitarianism and shared check questions 1-3 and define their cultural affi- usually plan my actions and try to stick to the Russian, Tatar, Bashkir, Yakut, Buryat, Kalmyk, power. This is manifested in the way low power- liation more precisely (cf.: 1 – I speak openly and plan; 12 – I appreciate punctuality; 13 – For me, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Caucasian and Transcauca- distance students (especially international students directly; 2 – I use hints and polysemy in communi- contact with people is more important than punc- sian, Moldavian, and Central Asian. They use from the USA, Canada and France) treat the cation; 3 – My words can be interpreted in diffe- tuality; 14 – I can do several things at a time). It is more symbols and non-verbal cues in communica- teaching staff and administration – without familia- rent ways; 5 – My relatives and friends are fairly evident that the attitude to interruptions indicated tion, meaning is embedded in a situational rity but with a feeling of equal opportunity to ex- talkative, they freely use gestures; 6 – I can inter- in question 4 is double-checked in questions 9-10; context. press their opinions. pret statements with regard to the time and situa- the attitude to punctuality is checked in question Low context culture students are Karelian, Fin- Masculine and feminine cultures. The feminine- tion; 7 – I prefer to give examples supporting my 12 and double-checked in question 13. nish, Latvian, Estonian, Polish. Lithuanians stand masculine dimension describes the extent to viewpoint or the facts I speak about; 8 – I prefer to Affiliation with collectivist or individualist cul- in-between. They assign primary meaning to the which a culture exhibits masculine or feminine at- give evasive answers). Thus, a Kabardian student ture was defined on the basis of the answers to objective communication message and secondary tributes and the extent to which gender distinc- who agrees with statement 1 and disagrees with questions 15-16 (15 – Personal goals are more im- meaning to the context. Russian culture has cer- tions are maintained. Russians, Ukrainians, Bela- statement 2 does not belong to a low context cul- portant to me than group goals; 16 – It is important tain traits of low context culture that is why on the rusians, Caucasians and Transcaucasians, Molda- ture as might be assumed at first glance as the ne- to me what my friends and relatives think about axis of high and low context cultures it stands low- vians, and Central Asians are traditionally mascu- gative reaction to the next six questions (3-8) over- me). Affiliation with high or low power distance er than the cultures of the North Caucasian repub- line, or task-oriented. They recognise the impor- rides the indicators in the first two and gives more culture was checked by question 17 (I find it im- lics. tance of achievement, material possessions, suc- objective information. There may be several rea- portant to maintain good relations with authorities, Monochronic and polychronic cultures. Mono- cess and competitiveness. Finland and the Baltic sons for a positive answer to the first question and even at the expense of sacrificing my own chronic cultures are Finland, Estonia, Latvia and states, being person-oriented, belong to feminine a negative answer to the second one: the majority interests). Lithuania. In Russia, these are Kalmyks, Buryats cultures. of the surveyed Kabardians live in Moscow and Part C of the questionnaire contained 11 multi- and Yakuts. These students prefer to do one thing A mixture of masculine and feminine traits and are influenced by the lower context Russian cul- ple choice questions aimed at defining whether at a time. They are task-oriented, concentrate on traditions is observed in Tatar, Bashkir, Yakut, Bu- ture. Kabardian students appreciate such ethnical- the respondents belong to linear-active, multi-ac- the job at hand and take time commitments very ryat and Kalmyk cultures. Interviews revealed that

14 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 15 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Intercultural communication in multicultural education space Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Elena V. Voevoda questions which addressed the culture types sug- tive and re-active cultures. Questions 5-7 and 9-10 seriously. They value a certain orderliness and do gested by Hall and Hofstede. Their classifications ‘Addressing cultural diversity in the go back to conversation interruptions, punctuality, not like interruptions. Polychronic students will do describe the following indices: high and low con- classroom is viewed both as a challenge the use of gestures and planning (cf.: 5 – In a con- multiple things at the same time. They manage in- text; power distance; collectivist-individualist; fe- and an opportunity to develop cultural versation with my friends, I often / seldom / never terruptions well with a willingness to change plans minine-masculine, and uncertainty avoidance interrupt the speakers; 6 – In class, I often / often and easily. The overwhelming majority of (which was not considered). Out of the seven di- awareness. It is necessary for teachers to seldom / never interrupt my fellow-students; 7 – I students from Russia and the near abroad repre- mensions suggested by Trompenaars, we took only overcome the existing cultural stereotypes. am punctual / not always punctual / never punctu- sent polychronic cultures. two: individualism vs. communitarianism, which For that matter, it is important to know al; 9 – Representatives of my culture gesture a lot / Individualist and collectivist cultures. Students largely overlaps with the collectivist-individualist do very little gesturing / do no gesturing; 10 – Re- belonging to individualist cultures (again Finland indices of the first two authors, and universalism how to deal with representatives of presentatives of my culture stick to the plan / and the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Li- vs. particularism. Part C contained 11 questions various cultures in order to let them feel at change plans easily / make adjustments to plans). thuania) emphasise the priority of individual needs defining the three types of cultural norms specified ease and achieve better results’ In this way, the respondent’s attitude to planning, over group needs. In collectivist cultures the situa- in the model developed by Lewis: linear-active, which first appears in question B-11 is double- tion is just the opposite. These are Russians, multi-active and re-active. ly determined personal qualities as integrity, can- checked in question C-10. Belarusians, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Caucasi- dour and openness – that makes them give an- ans and Transcaucasians, Moldavians, and Central 3.2. Procedure swers that are dictated by their ethnic behavioural 3.3. Findings Asians – Uzbek, Tajik, Turkmen, Kirgiz and Ka- The questionnaire was offered to the respond- patterns. The analysis of the data received as the result of zakh students. It is worth mentioning Yakuts, Bu- ents in paper form, by e-mail and social net- The students’ affiliation with monochronic and the survey made it possible to affiliate the respond- ryats and Kalmyks who have traits both of indivi- working, in Google Forms. polychronic cultures was defined on the basis of ents with the types of cultures given below. dualistic and collectivist cultures. The students who agreed with the statement ‘I answers to questions 4, 9-14 (cf.: 4 – I don’t like High and low power distance cultures. Students speak openly and directly’ were seen as belonging when people interrupt each other in a conversa- 3.3.1. Correlation between typological and of high power distance cultures (Russia and the to low context cultures, while their peers who tion; 9 – I think that every person should be given ethnic cultures majority of the neighbouring states) believe in marked that they used implications, polysemy and an opportunity to express their view, the speaker High and low context cultures. The analysis of strict authority and hierarchy while those represen- hints were ultimately grouped as high context re- should not be interrupted; 10 – I don’t like to be the data received through the survey showed that ting low power distance cultures (Finland and the presentatives. Further on, questions 5-8 double interrupted in the process of any activity; 11 – I students belonging to high context cultures are Baltic states) profess egalitarianism and shared check questions 1-3 and define their cultural affi- usually plan my actions and try to stick to the Russian, Tatar, Bashkir, Yakut, Buryat, Kalmyk, power. This is manifested in the way low power- liation more precisely (cf.: 1 – I speak openly and plan; 12 – I appreciate punctuality; 13 – For me, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Caucasian and Transcauca- distance students (especially international students directly; 2 – I use hints and polysemy in communi- contact with people is more important than punc- sian, Moldavian, and Central Asian. They use from the USA, Canada and France) treat the cation; 3 – My words can be interpreted in diffe- tuality; 14 – I can do several things at a time). It is more symbols and non-verbal cues in communica- teaching staff and administration – without familia- rent ways; 5 – My relatives and friends are fairly evident that the attitude to interruptions indicated tion, meaning is embedded in a situational rity but with a feeling of equal opportunity to ex- talkative, they freely use gestures; 6 – I can inter- in question 4 is double-checked in questions 9-10; context. press their opinions. pret statements with regard to the time and situa- the attitude to punctuality is checked in question Low context culture students are Karelian, Fin- Masculine and feminine cultures. The feminine- tion; 7 – I prefer to give examples supporting my 12 and double-checked in question 13. nish, Latvian, Estonian, Polish. Lithuanians stand masculine dimension describes the extent to viewpoint or the facts I speak about; 8 – I prefer to Affiliation with collectivist or individualist cul- in-between. They assign primary meaning to the which a culture exhibits masculine or feminine at- give evasive answers). Thus, a Kabardian student ture was defined on the basis of the answers to objective communication message and secondary tributes and the extent to which gender distinc- who agrees with statement 1 and disagrees with questions 15-16 (15 – Personal goals are more im- meaning to the context. Russian culture has cer- tions are maintained. Russians, Ukrainians, Bela- statement 2 does not belong to a low context cul- portant to me than group goals; 16 – It is important tain traits of low context culture that is why on the rusians, Caucasians and Transcaucasians, Molda- ture as might be assumed at first glance as the ne- to me what my friends and relatives think about axis of high and low context cultures it stands low- vians, and Central Asians are traditionally mascu- gative reaction to the next six questions (3-8) over- me). Affiliation with high or low power distance er than the cultures of the North Caucasian repub- line, or task-oriented. They recognise the impor- rides the indicators in the first two and gives more culture was checked by question 17 (I find it im- lics. tance of achievement, material possessions, suc- objective information. There may be several rea- portant to maintain good relations with authorities, Monochronic and polychronic cultures. Mono- cess and competitiveness. Finland and the Baltic sons for a positive answer to the first question and even at the expense of sacrificing my own chronic cultures are Finland, Estonia, Latvia and states, being person-oriented, belong to feminine a negative answer to the second one: the majority interests). Lithuania. In Russia, these are Kalmyks, Buryats cultures. of the surveyed Kabardians live in Moscow and Part C of the questionnaire contained 11 multi- and Yakuts. These students prefer to do one thing A mixture of masculine and feminine traits and are influenced by the lower context Russian cul- ple choice questions aimed at defining whether at a time. They are task-oriented, concentrate on traditions is observed in Tatar, Bashkir, Yakut, Bu- ture. Kabardian students appreciate such ethnical- the respondents belong to linear-active, multi-ac- the job at hand and take time commitments very ryat and Kalmyk cultures. Interviews revealed that

14 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 15 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Intercultural communication in multicultural education space Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Elena V. Voevoda senior generation women belonging to these cul- and Central Asian students are multi-active with These cultures are seen as high context, collec- tures seem to be gaining top positions on the Kabardian and Karachi respondents displaying re- tivist, polychronic, masculine and particularist, ‘Teachers often fail to realise that socio-cultural iceberg, the lower part of which is active features. with high power distance and multi-active charac- students’ seemingly unenthusiastic supported by the traditional masculine communi- ter. Although the representatives of the cultures classroom performance is often culturally ty. This new placement of sociocultural priorities 3.3.2. Cultural traits of the post-soviet states concerned are sociable, they avoid straightfor- is now being projected onto their understanding of The cultures of Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova wardness in communication. Instead, they tend to motivated. While preparing the class for a the organisational structure of university adminis- have many common traits: they are high context, be evasive, use implication, and resort to mimicry discussion, the lecturer can hardly expect tration. collectivist, polychronic, masculine, particularist, and gestures to express their attitudes. Punctuality all the students to actively participate in it Universalist and particularist cultures. Russia with high power distance, multi-active with re-ac- and planning do not count for much in their hier- and the rest of the post-soviet states as well as Tur- tive traits. The average representative of these cul- archy of values. In communication, Uzbeks are – that does not depend only and solely on key belong to particularist cultures in which the tures is open and straightforward, which indicates less patient than the representatives of the other the student’s readiness for the class, but bonds of particular relationships are stronger than their affiliation with low context culture. But at the Central Asian states, supporting an interactive con- mostly on the culturally determined abstract rules. In Russia, the majority of the popu- same time, they often use hints and implications, versation they can interrupt the speakers. Central communicative practice and ethnic lation, including students, considers that rules can which indicates high context. They joke, use meta- Asian cultures profess social hierarchy and respect be bent and laws can be broken. A popular phrase phors, their actions are spontaneous and action for their elders. Education is teacher-oriented and cultural practices’ describing their attitude to law is ‘it all depends’. It planning is approximate. Punctuality runs second science is focused on the founders of scientific is alarming that a number of students interviewed in importance to interpersonal relationships. schools and heads of research institutions that are tural stratum of a modern university. In this admit that speeding is a negligible breach of rules: Group goals are valued higher than personal formally recognised. respect, one of the guidelines is the illustrious ‘rules are made to be broken’ seems to a popular goals. Cultures of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and phrase: ‘When you get your ‘Who am I?’ question phrase. Their ‘universalist opponents’ from Fin- Azerbaijani culture is high context, collectivist, Lithuania) are considerably different from the rest right, all of your ‘What should I do?’ questions land, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania believe in law polychronic, masculine and particularist, with of the cultures described. They may be described tend to take care of themselves’ (Rohr, 2011, p. and order and tend to follow the rules, no matter high power distance. But unlike the cultures of as low context, monochronic, individualist, femi- 31). The lecturer should be able to consider the what the situation suggests. Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova it is re-active. Azer- nine and low power distance. Latvian culture is cultural specifics of students, especially their be- Linear-active, multi-active, re-active cultures. baijanis are sociable and loquacious, they are apt described as linear-active, while Estonian and Li- longing to a certain context and ethnic culture. But Considering Lewis’s (2019) tripartite division of to resort to the use of gestures and implications – thuanian cultures, although also linear-active, it is equally important to remember that teaching cultural categories, we see that linear-active stu- metaphors, polysemy, shared texts. They prefer to have re-active traits. is a two-way process – ‘the teacher also brings a dents, punctual good planners do one thing at a give indirect rejections so as not to hurt the inter- range of diversity issues to the classroom’ (Du time. Their body language is often restrained. Un- locutor. That eventually may lead to misinterpreta- 3.4. Limitations Plessis & Bisschoff, 2007, p. 246) as they belong to like the first type, the talkative, unrestrained multi- tion of their intentions. Azerbaijanis are impulsive, The research group needs to further examine certain types of cultures and manifest their specific actives feel comfortable doing several things at a they easily change plans and are not always punc- gender characteristics and carry out a more repre- characteristics in intercultural communication. In time and appreciate relationship rather than punctual. sentative sample survey in each of the ethnic the multicultural education space of modern uni- tuality. Rather a small sample does not make it possible groups. It is also worthwhile to give more detailed versities, it is important ‘to look at how partici- Re-active students are good listeners who see to give reliable data on Georgian, Armenian and and profound correlations between diverse ethnic pants respond to teaching contents, materials and statements as promises and thus place priority on Turkmen cultures. The information received in in- cultures and their typological characteristics, with methodologies’ (Borghetti & Beaven, 2018, p. 37), courtesy and respect. That is particularly evident terviews allows us to assume that these cultures more detailed criteria. to work out strategies and tactics of interaction in the classroom: promises are not to be broken are high context, collectivist, polychronic, mascu- between students and teachers which will help to and respectful behaviour is expected of both the line and particularist. Armenians are more taciturn 4. DISCUSSION facilitate communication and prevent misunder- students and the teachers. than Georgians and are more apt to follow ethnic How can the obtained data be applied to orga- standing. Teachers often fail to realise that Latvian students are primarily linear-active, traditions. nising the teaching process in a university? The de- students’ seemingly unenthusiastic classroom per- while the students coming from Finland, Estonia The cultures of Central Asian states (Uzbekis- scription of cultural specifics of students’ cultures formance is often culturally motivated. While pre- and Lithuania, being basically linear-active, have tan, Kirghizstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Ka- helped draw conclusions about the possible comparing the class for a discussion, the lecturer can traits of re-active culture. Russian, Ukrainian, Bela- zakhstan) have very much in common due to their munication failures and conflicts in the classroom hardly expect all the students to actively partici- rusian, and Moldavian students are multi-active geographical position, historical past and the lin- (Lukešová, 2015) and make recommendations on pate in it – that does not depend only and solely with re-active traits. Armenians, Tatars, Bashkirs, guistic similarity of their languages (with the ex- how to prevent them. But what is more important, on the student’s readiness for the class, but mostly Buryats and Yakuts are re-active, although Tatars ception of Tajik), which have always promoted ac- it helps educators facilitate and control intercultu- on the culturally determined communicative prac- have traits of multi-active culture. Most Caucasian tive regional contacts and cultural exchange. ral communication and interaction in the multicul- tice and ethnic cultural practices.

16 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 17 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Intercultural communication in multicultural education space Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Elena V. Voevoda senior generation women belonging to these cul- and Central Asian students are multi-active with These cultures are seen as high context, collec- tures seem to be gaining top positions on the Kabardian and Karachi respondents displaying re- tivist, polychronic, masculine and particularist, ‘Teachers often fail to realise that socio-cultural iceberg, the lower part of which is active features. with high power distance and multi-active charac- students’ seemingly unenthusiastic supported by the traditional masculine communi- ter. Although the representatives of the cultures classroom performance is often culturally ty. This new placement of sociocultural priorities 3.3.2. Cultural traits of the post-soviet states concerned are sociable, they avoid straightfor- is now being projected onto their understanding of The cultures of Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova wardness in communication. Instead, they tend to motivated. While preparing the class for a the organisational structure of university adminis- have many common traits: they are high context, be evasive, use implication, and resort to mimicry discussion, the lecturer can hardly expect tration. collectivist, polychronic, masculine, particularist, and gestures to express their attitudes. Punctuality all the students to actively participate in it Universalist and particularist cultures. Russia with high power distance, multi-active with re-ac- and planning do not count for much in their hier- and the rest of the post-soviet states as well as Tur- tive traits. The average representative of these cul- archy of values. In communication, Uzbeks are – that does not depend only and solely on key belong to particularist cultures in which the tures is open and straightforward, which indicates less patient than the representatives of the other the student’s readiness for the class, but bonds of particular relationships are stronger than their affiliation with low context culture. But at the Central Asian states, supporting an interactive con- mostly on the culturally determined abstract rules. In Russia, the majority of the popu- same time, they often use hints and implications, versation they can interrupt the speakers. Central communicative practice and ethnic lation, including students, considers that rules can which indicates high context. They joke, use meta- Asian cultures profess social hierarchy and respect be bent and laws can be broken. A popular phrase phors, their actions are spontaneous and action for their elders. Education is teacher-oriented and cultural practices’ describing their attitude to law is ‘it all depends’. It planning is approximate. Punctuality runs second science is focused on the founders of scientific is alarming that a number of students interviewed in importance to interpersonal relationships. schools and heads of research institutions that are tural stratum of a modern university. In this admit that speeding is a negligible breach of rules: Group goals are valued higher than personal formally recognised. respect, one of the guidelines is the illustrious ‘rules are made to be broken’ seems to a popular goals. Cultures of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and phrase: ‘When you get your ‘Who am I?’ question phrase. Their ‘universalist opponents’ from Fin- Azerbaijani culture is high context, collectivist, Lithuania) are considerably different from the rest right, all of your ‘What should I do?’ questions land, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania believe in law polychronic, masculine and particularist, with of the cultures described. They may be described tend to take care of themselves’ (Rohr, 2011, p. and order and tend to follow the rules, no matter high power distance. But unlike the cultures of as low context, monochronic, individualist, femi- 31). The lecturer should be able to consider the what the situation suggests. Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova it is re-active. Azer- nine and low power distance. Latvian culture is cultural specifics of students, especially their be- Linear-active, multi-active, re-active cultures. baijanis are sociable and loquacious, they are apt described as linear-active, while Estonian and Li- longing to a certain context and ethnic culture. But Considering Lewis’s (2019) tripartite division of to resort to the use of gestures and implications – thuanian cultures, although also linear-active, it is equally important to remember that teaching cultural categories, we see that linear-active stu- metaphors, polysemy, shared texts. They prefer to have re-active traits. is a two-way process – ‘the teacher also brings a dents, punctual good planners do one thing at a give indirect rejections so as not to hurt the inter- range of diversity issues to the classroom’ (Du time. Their body language is often restrained. Un- locutor. That eventually may lead to misinterpreta- 3.4. Limitations Plessis & Bisschoff, 2007, p. 246) as they belong to like the first type, the talkative, unrestrained multi- tion of their intentions. Azerbaijanis are impulsive, The research group needs to further examine certain types of cultures and manifest their specific actives feel comfortable doing several things at a they easily change plans and are not always punc- gender characteristics and carry out a more repre- characteristics in intercultural communication. In time and appreciate relationship rather than punctual. sentative sample survey in each of the ethnic the multicultural education space of modern uni- tuality. Rather a small sample does not make it possible groups. It is also worthwhile to give more detailed versities, it is important ‘to look at how partici- Re-active students are good listeners who see to give reliable data on Georgian, Armenian and and profound correlations between diverse ethnic pants respond to teaching contents, materials and statements as promises and thus place priority on Turkmen cultures. The information received in in- cultures and their typological characteristics, with methodologies’ (Borghetti & Beaven, 2018, p. 37), courtesy and respect. That is particularly evident terviews allows us to assume that these cultures more detailed criteria. to work out strategies and tactics of interaction in the classroom: promises are not to be broken are high context, collectivist, polychronic, mascu- between students and teachers which will help to and respectful behaviour is expected of both the line and particularist. Armenians are more taciturn 4. DISCUSSION facilitate communication and prevent misunder- students and the teachers. than Georgians and are more apt to follow ethnic How can the obtained data be applied to orga- standing. Teachers often fail to realise that Latvian students are primarily linear-active, traditions. nising the teaching process in a university? The de- students’ seemingly unenthusiastic classroom per- while the students coming from Finland, Estonia The cultures of Central Asian states (Uzbekis- scription of cultural specifics of students’ cultures formance is often culturally motivated. While pre- and Lithuania, being basically linear-active, have tan, Kirghizstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Ka- helped draw conclusions about the possible comparing the class for a discussion, the lecturer can traits of re-active culture. Russian, Ukrainian, Bela- zakhstan) have very much in common due to their munication failures and conflicts in the classroom hardly expect all the students to actively partici- rusian, and Moldavian students are multi-active geographical position, historical past and the lin- (Lukešová, 2015) and make recommendations on pate in it – that does not depend only and solely with re-active traits. Armenians, Tatars, Bashkirs, guistic similarity of their languages (with the ex- how to prevent them. But what is more important, on the student’s readiness for the class, but mostly Buryats and Yakuts are re-active, although Tatars ception of Tajik), which have always promoted ac- it helps educators facilitate and control intercultu- on the culturally determined communicative prac- have traits of multi-active culture. Most Caucasian tive regional contacts and cultural exchange. ral communication and interaction in the multicul- tice and ethnic cultural practices.

International students and a significant percen- things in time. Multi-active students feel comfort- to let other students copy their homework or test, tage of regional students have to adapt to studying ‘A multi-active and polychronic teacher able doing several things at a time (alas, the majo- and that may lead to misunderstanding and even in the atmosphere of multilingualism: their mother may think that a linear-active student is rity of the author’s students), they appreciate rela- conflicts in the class. As Russians profess particu- tongue, Russian as the language of instruction and not ready for the class while the situation tionship rather than punctuality and seldom meet larism (mearning that rules can be altered or bro- one or two foreign languages as part of the curric- the deadlines. ken if necessary), they find it difficult and even ulum. In the post-soviet states, Russian is taught as is easily explained in terms of cultural When a polychronic teacher asks the students funny to learn that the Russian word списывать a foreign language, with the exception of Belarus psychology – the student is unwilling to to answer their homework one by one in a lan- has no English equivalent. and Kazakhstan. Students coming from the post- stand out from the crowd and is waiting guage class and tells the rest of the class to do Representatives of all Russia’s cultures that soviet states and the regions of Russia speak in another exercise at the same time, monochronics were considered in the study profess high power mother-tongues belonging to several language fa- for their turn to speak’ will feel frustrated. distance and tend to treat their elders and adminis- milies: Indo-European (Belarusian, Ukrainian, Communication practices can be determined tration with respect. That is why the staff are often Moldavian, Lithuanian, Latvian), Turkic (Azerbai- teractive and will eagerly participate in a lively by ethnic cultural rules of behaviour as well. A fe- revered. They respect other people’s social status, jani, Uzbek, Kirgiz, Turkmen, Kazakh, Tatar, Bash- discussion. Bashkirs, Yakuts, Kalmyks maintain mi- male student from one of the Caucasian republics obey their bosses and do not question what the kir, Yakut, etc.), Uralic (Estonian), Mongolian (Kal- nimal eye contact, tend to answer direct questions refused to answer in seminars and was nearing teacher says. For them, education is teacher-orien- myk, Buryat), and Caucasian languages embracing and show no desire to develop situations, for ex- mid-term failure. When the teacher asked her for ted. That is why, the students expect the teacher to three language families. Coupled with the foreign ample, in a language class. an explanation after classes she said that in their assess their knowledge and grade the answers. languages traditionally learned at school and uni- A multi-active and polychronic teacher may culture young women were not supposed to speak Low power distance cultures consider education versity, students have a combination of grammati- think that a linear-active student is not ready for publicly in the presence of unfamiliar men – her as student-oriented. That is why the students ex- cally different languages to learn – synthetic, ana- the class while the situation is easily explained in fellow-students. The problem was that she had pect the teacher to teach them critical thinking lytical and agglutinative. terms of cultural psychology – the student is un- chosen a public profession. While working in pairs and ask for their opinion while assessing knowl- The process of communication in a language willing to stand out from the crowd and is waiting or in small groups, Caucasian students tend to edge is seen as a hindrance to creativity (Kahl, different from the mother-tongues is a complicated for their turn to speak. The author taught a Kalmyk seek leadership. If there are two or more Cauca- 2013, p. 2611). Thus, cultural classifications and process which involves information perception, student who never volunteered to answer or parti- sian male students in the class, there may be a psychology do not only describe the two existing decoding, processing and then encoding the re- cipate in a classroom discussion. But when asked, conflict of interests. A first-year Chechen male stu- models of teacher-student relationship, but show sponse. More often than not, international students he always spoke readily and coherently – looking dent was genuinely bewildered and frustrated that the teacher-oriented model is a culturally de- who are not proficient enough in Russian find it sideways. The same student failed to speak about when three female students got higher grades for termined phenomenon and not the heritage of ‘to- difficult to follow the lecturer. Trying not to ‘lose health and illnesses (a regular topic for discussion the first-in-term test. He was a well brought up talitarian regime’ as it is sometimes claimed to be. face’ they refrain from asking the lecturer or their in the language class) because a Kalmyk male is young man but his academic success ran contrary peers for help and finally show poor learning out- not supposed to speak about ailments. Speaking to his social and gender status as he perceived it. 5. CONCLUSION comes. In the language class, the situation gets about wealth, success and plans for the future is The fact that his academic status turned out to be It is evident that cultural differences may lead even more difficult when they face translation also avoided in Kalmyk culture. lower than his social status led to an inner perso- to misunderstanding between communicants. In from one language into another. At the primary Yakut, Kalmyk and Bashkir students are com- nal cultural conflict as he was not ready to face certain cases, the cultural clash may create barri- stage, the process usually involves deciphering the monly less talkative than Tatar and Caucasian stu- this socio-cultural challenge. This is a mixture of ers in academic communication and provoke in- phrase into the mother-tongue and then into one dents. Kazakh students resort to subtle and allego- how masculine culture, ethnic practices and gen- tercultural conflicts between students as well as of the foreign languages under study. ric criticism. Uzbeks are more easy-going and ac- der roles manifest themselves in the classroom. misunderstanding between students and lecturers. Besides linguistic difficulties, students’ perform- tive than Turkmen and Tajiks. It is impossible for Individualist culture students prefer to work at The success of teacher-student relationships in the ance in the classroom is seriously affected by eth- representatives of many Central Asian cultures to their own projects, while collectivist cultures are multicultural space of modern university is largely nic and culturally determined behavioural pat- lose face: Uzbeks take it hard when they are pub- prone to develop the project in a team. More often determined by the teacher’s readiness to consider terns. licly criticised, for example, when they get a low than not, an ‘individualist’ student will refrain from the characteristics of cross-cultural psychology. It Linear-active and monochronic Bashkirs, Ya- grade. speaking first, thinking that others will do it more is hardly possible that teachers should be aware of kuts, Kalmyks, Central Asian, Latvian, Estonian stu- Linear-active students (Latvia, Poland) tend to eagerly (Barieva, 2017, p. 301). If the lecturer asks all the subtleties of various cultures, but in the dents, usually wait for their turn to speak and ex- plan their projects and write term papers in ad- a Kalmyk and a Moldavian to work at a project to- multi-ethnic education space it is imperative to expect the teacher to ask them to do so. Otherwise vance. They are punctual and meet the deadlines. gether, they may find the situation uneasy and the pose the faculty to the types and specifics of the they will refrain from speaking in class. For them, But during the examination period it is more diffi- result will be less effective, if not a complete fail- cultures students belong to in order to prevent a discussion is an exchange of monologues. At the cult for linear-active students to cope with several ure. Individualist culture students, often with traits communication failures. That will help to break same time, Lithuanians and Uzbeks are more in- subjects at a time. Re-active cultures usually do of high universalism (dura lex sed lex), will refuse barriers and promote intercultural communication.

18 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 19 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Intercultural communication in multicultural education space Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Elena V. Voevoda

18 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 19 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-21-30 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org

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Barieva, K. R. (2017). Multiculturalism in education: self: Are there within-culture differences in self Barriers of communicative creativity in the case between metropolitan areas and regional cities? Original Research of nonresident and foreign students in group Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(7), training tasks solving. Procedia – Social and 816-823. Doi: 10.1177/0146167203261997 Behavioral Sciences, 237, 299-304. Doi: Keles, Y. (2013). What intercultural communication 10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.081 barriers do exchange students of Erasmus Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English Beaven, A., & Borghetti, C. (2015). Intercultural Program have during their stay in Turkey, Mugla? education resources for Erasmus students and Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist their teachers. Koper: Annales University Press. 1513-1524. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.219 Belogurov, A. Ju. (2002). Ethnogenesis and the national- Lewis, R. D. (2019). The cultural imperative: Global terminology and-regional component. Higher Education in trends in the 21st century. Training, Language by Alla G. Sokolova Russia, 6, 34-38. and Culture, 3(3), 8-20. Doi: Borghetti, C., & Beaven, A. (2018). Monitoring class 10.29366/2019tlc.3.3.1 Alla G. Sokolova Moscow State University of Civil Engineering [email protected] interaction to maximise intercultural learning in Lukešová, M. (2015). The analysis of intercultural Date of submission: 13.02.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 28.05.2020 mobility contexts. In J. Jackson & S. Oguro (Eds.), conflicts between students of tertiary education. Recommended citation format: Sokolova, A. G. (2020). Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English Intercultural interventions in study abroad (pp. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology. Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 21-30. Doi: 37-54). New York: Routledge. 1457-1464. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.775 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Bücker, J., & Korzilius, H. (2015). Developing cultural McSweeney, B. (2002). Hofstede’s model of national intelligence: Assessing the effect of the Ecotonos cultural differences and their consequences: A The English language has enriched Italian with numerous words and expressions that complement existing cultural simulation game for international triumph of faith – a failure of analysis. Human Italian lexis. Many linguists perceive the extent of English influence as a potentially overwhelming and dan- business students. The International Journal of Relations, 55(1), 89-117. Doi: gerous tendency. However, the percentage of English lexis in Italian remains relatively low if compared to Human Resource Management, 26(15), 10.1177/0018726702551004 the language’s overall structure and is noticeable mostly in the sphere of politics, pop culture, mass media, 1995-2014. Naumov, A. I., & Puffer, Sh. M. (2000). Measuring journalism, sport and tourism. Borrowing is regarded as one of the major means of enriching language voca- Cardon, P. W. (2008). A critique of Hall’s contexting Russian culture using Hofstede’s dimensions. bulary that often engulfs foreign elements in its structural patterns. The adaptation process incorporates the model. Journal of Business and Technical Applied Psychology: An International Review, borrowed structure as a natural part of the borrowing language. This study attempts to examine and exem- Communication, 22(4), 399-428. Doi: 49(4), 709-718. Doi: 10.1111/1464-0597.00041 plify in chronological order the progressive development of such an influence demonstrating modifications 10.1177/1050651908320361 Rohr, R. (2011). Falling upward: A spirituality for the and nomenclature of English loanwords in the qualitative and quantitative aspects. The key findings are ex- Coward, F. L., & Miller, P. Ch. (2010). Navigating the two halves of life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. emplified by contemporary tourist terminology. graduate seminar discussion: A qualitative Sani, S. (2015). The profession and the roles of the analysis of international students’ experiences. intercultural mediator in Italy. Procedia – Social KEYWORDS: Anglicism, borrowing, loanword, italianisation, substitution, calque, false friends International Journal of Communication, 4, and Behavioral Sciences, 191, 2546-2548. Doi: 1013-1031. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.04.286 This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Dahl, Ø. (2016). Human encounters: Introduction to Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (2012). Riding which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is intercultural communication. Oxford: Peter Lang. the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in properly cited (CC BY 4.0) Du Plessis, P., & Bisschoff, T. (2007). Diversity and global business. New York: McGraw Hill. complexity in the classroom: Valuing racial and Valeeva, R., & Valeeva, A. (2017). Intercultural 1. INTRODUCTION replace an existing or pre-existing Italian word. cultural diversity. Educational Research and education from Russian researches perspective. This paper attempts to analyse the impact of the When a target language attempts to assimilate Review, 2(9), 245-254. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 237, English language on Italian both in the linguistic terms and expressions in order to bridge a seman- Hall, E. T. (1989). Beyond culture. New York: Anchor 1564-1571. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2017.02.246 perception and the influence of Anglo-American tic or lexical gap, borrowing out of necessity is Books Editions. Voevoda, E. V., Pavlenko, D. A., & Shagardinova E. culture on the modern Italian language and commonly applied out of neccesity. This usually Kahl, D. H., Jr. (2013). Critical communication (2016). Behavioural imperatives in the pedagogy and assessment: Reconciling two multicultural education space. Secondary society. Borrowing from a foreign language occurs happens when a new object or a concept is intro- seemingly incongruous Ideas. International Professional Education, 10, 52-55. either out of necessity or luxury, with the purpose duced from another culture, language or country. Journal of Communication, 7, 2610-2630. Weaver, G. (2014). Intercultural relations. of filling semantic or lexical gaps (lacunas) in the For example, most IT words used in contemporary Kashima, Y., Kokubo T., Kashima, E. S., Boxall, D., Communication, identity and conflict. Boston, target language. Some of the borrowed terms do Italian or sport-related lexis originated from foreign Yamaguchi, S., & Macrae, K. (2004). Culture and MA: Pearson Learning Solutions. not have a corresponding word in the Italian lan- countries. On the other hand, borrowing as a luxu- guage, while the majority exhibits the tendency to ry may be applied to the words and expressions

© Alla G. Sokolova 2020 20 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 21 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-21-30 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 11-20 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org

References

© Alla G. Sokolova 2020 20 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 21 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova from a foreign language or culture though the tar- The previous studies have also shown that the ken mainly in the Italian peninsula, San Marino, In the 14th century, domination of the Tuscan get language already has equivalent terms perfect- patterns of English borrowing in contemporary Corsica, Sicily, the southern part of Switzerland, in dialect in the Italian language was observed due to ly expressing the same concept, e.g. words such as written Italian vary on a regional basis and give a the north of Sardinia, part of Croatia, and due to Tuscany’s central position and the aggressive com- weekend, display, babysitter, manager are widely picture of their geographical distribution (Asnaghi, the 20th century immigration wave, in North and merce carried out by Florence, its most significant used instead of their Italian equivalents fine setti- 2017, p. 128). South America, though the Italian-speaking com- and influential city. More to say, the Tuscan mana, schermo, bambinaia and dirigente, corre- The effect of English can be noticed on a syn- munity there is not very numerous. dialect, out of all the Italian dialects, retains the spondingly. Lately, there has been observed an tactic level as well, especially in certain areas such Italian could be seen as a direct offspring of the greatest resemblance to morphology and phonolo- ever-growing trend in excessive unjustified use of as the economy and business. Syntactic changes Latin language obviously imposed by the Romans gy with the classical Latin language, synchronising English borrowings in contemporary Italian, in par- are most vividly manifested in casual youth jargon, throughout their dominion. However, despite its best with the Italian traditions of Latin culture. ticular among government officials, ministers and everyday conversations and media. Anglicisms are similarity with other Romance languages, Italian Eventually, Florentine heritage gave the world cul- experts at various levels of authority. They uncere- thoughtfully picked to attract the attention of the has the strongest resemblance to Latin of all the ture Dante Alighieri, Petrarch and Boccaccio, who moniously use the words like review, jobs act, de- readers, viewers or listeners in the spheres of mar- major Romance languages. Following the reunifi- best summed up the Italian culture and thought of volution, spending or stepchild adoption when keting and journalism, while the greatest influence cation of Italy in 1861, Italian is regarded as one the early Renaissance period. these terms can be clearly expressed by the Italian is clearly observed in politics, technology, science, language comprising many different dialects that La Questione della Lingua, or the ‘question of words revisione, legge sul lavoro, devoluzione, sport, tourism and culture. To sum up, English have sprung up during its long language evolution. the language’, engrossed writers of all persuasions adozione de figlio, respectively (Burke, 2006, p. lexis could be found in all social Italian strata, Throughout its history, the diversity of dialects has in their attempt to codify the language and to es- 108). which makes the English language the most influ- always presented a difficulty when selecting a par- tablish linguistic norms. During the 15th and 16th To introduce the topic and give a social, cultu- ential as a source of borrowing. ticular version reflecting the entire peninsula in its centuries, grammarians conferred upon the syntax, ral and political background of the linguistic ex- cultural entity. In the 10th century, the earliest vocabulary and pronunciation of the Tuscan change between English and Italian languages, we 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS written documents were produced in dialects, and dialect the status of classic Italian speech. Finally, commence our study with the coverage of the in- The object of the study is Anglicisms (borrowed throughout subsequent centuries, this tendency this classical approach has been widened to insert terlanguage contact in historical perspective. To or loan words) and lexical neologisms with the has prevailed and has created a number of litera- some organic changes inevitable in a living tongue give a general overview, the profound exposure to borrowed elements that are widespread in the ture schools competing in their skills in native and has not converted Italian into another dead the English language commenced after World War lexis of the Italian tourist industry. The main sour- dialects. language. Compromises between classical purism II, and has led to the expansion of the Italian voca- ces of material are the official Italian website on The English language, as an effective mediator, and living Tuscan usage were successfully imple- bulary as well as syntactic changes in economic tourism, the websites of Italian travel agents, travel has not only produced ‘native’ English words dif- mented in the dictionaries and publications of the and business spheres. sections of the online version of the Italian periodi- fused into Italian, but also created some foreign- year 1583. However, the most important literary This paper tries to examine and exemplify in cal La Repubblica, travel online resource Tripadvi- isms and lexical items, i.e. terms used by the inha- event of that time did not occur in Florence but in chronological order the progressive development sor, the corpus of Italian language, as well as the bitants of the former British colonies, neologisms Venice. Influenced by the creations of the modern of such an influence demonstrating modifications course book La Guida Turistica by Giorgio Castol- retaining Greek and Latin morphology and roots, classics of Petrarch and Boccaccio, the Venetian, and nomenclature of English loanwords in their di (Castoldi, 2012) recommended for the under- and – last but not least – internationalisms. English Pietro Bembo (1470-1547), set out his proposals qualitative and quantitative aspects. graduate students majoring in tourism. This materi- also served as a productive and fertile source of (Prose della volgar lingua) for standardisation of From the linguistic perspective, the starting al was used to analyse Anglicisms in contempora- new borrowings thanks to the surrounding linguis- the language and style. point is to make a comparative analysis of both ry Italian tourism terminology, and the peculiari- tic policy and the unique structure of English voca- With the course of time, promotion of the re- languages in terms of phonological and writing ties of their phonetic, orthographic and morpholo- bulary. gional variant originated in Florence by famous systems. Speaking of the morphological level, the gical assimilation. Evaluation and analysis of the During many centuries, English has continued scholars, academicians and poets has led to con- study considers the additions brought into Italian data were backed by quantitative methods of re- the adoption and assimilation of words from di- structing a language common for the Italian territo- lexis mainly through borrowing, paying further at- search that helped present systematically the infor- verse languages and has been always prone to ex- ries. That is exactly the language we know today tention to the process of loanword incorporation, mation obtained. ternal impact, predominantly French and Latin. as standard Italian or Italiano Standard, i.e. the where applicable. Lexical blending in Italian could The presence of Romance elements in English is language created by the classical poets and scho- be seen as a conscious wordplay comprising on- 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND also essential and cannot be neglected. Vulgar La- lars for establishing, unifying and synchronising going processes of contact-induced language 3.1. English-Italian language contact in its his- tin, a form of spoken Latin, with the course of grammar rules. Despite its roots in Vulgar Latin, change. The numerous forms of blending include torical overview time, evolved into the Italian language, however, standard Italian is considered a fully-fledged lan- borrowings, adaptations, hybrid blends, pseudo- Linguistically speaking, the Italian language is numerous regional variants of the vulgar speech guage of literature and the arts and then a national Anglicisms, foreign-sounding word formations, considered a member of the Italic subfamily of the have developed into the vast number of Italian language following the consolidation of different and others (Görlach, 2001, p. 35). Romance group, i.e. it is a romance language, spo- dialects existing nowadays. states of the Italian peninsula into the Kingdom of

22 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 23 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova from a foreign language or culture though the tar- The previous studies have also shown that the ken mainly in the Italian peninsula, San Marino, In the 14th century, domination of the Tuscan get language already has equivalent terms perfect- patterns of English borrowing in contemporary Corsica, Sicily, the southern part of Switzerland, in dialect in the Italian language was observed due to ly expressing the same concept, e.g. words such as written Italian vary on a regional basis and give a the north of Sardinia, part of Croatia, and due to Tuscany’s central position and the aggressive com- weekend, display, babysitter, manager are widely picture of their geographical distribution (Asnaghi, the 20th century immigration wave, in North and merce carried out by Florence, its most significant used instead of their Italian equivalents fine setti- 2017, p. 128). South America, though the Italian-speaking com- and influential city. More to say, the Tuscan mana, schermo, bambinaia and dirigente, corre- The effect of English can be noticed on a syn- munity there is not very numerous. dialect, out of all the Italian dialects, retains the spondingly. Lately, there has been observed an tactic level as well, especially in certain areas such Italian could be seen as a direct offspring of the greatest resemblance to morphology and phonolo- ever-growing trend in excessive unjustified use of as the economy and business. Syntactic changes Latin language obviously imposed by the Romans gy with the classical Latin language, synchronising English borrowings in contemporary Italian, in par- are most vividly manifested in casual youth jargon, throughout their dominion. However, despite its best with the Italian traditions of Latin culture. ticular among government officials, ministers and everyday conversations and media. Anglicisms are similarity with other Romance languages, Italian Eventually, Florentine heritage gave the world cul- experts at various levels of authority. They uncere- thoughtfully picked to attract the attention of the has the strongest resemblance to Latin of all the ture Dante Alighieri, Petrarch and Boccaccio, who moniously use the words like review, jobs act, de- readers, viewers or listeners in the spheres of mar- major Romance languages. Following the reunifi- best summed up the Italian culture and thought of volution, spending or stepchild adoption when keting and journalism, while the greatest influence cation of Italy in 1861, Italian is regarded as one the early Renaissance period. these terms can be clearly expressed by the Italian is clearly observed in politics, technology, science, language comprising many different dialects that La Questione della Lingua, or the ‘question of words revisione, legge sul lavoro, devoluzione, sport, tourism and culture. To sum up, English have sprung up during its long language evolution. the language’, engrossed writers of all persuasions adozione de figlio, respectively (Burke, 2006, p. lexis could be found in all social Italian strata, Throughout its history, the diversity of dialects has in their attempt to codify the language and to es- 108). which makes the English language the most influ- always presented a difficulty when selecting a par- tablish linguistic norms. During the 15th and 16th To introduce the topic and give a social, cultu- ential as a source of borrowing. ticular version reflecting the entire peninsula in its centuries, grammarians conferred upon the syntax, ral and political background of the linguistic ex- cultural entity. In the 10th century, the earliest vocabulary and pronunciation of the Tuscan change between English and Italian languages, we 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS written documents were produced in dialects, and dialect the status of classic Italian speech. Finally, commence our study with the coverage of the in- The object of the study is Anglicisms (borrowed throughout subsequent centuries, this tendency this classical approach has been widened to insert terlanguage contact in historical perspective. To or loan words) and lexical neologisms with the has prevailed and has created a number of litera- some organic changes inevitable in a living tongue give a general overview, the profound exposure to borrowed elements that are widespread in the ture schools competing in their skills in native and has not converted Italian into another dead the English language commenced after World War lexis of the Italian tourist industry. The main sour- dialects. language. Compromises between classical purism II, and has led to the expansion of the Italian voca- ces of material are the official Italian website on The English language, as an effective mediator, and living Tuscan usage were successfully imple- bulary as well as syntactic changes in economic tourism, the websites of Italian travel agents, travel has not only produced ‘native’ English words dif- mented in the dictionaries and publications of the and business spheres. sections of the online version of the Italian periodi- fused into Italian, but also created some foreign- year 1583. However, the most important literary This paper tries to examine and exemplify in cal La Repubblica, travel online resource Tripadvi- isms and lexical items, i.e. terms used by the inha- event of that time did not occur in Florence but in chronological order the progressive development sor, the corpus of Italian language, as well as the bitants of the former British colonies, neologisms Venice. Influenced by the creations of the modern of such an influence demonstrating modifications course book La Guida Turistica by Giorgio Castol- retaining Greek and Latin morphology and roots, classics of Petrarch and Boccaccio, the Venetian, and nomenclature of English loanwords in their di (Castoldi, 2012) recommended for the under- and – last but not least – internationalisms. English Pietro Bembo (1470-1547), set out his proposals qualitative and quantitative aspects. graduate students majoring in tourism. This materi- also served as a productive and fertile source of (Prose della volgar lingua) for standardisation of From the linguistic perspective, the starting al was used to analyse Anglicisms in contempora- new borrowings thanks to the surrounding linguis- the language and style. point is to make a comparative analysis of both ry Italian tourism terminology, and the peculiari- tic policy and the unique structure of English voca- With the course of time, promotion of the re- languages in terms of phonological and writing ties of their phonetic, orthographic and morpholo- bulary. gional variant originated in Florence by famous systems. Speaking of the morphological level, the gical assimilation. Evaluation and analysis of the During many centuries, English has continued scholars, academicians and poets has led to con- study considers the additions brought into Italian data were backed by quantitative methods of re- the adoption and assimilation of words from di- structing a language common for the Italian territo- lexis mainly through borrowing, paying further at- search that helped present systematically the infor- verse languages and has been always prone to ex- ries. That is exactly the language we know today tention to the process of loanword incorporation, mation obtained. ternal impact, predominantly French and Latin. as standard Italian or Italiano Standard, i.e. the where applicable. Lexical blending in Italian could The presence of Romance elements in English is language created by the classical poets and scho- be seen as a conscious wordplay comprising on- 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND also essential and cannot be neglected. Vulgar La- lars for establishing, unifying and synchronising going processes of contact-induced language 3.1. English-Italian language contact in its his- tin, a form of spoken Latin, with the course of grammar rules. Despite its roots in Vulgar Latin, change. The numerous forms of blending include torical overview time, evolved into the Italian language, however, standard Italian is considered a fully-fledged lan- borrowings, adaptations, hybrid blends, pseudo- Linguistically speaking, the Italian language is numerous regional variants of the vulgar speech guage of literature and the arts and then a national Anglicisms, foreign-sounding word formations, considered a member of the Italic subfamily of the have developed into the vast number of Italian language following the consolidation of different and others (Görlach, 2001, p. 35). Romance group, i.e. it is a romance language, spo- dialects existing nowadays. states of the Italian peninsula into the Kingdom of

the English words resembling them in form. In a si- from English can be integrated beyond recognition an literary critic, poet, writer, translator, linguist ‘Vast and rapid development of trade, milar way, translating the English luxurious with or lost altogether’. The second scenario comes on and author of two influential language-translation technology and craftsmanship served as the Italian expression lussurioso would be commit- the scene when an appropriate semantic transla- dictionaries) bilingual dictionary, which was reis- another principal factor in language ting a big faux pas. In this case, the correct translation can be found which substitutes for the foreign sued six times in the 18th century. tion would be lussuoso but not lussurioso, which word. As a result, the lending language fills the Nevertheless, throughout the 18th and 19th contact as new products and cutting-edge has the same meaning as English lascivious. Some gap in the semantic inventory of the borrowing centuries, an extensive corpus of borrowings came inventions had to be named somehow. vivid examples of wrong semantic interpretation language and enriches it in this manner. This type into Italian not directly from English but through Here, commerce steps in as one of the and false friends’ occurrences will be illustrated la- of borrowing cannot be described as invasive from the French language (Sergio, 2014, p. 167). This ter in the current analysis. the pragmatic-linguistic perspective as a native major reasons for borrowing.’ could be explained by the dominance of French as Throughout world history, cross-influence of term does not exist in a language. the most influential foreign language on the Italian the languages developed as an inevitable pheno- Even though Italian and English have been in territory until 1945, when it was victoriously de- Italy (risorgimento, meaning ‘resurgence’) in 1861. menon. With the invention of writing, the analysis contact since the 13th century, this exchange was throned by English. Still, the 18th century is regar- The process of unification commenced with the re- of such an influence has become easier. Geogra- not so fruitful for either nation until the 18th centu- ded as the period when the first true English bor- volution of 1848, which was inspired by rebellions phic proximity of neighbouring interacting coun- ry and after the World War II. The only scarce ear- rowings started to become embedded into Italian. in the 1820s and 1830s and was completed when tries has had a significant impact on the systematic ly linguistic exchange was reflected in the appear- These so-called angolatinisms represented easily Rome became the official capital of the Kingdom. influence of one language on another. In its es- ance of such words as sterlino, for ‘pound sterling’. integrated calques from the political sphere, such This event had a profound impact not only on the sence, language is regarded as a means of convey- This word could be traced in the earliest docu- as autodeterminazione (‘self-determination’), coa- political scene but led to dramatic social, econo- ing and codifying messages, and with the inven- ments accompanying contact and trade between lizione (‘coalition’), comitato (‘committee’), legisla- mic and cultural transformation. The literacy rate tion of writing, storing and codifying information diplomats and merchants. tura (‘legislation’), opposizione (‘opposition’), sen- increased immensely with the introduction of across space and time has become more practical. Historical works are another invaluable source so commune (‘common sense’), and many others. compulsory schooling, and many native speakers This opinion explains the primary cause and the for Anglicisms comprising cultural and political Another major sphere of borrowings in this his- abandoned their dialect in favour of the national nature of borrowing as cross-influence is not in- terminology. Here are some examples listed in En- torical period relates to commerce and navigation language. trinsically an intrusive occurrence. If a language is ciclopedia dell’Italiano: parlamento (from the and could be exemplified by the words biglietto di Not surprisingly, a large part of the Italian voca- studied as an extension of a society, researching English ‘parliament’), coronatore (from the English banco (‘bank cheque’), importare (‘to import’), bulary can be traced back to Latin roots. At the the spread of language we can identify the amount ‘coroner’), alto tradimento (transformed by means brick (‘brick’), cutter (‘cutter’). Due to the rise of same time, the results of previous studies (Cacchia- of prestige it may bring to its users. Vast and rapid of calquing from the English ‘high treason’). Eng- mass media, many loan words appeared in the ni, 2016, p. 320) have demonstrated that neolati- development of trade, technology and crafts- lish borrowings commenced their permanent em- sphere of communication, news and everyday life, nisms came from other languages, such as English manship served as another principal factor in lan- bedding in the Italian language only in the 18th namely bar, manager, dandy, fashion, festival, and French, and can be detected by their phonolo- guage contact as new products and cutting-edge century. Moreover, the Industrial Revolution and boss, scout, camping, shopping, gangster, killer, gical form, or appeared by means of linguistic re- inventions had to be named somehow. Here, com- later on the American Revolution facilitated the etc. construction of Latin. Comparing pairs of Italian merce steps in as one of the major reasons for bor- spread of English-American influence. Before the Notably, the borrowed word ‘manager’ origina- and English words, one can observe the similarities rowing. 18th century, English was treated mostly as a bar- ted from the verb ‘to manage’ that appeared in the of forms and meanings, so-called true pairs. Launching new products and naming them baric language by the Italian nobility. However, English language in 1560s, with the meaning ‘to However, it might be interesting to look at some il- could have two possible outcomes: the society the situation dramatically changed when many Ita- handle, train, or direct (a horse)’, from the now- lustrative examples of how the words’ meanings created a product and is attempting to name it in lian intellectuals and academicians started travel- obsolete noun ‘manage’ (a modern revival of it is could be confused due to misleading similarities in its own native language; or the name is borrowed ling to England. This led to the emergence of a manege), from Italian maneggio, from maneggiare two languages. Occurrences of false friends and from a more powerful and influential language, new phenomenon called anglomania in English or meaning ‘to handle, touch, to control a horse’. The wrong semantic interpretation could impose some e.g. English, in order to reach a much wider audi- l’anglomania in Italian, referring to excessive admi- latter ultimately can be traced back to the Latin difficulties for translators and lead to communica- ence of consumers. The borrowing language is ration of English customs. This historical period is noun manus (‘hand’). tion breakdown. Ferguson (1994, p. 118) emphasi- most likely to ultimately adopt a foreign word if it characterised by the numerous translations of ma- ses that ‘accurate translation, as well as the proper has no lexical units to express new notions or ob- jor works from English literature into Italian, and 3.2. The new pipeline for word borrowing appreciation of advanced Italian texts, hinge on the jects. In the course of time, this borrowed word the urgent need to possess good command of New technological advancements and scienti- confident handling of the key words’. He illustrates can establish itself as a native item functioning in English for commercial purposes. Another interest- fic inventions that had to be named were adopted this statement with the examples such as attuale compliance with the rules of the borrowing lan- ing factor that contributed to the sudden growth of into the Italian language. The examples are nu- (‘present, ‘topical’, never ‘actual’) and eventuale guage and can sound natural to native speakers. In English language popularity was the appearance of merous, such as locomotiva (‘locomotive’), vagone (‘possible’ but not ‘eventual’), being false friends of the words of Görlach (2001, p. 89), ‘loanwords bilingual dictionaries, e.g. Giuseppe Baretti’s (Itali- (‘wagon’), tunnel, cargo, ferry, yacht, bus, cinema,

24 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 25 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova the English words resembling them in form. In a si- from English can be integrated beyond recognition an literary critic, poet, writer, translator, linguist ‘Vast and rapid development of trade, milar way, translating the English luxurious with or lost altogether’. The second scenario comes on and author of two influential language-translation technology and craftsmanship served as the Italian expression lussurioso would be commit- the scene when an appropriate semantic transla- dictionaries) bilingual dictionary, which was reis- another principal factor in language ting a big faux pas. In this case, the correct translation can be found which substitutes for the foreign sued six times in the 18th century. tion would be lussuoso but not lussurioso, which word. As a result, the lending language fills the Nevertheless, throughout the 18th and 19th contact as new products and cutting-edge has the same meaning as English lascivious. Some gap in the semantic inventory of the borrowing centuries, an extensive corpus of borrowings came inventions had to be named somehow. vivid examples of wrong semantic interpretation language and enriches it in this manner. This type into Italian not directly from English but through Here, commerce steps in as one of the and false friends’ occurrences will be illustrated la- of borrowing cannot be described as invasive from the French language (Sergio, 2014, p. 167). This ter in the current analysis. the pragmatic-linguistic perspective as a native major reasons for borrowing.’ could be explained by the dominance of French as Throughout world history, cross-influence of term does not exist in a language. the most influential foreign language on the Italian the languages developed as an inevitable pheno- Even though Italian and English have been in territory until 1945, when it was victoriously de- Italy (risorgimento, meaning ‘resurgence’) in 1861. menon. With the invention of writing, the analysis contact since the 13th century, this exchange was throned by English. Still, the 18th century is regar- The process of unification commenced with the re- of such an influence has become easier. Geogra- not so fruitful for either nation until the 18th centu- ded as the period when the first true English bor- volution of 1848, which was inspired by rebellions phic proximity of neighbouring interacting coun- ry and after the World War II. The only scarce ear- rowings started to become embedded into Italian. in the 1820s and 1830s and was completed when tries has had a significant impact on the systematic ly linguistic exchange was reflected in the appear- These so-called angolatinisms represented easily Rome became the official capital of the Kingdom. influence of one language on another. In its es- ance of such words as sterlino, for ‘pound sterling’. integrated calques from the political sphere, such This event had a profound impact not only on the sence, language is regarded as a means of convey- This word could be traced in the earliest docu- as autodeterminazione (‘self-determination’), coa- political scene but led to dramatic social, econo- ing and codifying messages, and with the inven- ments accompanying contact and trade between lizione (‘coalition’), comitato (‘committee’), legisla- mic and cultural transformation. The literacy rate tion of writing, storing and codifying information diplomats and merchants. tura (‘legislation’), opposizione (‘opposition’), sen- increased immensely with the introduction of across space and time has become more practical. Historical works are another invaluable source so commune (‘common sense’), and many others. compulsory schooling, and many native speakers This opinion explains the primary cause and the for Anglicisms comprising cultural and political Another major sphere of borrowings in this his- abandoned their dialect in favour of the national nature of borrowing as cross-influence is not in- terminology. Here are some examples listed in En- torical period relates to commerce and navigation language. trinsically an intrusive occurrence. If a language is ciclopedia dell’Italiano: parlamento (from the and could be exemplified by the words biglietto di Not surprisingly, a large part of the Italian voca- studied as an extension of a society, researching English ‘parliament’), coronatore (from the English banco (‘bank cheque’), importare (‘to import’), bulary can be traced back to Latin roots. At the the spread of language we can identify the amount ‘coroner’), alto tradimento (transformed by means brick (‘brick’), cutter (‘cutter’). Due to the rise of same time, the results of previous studies (Cacchia- of prestige it may bring to its users. Vast and rapid of calquing from the English ‘high treason’). Eng- mass media, many loan words appeared in the ni, 2016, p. 320) have demonstrated that neolati- development of trade, technology and crafts- lish borrowings commenced their permanent em- sphere of communication, news and everyday life, nisms came from other languages, such as English manship served as another principal factor in lan- bedding in the Italian language only in the 18th namely bar, manager, dandy, fashion, festival, and French, and can be detected by their phonolo- guage contact as new products and cutting-edge century. Moreover, the Industrial Revolution and boss, scout, camping, shopping, gangster, killer, gical form, or appeared by means of linguistic re- inventions had to be named somehow. Here, com- later on the American Revolution facilitated the etc. construction of Latin. Comparing pairs of Italian merce steps in as one of the major reasons for bor- spread of English-American influence. Before the Notably, the borrowed word ‘manager’ origina- and English words, one can observe the similarities rowing. 18th century, English was treated mostly as a bar- ted from the verb ‘to manage’ that appeared in the of forms and meanings, so-called true pairs. Launching new products and naming them baric language by the Italian nobility. However, English language in 1560s, with the meaning ‘to However, it might be interesting to look at some il- could have two possible outcomes: the society the situation dramatically changed when many Ita- handle, train, or direct (a horse)’, from the now- lustrative examples of how the words’ meanings created a product and is attempting to name it in lian intellectuals and academicians started travel- obsolete noun ‘manage’ (a modern revival of it is could be confused due to misleading similarities in its own native language; or the name is borrowed ling to England. This led to the emergence of a manege), from Italian maneggio, from maneggiare two languages. Occurrences of false friends and from a more powerful and influential language, new phenomenon called anglomania in English or meaning ‘to handle, touch, to control a horse’. The wrong semantic interpretation could impose some e.g. English, in order to reach a much wider audi- l’anglomania in Italian, referring to excessive admi- latter ultimately can be traced back to the Latin difficulties for translators and lead to communica- ence of consumers. The borrowing language is ration of English customs. This historical period is noun manus (‘hand’). tion breakdown. Ferguson (1994, p. 118) emphasi- most likely to ultimately adopt a foreign word if it characterised by the numerous translations of ma- ses that ‘accurate translation, as well as the proper has no lexical units to express new notions or ob- jor works from English literature into Italian, and 3.2. The new pipeline for word borrowing appreciation of advanced Italian texts, hinge on the jects. In the course of time, this borrowed word the urgent need to possess good command of New technological advancements and scienti- confident handling of the key words’. He illustrates can establish itself as a native item functioning in English for commercial purposes. Another interest- fic inventions that had to be named were adopted this statement with the examples such as attuale compliance with the rules of the borrowing lan- ing factor that contributed to the sudden growth of into the Italian language. The examples are nu- (‘present, ‘topical’, never ‘actual’) and eventuale guage and can sound natural to native speakers. In English language popularity was the appearance of merous, such as locomotiva (‘locomotive’), vagone (‘possible’ but not ‘eventual’), being false friends of the words of Görlach (2001, p. 89), ‘loanwords bilingual dictionaries, e.g. Giuseppe Baretti’s (Itali- (‘wagon’), tunnel, cargo, ferry, yacht, bus, cinema,

24 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 25 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova cartoni animati (‘cartoons’), film, cast. Especially phenomenon had taken place in most European It is worth mentioning that reproduction is rare- in their mother tongue. Borrowing also demon- fruitful was the semantic area of sport that was en- languages and has led to the appearance of va- ly done perfectly thanks to contradictions between strates how by filling up the gaps it enables the riched by the words goal, cross, dribbling, fuori rious forms of the so-called ‘pseudo-English’, e.g. the graphological and phonological systems of the creation of new vocabulary patterns and items in gioco (calque from ‘offside’), ring, knock-out, ten- Chinglish, Franglais, and Itangliano. The Italian languages in contact. This phenomenon is mani- the borrowing language. nis, derby, outsider and many others. version, sometimes referred to as Italiese, is a form fested when comparing the English and Italian lan- However, the period of extensive borrowing of simplified or corrupted English used by Italian guage systems. This process is described by some 4.2. Classification of the Anglicisms related to ceased in the wake of the First World when the native speakers. Many linguists (see e.g. Vettorel, linguists (see e.g. Cacchiani, 2016) as adaptation tourist terminology Italian Fascist Party led by Benito Mussolini came 2013, p. 270) consider the use of Italiese largely or transportation, when the speakers attempt to The lexical items we have researched relating to power. This period of Italian history is described condemned, as the frequent excessive use of misuse borrowed linguistic structures typical of a for- directly to the tourism industry could be divided as an era of linguistic purism when any foreign pronounced words is regarded as unnecessary ex- eign language but uncommon or just non-existent into the following thematic subgroups (Table 1): elements were deemed unnecessary and excessive hibitionism, in particular in mass media, social or corrupting the Italian language. The policy im- networks and journalism. Table 1 posed by the Fascist regime was to ‘cleanse’ the Classification of tourism-related borrowings language and to replace all borrowed words by 4. STUDY AND RESULTS Italian equivalents, e.g. gioco or ludo instead of 4.1. Expanding the Italian lexis by means of NO. CATEGORY EXAMPLES ‘sport’. However, this attempt ultimately failed as borrowing 1 Notions and terms describing individual or group hotel, motel, B&B, hostel, spa, bungalow, resort, reception, all the newly invented replacements and substitutions Many linguists consider lexis or vocabulary as accommodation inclusive never caught on in actual practical use regardless the backbone of a language. At the same time, this 2 Means of transport, carriers and passengers charter, voli low-coster, business class, il check-in, connection of the hefty fines that people would have faced for part of language is greatly affected by outside in- transportation time, duty free, eurocity, il pullman, intercity, hostess, jet, lo their usage. fluence providing the link from the human’s mind shuttle, ticket, autobus, minibus, lounge, car sharing, The dominance of the French language has de- to the external world while grammar, being a cru- backpacking, car pooling clined gradually since World War I and following cial part of language, is much more rigid in form 3 Notions and terms associated with meals and American breakfast, catering, il cocktail, il welcome-drink, self- the economic boom of the 1950s, English has pre- and, as a result, more resistant to the impact of for- catering facilities service, happy hour, lo snack, fast food, bar, slow food, eign languages. Moreover, grammar is the least continental breakfast, banqueting, party, reception, il minibar, il vailed as the most influential foreign language on bartender, la barmaid the Italian territory (Pulcini, 2019, p. 130). Later conscious and the most habitual part of language. on, when the USA had gained economic suprema- However, this scenario does not work for foreign 4 Notions and terms related to sport, recreation Il mountain bike, la canoe, fare tarzaning, il trekking, pratticare and leisure numerosi sport outdoor, il birdwatching, city sightseeing, kayak, cy and the political power, the diffusion of Ameri- learners taking their first steps in language acquisi- il rafting, lo shopping, special event, banana boot, yacht, race, lo can English has facilitated the spread of ideas and tion. In their understanding, grammar appears au- hiking, surfing tomatically to some degree when certain patterns cultural influence, in particular in the youth and 5 Travel agent services Online booking, package tour, tour operator, city package, travel pop culture sphere. The boost for intercultural of language reproduction have been internalised agent contacts occurred when Italy joined the interna- and the ideas have been conceptualised. tional organisations such as NATO and the EU, Changes into Italian grammatical construction with the USA and the UK as the most powerful do exist in certain registers; however, they repre- 4.3. The principal types of assimilation of An- fic feature of Italian phonetics is the absence of re- and influential members in both organisations. The sent only a miniscule part. To sum up, while lexis glicisms in the Italian language duction, therefore usually reduced vowels and phenomenon of this historical stage in the deve- links words and the real world, grammar regulates In this section, the main types of loanwords as- consonants (phonemes expressed by the letters ‘r’, lopment of language contacts is quite specific, as it the relations between words. The situation with similation are considered, such as phonetic, ortho- ‘ng’, ‘e’) are pronounced very clearly, e.g. board- includes not only the elite of the society but all the phonology related to the native language repro- graphic and morphological (grammatical) assimila- ing pass [‘bɔrding], tarzaning [‘tardzaning]. Some social strata. duction patterns is very similar. While introduction tion (Trifone & Palermo, 2014, p. 278). Anglicisms retain their spelling but they are to be The effect has been amplified by the develop- of new phonemes is present in some cases, never- Phonetic assimilation plays the most insignifi- read according to the Italian pronunciation rules, ment of cutting-edge technology and scientific ad- theless, it occurs rarely. cant role seeing that many English phonemes are i.e. reception [re’t∫ep∫on], receptionist [re’t∫ep∫on vance as English has become the means of com- The term ‘borrowing’ is widely used to describe pronounced in a similar manner to Italian ones, for ist]. Italian ‘h’ does not correspond to any sound, munication and information diffusion. In the most the adopting of linguistic structures aimed at ex- instance [æ] > [ε] (snack), [æ] > [a] (fan, and this rule is also applied to the borrowed recent wave of borrowing, the most noticeable pansion of the language vocabulary. Borrowing manager); [ʌ] > [a] (fast food, transfer). The conso- words: hotel [o’tɛll], hostess [‘ɔstes]. proliferation of Anglicisms has occurred in the could be seen as an attempt to reproduce patterns nant ‘s’ at the beginning of the word preceding a Orthographic assimilation occurs very rarely as spheres of information technology, marketing, po- previously found in another language (Sobrero & voiced consonant is always vocalised, as in snow- both contact languages are based on the Latin al- litics and sports (Laviosa, 2007, p. 124). This Miglietta, 2006, p. 254). board [‘znobɔrd], slogan [‘zlɔgan]. Another speci- phabet. In the materials studied, only two cases of

26 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 27 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova cartoni animati (‘cartoons’), film, cast. Especially phenomenon had taken place in most European It is worth mentioning that reproduction is rare- in their mother tongue. Borrowing also demon- fruitful was the semantic area of sport that was en- languages and has led to the appearance of va- ly done perfectly thanks to contradictions between strates how by filling up the gaps it enables the riched by the words goal, cross, dribbling, fuori rious forms of the so-called ‘pseudo-English’, e.g. the graphological and phonological systems of the creation of new vocabulary patterns and items in gioco (calque from ‘offside’), ring, knock-out, ten- Chinglish, Franglais, and Itangliano. The Italian languages in contact. This phenomenon is mani- the borrowing language. nis, derby, outsider and many others. version, sometimes referred to as Italiese, is a form fested when comparing the English and Italian lan- However, the period of extensive borrowing of simplified or corrupted English used by Italian guage systems. This process is described by some 4.2. Classification of the Anglicisms related to ceased in the wake of the First World when the native speakers. Many linguists (see e.g. Vettorel, linguists (see e.g. Cacchiani, 2016) as adaptation tourist terminology Italian Fascist Party led by Benito Mussolini came 2013, p. 270) consider the use of Italiese largely or transportation, when the speakers attempt to The lexical items we have researched relating to power. This period of Italian history is described condemned, as the frequent excessive use of misuse borrowed linguistic structures typical of a for- directly to the tourism industry could be divided as an era of linguistic purism when any foreign pronounced words is regarded as unnecessary ex- eign language but uncommon or just non-existent into the following thematic subgroups (Table 1): elements were deemed unnecessary and excessive hibitionism, in particular in mass media, social or corrupting the Italian language. The policy im- networks and journalism. Table 1 posed by the Fascist regime was to ‘cleanse’ the Classification of tourism-related borrowings language and to replace all borrowed words by 4. STUDY AND RESULTS Italian equivalents, e.g. gioco or ludo instead of 4.1. Expanding the Italian lexis by means of NO. CATEGORY EXAMPLES ‘sport’. However, this attempt ultimately failed as borrowing 1 Notions and terms describing individual or group hotel, motel, B&B, hostel, spa, bungalow, resort, reception, all the newly invented replacements and substitutions Many linguists consider lexis or vocabulary as accommodation inclusive never caught on in actual practical use regardless the backbone of a language. At the same time, this 2 Means of transport, carriers and passengers charter, voli low-coster, business class, il check-in, connection of the hefty fines that people would have faced for part of language is greatly affected by outside in- transportation time, duty free, eurocity, il pullman, intercity, hostess, jet, lo their usage. fluence providing the link from the human’s mind shuttle, ticket, autobus, minibus, lounge, car sharing, The dominance of the French language has de- to the external world while grammar, being a cru- backpacking, car pooling clined gradually since World War I and following cial part of language, is much more rigid in form 3 Notions and terms associated with meals and American breakfast, catering, il cocktail, il welcome-drink, self- the economic boom of the 1950s, English has pre- and, as a result, more resistant to the impact of for- catering facilities service, happy hour, lo snack, fast food, bar, slow food, eign languages. Moreover, grammar is the least continental breakfast, banqueting, party, reception, il minibar, il vailed as the most influential foreign language on bartender, la barmaid the Italian territory (Pulcini, 2019, p. 130). Later conscious and the most habitual part of language. on, when the USA had gained economic suprema- However, this scenario does not work for foreign 4 Notions and terms related to sport, recreation Il mountain bike, la canoe, fare tarzaning, il trekking, pratticare and leisure numerosi sport outdoor, il birdwatching, city sightseeing, kayak, cy and the political power, the diffusion of Ameri- learners taking their first steps in language acquisi- il rafting, lo shopping, special event, banana boot, yacht, race, lo can English has facilitated the spread of ideas and tion. In their understanding, grammar appears au- hiking, surfing tomatically to some degree when certain patterns cultural influence, in particular in the youth and 5 Travel agent services Online booking, package tour, tour operator, city package, travel pop culture sphere. The boost for intercultural of language reproduction have been internalised agent contacts occurred when Italy joined the interna- and the ideas have been conceptualised. tional organisations such as NATO and the EU, Changes into Italian grammatical construction with the USA and the UK as the most powerful do exist in certain registers; however, they repre- 4.3. The principal types of assimilation of An- fic feature of Italian phonetics is the absence of re- and influential members in both organisations. The sent only a miniscule part. To sum up, while lexis glicisms in the Italian language duction, therefore usually reduced vowels and phenomenon of this historical stage in the deve- links words and the real world, grammar regulates In this section, the main types of loanwords as- consonants (phonemes expressed by the letters ‘r’, lopment of language contacts is quite specific, as it the relations between words. The situation with similation are considered, such as phonetic, ortho- ‘ng’, ‘e’) are pronounced very clearly, e.g. board- includes not only the elite of the society but all the phonology related to the native language repro- graphic and morphological (grammatical) assimila- ing pass [‘bɔrding], tarzaning [‘tardzaning]. Some social strata. duction patterns is very similar. While introduction tion (Trifone & Palermo, 2014, p. 278). Anglicisms retain their spelling but they are to be The effect has been amplified by the develop- of new phonemes is present in some cases, never- Phonetic assimilation plays the most insignifi- read according to the Italian pronunciation rules, ment of cutting-edge technology and scientific ad- theless, it occurs rarely. cant role seeing that many English phonemes are i.e. reception [re’t∫ep∫on], receptionist [re’t∫ep∫on vance as English has become the means of com- The term ‘borrowing’ is widely used to describe pronounced in a similar manner to Italian ones, for ist]. Italian ‘h’ does not correspond to any sound, munication and information diffusion. In the most the adopting of linguistic structures aimed at ex- instance [æ] > [ε] (snack), [æ] > [a] (fan, and this rule is also applied to the borrowed recent wave of borrowing, the most noticeable pansion of the language vocabulary. Borrowing manager); [ʌ] > [a] (fast food, transfer). The conso- words: hotel [o’tɛll], hostess [‘ɔstes]. proliferation of Anglicisms has occurred in the could be seen as an attempt to reproduce patterns nant ‘s’ at the beginning of the word preceding a Orthographic assimilation occurs very rarely as spheres of information technology, marketing, po- previously found in another language (Sobrero & voiced consonant is always vocalised, as in snow- both contact languages are based on the Latin al- litics and sports (Laviosa, 2007, p. 124). This Miglietta, 2006, p. 254). board [‘znobɔrd], slogan [‘zlɔgan]. Another speci- phabet. In the materials studied, only two cases of

26 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 27 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova orthographic assimilation have been identified, as clusive [ɪn’clu:sɪv] and in Italian inclusivo, the regardless of the change in the meaning. The ex- in mountain bike which has been substituted by stress is in on the second syllable from the end of ample demonstrates how the impact of English ‘Having studied the specifics of borrowed mountain byke. the word. language on Italian ultimately led to the reciprocal words assimilation into the newest tourist In the TV advertisement of the ‘all inclusive’ ta- The most popular type of assimilation is mor- effect of Italian influencing English. Finally, the terminology, we have concluded that riff, the elderly TV-presenter recommends scelga phological (grammatical) one. Thus, it has always word barista has become international and is po- English loanwords are blended and olìnclusiv (the stress is on the second syllable). been of great interest for researchers. Considering pular all over the world thanks to globalisation. Then a male voice in the background gives com- the fact that in the English language the category Words of a language different from English are adopted according to the norms of ments on the tariff calling it olinclùsiv (the stress is of grammatical gender of nouns is absent, their often pronounced or spelt as though they were tru- contemporary Italian language, while the on the third syllable). Mostly likely, advertisers morphological (grammatical) assimilation is imple- ly English. This phenomenon has led to the ap- mechanism of Anglicisms’ activation is have chosen the form with the third syllable stres- mented in correspondence with the following pearance of the so-called pseudo-English words, sed due to hypercorrection, as both in English in- principles (Table 2): i.e. non-English words by origin but created from based on the interaction between referring English morphemes. These words should not be words of the recipient language and their Table 2 confused with false friends that do exist in English, equivalent and hyperonyms’ The principles of morphological (grammatical) assimilation but possess a different main meaning between English and Italian. As far as the entertainment in- 6. CONCLUSION NO. PRINCIPLE EXAMPLES dustry is concerned, a good example is the Italian The unprecedented influx of Anglicisms into 1 The category is given as of co-referent word il barman, la barmaid, il travelblogger / la travelblogger, la word for the joker in a pack of cards – il jolly (259 the contemporary Italian language and the subse- gender hostess search results). Throughout the 19th century, the quent influence on Italian lexis has revealed the is- English word for this was the jolly joker, but as sues connected with the structural assimilation of 2 The category is given in accordance with the la banana boat (la barca) gender of hyperonym of the borrowed word la email (la posta elettronica) time went by, the Italians dropped the second part those loan words. Once the loanword has travel- and native English speakers dropped the first one. led beyond the restricted province of the individu- 3 Suffixes and inflexions in the English borrowed lo shopping, il hiking, il tarzaning, il rafting Also the word afterhour bearing the acquired als having a proficient command of English pro- words (usually masculine) meaning ‘until well after the sun comes up’ seems nunciation and grammar, there comes the problem rather odd to English ears. For example: Nello stes- of how it can function in the framework of the In the process of adaptation, English verbs ac- need to express agency in words that are mainly so periodo scrive per il disco di Roberto Dellera phonological and morphological systems of the quire some features of Italian regular verbs of the used in collocations but are not subject to deriva- (bassista del gruppo after hour) il singolo AMI LEI Italian language. first conjugation. They are generally related to the tion in English. The second element is rendered by AMI ME che riceve l’attenzione di moltissime radio Having studied the specifics of borrowed words Internet communication sphere and could be the suffix –man in Italian, e.g. barman (130 search e sempre per lui compone i testi di alitri brani con- assimilation into the newest tourist terminology, found on tourism websites, forums, blogs designa- results in Corpus dell’Italiano), salesman (6 search tenuti nel disco di prossima uscita. we have concluded that English loanwords are ted for sharing comments and reviews, e.g. chatta- results), chairman (66 search results), etc. A relatively significant transformation occurs in blended and adopted according to the norms of re (‘to chat’), cliccare (‘to click’), monitorare (‘to Another way of rendering the second element English compound borrowed words as well. In Ita- contemporary Italian language, while the mecha- monitor’), filmare (‘to film’), postare (‘to post’). Ever is by adding the suffix –ista, also denoting agency, lian, formation of words via the compounding me- nism of Anglicisms’ activation is based on the in- more often one can come across the verb piacciare e.g. tassista (340 search results). In the touristic ter- thod (parole composte) is less frequent than teraction between referring words of the recipient derived from mi piace (‘to like’, meaning to show minology, the most frequent example is barista English, as in telecommando, telespettatori, au- language and their equivalent and hyperonyms. that you think something is good on a social net- (519 search results) with quite a curious etymology tostrada. In addition to this, in English the com- Notably, the use of borrowed words, especially working website by clicking on a symbol or the reminding of a similar process with the word ma- mon pattern is a modifier accompanied by the from English, is more about sounding cool, open- word ‘like’). nager. Barista originated from the word barman head noun. On the contrary, in Italian it is noun + minded, global and international rather than filling obviously borrowed by Italian from English around modifier, as in fermacarta (‘paperweight’), or a linguistic gap between the two languages (Varia- 5. DISCUSSION 1908. However, in the 1940s, the word barista be- pastasciutta (‘dried pasta’). Therefore, the latter no, 2018, p. 270). Excessive use, if not abuse, of Loanwords can form compounds that never came widespread and gradually replaced the bor- component of English compound words could be Anglicisms in the contemporary Italian language existed in English and become quite productive in rowed version. It is disputable that the initial An- wrongly taken for a modifier that results in the seems unjustified in the majority of cases as substi- the borrowing language. As mentioned above, the glicism barman had undergone a process of Italia- head noun being omitted or eliminated. Thus, the tuting existing words with loanwords leaves an principal ways of grammatical assimilation are ad- nisation by means of morphological transforma- lexis is enriched with such words as dancing in- overwhelming majority of Italians (84% as con- ministered by adding suffixes or even lexical mor- tion, i.e. the English suffix was substituted by an stead of dancing hall (102 search results), parking cerns English) in the dark. The average number of phemes or so-called borderline suffixes. Thus, the authentic Italian equivalent. The second wave of instead of parking lot (31 search results), night in- Italians speaking proficient enough English ac- use of the suffix –man is appropriate thanks to the popularity of the word barista was around 1990, stead of night club (264 search results). counts for only 16% of the population.

28 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 29 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Anglicisms and loanwords: The contribution of English exemplified by contemporary Italian tourist terminology Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Alla G. Sokolova orthographic assimilation have been identified, as clusive [ɪn’clu:sɪv] and in Italian inclusivo, the regardless of the change in the meaning. The ex- in mountain bike which has been substituted by stress is in on the second syllable from the end of ample demonstrates how the impact of English ‘Having studied the specifics of borrowed mountain byke. the word. language on Italian ultimately led to the reciprocal words assimilation into the newest tourist In the TV advertisement of the ‘all inclusive’ ta- The most popular type of assimilation is mor- effect of Italian influencing English. Finally, the terminology, we have concluded that riff, the elderly TV-presenter recommends scelga phological (grammatical) one. Thus, it has always word barista has become international and is po- English loanwords are blended and olìnclusiv (the stress is on the second syllable). been of great interest for researchers. Considering pular all over the world thanks to globalisation. Then a male voice in the background gives com- the fact that in the English language the category Words of a language different from English are adopted according to the norms of ments on the tariff calling it olinclùsiv (the stress is of grammatical gender of nouns is absent, their often pronounced or spelt as though they were tru- contemporary Italian language, while the on the third syllable). Mostly likely, advertisers morphological (grammatical) assimilation is imple- ly English. This phenomenon has led to the ap- mechanism of Anglicisms’ activation is have chosen the form with the third syllable stres- mented in correspondence with the following pearance of the so-called pseudo-English words, sed due to hypercorrection, as both in English in- principles (Table 2): i.e. non-English words by origin but created from based on the interaction between referring English morphemes. These words should not be words of the recipient language and their Table 2 confused with false friends that do exist in English, equivalent and hyperonyms’ The principles of morphological (grammatical) assimilation but possess a different main meaning between English and Italian. As far as the entertainment in- 6. CONCLUSION NO. PRINCIPLE EXAMPLES dustry is concerned, a good example is the Italian The unprecedented influx of Anglicisms into 1 The category is given as of co-referent word il barman, la barmaid, il travelblogger / la travelblogger, la word for the joker in a pack of cards – il jolly (259 the contemporary Italian language and the subse- gender hostess search results). Throughout the 19th century, the quent influence on Italian lexis has revealed the is- English word for this was the jolly joker, but as sues connected with the structural assimilation of 2 The category is given in accordance with the la banana boat (la barca) gender of hyperonym of the borrowed word la email (la posta elettronica) time went by, the Italians dropped the second part those loan words. Once the loanword has travel- and native English speakers dropped the first one. led beyond the restricted province of the individu- 3 Suffixes and inflexions in the English borrowed lo shopping, il hiking, il tarzaning, il rafting Also the word afterhour bearing the acquired als having a proficient command of English pro- words (usually masculine) meaning ‘until well after the sun comes up’ seems nunciation and grammar, there comes the problem rather odd to English ears. For example: Nello stes- of how it can function in the framework of the In the process of adaptation, English verbs ac- need to express agency in words that are mainly so periodo scrive per il disco di Roberto Dellera phonological and morphological systems of the quire some features of Italian regular verbs of the used in collocations but are not subject to deriva- (bassista del gruppo after hour) il singolo AMI LEI Italian language. first conjugation. They are generally related to the tion in English. The second element is rendered by AMI ME che riceve l’attenzione di moltissime radio Having studied the specifics of borrowed words Internet communication sphere and could be the suffix –man in Italian, e.g. barman (130 search e sempre per lui compone i testi di alitri brani con- assimilation into the newest tourist terminology, found on tourism websites, forums, blogs designa- results in Corpus dell’Italiano), salesman (6 search tenuti nel disco di prossima uscita. we have concluded that English loanwords are ted for sharing comments and reviews, e.g. chatta- results), chairman (66 search results), etc. A relatively significant transformation occurs in blended and adopted according to the norms of re (‘to chat’), cliccare (‘to click’), monitorare (‘to Another way of rendering the second element English compound borrowed words as well. In Ita- contemporary Italian language, while the mecha- monitor’), filmare (‘to film’), postare (‘to post’). Ever is by adding the suffix –ista, also denoting agency, lian, formation of words via the compounding me- nism of Anglicisms’ activation is based on the in- more often one can come across the verb piacciare e.g. tassista (340 search results). In the touristic ter- thod (parole composte) is less frequent than teraction between referring words of the recipient derived from mi piace (‘to like’, meaning to show minology, the most frequent example is barista English, as in telecommando, telespettatori, au- language and their equivalent and hyperonyms. that you think something is good on a social net- (519 search results) with quite a curious etymology tostrada. In addition to this, in English the com- Notably, the use of borrowed words, especially working website by clicking on a symbol or the reminding of a similar process with the word ma- mon pattern is a modifier accompanied by the from English, is more about sounding cool, open- word ‘like’). nager. Barista originated from the word barman head noun. On the contrary, in Italian it is noun + minded, global and international rather than filling obviously borrowed by Italian from English around modifier, as in fermacarta (‘paperweight’), or a linguistic gap between the two languages (Varia- 5. DISCUSSION 1908. However, in the 1940s, the word barista be- pastasciutta (‘dried pasta’). Therefore, the latter no, 2018, p. 270). Excessive use, if not abuse, of Loanwords can form compounds that never came widespread and gradually replaced the bor- component of English compound words could be Anglicisms in the contemporary Italian language existed in English and become quite productive in rowed version. It is disputable that the initial An- wrongly taken for a modifier that results in the seems unjustified in the majority of cases as substi- the borrowing language. As mentioned above, the glicism barman had undergone a process of Italia- head noun being omitted or eliminated. Thus, the tuting existing words with loanwords leaves an principal ways of grammatical assimilation are ad- nisation by means of morphological transforma- lexis is enriched with such words as dancing in- overwhelming majority of Italians (84% as con- ministered by adding suffixes or even lexical mor- tion, i.e. the English suffix was substituted by an stead of dancing hall (102 search results), parking cerns English) in the dark. The average number of phemes or so-called borderline suffixes. Thus, the authentic Italian equivalent. The second wave of instead of parking lot (31 search results), night in- Italians speaking proficient enough English ac- use of the suffix –man is appropriate thanks to the popularity of the word barista was around 1990, stead of night club (264 search results). counts for only 16% of the population.

28 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 29 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-21-30 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-31-42 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 21-30 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org

References

Asnaghi, C. (2017). English loans in written Italian: A comparable and parallel corpora. Belgian Journal regional perspective. In M. Cerruti, C. Crocco & of Linguistics, 21(1), 123-136. Doi: 10.1075/ Original Research S. Marzo (Eds.), Towards a new standard: bjl.21.09lav Theoretical and empirical studies on the Pulcini, V. (2019). Internationalisms, Anglo-Latinisms restandardization of Italian (pp. 293-320). Berlin: and other kinship ties between Italian and De Gruyter Mouton. Doi: English. Studia Linguistica Universitatis Company naming strategies in the Italian interior 10.1515/9781614518839-011 Iagellonicae Cracoviensis, 136(2), 121-141. Doi: Burke, P. (2006). The hybridization of languages in 10.4467/20834624SL.19.011.10606 design industry early modern Europe. European Review, 14(1), Sergio, G. (2014). Mediators and media: Reflections on by Daria A. Shevliakova 105-110. Doi: 10.1017/S1062798706000093 Italian fashion in French, English and German. Castoldi, G. (2012). La guida turistica. Milano: Hoepli. Languages Cultures Mediation, 1(1-2), 163-185. Daria A. Shevliakova Lomonosov Moscow State University [email protected] Cacchiani, S. (2016). On Italian lexical blends: Doi: 10.7358/lcm-2014-0102-serg Date of submission: 14.01.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 29.05.2020 Borrowings, hybridity, adaptations, and native Sobrero, A. A., & Miglietta, A. (2006). Lingua e dialetto Recommended citation format: Shevliakova, D. A. (2020). Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design word formations. In S. Knospe, A. Onysko & M. nell’Italia del duemila (a cura di). Galarina: industry. Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 31-42. Doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Goth (Eds.), Crossing Languages to play with Congedo Editore. words: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. Trifone, P., & Palermo, M. (2014). Grammatica italiana The study focuses on naming etymology and semantics used by Italian interior design companies (manufac- 305-336). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Doi: di base terza edizione. Bologna: Zanichelli. turers of furniture, light fixtures and accessories), represented in the Russian market. This involved examin- 10.1515/9783110465600-015 Variano, A. (2018). Cleanings of Anglicisms: About ing the extent to which the names of Italian interior design companies corresponded to the established na- Ferguson, R. (1994). Italian false friends. Canada: leggings and other (recent) forestierisms. ming practices of companies, identifying the strategies used therein, as well as developing a classification of University of Toronto Press. Doi: Zeitschrift fur Romanische Philologie, 134(2), 10.3138/9781487595180 568-579. Doi: 10.1515/zrp-2018-0035 names based on etymological and semantic analysis. The most common naming strategies were grouped Görlach, M. A. (2001). Usage of Anglicisms in sixteen Vettorel, P. (2013). English in Italian advertising. World into four categories that appear the most productive: Proper Nouns (54.4% of all names studied), Words European languages. Oxford: OUP. Englishes, 32(2), 261-278. Doi: 10.1111/ and Phrases in Everyday Use (26.6%), Abbreviations (13.1%), and Geographical Names (5.9%). The re- Laviosa, S. (2007). Studying Anglicisms with weng.12023 search outcome will be the identification of the most efficient way of naming companies in the interior design industry, as well as a linguocultural analysis of the most frequently used types of names. The analysis of the material offers the opportunity to speculate on the relevance of national identity to the process of design company naming.

KEYWORDS: naming, branding, marketing, interior design, Italian

1. INTRODUCTION In 1979, Italy became the world’s number one In the early 21st century, the number of Italian exporter of furniture and interior design objects, a companies manufacturing furniture, light fixtures, status which it held till 2003. After that there fol- and other interior design objects has been estima- lowed a dip in export volume, with another surge ted to exceed 36,000. The modern-day design in- starting in 2006. The main export category of the dustry is comprised of a wide range of enterprises: Italian interior design industry is furniture (78%), engineering companies, architectural firms, design followed by light fixtures (13%), and other access- studios, furniture and lighting stores as well as fac- ories (9%). Russia is one of Italy’s main trade part- tories and craft workshops that produce interior ners and was the fourth largest export market in design objects. Italy’s interior design industry pro- 2015 for Italian interior design goods after Germa- vides over 231,000 jobs, playing an important role ny, France and the United States (ICE, 2020). In in the state’s economy (Lojacono, 2007, p. 11-29). 2005, in response to requests from the traditional

References

KEYWORDS: naming, branding, marketing, interior design, Italian

© Daria A. Shevliakova 2020 30 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 31 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova participants in Milanese trade fairs, Federlegno-Ar- an businesses in the interior design industry during tion for products, services and companies, and redo and Cosmit joined forces in order to present a the aforementioned period. This aim dictates ad- play an important role in market promotion and ‘A name is not created on a whim, but is group of Milanese fair products on several foreign dressing the following objectives: establishing the effective communication with international part- developed through the joint efforts of markets, including Russia. This initiative, dubbed key linguistic strategies for company naming in the ners (Chen & Bei, 2018). psychologists, linguists and marketing iSaloni WorldWide, led to highly successful trade Italian interior design industry during the above- In modern times, naming theory has become an fairs in New York and later in Moscow. mentioned period, and determining and justifying area of great interest for a wide range of research- experts. Only then will it not simply sound Another indicator of success is the growing the most productive company naming strategy. ers. New naming methodologies are being devel- nice, but also reflect the nature of the number of visitors at the iSaloni WorldWide trade The hypothesis of the study states that national oped, books and articles on the essence of naming product and the philosophy of the fair in Moscow, which includes many designers, identity is relevant to naming design businesses: in are being published, existing names are being ana- architects, and furniture and interior design spe- theory, naming has to follow the general branding lysed, and strategies for effective name creation company’ cialists. Cosmit puts the total number of visitors in and marketing laws of the international market tar- are being suggested. However, the goal of profes- language in question (Dwivedi & McDonald, 2005 at 13,199. By 2008, the number had more geted at the average global consumer, in addition sional naming as a creative science is the creation 2018). This naming parameter is also defined as than doubled, with a total of 28,748 visitors. Such to being culturally neutral (Keller, 2013). of names themselves. It is a creative science and the psycholinguistic naming criterion: any combi- a positive dynamic is yet another sign of the con- not simply an act of creating, because a name nation of sounds will evoke in the recipient a set stantly growing interest in Italian design, which is 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND must not only be striking and memorable, but of associations with the source of the sounds and considered by Russian consumers to be an exam- Humankind had been inventing names since must also reflect the essence of what it represents their meaning. Associations between certain ple of high standards of quality. the dawn of its existence, yet there was no theory (Myung-Soo, 2007). A name is not created on a sounds and corresponding meanings are mostly Manufacturing enterprises form the basis of the that would explain the process until the early 20th whim, but is developed through the joint efforts of stable and definable. The sound of the word interior design industry, and a comprehensive stu- century. Technological breakthroughs, expansion psychologists, linguists and marketing experts. should not produce any negative associations or dy of their names from a linguistic and historical of production, scientific development, growing Only then will it not simply sound nice, but also emotions – a requirement that is especially rele- perspective can be a rich source of data that pro- competition as well as an increasing interest in hu- reflect the nature of the product and the philoso- vant for made-up names (Lowrey & Shrum, 2007). vides insight into the Italian national identity. This man psychology and ways of influencing it – all phy of the company (Bao et al., 2008). For instance, traditional phonetic stereotypes sug- study will not discuss the commercial success of these factors eventually enabled the development The Latin expression Nomen est omen epitomi- gest that the presence of vowels (especially a and individual companies, since that is a topic for mar- of naming theory in 1976 in the US. In general ses the significance of naming. The information i) is pleasing to the ear. It is preferable to avoid si- ket research, and will instead focus on the linguis- terms, it can be defined as the creation and giving that a word carries is reflected on a number of le- bilants and the sound r – these convey a sense of tic component of company names in all their di- of names to new products, services, brands, and vels: mental and emotional, conscious and sub- alarm and threat. Names that start with the letters versity. companies (Sood & Keller, 2012). conscious. Apart from its direct meaning and emo- C, S, and B are seen as traditional and classic, Italian companies account for the majority of Naming is the art of defining and embellishing tional and stylistic connotations, a word also has whereas the letters X, Z, Q, and V have more of an interior design industry enterprises, and as such an object in as few words as possible. It is also the history (etymology), structure (morphology), and innovative air. Moreover, the letters L, V, F, and W have to maximise the distinctiveness of their brand science of finding a memorable and attractive aesthetics (euphony, graphics, rhythm). All these are perceived as feminine, whereas X, M, and Z names to ensure they are recognisable and memo- name in order to position the object in the con- details are factored in when creating a company or tend to be associated with masculinity. These are rable in both domestic and international interior sciousness of the consumer in a particular way product name. Associative fields also play a role in only a few of the conclusions that experts at the design markets (Bhat & Reddy, 1998). Research in (Makkar & Yap, 2018). Nowadays, naming has be- the naming process (Botton et al., 2002; Keller, brand naming company Strategic Name Develop- the field of naming strategies is relevant because it come a separate field of research, which includes 2013). ment had come to in their research (Kapoor & provides the opportunity to monitor whether a lin- elements of linguistics, psychology, marketing, As for the linguistic criteria for choosing a com- Heslop, 2009). Their experiments showed how as- guistic (usually etymological or semantic) compo- and other sciences. pany name, these can be divided into two types: sociations created by certain sound combinations nent can, on its own, become an effective tool for Finding a striking and effective name is im- phonetic criteria and semantic criteria. Within the influenced text perception. Phonosemantic analy- branding and marketing and, by extension, for the portant both for emerging enterprises and new phonetic criterion of naming, the word in question sis of words and texts is the cornerstone of the mo- company’s success on the market (Bhat & Reddy, brands launched by established companies. Of all is examined from the perspective of its phonemes, dern-day approach to naming theory. Thus, the 2001). In other words, the subject matter of this ar- the characteristic features of a company, its name the speech mechanisms involved in producing phonetic criterion has to do with the unconscious ticle is the analysis of the linguistic component as will be the first to elicit an emotional response them, and how they correspond to the phonetic descriptive associations evoked by the sound of manifested in a particular professional field in a from the consumer, and if that response is structure of a particular language. According to the the word (Fenko et al., 2016). certain country during a particular period of time – ‘correct’, then the name itself – and the product phonetic criterion, a name should be easy to pro- The lexical (denotative) criterion for choosing a namely, in the Italian interior design industry from and its producer – will be sure to achieve success nounce and be in line with the phonetic structures company name directly involves the meaning of a 2000 to 2010. The purpose of the study is to high- and better competitive performance (Grewal et al., of the language, meaning it should consist of word, seeing as a name requires a certain seman- light the distinctive features of names used by Itali- 1998). Furthermore, names provide legal protec- syllables set together in a fashion typical of the tic image. In the naming process, all established

32 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 33 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova participants in Milanese trade fairs, Federlegno-Ar- an businesses in the interior design industry during tion for products, services and companies, and redo and Cosmit joined forces in order to present a the aforementioned period. This aim dictates ad- play an important role in market promotion and ‘A name is not created on a whim, but is group of Milanese fair products on several foreign dressing the following objectives: establishing the effective communication with international part- developed through the joint efforts of markets, including Russia. This initiative, dubbed key linguistic strategies for company naming in the ners (Chen & Bei, 2018). psychologists, linguists and marketing iSaloni WorldWide, led to highly successful trade Italian interior design industry during the above- In modern times, naming theory has become an fairs in New York and later in Moscow. mentioned period, and determining and justifying area of great interest for a wide range of research- experts. Only then will it not simply sound Another indicator of success is the growing the most productive company naming strategy. ers. New naming methodologies are being devel- nice, but also reflect the nature of the number of visitors at the iSaloni WorldWide trade The hypothesis of the study states that national oped, books and articles on the essence of naming product and the philosophy of the fair in Moscow, which includes many designers, identity is relevant to naming design businesses: in are being published, existing names are being ana- architects, and furniture and interior design spe- theory, naming has to follow the general branding lysed, and strategies for effective name creation company’ cialists. Cosmit puts the total number of visitors in and marketing laws of the international market tar- are being suggested. However, the goal of profes- language in question (Dwivedi & McDonald, 2005 at 13,199. By 2008, the number had more geted at the average global consumer, in addition sional naming as a creative science is the creation 2018). This naming parameter is also defined as than doubled, with a total of 28,748 visitors. Such to being culturally neutral (Keller, 2013). of names themselves. It is a creative science and the psycholinguistic naming criterion: any combi- a positive dynamic is yet another sign of the con- not simply an act of creating, because a name nation of sounds will evoke in the recipient a set stantly growing interest in Italian design, which is 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND must not only be striking and memorable, but of associations with the source of the sounds and considered by Russian consumers to be an exam- Humankind had been inventing names since must also reflect the essence of what it represents their meaning. Associations between certain ple of high standards of quality. the dawn of its existence, yet there was no theory (Myung-Soo, 2007). A name is not created on a sounds and corresponding meanings are mostly Manufacturing enterprises form the basis of the that would explain the process until the early 20th whim, but is developed through the joint efforts of stable and definable. The sound of the word interior design industry, and a comprehensive stu- century. Technological breakthroughs, expansion psychologists, linguists and marketing experts. should not produce any negative associations or dy of their names from a linguistic and historical of production, scientific development, growing Only then will it not simply sound nice, but also emotions – a requirement that is especially rele- perspective can be a rich source of data that pro- competition as well as an increasing interest in hu- reflect the nature of the product and the philoso- vant for made-up names (Lowrey & Shrum, 2007). vides insight into the Italian national identity. This man psychology and ways of influencing it – all phy of the company (Bao et al., 2008). For instance, traditional phonetic stereotypes sug- study will not discuss the commercial success of these factors eventually enabled the development The Latin expression Nomen est omen epitomi- gest that the presence of vowels (especially a and individual companies, since that is a topic for mar- of naming theory in 1976 in the US. In general ses the significance of naming. The information i) is pleasing to the ear. It is preferable to avoid si- ket research, and will instead focus on the linguis- terms, it can be defined as the creation and giving that a word carries is reflected on a number of le- bilants and the sound r – these convey a sense of tic component of company names in all their di- of names to new products, services, brands, and vels: mental and emotional, conscious and sub- alarm and threat. Names that start with the letters versity. companies (Sood & Keller, 2012). conscious. Apart from its direct meaning and emo- C, S, and B are seen as traditional and classic, Italian companies account for the majority of Naming is the art of defining and embellishing tional and stylistic connotations, a word also has whereas the letters X, Z, Q, and V have more of an interior design industry enterprises, and as such an object in as few words as possible. It is also the history (etymology), structure (morphology), and innovative air. Moreover, the letters L, V, F, and W have to maximise the distinctiveness of their brand science of finding a memorable and attractive aesthetics (euphony, graphics, rhythm). All these are perceived as feminine, whereas X, M, and Z names to ensure they are recognisable and memo- name in order to position the object in the con- details are factored in when creating a company or tend to be associated with masculinity. These are rable in both domestic and international interior sciousness of the consumer in a particular way product name. Associative fields also play a role in only a few of the conclusions that experts at the design markets (Bhat & Reddy, 1998). Research in (Makkar & Yap, 2018). Nowadays, naming has be- the naming process (Botton et al., 2002; Keller, brand naming company Strategic Name Develop- the field of naming strategies is relevant because it come a separate field of research, which includes 2013). ment had come to in their research (Kapoor & provides the opportunity to monitor whether a lin- elements of linguistics, psychology, marketing, As for the linguistic criteria for choosing a com- Heslop, 2009). Their experiments showed how as- guistic (usually etymological or semantic) compo- and other sciences. pany name, these can be divided into two types: sociations created by certain sound combinations nent can, on its own, become an effective tool for Finding a striking and effective name is im- phonetic criteria and semantic criteria. Within the influenced text perception. Phonosemantic analy- branding and marketing and, by extension, for the portant both for emerging enterprises and new phonetic criterion of naming, the word in question sis of words and texts is the cornerstone of the mo- company’s success on the market (Bhat & Reddy, brands launched by established companies. Of all is examined from the perspective of its phonemes, dern-day approach to naming theory. Thus, the 2001). In other words, the subject matter of this ar- the characteristic features of a company, its name the speech mechanisms involved in producing phonetic criterion has to do with the unconscious ticle is the analysis of the linguistic component as will be the first to elicit an emotional response them, and how they correspond to the phonetic descriptive associations evoked by the sound of manifested in a particular professional field in a from the consumer, and if that response is structure of a particular language. According to the the word (Fenko et al., 2016). certain country during a particular period of time – ‘correct’, then the name itself – and the product phonetic criterion, a name should be easy to pro- The lexical (denotative) criterion for choosing a namely, in the Italian interior design industry from and its producer – will be sure to achieve success nounce and be in line with the phonetic structures company name directly involves the meaning of a 2000 to 2010. The purpose of the study is to high- and better competitive performance (Grewal et al., of the language, meaning it should consist of word, seeing as a name requires a certain seman- light the distinctive features of names used by Itali- 1998). Furthermore, names provide legal protec- syllables set together in a fashion typical of the tic image. In the naming process, all established

32 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 33 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova meanings of a word are uncovered, and if even 2014). When a company uses the last name of its Similar to alliteration is the onomatopoeic nam- one of those definitions does fit the idea that the ‘The same words or sound combinations owner, the consumer gets the impression that the ing strategy, which uses already existing or made- creators want to attach to the name, that word will can have varying connotations depending owner is personally responsible for the quality of up words whose sound is reminiscent of certain get turned down. That is the semantic aspect of the on the country and culture, which is why the product. However, there are also drawbacks to features of the product which the name denotes. lexical naming criterion. Etymological dictionaries this naming strategy: firstly, such names can be Onomatopoeic names like Schweppes are rather must also be consulted, since the meanings of an important part of the naming process is hard to memorise, and secondly, if the company is widespread. words tend to change over time, and their original making sure that the name in question sold, the name of the previous owner will no long- Naming by analogy basically involves using a meaning might not be found in modern dictiona- does not evoke any negative or inimical er be a valid biographical reference (Fu et al., well-known word, concept, or name without intro- ries any more. That is the etymological aspect of 2007). ducing any changes. Often these are names from the lexical (denotative) naming criterion (Arora et associations. A poorly chosen name can As for geographical names, these are used myths or history, names of stars, archaic words, al., 2015). have a devastating effect on business, when a company wants to denote the region of names of literary or movie characters, names of The third important aspect of the lexical (deno- alienating both consumers and potential production, provided the current or historical loca- plants and animals, or simply euphonious words tative) naming criterion is the associative aspect. A partners’ tion of the company can be used to the advantage that evoke the appropriate associations (Del Rio et brand manager must examine which associations of business. For example, Fiuggi mineral water real., 2001). the new name produces. The main goal of such an words have no previous ‘history’, no established minds the consumer of the famed resort in central Naming by adjacency, where a part is made to analysis is to ascertain that there are no negative meaning, allowing the owners of the company to Italy, and the Montblanc brand, named after the represent the whole or the whole is reduced to associations in play. It is also important to avoid imbue these words with whatever meaning they highest mountain peak in Europe, is known as the one of its parts, can be characterised as metonymi- unnecessary associations that do not relate to the choose (Rahman, 2013). This strategy is not with- leading producer of luxury writing implements. cal. Examples include wines that are named after key values of the target audience (Francis et al., out drawbacks: a word with an established mea- If a name consists of a foreign word that is un- their region of production, for instance, Chianti or 2002). ning can be more easily memorised, whereas a known to the customer, they will perceive it simp- Valpolicella. The name of a company is also important for neologism still needs meaning. To come up with a ly as a combination of sounds, regardless of its ac- The compound name strategy involves blend- entering the international market and for its global suitable neologism, one will have to consider the tual meaning. Perfume manufacturers often use ing different parts of several words or adding part development, which is why the process of creating principles of word formation in different languages borrowings from French in the names of their pro- of a word onto another word by: adding roots or a new name goes together with the concepts of in- to create a word that imitates a language and func- ducts, lending them an air of romance due to par- endings from old words to a root of a modern ternationalism and cross-cultural communication tion within a unique context. ticular phonetic associations. Restaurants often word; giving the root of a word affixes and/or end- (Candi et al., 2017). The same words or sound Words in everyday use are implemented to choose names that will be associated with the type ings from another language; blending existing combinations can have varying connotations de- create names that reflect the company’s line of of cuisine that they serve. Another reason for using words in order to create neologisms; blending se- pending on the country and culture, which is why business or the application area of the product. words from another language in company names mantic and phonetic elements; blending different an important part of the naming process is making This naming strategy limits the consumers’ associ- is the desire to expand business beyond the do- parts of speech; blending morphologically diffe- sure that the name in question does not evoke any ations and gives them direction. mestic market (Samu & Krishnan, 2010). In this rent elements (e.g. a numeral and a part of a word) negative or inimical associations. A poorly chosen Proper nouns and geographical names were a case, borrowings from English occur more often, (Carrol, 1985). name can have a devastating effect on business, very popular naming strategy up until the early since English is the current global Lingua Franca. An example of a rather effective use of the alienating both consumers and potential partners. twentieth century. Before that, company owners The use of abbreviations in the names of com- compound name strategy is the Swiss watch brand The theoretical basis for this research relies on had no need for unusual and original names – they panies and products was rather fashionable in Eu- Swatch, whose name is a portmanteau of two a number of publications on branding (Botton et would simply give the company their first or last rope in the 1960-70s, but this strategy can present parts of speech: the adjective Swiss and the noun al., 2002; Keller, 2013). According to their studies, names. This strategy underlined the idea of conti- serious flaws. Abbreviations are not always mean- watch. the most widespread naming strategies are based nuous family lineage – even with no actual de- ingful, or the meaning of the abbreviated words Oxymorons – combinations of words with op- on the use of neologisms, words in everyday use, scendants left, the family name would live on does transpire; oftentimes, abbreviations are simp- posite meaning – are also used in the naming pro- proper nouns and geographical names, borrowings through the company name. ly difficult to memorise. cess, as in True lies. from other languages, abbreviations, alliterations, Old companies that are still on the market Alliteration is a naming strategy that involves Naming through metaphor involves using an onomatopoeia, analogies, metonymies, com- have, at some point, borne the names of their the repetition of syllables or phonemes in order to established word or term in the name in order to pounds (word blending), oxymorons, and meta- founders, and this naming strategy is among the create rhythm and rhyme (Lowrey & Shrum, attract attention to something new. Neologisms phors. most popular for modern companies as well. An 2007), making it easier to remember new words – can also become metaphors, provided they are im- Naming through neologisms means using undeniable advantage of proper names is that they an important feature for young companies. Exam- bued with an easily inferable meaning. Examples words that do not actually exist in the language. instil trust and are associated with quality, with a ples of alliterative naming include Criss Cross, of company names created by means of this strate- The main advantage of this method is that these real person and their life story (Michel & Donthu, Peg-Perego, and many others. gy include Coldrex, Dr. Mom, and Whirlpool.

34 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 35 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova meanings of a word are uncovered, and if even 2014). When a company uses the last name of its Similar to alliteration is the onomatopoeic nam- one of those definitions does fit the idea that the ‘The same words or sound combinations owner, the consumer gets the impression that the ing strategy, which uses already existing or made- creators want to attach to the name, that word will can have varying connotations depending owner is personally responsible for the quality of up words whose sound is reminiscent of certain get turned down. That is the semantic aspect of the on the country and culture, which is why the product. However, there are also drawbacks to features of the product which the name denotes. lexical naming criterion. Etymological dictionaries this naming strategy: firstly, such names can be Onomatopoeic names like Schweppes are rather must also be consulted, since the meanings of an important part of the naming process is hard to memorise, and secondly, if the company is widespread. words tend to change over time, and their original making sure that the name in question sold, the name of the previous owner will no long- Naming by analogy basically involves using a meaning might not be found in modern dictiona- does not evoke any negative or inimical er be a valid biographical reference (Fu et al., well-known word, concept, or name without intro- ries any more. That is the etymological aspect of 2007). ducing any changes. Often these are names from the lexical (denotative) naming criterion (Arora et associations. A poorly chosen name can As for geographical names, these are used myths or history, names of stars, archaic words, al., 2015). have a devastating effect on business, when a company wants to denote the region of names of literary or movie characters, names of The third important aspect of the lexical (deno- alienating both consumers and potential production, provided the current or historical loca- plants and animals, or simply euphonious words tative) naming criterion is the associative aspect. A partners’ tion of the company can be used to the advantage that evoke the appropriate associations (Del Rio et brand manager must examine which associations of business. For example, Fiuggi mineral water real., 2001). the new name produces. The main goal of such an words have no previous ‘history’, no established minds the consumer of the famed resort in central Naming by adjacency, where a part is made to analysis is to ascertain that there are no negative meaning, allowing the owners of the company to Italy, and the Montblanc brand, named after the represent the whole or the whole is reduced to associations in play. It is also important to avoid imbue these words with whatever meaning they highest mountain peak in Europe, is known as the one of its parts, can be characterised as metonymi- unnecessary associations that do not relate to the choose (Rahman, 2013). This strategy is not with- leading producer of luxury writing implements. cal. Examples include wines that are named after key values of the target audience (Francis et al., out drawbacks: a word with an established mea- If a name consists of a foreign word that is un- their region of production, for instance, Chianti or 2002). ning can be more easily memorised, whereas a known to the customer, they will perceive it simp- Valpolicella. The name of a company is also important for neologism still needs meaning. To come up with a ly as a combination of sounds, regardless of its ac- The compound name strategy involves blend- entering the international market and for its global suitable neologism, one will have to consider the tual meaning. Perfume manufacturers often use ing different parts of several words or adding part development, which is why the process of creating principles of word formation in different languages borrowings from French in the names of their pro- of a word onto another word by: adding roots or a new name goes together with the concepts of in- to create a word that imitates a language and func- ducts, lending them an air of romance due to par- endings from old words to a root of a modern ternationalism and cross-cultural communication tion within a unique context. ticular phonetic associations. Restaurants often word; giving the root of a word affixes and/or end- (Candi et al., 2017). The same words or sound Words in everyday use are implemented to choose names that will be associated with the type ings from another language; blending existing combinations can have varying connotations de- create names that reflect the company’s line of of cuisine that they serve. Another reason for using words in order to create neologisms; blending se- pending on the country and culture, which is why business or the application area of the product. words from another language in company names mantic and phonetic elements; blending different an important part of the naming process is making This naming strategy limits the consumers’ associ- is the desire to expand business beyond the do- parts of speech; blending morphologically diffe- sure that the name in question does not evoke any ations and gives them direction. mestic market (Samu & Krishnan, 2010). In this rent elements (e.g. a numeral and a part of a word) negative or inimical associations. A poorly chosen Proper nouns and geographical names were a case, borrowings from English occur more often, (Carrol, 1985). name can have a devastating effect on business, very popular naming strategy up until the early since English is the current global Lingua Franca. An example of a rather effective use of the alienating both consumers and potential partners. twentieth century. Before that, company owners The use of abbreviations in the names of com- compound name strategy is the Swiss watch brand The theoretical basis for this research relies on had no need for unusual and original names – they panies and products was rather fashionable in Eu- Swatch, whose name is a portmanteau of two a number of publications on branding (Botton et would simply give the company their first or last rope in the 1960-70s, but this strategy can present parts of speech: the adjective Swiss and the noun al., 2002; Keller, 2013). According to their studies, names. This strategy underlined the idea of conti- serious flaws. Abbreviations are not always mean- watch. the most widespread naming strategies are based nuous family lineage – even with no actual de- ingful, or the meaning of the abbreviated words Oxymorons – combinations of words with op- on the use of neologisms, words in everyday use, scendants left, the family name would live on does transpire; oftentimes, abbreviations are simp- posite meaning – are also used in the naming pro- proper nouns and geographical names, borrowings through the company name. ly difficult to memorise. cess, as in True lies. from other languages, abbreviations, alliterations, Old companies that are still on the market Alliteration is a naming strategy that involves Naming through metaphor involves using an onomatopoeia, analogies, metonymies, com- have, at some point, borne the names of their the repetition of syllables or phonemes in order to established word or term in the name in order to pounds (word blending), oxymorons, and meta- founders, and this naming strategy is among the create rhythm and rhyme (Lowrey & Shrum, attract attention to something new. Neologisms phors. most popular for modern companies as well. An 2007), making it easier to remember new words – can also become metaphors, provided they are im- Naming through neologisms means using undeniable advantage of proper names is that they an important feature for young companies. Exam- bued with an easily inferable meaning. Examples words that do not actually exist in the language. instil trust and are associated with quality, with a ples of alliterative naming include Criss Cross, of company names created by means of this strate- The main advantage of this method is that these real person and their life story (Michel & Donthu, Peg-Perego, and many others. gy include Coldrex, Dr. Mom, and Whirlpool.

The study has used the following reference shops where skilled craftsmen were manufacturing The structure of the company name also be- ‘The upsurge in the Italian furniture sources to analyse the names of Italian interior de- traditional hardwood furniture, lamps of brass or came relevant. Generally, longer names are harder industry, along with a substantial increase sign companies: forged iron, curtains and lampshades made with to memorise than those comprised of a single in the number of large, small, and (1) iSaloni WorldWide Moscow exhibition cata- pure fabrics, by the mid-twentieth century they word (Bresciani & Del Ponte, 2017). According to logues, with a complete list of exhibitors and links had expanded into large-scale businesses, while our analysis, 33.4% of Italian interior design com- medium-sized companies operating in it, to homepages of Italian companies; preserving and reinforcing traditions of previous pany names have only one word in them. Names corresponds to the years of the Italian (2) iSaloni Milano exhibition catalogues; generations of skilled professionals (Lojacono, that contain two words account for 34.1% of the economic boom and the subsequent (3) Italian Trade Agency (ICE) statistics and pub- 2003). total number of companies studied; the remaining lications, which is responsible for promoting trade The upsurge in the Italian furniture industry, 32.5% are names that have three or more words. decade’ exchange and business cooperation between Itali- along with a substantial increase in the number of Thus, these groups are effectively equal in the an and foreign companies; large, small, and medium-sized companies opera- number of names in each. In our research, we did, Thus, both linguistic and cultural factors need (4) Italian interior design periodicals such as ting in it, corresponds to the years of the Italian however, encounter an interesting phenomenon: if to be considered when developing a company AD, Interni, Abitare, BravaCasa, Showcase, Light- economic boom and the subsequent decade. a company’s name is a combination of two or name. This process follows a set of rules and con- design; 31.8% of factories reviewed in this study were more parts, it is the shorter part (not necessarily forms to one of the many naming strategies that (5) information provided by the Italian National founded in the 1960s; it is during this period that the first part) that is more likely to be remembered modern-day naming theory has to offer. The pro- Institute of Statistics (Istat). major companies such as Passeri International and therefore reproduced in the course of commu- cess of naming will exhibit differing features de- We were able to analyse 342 companies that (1961), Zanaboni (1967), Grande Arredo (1969), nication. We can see full names in interior design pending on the particular sector of industry. manufacture furniture, light fixtures, fabrics, and Swan Italia (1963) and many others emerge. magazines and on websites, for instance, Riva Mo- other design accessories. Our selection criteria in- 22.3% of all businesses examined were created in bili d’arte, but the name is shortened to Riva for 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS cluded the frequency with which a company is the 1970s, also indicating an upswing. Such com- marketing campaigns. This study aims is to examine the extent to mentioned in Italian and Russian specialised peri- panies as Flexform (1970), Poliform (1970), Provasi Analysing the denotative component of naming which the names of Italian interior design compa- odicals, minimum ten years of participating in pro- (1978) were established during this decade. 18.2% strategies, we had to modify the classification pre- nies correspond to the established naming prac- fessional trade fairs in Italy as well as participation of the companies examined have emerged over sented by Cellotto (2005), singling out the follow- tices of companies, to identify the strategies used in major exhibitions in Russia including MEBEL the last three decades. The economic upswing saw ing naming categories: Proper Nouns, Geographi- therein, and to develop a classification of names and iSaloni WorldWide. the formation of Italy’s key manufacturing regions cal Names, Words and Phrases in Everyday Use, based on etymological and semantic analysis. The Using continuous material sampling and quan- for furniture, light fixtures, and textiles, the leading and Abbreviations. Firstly, the study only included classification proposed by Cellotto (2005), who titative analysis (the figures are presented as per- ones being Tuscany (e.g. Passeri International, companies bearing names of actual people in the studies Italian company names in a wide range of centages), we created a classification of naming 1961), Lombardy (Provasi, 1980), and Veneto (Ca- Proper Nouns category and singled out Geogra- industries, has served as a foundation for our own strategies for Italian interior design companies. We samania, 1984). These three Italian regions ac- phical Names as a separate naming type for the nomenclature of interior design company names: have also conducted an etymological and seman- count for 304 out of 342 Italian interior design Italian interior design companies who find regio- (1) proper names: last name (Barilla), first and tic analysis of company names across the Italian companies that we have studied. This is due not nal labelling important. We propose that the cate- last name (Giorgio Armani), mythological name design industry. only to their heritage, but also to their aggressive gories ‘words in everyday use’ and ‘composite na- (Mercurio), historic name (Napoleone), character marketing policies. mes’ be merged into one group which we call name (Ariel), geographical name (Montblanc); 4. STUDY AND RESULTS Italian businesses have never turned to brand- Words and Phrases in Everyday Use, seeing as (2) words in everyday use: nouns (Vespa), ad- Over the centuries, furniture, light fixtures, and ing agencies to come up with company names, they vary in form, but not in substance, making jectives (Perugina), verbs (Nevica), adverbs other interior design accessories in Italy have been seeing as it was not common practice in Italy du- use of the same naming methods. This group in- (Avanti!); primarily crafted by hand. As our analysis of Itali- ring the years when the most prominent interior cludes company names that do not have a proper (3) words with no lexical meaning: pseudona- an companies that are branch leaders and long- design companies emerged. Names were sug- noun in them. Moreover, we have found that the mes (Xelion), compound names (Swatch), onoma- time participants in international exhibitions has gested by their respective founders, and the most naming category ‘names without lexical meaning’, topoetic names (Tic-tac); demonstrated, only 9 out of 342 factories date favourable option was to give the company their proposed by Cellotto (2005), is only seldom pre- (4) composite names: short expressions (Man- back to the 19th century, such as Modenese Gas- family name. Such names proved to be a good sent in the interior design industry, so we do not giaebevi), mottos (Forza Italia), collocations (Muli- tone di Modenese Renzo e Francesco (1818) or choice as they were familiar to everyone who place them in a specific group, but rather examine no Bianco), compounds (Palmolive), adjective + BetaMobili (1890). They are pioneers of the interi- knew the owner of the factory. At that point no them as part of other naming strategies. geographical name (Bella Napoli), proper noun + or design industry in Italy, possessing traditions consideration was given to how a family name Naming via proper nouns is the most widely- common noun (Acqua di Gio); and secret manufacturing techniques handed would be pronounced in another language (Loja- used and versatile naming strategy among Italian (5) abbreviations (FIAT). down from father to son. Starting in small work- cono, 2003, p. 60). interior design companies and is found in 54.4%

36 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 37 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova of all names studied. The branding practice of a The words used to characterise a company’s use of furniture from ancient ships. Thus, a small company using a proper noun, singled out by Cel- product or style are often borrowings from the workshop eventually turned into a large company ‘It is no coincidence that English becomes lotto (2005) and others as the leading branding English language (e.g. Fendi Casa Club House Ita- which is credited with creating a unique and origi- the main source for borrowings – the method, is one of the earliest and most common lia, Vismara Design, Facondini Contract & Home nal interior design style known as Antique Mari- companies use them because they wish to practices to date. The family name preserves tradi- Division, Rugiano Interiors Decoration, Morelato time Style (Lojacono, 2003, p. 84). tions passed down from one generation to the Contemporary). These examples demonstrate how Another way of forming names of this type is enter the international market’ next, so it is unsurprising that the same trend can the name of the founder acquires an ‘international’ using borrowings. Our analysis has shown that the be clearly traced among names of Italian interior connotation while remaining the main communi- tendency to use foreign words, mainly of English Another group of Italian companies in the inte- design companies (Bresciani & Del Ponte, 2017). cative element. origin, in the names of Italian companies in the in- rior design industry, comprising 6.4% of company Approximately one third of names with proper Thus, we have examined the Proper Nouns ca- terior design industry had gradually increased by names studied, creates their names by attaching nouns contain the last name of the individual who tegory that offers company names that inspire con- the middle of the 20th century. Of all the compa- the English abbreviation & C. to a proper noun. As opened a workshop for handling wood, iron, or fidence in the consumer, infer quality and exclusi- ny names included in this study, 18.8% feature a a rule, these companies also hire workers, thus not glass several decades ago. Among the many exam- vity, and suggest that the company is personally borrowed word or phrase. It is no coincidence that keeping production strictly within the family – a ples are factories such as Bernini, Scavolini, Zanot- responsible for the hand-made product they sell. English becomes the main source for borrowings – fact that becomes reflected in the name (e.g. Ange- ta, and others. Factory names are created either by In Cellotto’s (2005) typology of names, the the companies use them because they wish to en- lo Cappellini & C.). One should note that the ab- using only one last name or by combining two last ‘geographical names’ naming strategy is merely a ter the international market (Buschgens et al., breviation & C. in this case does not constitute a names (Tettamanzi e Erba). subdivision of the ‘proper nouns’ group. We, 2019). Often a borrowing from another language legal term. In some names of factories – for example, Agos- however, propose to classify it as a separate cate- is used as a more prestigious and fashionable alter- One particular type of abbreviation that can be toni Figli di Isacco di Agostoni Marco – we find the gory, given how clearly it can be traced through- native to a similar word in Italian. Such English distinguished is that in which the words abbrevia- word figli, which means ‘children’. This underlines out the names of Italian companies in the interior words as style, collection, interiors, international ted provide information about the company’s pro- the continuity of generations, a feature that is very design industry. 5.9% of all the company names are often used in company names instead of the duct, making the brand name easier to memorise. important for Italians. Another group that stands that we have studied contain a geographical name corresponding Italian words stile, collezione, inter- For example, A.C.F. (Artistiche Ceramiche Fiorenti- out incorporates companies whose brand names that indicates the region or city in which the facto- ni, internazionale (e.g. Florence Collections, Gam- ne) – a company from Florence – manufactures use, alongside their last name, the word fratelli, ry is located. Among the main approaches used to ma Arredamenti International). chandeliers and ceramic design objects. i.e. ‘brothers’ – another important concept for Itali- form this type of name are blending (Pataviumart), The economic boom in Italy saw the emer- Thus, the typology of names proposed by Cel- ans. Such names amount to 5% of all the company including borrowed words (Florence Collection), gence of many small and medium-sized enterpri- lotto (2005) is generally applicable to the names of names studied herein (e.g. Fratelli Allievi, Fratello or combining a geographical name with another ses that produce modern-style furniture, lamps and Italian interior design companies; however, we Citterio). The name in this case becomes a reflec- part of speech (L’Antica Bassano, L’Antica Deruta). design accessories for the home and office. Their have found that the most productive naming stra- tion of historical features, namely the fact that the The second most productive naming strategy is names tend to reflect the company’s product while tegies are the ones that involve proper nouns. company was founded by none other than bro- Words and Phrases in Everyday Use. Such compa- giving it a certain English air (e.g. Milano Bedding, thers – relatives who preserve the secrets of crafts- ny names make up 26.6% of the total number of Poliform). In addition to English borrowings, one 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION manship within the (extended) family. Today, enterprise names studied. This group makes use of can also find some French words (Epoque, Dési- The hypothesis of this study is that there is a re- usually only family members work in factories that everyday words instead of proper nouns (e.g. Stella rée) in the names of interior design companies. lationship between the names of Italian companies proudly bear the name Fratelli. Keeping produc- del Mobile, Arte di Murano, Maestri Artigiani, For- Another notable feature of company names that in the interior design industry and the traditions of tion within the family is a characteristic feature of me di luce creattiva). It is in this name group that becomes apparent in the interior design industry in the Italian people. Indeed, the concept of ‘home the Italian furniture industry as a whole. the semantic aspect becomes particularly relevant. the mid-1970s is abbreviations – they are present sweet home’, of continuous home improvement The mid-20th century saw the appearance of a For example, the name of the factory La vecchia in 13.1% of company names analysed, making that is inextricably linked to the idea of procrea- tendency to expand company names that include marina refers to an interesting story depicting love them the third most productive naming strategy tion, is clearly traceable in the names of Italian in- proper nouns. This is done by adding a word de- of tradition. The founder of the company, a skilled amongst the ones identified in the study. Almost terior design companies. This is evidenced by the scribing the company’s line of work to the last craftsman and expert in naval architecture, was all of these abbreviations contain an encoded pro- fact that the vast majority of companies include name of the founder or current owner of the com- once walking along the seashore in the port city of per noun. This once more confirms the observa- the name of their founder or current owner in the pany (a pattern observed in 19.8% of names stu- Livorno after a severe storm when he saw a ship’s tion that the majority of factories in Italy are fami- brand name. Most importantly, the use of a last died, e.g. Pigoli Salotti, Bontempi Cucine, Poltrona wheel half-buried in the sand. He brought it to his ly-owned, and that the preservation of family tradi- name suggests a direct involvement of the owner Frau, Solari Illuminazione). Adding a reference to workshop and restored it to its former beauty. After tions is paramount to Italians. The use of acronyms in the manufacturing process; therefore, they are the company’s product makes the name of the ma- some time, his workshop decided to devote them- is also observed as part of this strategy (G.T. di Gi- presumed to be personally responsible to the con- nufacturer more specific and functional. selves to interior design projects that would make anni Tonin). sumer for the products and services provided.

38 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 39 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova of all names studied. The branding practice of a The words used to characterise a company’s use of furniture from ancient ships. Thus, a small company using a proper noun, singled out by Cel- product or style are often borrowings from the workshop eventually turned into a large company ‘It is no coincidence that English becomes lotto (2005) and others as the leading branding English language (e.g. Fendi Casa Club House Ita- which is credited with creating a unique and origi- the main source for borrowings – the method, is one of the earliest and most common lia, Vismara Design, Facondini Contract & Home nal interior design style known as Antique Mari- companies use them because they wish to practices to date. The family name preserves tradi- Division, Rugiano Interiors Decoration, Morelato time Style (Lojacono, 2003, p. 84). tions passed down from one generation to the Contemporary). These examples demonstrate how Another way of forming names of this type is enter the international market’ next, so it is unsurprising that the same trend can the name of the founder acquires an ‘international’ using borrowings. Our analysis has shown that the be clearly traced among names of Italian interior connotation while remaining the main communi- tendency to use foreign words, mainly of English Another group of Italian companies in the inte- design companies (Bresciani & Del Ponte, 2017). cative element. origin, in the names of Italian companies in the in- rior design industry, comprising 6.4% of company Approximately one third of names with proper Thus, we have examined the Proper Nouns ca- terior design industry had gradually increased by names studied, creates their names by attaching nouns contain the last name of the individual who tegory that offers company names that inspire con- the middle of the 20th century. Of all the compa- the English abbreviation & C. to a proper noun. As opened a workshop for handling wood, iron, or fidence in the consumer, infer quality and exclusi- ny names included in this study, 18.8% feature a a rule, these companies also hire workers, thus not glass several decades ago. Among the many exam- vity, and suggest that the company is personally borrowed word or phrase. It is no coincidence that keeping production strictly within the family – a ples are factories such as Bernini, Scavolini, Zanot- responsible for the hand-made product they sell. English becomes the main source for borrowings – fact that becomes reflected in the name (e.g. Ange- ta, and others. Factory names are created either by In Cellotto’s (2005) typology of names, the the companies use them because they wish to en- lo Cappellini & C.). One should note that the ab- using only one last name or by combining two last ‘geographical names’ naming strategy is merely a ter the international market (Buschgens et al., breviation & C. in this case does not constitute a names (Tettamanzi e Erba). subdivision of the ‘proper nouns’ group. We, 2019). Often a borrowing from another language legal term. In some names of factories – for example, Agos- however, propose to classify it as a separate cate- is used as a more prestigious and fashionable alter- One particular type of abbreviation that can be toni Figli di Isacco di Agostoni Marco – we find the gory, given how clearly it can be traced through- native to a similar word in Italian. Such English distinguished is that in which the words abbrevia- word figli, which means ‘children’. This underlines out the names of Italian companies in the interior words as style, collection, interiors, international ted provide information about the company’s pro- the continuity of generations, a feature that is very design industry. 5.9% of all the company names are often used in company names instead of the duct, making the brand name easier to memorise. important for Italians. Another group that stands that we have studied contain a geographical name corresponding Italian words stile, collezione, inter- For example, A.C.F. (Artistiche Ceramiche Fiorenti- out incorporates companies whose brand names that indicates the region or city in which the facto- ni, internazionale (e.g. Florence Collections, Gam- ne) – a company from Florence – manufactures use, alongside their last name, the word fratelli, ry is located. Among the main approaches used to ma Arredamenti International). chandeliers and ceramic design objects. i.e. ‘brothers’ – another important concept for Itali- form this type of name are blending (Pataviumart), The economic boom in Italy saw the emer- Thus, the typology of names proposed by Cel- ans. Such names amount to 5% of all the company including borrowed words (Florence Collection), gence of many small and medium-sized enterpri- lotto (2005) is generally applicable to the names of names studied herein (e.g. Fratelli Allievi, Fratello or combining a geographical name with another ses that produce modern-style furniture, lamps and Italian interior design companies; however, we Citterio). The name in this case becomes a reflec- part of speech (L’Antica Bassano, L’Antica Deruta). design accessories for the home and office. Their have found that the most productive naming stra- tion of historical features, namely the fact that the The second most productive naming strategy is names tend to reflect the company’s product while tegies are the ones that involve proper nouns. company was founded by none other than bro- Words and Phrases in Everyday Use. Such compa- giving it a certain English air (e.g. Milano Bedding, thers – relatives who preserve the secrets of crafts- ny names make up 26.6% of the total number of Poliform). In addition to English borrowings, one 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION manship within the (extended) family. Today, enterprise names studied. This group makes use of can also find some French words (Epoque, Dési- The hypothesis of this study is that there is a re- usually only family members work in factories that everyday words instead of proper nouns (e.g. Stella rée) in the names of interior design companies. lationship between the names of Italian companies proudly bear the name Fratelli. Keeping produc- del Mobile, Arte di Murano, Maestri Artigiani, For- Another notable feature of company names that in the interior design industry and the traditions of tion within the family is a characteristic feature of me di luce creattiva). It is in this name group that becomes apparent in the interior design industry in the Italian people. Indeed, the concept of ‘home the Italian furniture industry as a whole. the semantic aspect becomes particularly relevant. the mid-1970s is abbreviations – they are present sweet home’, of continuous home improvement The mid-20th century saw the appearance of a For example, the name of the factory La vecchia in 13.1% of company names analysed, making that is inextricably linked to the idea of procrea- tendency to expand company names that include marina refers to an interesting story depicting love them the third most productive naming strategy tion, is clearly traceable in the names of Italian in- proper nouns. This is done by adding a word de- of tradition. The founder of the company, a skilled amongst the ones identified in the study. Almost terior design companies. This is evidenced by the scribing the company’s line of work to the last craftsman and expert in naval architecture, was all of these abbreviations contain an encoded pro- fact that the vast majority of companies include name of the founder or current owner of the com- once walking along the seashore in the port city of per noun. This once more confirms the observa- the name of their founder or current owner in the pany (a pattern observed in 19.8% of names stu- Livorno after a severe storm when he saw a ship’s tion that the majority of factories in Italy are fami- brand name. Most importantly, the use of a last died, e.g. Pigoli Salotti, Bontempi Cucine, Poltrona wheel half-buried in the sand. He brought it to his ly-owned, and that the preservation of family tradi- name suggests a direct involvement of the owner Frau, Solari Illuminazione). Adding a reference to workshop and restored it to its former beauty. After tions is paramount to Italians. The use of acronyms in the manufacturing process; therefore, they are the company’s product makes the name of the ma- some time, his workshop decided to devote them- is also observed as part of this strategy (G.T. di Gi- presumed to be personally responsible to the con- nufacturer more specific and functional. selves to interior design projects that would make anni Tonin). sumer for the products and services provided.

cording to tradition, balancing antiquity with mo- Besides, most abbreviations are simply the initials pany names bear a clear relation to these regions, ‘Manufacturers of furniture and other dernity, and luxury with style. of the founder or current owner of the company, as in Tosconova. The geographical name will in interior design objects conceptualise each By examining the etymological and semantic and do not provide any information to the potenti- most cases correspond to the region or city where of their products to be a work of art that aspects of Italian company names in the interior al buyer. production is located. design industry, we have been able to group the The Geographical Names strategy turned out to Notably, a neologism as a part of a company has been made according to tradition, most common naming strategies into four catego- be unexpectedly unproductive – this type of com- name has only been observed in one example, balancing antiquity with modernity, and ries that appear the most productive: Proper pany naming is mainly present in the Italian food even though Cellotto (2005) considers it to be the luxury with style’ Nouns (54.4% of all names studied), Words and and winemaking industry. Having studied the most productive type of brand naming. This is pri- Phrases in Everyday Use (26.6%), Abbreviations main Italian regions for furniture, lighting, and tex- marily because this naming strategy is mainly used Using a proper noun in the name of a company (13.1%), Geographical Names (5.9%). The use of tiles production that emerged in the mid-twentieth to name trademarks, brands and individual pro- thus becomes a form of evidence for positive cha- proper nouns prevails within Italian interior design century, with Tuscany, Lombardy, and Veneto in ducts rather than the manufacturing companies racter traits of the owner. The abundance of last companies – in contrast to the classification pro- the lead, one must note that toponym-based com- themselves. names, proper nouns and words like fratelli and posed by Cellotto (2005), in which this naming figli in company names shows that family-owned strategy is considered to be only the third most fre- References production is typical of the Italian furniture and in- quent. However, in cases where the first and last terior design industry as a whole. names of the owner (founder) are ‘encumbered’ Arora, S., Kalro, A. D., & Sharma, D. (2015). A reviews. Journal of Business Research, 81, 31-39. Words from foreign languages have spread with a string of other words, the company name comprehensive framework of brand name Doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.08.006 more and more through different fields of human will inevitably undergo reduction to ease the pro- classification. Journal of Brand Management, Carrol, J. M. (1985). What’s in a name: An essay on the activity in Italy, having their effect on the interior cess of communication. For example, Paolo Luc- 22(2), 79-116. Doi: 10.1057/bm.2015.8 psychology of reference. New York: Freeman & design industry as well. Our study has shown that chetta Multipli d’Arte per L’Arredamento becomes Bao, Y., Shao, A. T., & Rivers, D. (2008). Creating new Co. in the 1960s-80s there was a tendency in Italy to simply Paolo Lucchetta. brand names: Effects of relevance, connotation, Cellotto, A. (2005). Brand naming: Il nome all’interno use borrowings in company names, to rename The Words and Phrases in Everyday Use cate- and pronunciation. Journal of Advertising del sistema-marca. Padova, Italia: CLEUP. Research, 48(1), 148-162. Doi: 10.2501/ Chen, Y., & Bei, L. (2018). Free the brand: How a logo companies accordingly, or to replace some of the gory turned out to be the second most productive, S002184990808015X frame influences the potentiality of brand Italian words in company names with equivalent suggesting that what the consumer wishes to buy Bhat, S., & Reddy, S. K. (1998). Symbolic and extensions. Journal of Brand Management, 26(4), is more than just an interior design product. It is a words from another language (mostly English). Ita- functional positioning of brands. Journal of 349-364. Doi: 10.1057/s41262-018-0142-0 ly, as a member of the global community, thus en- concept, an image created by the manufacturer. A Consumer Marketing, 15(1), 32-43. Doi: Del Rio, A. B., Vzquez, R., & Iglesias, V. (2001). The ters new markets and finds new business partners. concept is more easily expressed by using a com- 10.1108/07363769810202664 role of the brand name in obtaining differential The use of this naming strategy creates an image of mon noun with a descriptor – a qualitative or rela- Bhat, S., & Reddy, S. K. (2001). The impact of parent advantages. Journal of Product and Brand Italians as responsible businesspeople who set tive adjective. Concepts expressed in a single brand attribute associations and affect on brand Management, 10(7), 452-461. Doi: 10.1108/ very particular strategic goals and wish to take a word proved the most effective and therefore the extension evaluation. Journal of Business EUM0000000006242 leading position in their field, while preserving a most persistent, whereas structurally complex Research, 53(3), 111-122. Doi: 10.1016/ Dwivedi, A., & McDonald, R. (2018). Building brand distinctively Italian ‘flavour’ for their brands. company names are fully preserved in the commu- S0148-2963(99)00115-0 authenticity in fast-moving consumer goods via Regional identity, being an important part of nication process only in cases when their reduc- Botton, M., Cegarra, J. J., & Ferrari, B. (2002). Il nome consumer perceptions of brand marketing the Italian worldview, is also reflected in company tion makes no sense (La vecchia marina). This stra- della marca: Creazione e strategia di naming. communications. European Journal of Marketing, names across the interior design industry. Putting tegy also involves borrowings, mainly from the Milan, Italy: Guerini. 52(7-8), 1387-1411. Doi: 10.1108/ Bresciani, S., & Del Ponte, P. (2017). New brand logo EJM-11-2016-0665 the city or region of production in the company English language, but with individual borrowings design: Customers’ preference for brand name Fenko, A., Lotterman, H., & Galetzka, M. (2016). name indicates the owners’ wish to underline their from French as well. Using borrowed words gives and icon. Journal of Brand Management, 24(5), What’s in a name? The effects of sound company names additional connotations that pro- place of origin as well as the Italians’ affection for 375-390. Doi: 10.1057/s41262-017-0046-4 symbolism and package shape on consumer their home regions in general. vide associations with fame, world-class quality, Buschgens, M. A., Figueiredo, B., & Rahman, K. (2019). responses to food products. Food Quality and Italians tend to have a strong emotional con- and following trends. The role of brand visual aesthetics in fostering a Preference, 51, 100-108. Doi: 10.1057/ nection to art and history, which might explain the The significant difference in the usage frequen- transnational imagined community. European s41262-019-00183-5 frequency of words such as arte, maestri, vecchia, cy of the naming strategies Proper Nouns (54.3%) Journal of Marketing, 53(11), 2268-2292. Doi: Francis, J. N. P., Janet, P. Y. L., & Walls, J. (2002). The antica in the names of Italian interior design com- and Abbreviations (13.2%) is due to historical cir- 10.1108/EJM-10-2017-0655 impact of linguistic differences on international panies. Manufacturers of furniture and other interi- cumstances. The first type was in use continuously Candi, M., Jae, H., Makarem, S., & Mohan, M. (2017). brand name standardization: A comparison of or design objects conceptualise each of their pro- throughout the whole of the 20th century, whereas Consumer responses to functional, aesthetic and English and Chinese brand names of fortune-500 ducts to be a work of art that has been made ac- the second type only started forming in the 1970s. symbolic product design in online companies. Journal of International

40 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 41 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Company naming strategies in the Italian interior design industry Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Daria A. Shevliakova cording to tradition, balancing antiquity with mo- Besides, most abbreviations are simply the initials pany names bear a clear relation to these regions, ‘Manufacturers of furniture and other dernity, and luxury with style. of the founder or current owner of the company, as in Tosconova. The geographical name will in interior design objects conceptualise each By examining the etymological and semantic and do not provide any information to the potenti- most cases correspond to the region or city where of their products to be a work of art that aspects of Italian company names in the interior al buyer. production is located. design industry, we have been able to group the The Geographical Names strategy turned out to Notably, a neologism as a part of a company has been made according to tradition, most common naming strategies into four catego- be unexpectedly unproductive – this type of com- name has only been observed in one example, balancing antiquity with modernity, and ries that appear the most productive: Proper pany naming is mainly present in the Italian food even though Cellotto (2005) considers it to be the luxury with style’ Nouns (54.4% of all names studied), Words and and winemaking industry. Having studied the most productive type of brand naming. This is pri- Phrases in Everyday Use (26.6%), Abbreviations main Italian regions for furniture, lighting, and tex- marily because this naming strategy is mainly used Using a proper noun in the name of a company (13.1%), Geographical Names (5.9%). The use of tiles production that emerged in the mid-twentieth to name trademarks, brands and individual pro- thus becomes a form of evidence for positive cha- proper nouns prevails within Italian interior design century, with Tuscany, Lombardy, and Veneto in ducts rather than the manufacturing companies racter traits of the owner. The abundance of last companies – in contrast to the classification pro- the lead, one must note that toponym-based com- themselves. names, proper nouns and words like fratelli and posed by Cellotto (2005), in which this naming figli in company names shows that family-owned strategy is considered to be only the third most fre- References production is typical of the Italian furniture and in- quent. However, in cases where the first and last terior design industry as a whole. names of the owner (founder) are ‘encumbered’ Arora, S., Kalro, A. D., & Sharma, D. (2015). A reviews. Journal of Business Research, 81, 31-39. Words from foreign languages have spread with a string of other words, the company name comprehensive framework of brand name Doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.08.006 more and more through different fields of human will inevitably undergo reduction to ease the pro- classification. Journal of Brand Management, Carrol, J. M. (1985). What’s in a name: An essay on the activity in Italy, having their effect on the interior cess of communication. For example, Paolo Luc- 22(2), 79-116. Doi: 10.1057/bm.2015.8 psychology of reference. New York: Freeman & design industry as well. Our study has shown that chetta Multipli d’Arte per L’Arredamento becomes Bao, Y., Shao, A. T., & Rivers, D. (2008). Creating new Co. in the 1960s-80s there was a tendency in Italy to simply Paolo Lucchetta. brand names: Effects of relevance, connotation, Cellotto, A. (2005). Brand naming: Il nome all’interno use borrowings in company names, to rename The Words and Phrases in Everyday Use cate- and pronunciation. Journal of Advertising del sistema-marca. Padova, Italia: CLEUP. Research, 48(1), 148-162. Doi: 10.2501/ Chen, Y., & Bei, L. (2018). Free the brand: How a logo companies accordingly, or to replace some of the gory turned out to be the second most productive, S002184990808015X frame influences the potentiality of brand Italian words in company names with equivalent suggesting that what the consumer wishes to buy Bhat, S., & Reddy, S. K. (1998). Symbolic and extensions. Journal of Brand Management, 26(4), is more than just an interior design product. It is a words from another language (mostly English). Ita- functional positioning of brands. Journal of 349-364. Doi: 10.1057/s41262-018-0142-0 ly, as a member of the global community, thus en- concept, an image created by the manufacturer. A Consumer Marketing, 15(1), 32-43. Doi: Del Rio, A. B., Vzquez, R., & Iglesias, V. (2001). The ters new markets and finds new business partners. concept is more easily expressed by using a com- 10.1108/07363769810202664 role of the brand name in obtaining differential The use of this naming strategy creates an image of mon noun with a descriptor – a qualitative or rela- Bhat, S., & Reddy, S. K. (2001). The impact of parent advantages. Journal of Product and Brand Italians as responsible businesspeople who set tive adjective. Concepts expressed in a single brand attribute associations and affect on brand Management, 10(7), 452-461. Doi: 10.1108/ very particular strategic goals and wish to take a word proved the most effective and therefore the extension evaluation. Journal of Business EUM0000000006242 leading position in their field, while preserving a most persistent, whereas structurally complex Research, 53(3), 111-122. Doi: 10.1016/ Dwivedi, A., & McDonald, R. (2018). Building brand distinctively Italian ‘flavour’ for their brands. company names are fully preserved in the commu- S0148-2963(99)00115-0 authenticity in fast-moving consumer goods via Regional identity, being an important part of nication process only in cases when their reduc- Botton, M., Cegarra, J. J., & Ferrari, B. (2002). Il nome consumer perceptions of brand marketing the Italian worldview, is also reflected in company tion makes no sense (La vecchia marina). This stra- della marca: Creazione e strategia di naming. communications. European Journal of Marketing, names across the interior design industry. Putting tegy also involves borrowings, mainly from the Milan, Italy: Guerini. 52(7-8), 1387-1411. Doi: 10.1108/ Bresciani, S., & Del Ponte, P. (2017). New brand logo EJM-11-2016-0665 the city or region of production in the company English language, but with individual borrowings design: Customers’ preference for brand name Fenko, A., Lotterman, H., & Galetzka, M. (2016). name indicates the owners’ wish to underline their from French as well. Using borrowed words gives and icon. Journal of Brand Management, 24(5), What’s in a name? The effects of sound company names additional connotations that pro- place of origin as well as the Italians’ affection for 375-390. Doi: 10.1057/s41262-017-0046-4 symbolism and package shape on consumer their home regions in general. vide associations with fame, world-class quality, Buschgens, M. A., Figueiredo, B., & Rahman, K. (2019). responses to food products. Food Quality and Italians tend to have a strong emotional con- and following trends. The role of brand visual aesthetics in fostering a Preference, 51, 100-108. Doi: 10.1057/ nection to art and history, which might explain the The significant difference in the usage frequen- transnational imagined community. European s41262-019-00183-5 frequency of words such as arte, maestri, vecchia, cy of the naming strategies Proper Nouns (54.3%) Journal of Marketing, 53(11), 2268-2292. Doi: Francis, J. N. P., Janet, P. Y. L., & Walls, J. (2002). The antica in the names of Italian interior design com- and Abbreviations (13.2%) is due to historical cir- 10.1108/EJM-10-2017-0655 impact of linguistic differences on international panies. Manufacturers of furniture and other interi- cumstances. The first type was in use continuously Candi, M., Jae, H., Makarem, S., & Mohan, M. (2017). brand name standardization: A comparison of or design objects conceptualise each of their pro- throughout the whole of the 20th century, whereas Consumer responses to functional, aesthetic and English and Chinese brand names of fortune-500 ducts to be a work of art that has been made ac- the second type only started forming in the 1970s. symbolic product design in online companies. Journal of International

40 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 41 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-31-42 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-43-55 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 31-42 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org

Marketing, 10(1), 98-116. Doi: 10.1509/ Makkar, M., & Yap, S. F. (2018). Emotional experiences jimk.10.1.98.19528 behind the pursuit of inconspicuous Fu, G., Ding, J., & Qu, R. (2007). Ownership effects in luxury. Journal of Retailing and Consumer consumers’ brand extension evaluations. Journal Services, 44, 222-234. Original Research of Brand Management, 16(4), 221-233. Doi: Michel, G., & Donthu, N. (2014). Why negative brand 10.1057/palgrave.bm.2550091 extension evaluations do not always negatively Grewal, D., Krishnan, R., Baker, J., & Borin, N. (1998). affect the brand: The role of central and The effects of store name, brand name and price peripheral brand associations. Journal of Business The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome discounts on consumers’ evaluations and Research, 67(12), 2611-2619. Doi: purchase intentions. Journal of Retailing, 74(3), 10.1108/10610420310506001 the anxiety of speaking foreign languages 331-352. Doi: 10.1016/S0022-4359(99)80099-2 Myung-Soo, J. (2007). Should a quality sub-brand be by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch ICE. (2020). Il mercato dei mobili in Russia 2008-2010: located before or after the parent brand? An Indicatori generali e previsioni. Retrieved from application of composite concept theory. Journal Heiner Böttger Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt [email protected] https://www.ice.it/it/mercati of the Academy of Marketing Science, 35(2), Deborah Költzsch Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt [email protected] Kapoor, H., & Heslop, L. A. (2009). Brand positivity 184-196. Doi: 10.1007/s11747-007-0039-z Date of submission: 19.01.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 4.06.2020 and competitive effects on the evaluation of Rahman, K. (2013). Discovering brand meaning: Recommended citation format: Böttger, H., & Költzsch, D. (2020). The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to brand extensions. International Journal of Deriving the domains of a subbrand. Market & overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages. Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 43-55. Doi: Research in Marketing, 26(3), 228-237. Doi: Social Research, 21(1), 38-53. Doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 10.1016/j.ijresmar.2009.05.001 10.1057/978-1-352-00011-5_9 Keller, K. L. (2013). Strategic brand management (4th Samu, S., & Krishnan, H. S. (2010). Brand related ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. information as context: The impact of brand The article approaches a ubiquitous as well as a rarely adequately addressed problem area of learning and Lojacono, G. (2003). Le imprese del sistema name characteristics on memory and teaching foreign languages. It concentrates on xenoglossophobia, the fear of speaking foreign languages. arredamento. Milan, Italy: Etas. choice. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Why do avoidance strategies as well as phobias develop during childhood especially in the foreign language Lojacono, G. (2007). Competitività e crescita Science, 38(4), 456-470. Doi: 10.1007/ classroom whenever it comes to the productive usage of the English language? Psychological, pedagogical, internazionale del sistema arredamento. Bologna, s11747-009-0175-8 didactical as well as language related and neuroscientific findings are analysed and interpreted in order to Italy: Les Mots Libres. Sood, S., & Keller, K. L. (2012). The effects of brand help answer central questions like the above. The theoretical indications are further supported by a funda- Lowrey, T. M., & Shrum, L. J. (2007). Phonetic name structure on brand extension evaluations mental pilot study based on the productive language usage of foreign language students (n=108) and the symbolism and brand name preference. Journal and parent brand dilution. Journal of Marketing according reflective and prospective analysis. The second part of the article brings all these findings toge- of Consumer Research, 34(3), 406-414. Doi: Research, 49(3), 373-382. Doi: 10.1509/ ther and outlines language didactical, meaningful, positive preventive, diagnostical, and therapeutic oppor- 10.1108/07363761111181509 jmr.07.0418 tunities for intervention in the foreign language classroom.

KEYWORDS: xenoglossophobia, language anxiety, amygdala, language learning, didactical intervention

1. INTRODUCTION sic vital functions such as respiration, heart rate, 1.1. Neurobiological home of anxiety and blood pressure regulation. The top areas (e.g. The human brain is a highly complex organ. It limbic and cortex areas) monitor more complex allows humans to think, act, feel, laugh, speak, functions such as thinking and emotional regula- create, and love. Yet, the core mission of the brain tion. During infancy and childhood, the develop- is to sense, perceive, process, store, and act on in- ment of the brain follows this bottom-up structure: formation from the external and internal environ- The most regulatory, bottom regions of the brain ment to ensure survival. In order to do so, the hu- mature first, followed by adjacent but higher, more man brain has developed an efficient and logical complex regions. The developmental process is bottom-up organisational structure. The bottom re- mainly guided by experience. The brain develops gions (e.g. brainstem and midbrain) control the ba- and modifies itself in response to each and every

KEYWORDS: xenoglossophobia, language anxiety, amygdala, language learning, didactical intervention

© Heiner Böttger, Deborah Költzsch 2020 42 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 43 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch experience, good as well as bad (Perry & Marcel- pact on the brain’s development and function, By introducing the Amygdala first, it can be process so difficult to comprehend. The prefrontal lus, 2020; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000): Neurons when occurring too often, regularly, and not fal- summarised that this part of the brain creates, cortex, the so-called Thinking Brain, is responsible and synapses, the connections among these brain ling back below a certain intensity level. It then maintains, or modifies anxiety and fear responses. for cognitive action like reasoning, conscious me- regions, change in an activity-dependent way. This can insidiously create bad feelings like fear, anxie- Situated within the limbic system, the amygdala mories, awareness, detailed information, and con- very early use-dependent developmental process ty, or worry. works from a less conscious part of the brain. The centration. From a functional point of view, the is the first key to understanding the impact of fear Fear is an emotional, physical response or reac- amygdala makes way for the direct impact of fear differences towards the amygdala are big, the con- on the process of language acquisition, especially tion to a clear foreseen and present danger of and anxiety: it receives information from the thala- nections yet close: Anxiety responses can also be foreign language learning (Engels et al., 2007). harm and affects the ability to focus and think. mus before the cortex does and can activate the initiated in the cortex by alerting the amygdala to The more a certain neural system is activated, Anxiety arises as a negative emotional response to sympathetic nervous system due to triggers that potential or imagined dangers. And, what is more, the more it builds an internal representation of the anticipated events and has cognitive as well as might be unknown to the cortex. This, for amygdala reactions can – with a little time gap – experience corresponding to that specific neural controlling elements (Horwitz, 2010). The cogni- example, can be a stimulus that has been pre- be relativised by the cortex, when the danger turns activation. This is the basis for learning and me- tive aspect is what interferes with academic perfor- viously associated with emotional reactions and is out to be harmless on a second glance. The cortex, mory. Age, however, makes a difference – due to mance. Therefore, the ability to concentrate, focus therefore a part of the emotional memories. When however, provides another anxiety pathway, inde- the plasticity or receptiveness to environmental in- and think are also affected. Worry generates po- anxiety starts there, interventions based in the cor- pendent of external information: Thinking or rumi- put: The sensitive brain of a child is more malle- tential negative outcomes, often as a result of an tex, like logical thinking and reasoning, will not nating hypothetically about a prospective, but un- able but also more vulnerable to experience than a elaborate cognitive process. It has more to do with help reduce the upcoming or existing feeling. real future along with a bad case scenario is often mature brain. In order to develop normally, diffe- thinking than with feeling and negatively influen- Amygdala-based anxiety can mostly be identified the basis of a self-fulfilling prophecy. What one rent regions of the brain require specific kinds of ces the ability to concentrate and think. In this pa- by certain characteristics: It occurs suddenly, cre- imagines to possibly go wrong combined with ca- experience, e.g. visual input while the visual sys- per, worry as a clearly subliminal, non-dangerous, ates strong physiological responses, and seems to tastrophic images in one’s mind, will probably tem is organising. These times during development and normal but also only temporal human state of leave the borders of the proportion to the situation. happen. are called critical or sensitive periods. In all, with mind can be neglected and will not be further ad- Ultimately, the amygdala does not need any in- The two areas in a contrastive nutshell as in Ta- optimal experiences, the brain develops healthy, dressed. volvement of the cortex, which makes the whole ble 1 below. flexible, and diverse capabilities. Disruptions of timing, intensity, quality or 1.2. The pre-frontal cortex and the amygdala Table 1 quantity of normal developmental experiences, Two neural systems are mainly involved in lan- Contrastive overview of language related fear centres however, cannot be avoided and are common, as guage related fear and anxiety: the prefrontal cor- well. Nonetheless, it might have a devastating im- tex and the amygdala (cf. Figure 1). AMYGDALA PREFRONTAL CORTEX – responsible for emotions – Thinking Brain – generates, receives, or changes anxiety and anxious reactions – responsible for cognition – operates unconsciously – responsible for consciousness – physical alarm system, perpetually scans for incoming signals – functions as executive (evaluation and analysis) of danger – promotes reasoning and logical thinking – affects the nervous system, hormones, and the prefrontal – conscious memory (retrievable) cortex (PFC) – contains detailed information – generates anxiety without the influence of the PFC and even – capable of learning to control the amygdala (aim of overrules it prevention and therapy) – produces hypothetical bad case – anxieties are ‘learned’ and negatively connoted scenarios

1.3. Age plays a crucial role of the myelin sheaths around their connections. Age, again, plays an important role in the deve- These are nerve ﬁbres, known as axons, 1 milli- lopment of the two areas’ relationship: the prefron- metre to 1 meter long, which transmit electrical tal cortex is not completely developed until the nerve stimuli between each other with an average age between 20 and 25, so that it cannot precisely speed of approx. 250 mph. Myelination, the gra- suppress emotions such as fear or anxiety yet (cf. dually coating of the axons, allows brain areas, Figure 2). That has to do with a process called that are far apart, to connect – e.g. the limbic sys- myelination: The communication velocity be- tem and the cortex. This development has a desig- Figure 1. Sources of fear and anxiety in the brain and their interdependence (Böttger & Sambanis, 2017) tween the neurons is determined by the thickness nated direction, from back to front all the way to

44 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 45 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch experience, good as well as bad (Perry & Marcel- pact on the brain’s development and function, By introducing the Amygdala first, it can be process so difficult to comprehend. The prefrontal lus, 2020; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000): Neurons when occurring too often, regularly, and not fal- summarised that this part of the brain creates, cortex, the so-called Thinking Brain, is responsible and synapses, the connections among these brain ling back below a certain intensity level. It then maintains, or modifies anxiety and fear responses. for cognitive action like reasoning, conscious me- regions, change in an activity-dependent way. This can insidiously create bad feelings like fear, anxie- Situated within the limbic system, the amygdala mories, awareness, detailed information, and con- very early use-dependent developmental process ty, or worry. works from a less conscious part of the brain. The centration. From a functional point of view, the is the first key to understanding the impact of fear Fear is an emotional, physical response or reac- amygdala makes way for the direct impact of fear differences towards the amygdala are big, the con- on the process of language acquisition, especially tion to a clear foreseen and present danger of and anxiety: it receives information from the thala- nections yet close: Anxiety responses can also be foreign language learning (Engels et al., 2007). harm and affects the ability to focus and think. mus before the cortex does and can activate the initiated in the cortex by alerting the amygdala to The more a certain neural system is activated, Anxiety arises as a negative emotional response to sympathetic nervous system due to triggers that potential or imagined dangers. And, what is more, the more it builds an internal representation of the anticipated events and has cognitive as well as might be unknown to the cortex. This, for amygdala reactions can – with a little time gap – experience corresponding to that specific neural controlling elements (Horwitz, 2010). The cogni- example, can be a stimulus that has been pre- be relativised by the cortex, when the danger turns activation. This is the basis for learning and me- tive aspect is what interferes with academic perfor- viously associated with emotional reactions and is out to be harmless on a second glance. The cortex, mory. Age, however, makes a difference – due to mance. Therefore, the ability to concentrate, focus therefore a part of the emotional memories. When however, provides another anxiety pathway, inde- the plasticity or receptiveness to environmental in- and think are also affected. Worry generates po- anxiety starts there, interventions based in the cor- pendent of external information: Thinking or rumi- put: The sensitive brain of a child is more malle- tential negative outcomes, often as a result of an tex, like logical thinking and reasoning, will not nating hypothetically about a prospective, but un- able but also more vulnerable to experience than a elaborate cognitive process. It has more to do with help reduce the upcoming or existing feeling. real future along with a bad case scenario is often mature brain. In order to develop normally, diffe- thinking than with feeling and negatively influen- Amygdala-based anxiety can mostly be identified the basis of a self-fulfilling prophecy. What one rent regions of the brain require specific kinds of ces the ability to concentrate and think. In this pa- by certain characteristics: It occurs suddenly, cre- imagines to possibly go wrong combined with ca- experience, e.g. visual input while the visual sys- per, worry as a clearly subliminal, non-dangerous, ates strong physiological responses, and seems to tastrophic images in one’s mind, will probably tem is organising. These times during development and normal but also only temporal human state of leave the borders of the proportion to the situation. happen. are called critical or sensitive periods. In all, with mind can be neglected and will not be further ad- Ultimately, the amygdala does not need any in- The two areas in a contrastive nutshell as in Ta- optimal experiences, the brain develops healthy, dressed. volvement of the cortex, which makes the whole ble 1 below. flexible, and diverse capabilities. Disruptions of timing, intensity, quality or 1.2. The pre-frontal cortex and the amygdala Table 1 quantity of normal developmental experiences, Two neural systems are mainly involved in lan- Contrastive overview of language related fear centres however, cannot be avoided and are common, as guage related fear and anxiety: the prefrontal cor- well. Nonetheless, it might have a devastating im- tex and the amygdala (cf. Figure 1). AMYGDALA PREFRONTAL CORTEX – responsible for emotions – Thinking Brain – generates, receives, or changes anxiety and anxious reactions – responsible for cognition – operates unconsciously – responsible for consciousness – physical alarm system, perpetually scans for incoming signals – functions as executive (evaluation and analysis) of danger – promotes reasoning and logical thinking – affects the nervous system, hormones, and the prefrontal – conscious memory (retrievable) cortex (PFC) – contains detailed information – generates anxiety without the influence of the PFC and even – capable of learning to control the amygdala (aim of overrules it prevention and therapy) – produces hypothetical bad case – anxieties are ‘learned’ and negatively connoted scenarios

ses (Böttger & Költzsch, 2019). However, strategic, 2. XENOGLOSSOPHOBIA: A SPECIAL CASE anxiety or even depression. This can be seen in ‘Therefore, teenagers usually prioritise long-term as well as short-term planning and inter- OF ANXIETY form of physical reactions or experiencing stress their emotional processing over their ventions are not or only to a limited extent possi- 2.1. Definition and description response symptoms like a pounding heart, rapid cognitive processing due to the fact that ble (Böttger & Sambanis, 2017). This has an im- Anxiety can produce physiological responses breathing, stomach distress etc. The effects for the pact on the handling of fear and anxiety – children interfering with the ability to concentrate and learn language classroom are multiple: For example, they use their limbic system more strongly and teenagers are hence especially vulnerable and – especially languages. Specific thoughts or preoc- when students cannot sit still on their chairs in a during their adolescence as it has already require a special form of protection. cupations can suddenly – dependent on individual classroom, when they nervously play with their developed further. The mind is literally not triggers – invade learning processes and redirect pens, when they cannot utter sounds calmly, natu- 1.4. The importance of understanding attention to a parallel and negative world of rally and clearly in classroom conversations, they capable of controlling the rest of the Generally understanding where and how fear thoughts. Anxiety is capable of motivating avoid- show anxiety. They are also often not willing to brain, which can be fruitful for creative and anxiety begin, i.e. knowledge of the language ance strategies which in turn can lead to self-ex- start any conversation or even don’t like to partici- language processes’ of the amygdala, is the first means of taking correct clusion from the learning community, to a delay of pate in communications, they remain silent in dis- steps to interrupt the process of increasing amyg- studying and simply the avoidance of doing home- cussions, speak fast and finish quickly facing large the cortex (cf. Figure 2) (Gogtay et al., 2004). Simi- dala activation and negative bodily responses (cf. work or class assignments. Anxiety can, as a result, audiences like in front of their classmates. lar to the development of the prefrontal cortex, Pittman, 2015). A mental intervention is possible, interfere with the teacher’s professional ability to myelination is a maturation process that continues when fear and anxiety signals (beginning in the accurately assess a student’s knowledge or skills. If 2.2. How xenoglossophobia develops until the age of around 27. Only then all functions cortex with uncomfortable thoughts) provide only the affected learning process is language learning, Xenoglossophobia does not arise by itself. in the prefrontal cortex are fine-tuned, connected, little but nonetheless precious time in order to it is a matter of a very specific type of anxiety, xe- Speaking is a very complex neuromuscular activi- concentration and focusing are fully available, and change mental predispositions oneself. This pre- noglossophobia – the fear of speaking foreign lan- ty, which needs to be learned over years and must emotions can be controlled in most cases. supposes already learned, self-effective mental and guages. constantly be practiced, especially regarding for- Therefore, teenagers usually prioritise their physical strategies like self-programming, self-talk- Xenoglossophobia derives from the Greek: pho- eign languages (Böttger, 2014). The phonological emotional processing over their cognitive proces- ing or taking deep breaths. This in turn may help bos meaning ‘fear’, xeno meaning ‘foreign’, glosso production or rather the articulation can be taken sing due to the fact that they use their limbic sys- in preventing the activation of the amygdala and meaning ‘language’ or ‘tongue’. Psychiatrically from the image below (cf. Figure 3). It begins in tem more strongly during their adolescence as it decrease upcoming cortex-based anxiety at the speaking, xenoglossophobia belongs to the group Broca’s Area (1) and moves on to the motor cortex has already developed further. The mind is literally same time. Repetition and experience concerning of specific phobias (Horwitz, 2001). It describes in which the motoric process of the articulation (2) not capable of controlling the rest of the brain, this procedure is essential for being successful the abnormal and exaggerated fear of foreign lan- and the motoric operational control (3) take place. which can be fruitful for creative language proces- sustainably. guages. In the course of the sickness, people tend The auditory feedback and the phonological moni- to avoid not only the studies of foreign languages toring, a type of cognitive self-control and correc- but also speakers of said languages. They feel em- tion of one’s own speaking, occur in the upper barrassed when they have to speak English in temporal lobe (4). In addition, there are a number classrooms. Travelling to foreign countries is also of smaller muscles that are required to enable refrained due to similar reasons. Hence, xeno- speech production through the human lips. That glossophobia restricts daily life constantly and can such a long way contains various sources of error lead to the development of more in-depth states of goes without saying.

Figure 2. Development of the cortex’ functions: The PFC Figure 3. Oral language production in the brain (Böttger, 2014)

46 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 47 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch ses (Böttger & Költzsch, 2019). However, strategic, 2. XENOGLOSSOPHOBIA: A SPECIAL CASE anxiety or even depression. This can be seen in ‘Therefore, teenagers usually prioritise long-term as well as short-term planning and inter- OF ANXIETY form of physical reactions or experiencing stress their emotional processing over their ventions are not or only to a limited extent possi- 2.1. Definition and description response symptoms like a pounding heart, rapid cognitive processing due to the fact that ble (Böttger & Sambanis, 2017). This has an im- Anxiety can produce physiological responses breathing, stomach distress etc. The effects for the pact on the handling of fear and anxiety – children interfering with the ability to concentrate and learn language classroom are multiple: For example, they use their limbic system more strongly and teenagers are hence especially vulnerable and – especially languages. Specific thoughts or preoc- when students cannot sit still on their chairs in a during their adolescence as it has already require a special form of protection. cupations can suddenly – dependent on individual classroom, when they nervously play with their developed further. The mind is literally not triggers – invade learning processes and redirect pens, when they cannot utter sounds calmly, natu- 1.4. The importance of understanding attention to a parallel and negative world of rally and clearly in classroom conversations, they capable of controlling the rest of the Generally understanding where and how fear thoughts. Anxiety is capable of motivating avoid- show anxiety. They are also often not willing to brain, which can be fruitful for creative and anxiety begin, i.e. knowledge of the language ance strategies which in turn can lead to self-ex- start any conversation or even don’t like to partici- language processes’ of the amygdala, is the first means of taking correct clusion from the learning community, to a delay of pate in communications, they remain silent in dis- steps to interrupt the process of increasing amyg- studying and simply the avoidance of doing home- cussions, speak fast and finish quickly facing large the cortex (cf. Figure 2) (Gogtay et al., 2004). Simi- dala activation and negative bodily responses (cf. work or class assignments. Anxiety can, as a result, audiences like in front of their classmates. lar to the development of the prefrontal cortex, Pittman, 2015). A mental intervention is possible, interfere with the teacher’s professional ability to myelination is a maturation process that continues when fear and anxiety signals (beginning in the accurately assess a student’s knowledge or skills. If 2.2. How xenoglossophobia develops until the age of around 27. Only then all functions cortex with uncomfortable thoughts) provide only the affected learning process is language learning, Xenoglossophobia does not arise by itself. in the prefrontal cortex are fine-tuned, connected, little but nonetheless precious time in order to it is a matter of a very specific type of anxiety, xe- Speaking is a very complex neuromuscular activi- concentration and focusing are fully available, and change mental predispositions oneself. This pre- noglossophobia – the fear of speaking foreign lan- ty, which needs to be learned over years and must emotions can be controlled in most cases. supposes already learned, self-effective mental and guages. constantly be practiced, especially regarding for- Therefore, teenagers usually prioritise their physical strategies like self-programming, self-talk- Xenoglossophobia derives from the Greek: pho- eign languages (Böttger, 2014). The phonological emotional processing over their cognitive proces- ing or taking deep breaths. This in turn may help bos meaning ‘fear’, xeno meaning ‘foreign’, glosso production or rather the articulation can be taken sing due to the fact that they use their limbic sys- in preventing the activation of the amygdala and meaning ‘language’ or ‘tongue’. Psychiatrically from the image below (cf. Figure 3). It begins in tem more strongly during their adolescence as it decrease upcoming cortex-based anxiety at the speaking, xenoglossophobia belongs to the group Broca’s Area (1) and moves on to the motor cortex has already developed further. The mind is literally same time. Repetition and experience concerning of specific phobias (Horwitz, 2001). It describes in which the motoric process of the articulation (2) not capable of controlling the rest of the brain, this procedure is essential for being successful the abnormal and exaggerated fear of foreign lan- and the motoric operational control (3) take place. which can be fruitful for creative language proces- sustainably. guages. In the course of the sickness, people tend The auditory feedback and the phonological moni- to avoid not only the studies of foreign languages toring, a type of cognitive self-control and correc- but also speakers of said languages. They feel em- tion of one’s own speaking, occur in the upper barrassed when they have to speak English in temporal lobe (4). In addition, there are a number classrooms. Travelling to foreign countries is also of smaller muscles that are required to enable refrained due to similar reasons. Hence, xeno- speech production through the human lips. That glossophobia restricts daily life constantly and can such a long way contains various sources of error lead to the development of more in-depth states of goes without saying.

Figure 2. Development of the cortex’ functions: The PFC Figure 3. Oral language production in the brain (Böttger, 2014)

A process simultaneous to speaking, namely able to establish actual communication in conver- you scared to make mistakes while using English? able speaking English at school, especially when speech perception or much simpler listening, is sation, which, apart from the exchange of content, 4. In general, have you avoided communicational called upon suddenly? 12. Are you scared to say decoded in the language-processing and listening also contains intercultural and affective compo- situations in English? 5. Have you ever avoided an something wrong in English? 13. Do you avoid centres of the brain. The sound – also one’s own nents, for example, initial conversation strategies English-speaking phone call by not calling, by not speaking English in class to prevent making a mis- voice – arrives in the ear and reaches the primary of asking questions, agreeing, and the like. Memo- answering, or by writing a text message instead? 6. take even though you might know the correct an- listening centre in the auditory cortex (5). From rising means to memorise and retain language ma- Are there English words that you avoid in conver- swer? 14. Do you sometimes shorten your senten- there the vocal message is sent to Wernicke’s area terial such as words, sentences, etc. The linguistic sations? 7. Are there parts of a sentence that you ces on purpose in order to avoid verbalising long (6) for phonological, grammatical, and semantic content which is to be recalled must firstly be un- avoid while speaking? 8. Up until the present day, sentences in English? 15. Do you know someone detection as well as decryption. Besides the neuro- derstood in order to be able to deal with it. Al- are you sometimes nervous before coming into a who would have answered the previous questions nal processing, non-linguistic factors are also in- though the brain is quite capable of memorising class held in English? 9. Do you notice physical re- with yes? volved in a decryption process, i.e. conditions and even without knowledge of the content, this is not actions (e.g. blushing, perspiration) while speaking Remarkably, even the students, who tend to information from a situation in which a statement sufficient for participation in communicative situa- English in front of a group? 10. Do you sometimes feel confident while speaking English due to their is made. Redundancy plays an important role in tions. Communicative speaking altogether is a very condition yourself (e.g. pep talk) before speaking field of studies, experience xenoglossophobia decoding spoken language. It describes the diffe- complex structure consisting of the sub-competen- English in class or before giving a presentation in equally. The answers of the pilot study are shown rence between the amount of information a messa- ces hearing/listening, understanding, remember- English? 11. Looking back, did you feel uncomfort- in the graphs in Figure 4 below. ge could theoretically have and the amount that it ing, and speech production. actually possesses. Spoken language has a very high level of redundancy; it is generally estimated 3. A PILOT STUDY: XENOGLOSSOPHOBIA at around 50 percent of what has been said. Dur- AND ITS IMPACT ON PROSPECTIVE FOREIGN ing phone calls and in face-to-face communica- LANGUAGE TEACHERS tion, parts of the phonological information are of- As said above, xenoglossophobia is not only a ten disturbed, drowned by external noise or even phenomenon experienced in childhood or teenage not transmitted at all, in parts or as a whole. Na- years but rather remains up until adulthood (also tive speakers are so familiar with the coding sys- cf. Fondo, 2019). What is more, the fear of speak- tem of their language that they can reconstruct a ing foreign languages is not only found in certain message from an incomplete transmission. How- social groups but, interestingly enough, also in ever, anyone who learns a foreign language from those which tend to be viewed as free of these early on must first acquire this ability. It is most anxieties, e.g. foreign language teachers. important for receptive communication, particular- A fundamental pilot study examined 108 pro- ly essential when understanding translated TV prospective foreign language teachers studying grammes, listening to recordings or information English. As there are scarcely any findings regar- transmitted through loudspeakers (e.g. at airports) ding anxiety among foreign language speakers or and telephone calls in the foreign language. For learners respectively and especially little among Figure 4. Pilot study: Xenoglossophobia regarding foreign language students (n=108), non-natives, nonetheless, the decoding process in experienced foreign language learners as well as questions 1-5 (left to right) a foreign language, carried out automatically and speakers, the aim of this study was to take initial simultaneously to speaking itself, poses various steps into this specific field of anxiety in order to 53% of the students that participated in the stu- cond finding: 31% acknowledged that they addi- risks due to even more sources of error and thus give first indications. In the realm of a quantitative dy conceded that they have to think before speak- tionally had to make some kind of plan before possible causes of anxiety. online survey, the participants were asked rudi- ing English. This is fully in line with contemporary using the foreign language. The third survey result Speaking requires memory capacity as well as mental questions concerning their use of the language acquisition theory findings, which state also substantiates parts of the language acquisition specific strategies. Both the amygdala and the pre- English language as well as feelings, concerns, or that non-bilinguals learn and/or use a foreign lan- theory: the great fear of making mistakes among frontal cortex are involved in this remembering fears connected with the matter. Below is the com- guage after the age of 6 only against the back- two thirds of all respondents (64%) makes them procrss. Memorising and reproducing language is plete question catalogue of the survey question- ground of their first or mother tongue (Böttger, weigh up whether or not to say something for a highly communicative and especially the ability of naire. 2020, p. 37). The internal ‘language plan’ before much longer time, communicatively actually too being able to remember something has further sig- 1. Do you have to think before speaking Eng- the act of speaking in the foreign language is thus long. However, not only did these prospective nificance as an own speech strategy: Only those lish? 2. Do you make plans before speaking Eng- generally slightly delayed. Fears reinforce this English teachers overthink their use of the foreign who can recall what the interlocutor has said are lish, e.g. in class? 3. Up until the present day, are ‘lag’. Moreover, this aspect is reinforced by a se- language but over half of them also admitted to

48 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 49 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch avoiding situations in which they needed to use it. in which English was necessary, 33% did not pick Avoiding speech acts, or simpliﬁcation of speech, up the phone but instead wrote a message due to is not only considered a source of error (Böttger, the oral foreign language barrier. The lack of any 2020) but is also the maximum negative fear reac- communicative support through non-verbal signals tion. While 54% of the students stated that they such as gestures and facial expressions has an had already avoided communicational situations anxiety-increasing effect (Figure 5).

Figure 6. Pilot study: Xenoglossophobia regarding foreign language students (n=108), questions 11-15 (left to right)

their sentences on purpose in order to minimise well as people who do not work in any language- their number of errors in verbalisation of the for- related contexts. One the one hand, it can be as- eign language. The last question shows the sumed that the level of anxiety rises even further Figure 5. Pilot study: Xenoglossophobia regarding foreign language students (n=108), iceberg-effect: 94% of those questioned conceded as the subjects would not be as experienced in the questions 6-10 (left to right) to knowing somebody anxious concerning their foreign language and would therefore be more oral use of the foreign language English. This cir- fearful to make use of it. On the other hand, it is 51% of all students acknowledged the fact that influenced by self-conditioning in almost half of cumstance must be investigated in more depth in probable that the level of anxiety would drop due they avoid certain English words during English the respondents (48%) (as shown in Figure 6). follow-up examinations as the fear potential seems to the fact that future language teachers possess a conversations. This is mostly due to personal un- When taking a closer look into the classroom, to be much greater than previously assumed. This high standard of critical self-reflection and are also certainty regarding the correct pronunciation or the so-called ‘cold calls’ negatively influenced ap- first pilot study to explore the scientific field will used to comparing themselves with other experi- meaning of the word. Nonetheless, only 12% con- proximately half of all respondents. The fact that be followed by a second in-depth study in the year enced language-users in turn damaging their per- firmed the avoidance of complete parts of a sen- 47% of the students admitted that they had felt un- of the publication of this article. This will involve a sonal linguistic self-confidence. The results of this tence while speaking English. With regard to lon- comfortable speaking English at school might con- significant expansion of the group of respondents study therefore only depict the anxieties of this ger linguistic language units, the previously des- firm the assumption that the fear of speaking a for- in all aspects (number, learning experience with specific social group, which is why prospective cribed effect is significantly enhanced when there eign language stems from their previous education foreign languages, etc.) (cf. Figure 6). studies are highly required in order to shed more is even more uncertainty with respect to the cor- during their childhood or respectively their teen- As reality therefore shows, xenoglossophobia light on the precise reality of xenoglossophobia. rect sentence structure or the correct grammatical age years. Hypothetically, this number is likely to does not only relate to a certain group of people structure. Additionally, half of all students survey- be much higher for learners who are not as but is on the contrary a type of anxiety which 4. DISCUSSION ed stated that they are nervous before coming into English-affine as those interviewed. This could everyone is affected by, even those who should 4.1. Sources of xenoglossophobia a class held in English and 61% noted that they possibly be traced back to the fact that students feel more confident in the foreign language. Inte- Language anxiety and foreign language learning had perceived physical reactions, such as blushing are scared to say something incorrect, which 69% restingly enough, the participants of this study are are interrelated. Many factors lead to xenoglosso- or perspiration, before speaking English in front of of the participants in the study admitted. 62% con- in general highly aware of their language profici- phobia in teaching, learning or even related situa- groups. The physically measurable excitement, fessed that they did not answer certain questions ency and are capable of reflecting upon their lan- tions (Li & Wang, 2019). The following table was which can certainly be a still subliminal fear or in class even though they knew the correct answer guage skills more in-depth due to their professio- created following the categories of Turula (2002) positive excitement similar to the ‘pre-start feeling’ due to the fear of being grammatically or linguisti- nal training. Hence, it is of interest to explore the (cf. Buitrago et al., 2008, p. 28) – academic, cog- as known from sporting competitions, is positively cally incorrect. Even 28% confessed to shortening matter further regarding non-language students as nitive, social, and personal reasons – and was

50 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 51 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch avoiding situations in which they needed to use it. in which English was necessary, 33% did not pick Avoiding speech acts, or simpliﬁcation of speech, up the phone but instead wrote a message due to is not only considered a source of error (Böttger, the oral foreign language barrier. The lack of any 2020) but is also the maximum negative fear reac- communicative support through non-verbal signals tion. While 54% of the students stated that they such as gestures and facial expressions has an had already avoided communicational situations anxiety-increasing effect (Figure 5).

Figure 6. Pilot study: Xenoglossophobia regarding foreign language students (n=108), questions 11-15 (left to right)

created by the authors after interviews and infor- necessary to first identify in-depth and – as a se- 4.2. First steps towards overcoming xeno- peutic steps and at least the support by a psycho- mal conversations with neuroscientists, psycholo- cond prospective step in order to draw pedagogi- glossophobia logist. The negative conviction then takes a back gists, psychiatrist as well as academic language cal, didactical, and even methodological conclu- From a psychological perspective, proven treat- seat and is literally overwritten by the new convic- teaching staff of universities, teacher trainers, sions – deeply analyse the source of it (Alnuzaili & ments to overcome the fear of speaking English are tion. teachers, and students in 2020. It doesn’t claim to Uddin, 2020; Abinaya, 2016). The latter, however, two kinds of therapies: cognitive behavioural the- The second option, the confronting procedure be complete and is to be expanded continuously. is far beyond the scope of this study and will be rapy and confrontation therapy. (regarding English), takes place in a protected set- In order to deal with the effects of language the main topic of an authors’ book forthcoming The first option is one of the most modern psy- ting, also mentored by a psychological specialist. anxiety on a didactical basis focusing on possible 2021. chotherapeutic methods. Here, negative attitudes, Being confronted with the anxiety-causing situa- anxiety prevention precautions, therapy interven- Turula (2002) summarises the sources of xeno- thoughts, evaluations, and convictions are identi- tion those affected can endure fear and, very cru- tions, and also methodological task formats, it is glossophobia as shown in Table 2 below. fied and slowly but sustainably changed. An ex- cially, that there are no negative consequences at ample of this is the inner negative belief that ‘I all. As a result, the fear of speaking English can be Table 2 don’t speak English well enough’ can be replaced forgotten again over time. Sources of xenoglossphobia in the ELT classroom (Turula, 2002 – adopted and expanded) by a new, much more positive self-belief, such as ‘My English is perfectly sufficient for what I want 4.3. Resolving xenoglossophobia PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODOLOGICAL COGNITIVE SOURCES SOCIAL-AFFECTIVE to accomplish’. Other possible coping conceptions Ideally, the influence of foreign language SOURCES SOURCES SOURCES for preparing a communication situation can be: I teachers accompanies either process. The anxiety can get through this. This won’t last forever; I’ve and fear references mentioned above must be dis- – lack of affective support a) Motivational: a) Metacognitive: – prejudice of peers and – false perception of – monotonous lessons – indifference to the learning teachers handled this before; Just remember to breathe; cussed intensively in the future in order to ap- emotions – boring topics and learning process and learning formats – hypothetical judgements by Take your time. There’s no rush. Time is on my proach a didactical pattern of anxiety-free teach- – frustration content – excessive testing and speaking partners (native side; I will learn from this. It will get easier each ing and learning action. In the meantime, the most – stressful, negative, nearly – little student involvement evaluation speakers) hostile environment – difficult tasks b) Cognitive: – risk of public time; I’m doing the best I can; Staying calm shows important task is to track down these fears in their – lack of self-confidence, low b) Pedagogical: – lack of linguistic capacity embarrassment that I am in control. entirety, to record and discuss them, put them in a self-esteem – promotion of competition – lack of contentual/subject- – lack of interest regarding Single helpful words to be repeated over and suitable order of importance, and thus to produce – adolescent, peer-related – calling up of students in specific competences the opinion of the speaker behaviour class (‘cold calling’) – lack of lexical and – social-affective isolation over for self-programming are relax, peace, calm, first cornerstones of a fear-free foreign language – restrictions due to schools – lack of speaking practice grammatical skills – cultural background or breathe. This, however, requires several thera- didactics, as illustrated in Figure 7 below. and teachers – classroom organisation – complex structures and – negative experiences – time pressure – evaluation and grading long sentences in task – loss of cognitive control – negative, non-supportive descriptions and dialogues – feeling of being observed feedback – lack of planning and goal and evaluated – negative linguistic definition – individual expectations experiences/failures – continuous monitoring of – unresolved conflicts – disencouraging learning personal speech – feeling of excessive context – grammatical difficulties demands – deficiency regarding – lack of mindfulness vocabulary – lack of competences in the mother tongue/first language – linguistic interferences – perfectionism – neurobiological or mental diseases

The table contains psychological, methodologi- matters like the risk of exposure through mistakes. cal, cognitive, and social-affective aspects of the Another cross-connection could be a lack of self- topic. These are interdependent as well: psycholo- confidence (psychological) (Ferreira Marinho et gical effects can also be found within the metho- al., 2017) and mindfulness (Böttger, 2018), the dological area (feedback) as well as in the cogni- lack of speaking experience (and opportunities) in tive column (self-monitoring of one’s own speech), English (methodological), vocabulary deficits (cog- and, additionally, may influence socio-affective nitive) and cultural background (social). Figure 7. Didactical action pattern of anxiety-free teaching

52 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 53 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch

sounds as well as fluency. Even in an early phase References ‘In a nutshell, providing enough time to of vocabulary learning, the words to be repeated speak avoids or reduces stress and must be imitated correctly in order to face and Abinaya, R. (2016). Xenoglossophobia: Language environments. Proceedings of the International anxiety’ avert fossilisation. Fossilised word pronunciation is learner’s perspective on learning. American Association for Business and Society, 30, 82-97. extremely difficult to relearn correctly. Deficits in College Journal of English Language and Doi: 10.5840/iabsproc20193011 this respect can later become communication bar- Literature, 5, 1-4. Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., 4.4. Things to consider riers. For instance, the meaning of a word can Alnuzaili, E. S., & Uddin, N. (2020). Dealing with Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., Nugent, T. F., In order to prevent xenoglossophobia three fun- vary, if a single sound in it is pronounced differ- anxiety in foreign language learning classroom. Herman, D. H., Clasen, L. S., Toga, A. W., Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Rapoport, J. L., & Thompson, P. M. (2004). damental didactical insights and basics must be ently. If it is spoken generally in a vague manner, 11(2), 269. Doi: 10.17507/jltr.1102.15 Dynamic mapping of human cortical considered. this can impede the communication partner’s at- Böttger, H. (2014). Talk talk talk. Englisch sprechen development during childhood through early 1. Teachers must acquire obligatory knowledge tention so strongly that the content of what has lernen. Grundschule Englisch, 48, 4-7. adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy about the difficult speaking procedure, in order to been said cannot be understood or can only be Böttger, H. (2018). Home of mindfulness: of Sciences, 101(21), 8174-8179. Doi: 10.1073/ be able to professionally, sensitively, and fairly understood through inquiries. Failure, again, may Neuroscientific evidence in contemplative pnas.0402680101 analyse and evaluate an oral performance. It is ne- first lead to avoidance of communication, subse- pedagogy. In H. Böttger, K. Jensen & T. Jensen Horwitz, E. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. cessary to understand that mother tongue and for- quently to fear and anxiety. (Eds.), Mindful evolution. Konferenzband (pp. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, eign language learning – apart from a few points of 3. Last but not least, the role model offered by 39-52). Klinkhardt. 112-126. Doi: 10.1017/S0267190501000071 contact – are fundamentally different. The main the teachers themselves as professional personali- Böttger, H. (2020). Englisch lernen in der Grundschule. Horwitz, E. (2010). Foreign and second language distinction is that learning to listen and speak, to ties is of importance. Ultimately, their English- Eine kindgerechte Fachdidaktik (3rd ed.). anxiety. Language Teaching, 43(2), 154-167. assign phoneme series and supra-segmental ele- speaking competence determines their learners’ Klinkhardt. Doi: 10.1017/S026144480999036X ments such as prosody and intonation to meanings success regarding their speaking capabilities. Böttger, H., & Költzsch, D. (2019). Neural foundations Li, X., & Wang, X. (2019, February 14). Language of use, social, and later individual life happens of creativity in foreign language anxiety in English performance. In Proceedings very early in life. Along with acquiring the mother 5. CONCLUSION acquisition. Training, Language and Culture, 3(2), of the 6th International Conference on 8-21. Doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.1 Education, Language, Art and Inter-Cultural tongue, awareness, and concept development take All in all, it seems that emotional learning as Böttger, H., & Sambanis, M. (2017). Sprachen Lernen in Communication ICELAIC 2019 (pp. 446-448). place. This natural process can never be fully re- well as academic learning has to be considered, der Pubertät. Tübingen: Narr. Moscow, Russia: Atlantis Press. Doi: 10.2991/ peated later on, when people learn all other lan- when it comes to language learning. On the one Buitrago T., Rocío, A., & Ayala Contreras, R. (2008). assehr.k.191217.167 guages literally on top of their mother tongue – if hand, xenoglossophobia can be decreased through Overcoming fear of speaking in English through Perry, B. D., & Marcellus, J. (2020). The impact of not having grown up bilingually. From then on, positive exposure provided by, for example, non- meaningful activities: A study with abuse and neglect on the developing brain. approximately with the age of five, what should be restrictive speaking opportunities, enough time, or teenagers. Profile Issues in Teachers’ Professional Retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/ said is planned in the mother tongue and transla- a lot of practice. Positive language learning expe- Development, 9, 23-46. teachers/articles/teaching-content/impact-abuse- ted internally, which in turn takes some time of riences with neutral or rewarding learning out- Engels, A. S., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Herrington, J. and-neglect-developing-brain/ thinking and getting ready to talk. The time factor come, opportunities for successful oral performan- D., Banich, M. T., Webb, A. G., & Miller, G. A. Pittman, C. M., & Karle, E. M. (2015). Rewire your when learning the mother tongue is significantly ces, and less seemingly and subjectively threaten- (2007). Specificity of regional brain activity in anxious brain: How to use the neuroscience of different from when learning the first foreign lan- ing assignments have to be built on. On the other anxiety types during emotion processing. fear to end anxiety, panic, and worry. Oakland, guage. This is actually a self-explanatory funda- hand, this form of anxiety can in many cases be Psychophysiology, 44(3), 352–363. Doi: CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc. mental idea of English teaching and learning most- simply avoided by abandoning punitive and harsh 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00518.x Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). From neurons Ferreira Marinho, A. C., Mesquita de Medeiros, A., to neighborhoods: The science of early ly not considered in institutionalised language communicative responses and instead focusing on Côrtes Gama, A. C., & Caldas Teixeira, L. (2017). childhood development. Retrieved from https:// educational systems with narrow schedules, learn- aspects, such as: (1) corrective feedforward instead Fear of public speaking: Perception of college www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225562 ing progressions, and linearity. In a nutshell, pro- of feedback, presented in an informative, not in- students and correlates. Journal of Voice, 31(1), Turula, A. (2002). Language anxiety and classroom viding enough time to speak avoids or reduces structive way, avoiding indirect or direct ridiculing 127.e7-127.e11. dynamics: A study of adult learners. English stress and anxiety. or teasing of students through irony or even sarcas- Fondo, M. (2019). Foreign language anxiety: The Teaching Forum Online, 40(4), 28-37. Retrieved 2. Speaking is dependent upon experience, tic language; (2) a high ratio of positive to negative hidden barrier to success in multicultural and from https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/ more specifically upon exercise and rehearsal. In- comments; (3) an effective communication and so- multilingual business learning and working resource_files/02-40-2-g.pdf tensive pronunciation training is an important and cial problem solving; (4) emphasising strengths yet often neglected aspect of English instruction and weaknesses in language use in a balanced that leads to self-confidence in speaking. Success- way. These aspects are the non-negotiable build- ful pronunciation includes emphasis, intonation, ing blocks of xenoglossophobia prevention.

54 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 55 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-43-55 The fear factor: Xenoglossophobia or how to overcome the anxiety of speaking foreign languages Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 43-55 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Heiner Böttger and Deborah Költzsch sounds as well as fluency. Even in an early phase References ‘In a nutshell, providing enough time to of vocabulary learning, the words to be repeated speak avoids or reduces stress and must be imitated correctly in order to face and Abinaya, R. (2016). Xenoglossophobia: Language environments. Proceedings of the International anxiety’ avert fossilisation. Fossilised word pronunciation is learner’s perspective on learning. American Association for Business and Society, 30, 82-97. extremely difficult to relearn correctly. Deficits in College Journal of English Language and Doi: 10.5840/iabsproc20193011 this respect can later become communication bar- Literature, 5, 1-4. Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., 4.4. Things to consider riers. For instance, the meaning of a word can Alnuzaili, E. S., & Uddin, N. (2020). Dealing with Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., Nugent, T. F., In order to prevent xenoglossophobia three fun- vary, if a single sound in it is pronounced differ- anxiety in foreign language learning classroom. Herman, D. H., Clasen, L. S., Toga, A. W., Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Rapoport, J. L., & Thompson, P. M. (2004). damental didactical insights and basics must be ently. If it is spoken generally in a vague manner, 11(2), 269. Doi: 10.17507/jltr.1102.15 Dynamic mapping of human cortical considered. this can impede the communication partner’s at- Böttger, H. (2014). Talk talk talk. Englisch sprechen development during childhood through early 1. Teachers must acquire obligatory knowledge tention so strongly that the content of what has lernen. Grundschule Englisch, 48, 4-7. adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy about the difficult speaking procedure, in order to been said cannot be understood or can only be Böttger, H. (2018). Home of mindfulness: of Sciences, 101(21), 8174-8179. Doi: 10.1073/ be able to professionally, sensitively, and fairly understood through inquiries. Failure, again, may Neuroscientific evidence in contemplative pnas.0402680101 analyse and evaluate an oral performance. It is ne- first lead to avoidance of communication, subse- pedagogy. In H. Böttger, K. Jensen & T. Jensen Horwitz, E. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. cessary to understand that mother tongue and for- quently to fear and anxiety. (Eds.), Mindful evolution. Konferenzband (pp. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, eign language learning – apart from a few points of 3. Last but not least, the role model offered by 39-52). Klinkhardt. 112-126. Doi: 10.1017/S0267190501000071 contact – are fundamentally different. The main the teachers themselves as professional personali- Böttger, H. (2020). Englisch lernen in der Grundschule. Horwitz, E. (2010). Foreign and second language distinction is that learning to listen and speak, to ties is of importance. Ultimately, their English- Eine kindgerechte Fachdidaktik (3rd ed.). anxiety. Language Teaching, 43(2), 154-167. assign phoneme series and supra-segmental ele- speaking competence determines their learners’ Klinkhardt. Doi: 10.1017/S026144480999036X ments such as prosody and intonation to meanings success regarding their speaking capabilities. Böttger, H., & Költzsch, D. (2019). Neural foundations Li, X., & Wang, X. (2019, February 14). Language of use, social, and later individual life happens of creativity in foreign language anxiety in English performance. In Proceedings very early in life. Along with acquiring the mother 5. CONCLUSION acquisition. Training, Language and Culture, 3(2), of the 6th International Conference on 8-21. Doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.1 Education, Language, Art and Inter-Cultural tongue, awareness, and concept development take All in all, it seems that emotional learning as Böttger, H., & Sambanis, M. (2017). Sprachen Lernen in Communication ICELAIC 2019 (pp. 446-448). place. This natural process can never be fully re- well as academic learning has to be considered, der Pubertät. Tübingen: Narr. Moscow, Russia: Atlantis Press. Doi: 10.2991/ peated later on, when people learn all other lan- when it comes to language learning. On the one Buitrago T., Rocío, A., & Ayala Contreras, R. (2008). assehr.k.191217.167 guages literally on top of their mother tongue – if hand, xenoglossophobia can be decreased through Overcoming fear of speaking in English through Perry, B. D., & Marcellus, J. (2020). The impact of not having grown up bilingually. From then on, positive exposure provided by, for example, non- meaningful activities: A study with abuse and neglect on the developing brain. approximately with the age of five, what should be restrictive speaking opportunities, enough time, or teenagers. Profile Issues in Teachers’ Professional Retrieved from https://www.scholastic.com/ said is planned in the mother tongue and transla- a lot of practice. Positive language learning expe- Development, 9, 23-46. teachers/articles/teaching-content/impact-abuse- ted internally, which in turn takes some time of riences with neutral or rewarding learning out- Engels, A. S., Heller, W., Mohanty, A., Herrington, J. and-neglect-developing-brain/ thinking and getting ready to talk. The time factor come, opportunities for successful oral performan- D., Banich, M. T., Webb, A. G., & Miller, G. A. Pittman, C. M., & Karle, E. M. (2015). Rewire your when learning the mother tongue is significantly ces, and less seemingly and subjectively threaten- (2007). Specificity of regional brain activity in anxious brain: How to use the neuroscience of different from when learning the first foreign lan- ing assignments have to be built on. On the other anxiety types during emotion processing. fear to end anxiety, panic, and worry. Oakland, guage. This is actually a self-explanatory funda- hand, this form of anxiety can in many cases be Psychophysiology, 44(3), 352–363. Doi: CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc. mental idea of English teaching and learning most- simply avoided by abandoning punitive and harsh 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00518.x Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). From neurons Ferreira Marinho, A. C., Mesquita de Medeiros, A., to neighborhoods: The science of early ly not considered in institutionalised language communicative responses and instead focusing on Côrtes Gama, A. C., & Caldas Teixeira, L. (2017). childhood development. Retrieved from https:// educational systems with narrow schedules, learn- aspects, such as: (1) corrective feedforward instead Fear of public speaking: Perception of college www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225562 ing progressions, and linearity. In a nutshell, pro- of feedback, presented in an informative, not in- students and correlates. Journal of Voice, 31(1), Turula, A. (2002). Language anxiety and classroom viding enough time to speak avoids or reduces structive way, avoiding indirect or direct ridiculing 127.e7-127.e11. dynamics: A study of adult learners. English stress and anxiety. or teasing of students through irony or even sarcas- Fondo, M. (2019). Foreign language anxiety: The Teaching Forum Online, 40(4), 28-37. Retrieved 2. Speaking is dependent upon experience, tic language; (2) a high ratio of positive to negative hidden barrier to success in multicultural and from https://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/ more specifically upon exercise and rehearsal. In- comments; (3) an effective communication and so- multilingual business learning and working resource_files/02-40-2-g.pdf tensive pronunciation training is an important and cial problem solving; (4) emphasising strengths yet often neglected aspect of English instruction and weaknesses in language use in a balanced that leads to self-confidence in speaking. Success- way. These aspects are the non-negotiable build- ful pronunciation includes emphasis, intonation, ing blocks of xenoglossophobia prevention.

54 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 55 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey

ture by another, resulting in an imbalance which its menu to cater to local tastes, and now it has can impact local values, traditions and cultures glocalised. When applying this idea to language (Robertson, 1995; Ritzer, 2003). In education in teaching, it can be thought of as including a local Original Research general, major world institutions and organisations context alongside the culture of the native country. have had a significant impact on curriculum and Mainstream teaching materials have, necessarily, syllabus in a range of countries, and some have globalised content and include cultural context argued that the materials that have been encour- from the country or countries where the target lan- Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English aged and used in curriculums, influenced by ma- guage is spoken as a native language. But as Tom- coursebook series jor organisations and institutions, undermine the linson (2003, p. 163) says, ‘one of the main rea- local values in education (Jarvis, 2002; Hamilton, sons why global coursebooks are not normally hu- by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey 2014; Preece, 2013; Salimi & Safarzadeh, 2019). manistic is that in trying to cater for everybody Tuncer Can Istanbul University – Cerrahpasa [email protected] This paper presents the case for glocalisation in they end up engaging nobody’. Sarah Frazier Istanbul University [email protected] Turkey and highlights that conventional course- Colette McManus Istanbul University [email protected] books that are in use in Turkey do not take into 2.2. Importance of local cultural knowledge Alex Rey Istanbul University [email protected] full consideration the local needs of the learners in Culture is an essential part of language Date of submission: 8.03.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 19.05.2020 the Turkish context. It also details the response to learning. Ellis (2000) states that students can learn Recommended citation format: Can, T., Frazier, S., McManus, C., & Rey, A. (2020). Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is this lack of consideration which involved the de- a language easier when they have an interest in More’ English coursebook series. Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 56-66. Doi: sign of a new coursebook series, written by a mul- the culture and the society of the native country. 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 tinational team of authors based in Turkey, with Widdowson’s (1990) claims that first language ac- experience of teaching Turkish learners. quisition happens in tandem with cultural know- Globalisation has been a powerful force taking over every field for a very long time, including the field of ledge are significant because that suggests that cul- language education. Any discussion of globalisation cannot be held in isolation without extending it to in- 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND IM- tural knowledge should be taught in tandem with clude its counterpart, localisation. Teachers of English as a foreign language have long been aware of the PLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING any additional language. The conflict happens, fact that global coursebook providers enhance global culture in their coursebooks. However, getting stu- 2.1. Globalisation and glocalisation however, when the cultural topics provided are dents to identify with these global topics within their local contexts often proves challenging. Teachers expe- Globalisation is the compression of world cul- not of interest to the student. Salimi and Safarza- rience the frustration of mediating between the global information and the local context. As has been ob- tures into a single culture, and within some discus- deh (2019) discussed the concepts of glocalisation served, students experience the foreignness within the lessons and shy away from exchanging ideas and sions has been linked to imperialist motives and within the wider context of moving from American practising their language skills and, thus, they cannot engage with the language work. One solution to this elements of cultural domination and subordination or British English to a more representative global could be merging the two concepts of globalisation and localisation, called glocalisation. This study aims at (Ritzer, 2003). With that concept of globalisation English – one that represents the glocal nature of presenting good practices of glocalisation, starting from local culture and local background awareness and in mind, an increasingly popular concept was one English in the 21st century – and stated that under- extending to global topics and information. In the search to ease the teacher’s mediating role and student’s that united the benefits of global sharing with local standing Iranian English teachers’ perceptions of motivation, and embedded in global 21st century skills, our study reveals strategies to use in English course- integration, and this was termed ‘glocalisa- glocalisation would provide useful indications for books for the successful application of glocalisation in language learning with reference to ELT in particular. tion’ (Robertson, 1995; Salimi & Safarzadeh, the most appropriate way to design both teacher 2019). Ritzer (2003, p. 190) defined glocalisation education programmes and help Iranian EFL KEYWORDS: globalisation, glocalisation, culture, coursebook, ELT, Turkey as ‘the interpenetration of the global and the local teachers to find their genuine role in the teaching resulting in unique outcomes in different geogra- of English in Iran. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is phic areas’. Glocalisation can be thought of as a Glocalisation has implications not exclusively properly cited (CC BY 4.0) kind of micromarketing, that is to say ‘the tailoring for learners, but also for teachers, particularly with and advertising of goods and services on a global the tools and materials that teachers use. This view or near-global basis to increasingly differentiated has been supported by Rhedding-Jones (2002), 1. INTRODUCTION teaching, reflect that process. As with any other local and particular markets’ (Robertson, 1995, p. who argued that understanding the nuances of Globalisation has a significant impact on all area of globalisation, the role that globalisation 28). Glocalisation can easily be seen when look- English-based curricula needs to be understood areas of modern life, and language learning and has played in language learning has come under ing at international businesses. For example, a fast within the framework of local contexts and that lo- teaching is no exception. Language learning is the scrutiny (Robertson, 1995; Ritzer, 2003; Salimi & food company expands past the borders of the cal differences be recognised, thus enabling and exchange of global culture, and the resources and Safarzadeh, 2019). One of the chief complaints country in which it was founded. It has become a empowering both students and teachers as agents materials used, particularly with English language about globalisation is the undermining of one cul- global corporation. The next thing it does is alter of globalisation, rather than being objects.

© Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus, Alex Rey 2020 56 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 57 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey

2.3. Global and local coursebooks lematic in Turkey, for a variety of reasons sing the coursebooks in the market produced by tent as much. They noted that students felt that This struggle between the local context and do- (Kizildag, 2009; Solak & Bayar, 2015; Dulger, large, international publishing houses, predomi- books generally take no interest in Turkish culture minance of global organisations and coursebooks 2016; Savaskan, 2016). In the Turkish context, a nantly British or American (West et al., 2015). but would prefer a cross-cultural approach where in use has caused problems in a variety of count- lot has been written on the challenges faced by Whilst it is not the intention of this paper to dis- Turkish culture, as well as the target language cul- ries. We have found that this is a particular prob- Turkish learners of English, as well as those of credit the value of these resources, what is clear is ture, was integrated into the material. A cross-cul- lem in a country with a vastly different culture. Of- teachers in Turkey, however an important point, that the content, in terms of culture and informa- tural approach would lead to better motivation to ten, as teachers in Turkey, we end up either which has received less attention, is the content tion away from the language points being presen- learn the language being presented and would teaching not only the target language for the les- used to teach English and the approach used in the ted, is often not engaging for students. Students do take away from the feeling that books are present- son, but also the cultural significance and back- presentation of the English language. not connect with the content that is being presen- ing a superior culture. It is clear that coursebook ground of the topic, or we find ourselves in a Turkish learners are exposed to English from the ted and this in turn affects their engagement with content, which is influenced by American or Bri- classroom where the students aren’t interested in age of 10 in the state school education system and the language being presented (İlter & Güzeller, tish cultures, does not consider cultural or local is- the topic and don’t have the language to express receive around 4-12 hours per week of English 2000; Solak & Bayar, 2015; Dulger, 2016). Studies sues. A coursebook unit which showcases or even why or what would be more engaging for them. language education from grade 4 onwards (Kizil- into factors affecting English language teaching in celebrates regionally controversial political figures, When İlter & Güzeller (2000) asked Turkish stu- dag, 2009; Uztosun, 2011). Despite this high ex- Turkey have identified that inappropriate text- such as Winston Churchill, for example, may not dents about their attitudes towards culture when posure to English from a relatively young age, this books play a significant role in the issues affecting be appropriate for a particular classroom context, learning English, they found that although 62% of education tends to be focused on grammar points effective language learning and teaching practices and may even present an obstacle and shows a the students they surveyed wanted to learn the cul- and vocabulary sets, limiting the student’s potenti- in Turkey (Kizildag, 2009; Solak & Bayar, 2015; lack of cultural understanding of appropriate con- ture of the target language they were learning, al to develop skills (Uztosun, 2011; Solak & Bayar, Dulger, 2016). tent. Only language teachers, content producers more than 58% of respondents said that they 2015). A typical complaint by Turkish learners of with knowledge of the local context, can under- didn’t like or understand the language involved, English is that they understand, but can’t speak 3.3. Dependence on the coursebook stand these kinds of issues and implications. and nearly a quarter of the students surveyed said English, which is the result of years of exposure to Coursebooks are an integral part any language- Dulger (2016) identified that in general English that English coursebooks didn’t give importance to language but very limited practical use (Kizildag, learning classroom and are a valuable tool for any teachers in Turkey are satisfied with the course- Turkish culture. This study was important for us, as 2009; Solak & Bayar, 2015). Another factor affect- teacher, as well as students. The British Council books in use in the classrooms in Turkey, however all of the surveyed students over 25 said that un- ing this is the focus on passing exams, which are found that in Turkey there is an overdependence there are issues in terms of coursebook content. known words related to the native culture both- based on grammar and vocabulary, prioritising ac- on the coursebook in the classroom environment, Dulger (2016) states that a good coursebook needs ered them, which, as the authors suggested, indi- curacy over skills development. Learners, teachers, with very few teachers breaking away from the to be appealing to both teacher and student and cates that older students are less tolerant of other materials and syllabi in turn make these aspects of content presented in the units (West et al., 2015). be of interest to both. He highlights that a well-de- cultures. The study’s conclusion was that a cross- English the focus, leading to complaints about syl- This highlights the important role the coursebook signed coursebook can help aid motivation, and cultural (glocal) approach would be best suited for labus content and coursebook content over reli- plays in the Turkish EFL context and why finding that coursebooks should be designed with the Turkish students. After years of teaching in Turkey, ance on grammar knowledge (Kizildag, 2009; Uz- the correct coursebook, which is appropriately de- teachers’ and students’ needs in the local context this was our conclusion as well. This highlights the tosun, 2011; Solak & Bayar, 2015). Previous stu- signed, is imperative to help students in their in mind. All of the authors involved in the produc- need for an open discussion regarding glocalisa- dies of Turkish English language learners have re- learning. Another report by the British Council tion of the Less is More series have multiple years’ tion in Turkey and will be discussed in detail. commended designing coursebooks which con- identified that unsuitable coursebooks were rank- experience teaching in Turkey, at various levels, sider learners’ social backgrounds and interests ed higher than large classes and unsuitable but predominantly at the university level. It is this 3. GLOCALISATION IN TURKEY (Kizildag, 2009; Kiziltan & Atli, 2013). teaching methods as an issue affecting language experience that teachers drew on to work towards 3.1. Grammar and vocabulary vs skills deve- learning in Turkey (Özen et al., 2013). a glocalised coursebook series which aims to pre- lopment 3.2. International vs local coursebooks sent students with English language content with Turkish education system has gone through sig- In Turkey it is common for students at the 3.4. Cultural appropriacy of coursebooks familiar cultural concepts, or with identifying Tur- nificant changes in recent years (Solak & Bayar, school level to be exposed to coursebooks pre- A study at Akdeniz University into the views of kish individuals as part of a global community, 2015; Savaskan, 2016). Turkish government has pared by MEB qualified teachers, yet this content students of English language coursebook content thus promoting a cross-cultural approach that will been working closely with international bodies, tends to have a main focus on grammar and lexi- by İlter and Güzeller (2000) identified some inte- be beneficial to the majority of students in Turkey such as the OECD, the EU and the British Council cal sets rather than dealing with helping students resting points. They found that students tended to (İlter & Güzeller, 2000; Solak & Bayar, 2015; West to identify the needs of Turkish learners in general develop the skills needed to succeed (Kizildag, feel as though coursebook cultural content priori- et al., 2015). with the aim of working towards targets set in 2009; Uztosun, 2011). In contrast, at university le- tised the culture of English-speaking countries, More details will be given later in this paper as 2020 and 2023 (West et al., 2015). Despite this, vel English language education rarely uses course- particularly American and British culture, and that to what the exact process was, but this is the un- English language education continues to be prob- books created by qualified teachers, instead utili- many students did not want to engage with con- derlying ethos behind the Less is More English

58 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 59 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey coursebook series; a cross-cultural approach that 5.2. Using own materials presents 21st century skills, drawing on the know- ‘Previous studies into English language ‘We ourselves as teachers have been no Throughout the years it has been common ledge of an international team of authors, with lo- learning in Turkey have highlighted the different, constantly feeling as though the practice for institutions and teachers to replace or cal experience, presenting language points with need for textbooks and coursebooks in use material in the books we were using were supplement coursebooks with materials they had cultural references that can help students develop created themselves in order to engage and connect the skills they need to succeed. Previous studies in Turkey to factor in the realities of the not engaging or relevant for the students. within their teaching environment. We ourselves into English language learning in Turkey have local context’ They were learning about things that they as teachers have been no different, constantly feel- highlighted the need for textbooks and course- felt no connection to and they felt ing as though the material in the books we were books in use in Turkey to factor in the realities of using were not engaging or relevant for the stu- in the area of materials development in general frustrated and stilted by the dense rules the local context (İlter & Güzeller, 2000; Kizildag, and more specifically the argument for adopting a dents. They were learning about things that they 2009). more glocalised approach to coursebook writing. and phonological sounds that were felt no connection to and they felt frustrated and When considering the socio-economic issues We continued this process by researching and prescribed by the book’ stilted by the dense rules and phonological sounds related to language learning in Turkey (İlter & Gü- analysing similar projects in other countries, such that were prescribed by the book. We felt that zeller, 2000; Solak & Bayar, 2015) it is also hoped as Japan and Saudi Arabia, where teams had deve- functional for the learner. It was in this frame of most mainstream coursebooks placed grammar at that the Less is More series presents a high quality, loped their own localised coursebook for their stu- mind that Less is More was born. As is reflected in the centre of learning and that the publishers often yet economically sustainable alternative to the dents’ specific needs. In addition, we conducted a the title, we want to give more room for the stu- opt for safe, middle-of-the-road, global course- very expensive international series which are comprehensive review on the design and develop- dent and teacher to create, instead of bogging books (Tomlinson, 2013) that did not fit the needs otherwise available. Across Turkey, particularly in ment process of coursebook production. We re- them down with systematic rules and content that of our learners. We also felt that there was too university preparatory programmes, there is an is- viewed both the big international publishers and they can’t relate to. The Less is More coursebook much of a focus on English as spoken by native sue with students using original copies of books in the smaller ‘local’ projects, and taking some influ- series is intended for adult learners with a focus on speakers as opposed to the concept of English as a class. Whilst this does not affect the students in ences from these decided upon a design and struc- local, Turkish culture and reference. It is designed Lingua Franca. We did not assume that our stu- terms of the content being received, it can have ture that would work well in our context. We used to give students, primarily Turkish students, expe- dents would only be communicating with native implications for institutions who struggle to meet the CEFR as a guide on what we needed to include rience of learning a language with references that speakers, nor did we want to make them feel the publishers’ demands and should be an avoid- and then we decided on a unit structure but we they can relate to. restrained by trying to attain perfection from the able issue. Higher education institutes are not in a did not restrict content based on what the levels The book encourages the empowerment of beginning. Many people believe that ‘inability in position to directly influence whether students are defined. We wanted to create a book that flowed both teachers and students in the process of class- producing native-like accents is no longer felt infe- buying original copies of books, and given that in well in terms of both grammar and themes in har- room-based language acquisition. The teacher be- rior by non-native speakers’ (Salimi & Safarzadeh, the state university system in particular many stu- mony with our learners’ needs and abilities as Tur- comes empowered by having the freedom and the 2019, p. 1640). We try to reinforce this for students do not come from comfortable economic kish students. The constructivist learning theory space to use, adapt and reflect on the material and dents in our book by having Turkish characters backgrounds, it would be unfair to expect families framework has been followed to introduce the lan- lesson, while the students become empowered by and Turkish accents in our listening activities. or students to spend potentially limited funds on guage and build grammar and language skills. having the freedom to use the language in their As many other teachers, we frequently adapted expensive English language coursebooks. With its own terms without having to focus on being com- books for the needs of our learners. This, of local production and local availability, it is hoped 5. THE ‘LESS IS MORE’ ENGLISH COURSE- pletely grammatically accurate or focus on precise course, is a common part of teaching, but students that the Less is More series will also provide stu- BOOK SERIES pronunciation. The glocal angle allows the student then often questioned why some pages were being dents and institutes in Turkey with a financially 5.1. Global and local content to connect with the material in a meaningful way, skipped and why we were not spending more time viable alternative. We decided upon the sufficient amount of local engage with the subjects and feel relaxed in com- on the grammar sections. And, they asked, what versus global content. We wanted to write a book municating through their own context of the Eng- was the point in buying these books at all if they 4. METHOD that students could relate to with local references lish language. Embracing a local framework that weren’t going to use them. We, of course, are not This study aims to design and develop a locali- that they could recognise, intertwined with global does not require absolute perfection, learners can anti-coursebook and we can understand the bene- sed English language coursebook based on the topics. We also wanted to make sure that the stu- express themselves in English ‘more flexibly and in fits and even necessity of using a coursebook. As needs analysis of students and teachers at Istanbul dents and teachers did not feel restricted by an un- any way they feel at ease using it to achieve their Tomlinson (2012) relates, they provide comfort for University’s Language Centre. This study has bene- compromising adherence to grammar and pronun- communicative objective’ (Salimi & Safarzadeh, learners, teachers and administrators. They serve fited from comprehensive research into the field of ciation principles. We wished to create a space for 2019, p. 1640). The series also emphasises 21st as a reference and a guide for learners’ progress, a materials development for language learning and conversation in the classroom and facilitate a ca- century skills and facilitates exploratory learning, rich source of material and lesson plans for teach- various proposals for future progress. We began pacity for critical thinking. In addition, we wanted which encourages students to engage with critical ers, and help plan the curriculum and maintain a this process by doing an in-depth literature review to make the language and material authentic and thinking through the medium of English. level of standardisation among the teaching staff.

60 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 61 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey coursebook series; a cross-cultural approach that 5.2. Using own materials presents 21st century skills, drawing on the know- ‘Previous studies into English language ‘We ourselves as teachers have been no Throughout the years it has been common ledge of an international team of authors, with lo- learning in Turkey have highlighted the different, constantly feeling as though the practice for institutions and teachers to replace or cal experience, presenting language points with need for textbooks and coursebooks in use material in the books we were using were supplement coursebooks with materials they had cultural references that can help students develop created themselves in order to engage and connect the skills they need to succeed. Previous studies in Turkey to factor in the realities of the not engaging or relevant for the students. within their teaching environment. We ourselves into English language learning in Turkey have local context’ They were learning about things that they as teachers have been no different, constantly feel- highlighted the need for textbooks and course- felt no connection to and they felt ing as though the material in the books we were books in use in Turkey to factor in the realities of using were not engaging or relevant for the stu- in the area of materials development in general frustrated and stilted by the dense rules the local context (İlter & Güzeller, 2000; Kizildag, and more specifically the argument for adopting a dents. They were learning about things that they 2009). more glocalised approach to coursebook writing. and phonological sounds that were felt no connection to and they felt frustrated and When considering the socio-economic issues We continued this process by researching and prescribed by the book’ stilted by the dense rules and phonological sounds related to language learning in Turkey (İlter & Gü- analysing similar projects in other countries, such that were prescribed by the book. We felt that zeller, 2000; Solak & Bayar, 2015) it is also hoped as Japan and Saudi Arabia, where teams had deve- functional for the learner. It was in this frame of most mainstream coursebooks placed grammar at that the Less is More series presents a high quality, loped their own localised coursebook for their stu- mind that Less is More was born. As is reflected in the centre of learning and that the publishers often yet economically sustainable alternative to the dents’ specific needs. In addition, we conducted a the title, we want to give more room for the stu- opt for safe, middle-of-the-road, global course- very expensive international series which are comprehensive review on the design and develop- dent and teacher to create, instead of bogging books (Tomlinson, 2013) that did not fit the needs otherwise available. Across Turkey, particularly in ment process of coursebook production. We re- them down with systematic rules and content that of our learners. We also felt that there was too university preparatory programmes, there is an is- viewed both the big international publishers and they can’t relate to. The Less is More coursebook much of a focus on English as spoken by native sue with students using original copies of books in the smaller ‘local’ projects, and taking some influ- series is intended for adult learners with a focus on speakers as opposed to the concept of English as a class. Whilst this does not affect the students in ences from these decided upon a design and struc- local, Turkish culture and reference. It is designed Lingua Franca. We did not assume that our stu- terms of the content being received, it can have ture that would work well in our context. We used to give students, primarily Turkish students, expe- dents would only be communicating with native implications for institutions who struggle to meet the CEFR as a guide on what we needed to include rience of learning a language with references that speakers, nor did we want to make them feel the publishers’ demands and should be an avoid- and then we decided on a unit structure but we they can relate to. restrained by trying to attain perfection from the able issue. Higher education institutes are not in a did not restrict content based on what the levels The book encourages the empowerment of beginning. Many people believe that ‘inability in position to directly influence whether students are defined. We wanted to create a book that flowed both teachers and students in the process of class- producing native-like accents is no longer felt infe- buying original copies of books, and given that in well in terms of both grammar and themes in har- room-based language acquisition. The teacher be- rior by non-native speakers’ (Salimi & Safarzadeh, the state university system in particular many stu- mony with our learners’ needs and abilities as Tur- comes empowered by having the freedom and the 2019, p. 1640). We try to reinforce this for students do not come from comfortable economic kish students. The constructivist learning theory space to use, adapt and reflect on the material and dents in our book by having Turkish characters backgrounds, it would be unfair to expect families framework has been followed to introduce the lan- lesson, while the students become empowered by and Turkish accents in our listening activities. or students to spend potentially limited funds on guage and build grammar and language skills. having the freedom to use the language in their As many other teachers, we frequently adapted expensive English language coursebooks. With its own terms without having to focus on being com- books for the needs of our learners. This, of local production and local availability, it is hoped 5. THE ‘LESS IS MORE’ ENGLISH COURSE- pletely grammatically accurate or focus on precise course, is a common part of teaching, but students that the Less is More series will also provide stu- BOOK SERIES pronunciation. The glocal angle allows the student then often questioned why some pages were being dents and institutes in Turkey with a financially 5.1. Global and local content to connect with the material in a meaningful way, skipped and why we were not spending more time viable alternative. We decided upon the sufficient amount of local engage with the subjects and feel relaxed in com- on the grammar sections. And, they asked, what versus global content. We wanted to write a book municating through their own context of the Eng- was the point in buying these books at all if they 4. METHOD that students could relate to with local references lish language. Embracing a local framework that weren’t going to use them. We, of course, are not This study aims to design and develop a locali- that they could recognise, intertwined with global does not require absolute perfection, learners can anti-coursebook and we can understand the bene- sed English language coursebook based on the topics. We also wanted to make sure that the stu- express themselves in English ‘more flexibly and in fits and even necessity of using a coursebook. As needs analysis of students and teachers at Istanbul dents and teachers did not feel restricted by an un- any way they feel at ease using it to achieve their Tomlinson (2012) relates, they provide comfort for University’s Language Centre. This study has bene- compromising adherence to grammar and pronun- communicative objective’ (Salimi & Safarzadeh, learners, teachers and administrators. They serve fited from comprehensive research into the field of ciation principles. We wished to create a space for 2019, p. 1640). The series also emphasises 21st as a reference and a guide for learners’ progress, a materials development for language learning and conversation in the classroom and facilitate a ca- century skills and facilitates exploratory learning, rich source of material and lesson plans for teach- various proposals for future progress. We began pacity for critical thinking. In addition, we wanted which encourages students to engage with critical ers, and help plan the curriculum and maintain a this process by doing an in-depth literature review to make the language and material authentic and thinking through the medium of English. level of standardisation among the teaching staff.

5.3. Meeting students’ needs riences in mind and often has a connection to Tur- 5.6. Reflection It was all agreed that a coursebook is a va- ‘It was all agreed that a coursebook is a kish culture and dialogues between people with We thought it was important to add a section at luable resource and guide but we wondered if we valuable resource and guide but we Turkish names. For example, there is a text about the back of the book for students to practise and could find one that better relates to our students’ wondered if we could find one that better clothing and shopping that includes a reference to reflect on the skills that they had learned. As a re- needs. One that does not disempower both stu- a popular Turkish designer, and a listening com- sult, we have the Outside the Box section which dent and teacher, but allows them the space to use relates to our students’ needs. One that prehension activity about a holiday at a favourite consists of My Vocabulary pages where students their initiative by not overcrowding the pages with does not disempower both student and Turkish resort. Food shopping texts discuss uni- note down new vocabulary from each unit that reductionist language functions and rules. This led teacher, but allows them the space to use versally known food intertwined with Turkish fa- stands out for them. The grammar reference offers us to wonder if we could create our own course- vourites. extra support, and the Creative Tasks section al- book that would better suit our learners’ needs and their initiative by not overcrowding the lows students to practise their new language help them acquire the language in a more relevant pages with reductionist language 5.5. Skills practice through an enjoyable game or task. way. Tomlinson (2013, p. 8) believes that it is pos- functions and rules’ In an effort to cut back on time spent solely on As we believe in the empowerment of the sible to reconcile the wants and needs of all in- grammar, each grammar point is introduced as a teacher, we wanted to design and create a volved and that ‘they can best be satisfied by loca- son (2012, p. 148) believes a true authentic text is 5-minute grammar with examples that reference teacher’s guide that reflects that. We like to en- lised projects which consult learners, teachers and ‘one which is produced in order to communicate Turkish society. As the student progresses to B1 courage continued professional development; with administrators before, during and after the materi- rather than to teach’. In the A1 and A2 books, and B2 levels, they will notice that any revised that in mind, we designed the Teacher’s Guide as als writing process’. We discussed less grammar most of the texts were created by us specifically to grammar is presented as a 2-minute grammar a type of diary, with an emphasis on teacher re- teaching, more local context, a larger focus on suit our learners’ needs and abilities while always point. We have created some special features that flection so that the teacher can learn from and speaking skills, and working with a descriptive attempting to maintain a natural and authentic are seen in every unit such as the task and vlog. build on each lesson. We found that many model of language as opposed to a prescriptive style with functional language chunks and a glocal These features aim to increase the opportunity for teachers’ books tried to spoon-feed teachers but one. We identified key areas that we could ad- context. Then moving on into B1/B2 we selected students to practise their skills. The tasks often re- we have faith in the teacher’s ability to be creative dress in our classrooms in order to help our stu- authentic material to adapt and create engaging quire the student to write or create something, and therefore instead of being a collection of dents succeed. As Tomlinson (2013, p. 7) states activities around. As you reach the higher levels, such as an interview, and then the vlogs allow the wordy instructions, the Teacher’s Guide offers sug- ‘there is a tendency to underestimate learners lin- the amount of local references is reduced: this re- student to speak extensively on a topic related to gestions for how pages are taught, but encourages guistically, intellectually and emotionally’. López- flects the natural process of how language can be the unit. This aims to give the learner a chance to the teacher to explore their practice and reflect on Barrios and de Debat (2014, p. 37) argue that developed as the students become more confident increase their fluency without focusing too much their teaching. Space is provided in the book for ‘when teachers use materials produced for interna- in their skills. By meeting and collaborating fre- on grammatical accuracy. There is a page devoted note taking and lesson planning, for reflecting on tional markets (so-called global coursebooks), they quently, we continued to inspire each other and to the different vocabulary and useful chunks that class experience and content. adapt them to fit their students’ needs, to comply maintain creative motivation. We checked and were used in the unit along with a game or activity with curricular demands, to supplement any mis- gave feedback on each other’s material and sug- aimed at helping the learner to retain the 6. DISCUSSION sing information, to provide extra practice, and so gest ways of improvement when necessary. language. Finally, the reflections page at the end 6.1. Cultural appropriacy on. This is also true of locally produced materials’. And so, we ended up with a book that consis- of the unit allows the student the space to think Gray (2002) posits that throughout the 1990s Thus, in this study the authors did not want to un- ted of ten units. We decided to open every unit about what they have learned. This involves some coursebooks ‘were instrumental in stimulating a derestimate the ability of the students. They orga- with The Big Picture, an introduction to the unit extra information in That’s Good to Know, where considerable degree of soul searching within the nised the language topics, grammar points and vo- and the topics that are covered along with a unit we give sociolinguistic knowledge about language ELT profession. What these books had in common cabulary into units, trying to arrange them in a title and a commonly used idiom. This serves as a covered in the unit. This is to reflect a more de- was a belief that the global spread of English was way that flowed as seamlessly as possible but they lead in for the teacher to progress into the unit. scriptive attitude towards the language and em- inherently problematic, and inextricably linked to did not oversimplify or over explain the language. This is then followed by the Global Knowledge power the teachers by motivating them to bring wider political issues, and that ELT practices were page, which is designed to help students link any their world knowledge into the classroom. English neither value free, nor always culturally approp- 5.4. Text types grammar or vocabulary with previous knowledge Expressions includes some commonly used chunks riate’ (Gray, 2002, p. 152). In this respect, the Less There has been much debate about what types to make meaningful use of it throughout the unit. and phrases related to the topic. The students then is More English Coursebook series aims at norma- of text to use in materials design and whether they We aim to help students build on previously ac- get to reflect on and evaluate on what they have lising these in the use of Turkish context. By allow- should be authentic or specially written and simp- quired language and help them to build on it. The learned with the Can I Do It? box. The last section, ing local topics and cultural constructs within the lified for the reader. With one side arguing that content of the book – its reading and listening ac- My Takeaway, is a space for students to contem- English language coursebook, it tries to achieve simplified texts are too contrived while the other tivities – introduces a Turkish identity that students plate on what they learned and to make a note of the harmonious and equal relationship between believing that they facilitate learning. As Tomlin- can identify with. It is created with real life expe- what really stood out for them in the unit. local and global constructs.

62 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 63 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey

According to López-Barrios and de Debat References (2014, p. 38), ‘different labels have always been ‘The series is specifically designed for the applied to refer to types of coursebooks according Turkish higher education market and is Arnold, W., & Rixon, S. (2008). Materials for teaching Kizildag, A. (2009). Teaching English in Turkey: to their context of use’. Distinctions like interna- very sensitive to learners’ backgrounds, English to young learners. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Dialogues with teachers about the challenges in tional, global, local, glocal, imported, regional, in- English language learning materials: A critical public primary schools. International Electronic country, localised, and adapted have all been used taking the Turkish language into review (pp. 38-58). London: Continuum. Journal of Elementary Education, 1(3), 188-201. in the literature (Tomlinson, 2012; Gray, 2002; Ar- consideration and comparing and Basabe, E. A. (2006). From de-anglicization to Retrieved from https://www.iejee.com/index.php/ nold & Rixon, 2008; Dat, 2008). The Less is More internationalisation: Cultural representations of IEJEE/article/view/274 contrasting Turkish and English in order the UK and the USA in global, adapted and local Kiziltan, N., & Atli, I. (2013). Turkish young language English coursebook series intends to teach English ELT textbooks in Argentina. Profile: Issues in learners’ attitudes towards English. Hacettepe to Turkish speakers with the approach of starting to present easier access to the English language’ Teachers Professional Development, 7, 59-76. University Journal of Education, 28(2), 266-278. with more local content and extending the more Retrieved from http://scielo.org.co/scielo.php? Retrieved from http://efdergi.hacettepe.edu.tr/ global aspect as the students’ language proficiency script=sci_arttext&pid=S1657-07902006000100 shw_artcl-181.html increases. The series is specifically designed for that ‘in countries where English is taught as a for- 005&lng=en&nrm=iso López-Barrios, M., & de Debat, E. V. (2014). Global vs the Turkish higher education market and is very eign language, corpora can be a useful source of Dat, B. (2008). ELT materials used in Southeast Asia. In local: Does it matter? In S. Garton & K. Graves sensitive to learners’ backgrounds, taking the Turk- information for teachers who are non-native speak- B. Tomlinson (Ed.), English language learning (Eds.), International perspectives on materials in ish language into consideration and comparing ers of the language. Corpora can be used as valu- materials: A critical review (pp. 263-280). ELT (pp. 37-52). London: Palgrave Macmillan. and contrasting Turkish and English in order to able resources of linguistic reference and for mate- London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Özen, E. F., Alpaslan, İ. B., Çağlı, A., Özdoğan, İ., present easier access to the English language. rials design’ (Tan, 2003, p. 98). The Less is More Dulger, O. (2016). Evaluation of EFL coursebooks Sancak, M., Dizman, A. O., & Vale, D. (2013). Thus, the series has a glocalised approach and English coursebook series has also made use of the taught in Turkey based on teachers’ views. Turkey national needs assessment of state school could be labelled as a glocal coursebook. corpora available online for the vocabulary sec- Journal of Advances in English Language English language teaching. Ankara, Turkey: Teaching, 4(1), 1-11. Basabe (2006, p. 68) stresses that ‘the produc- tions as well. British Council & TEPAV. Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language tion of textbooks can also be posited to be an Preece, J. (2013). Africa and international policy pedagogy. Language Teaching Research, 4(3), making for lifelong learning: Textual revelations. ideological enterprise’. Basabe (2006, p. 66) finds 7. CONCLUSION 193-220. Doi: 10.1177/136216880000400302 International Journal of Education Development, that in the textbooks he examined ‘the people The collaboration between the local and global Gray, J. (2002). The global coursebook in English 33, 98-105. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/ from the target culture are characterised by at least is golden as is the collaboration between the na- language teaching. In D. Block & D. Cameron j.ijedudev.2012.02.007 three traits that make them distinct from that of the tive English-speaking teachers and the non-native (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. Rhedding-Jones, J. (2002). English elsewhere: source and international cultures. They are techno- speaking local teachers. Less is More has been 151-167). London: Routledge. Doi: Glocalisation, assessment and ethics. Journal of logically advanced, culturally rich and geographi- created with such a golden collaboration in mind. 10.4324/9780203193679 Curriculum Studies, 34(4), 383-404. Doi: cally expansionistic’. The Less is More English The coursebook series in question also aims to Hamilton, M. (2014). Global, regional and local 10.1080/00220270110108231 coursebook series, however, does not follow hege- empower the teachers in their pursuit of excel- influences on adult literacy policy in Ritzer, G. (2003). The globalisation of nothing. SAIS monic discourses. On the contrary, it leans lence in teaching as well as empower the learners England. Globalisation, Societies and Education, Review, 23(2), 189-200. Doi: 10.1353/ towards more humanistic values and realistic facts, in their quest to learn English to become fully 12(1), 110-126. Doi: sais.2003.0053 topics and values. Topics are chosen on the pre- functioning and harmonious global citizens of the 10.1080/14767724.2013.858993 Robertson, R. (1995). Glocalisation: Time-space and mise that all human beings are entitled to live with world. The series has also aimed at recognising the Hasmiati, H., Hamra, A., Atmowardoyo, H., & Dollah, homogeneity-heterogeneity. In M. Featherstone, S. (2015). Designing an English course book for dignity and to freely navigate throughout the importance of the local culture in the learning pro- S. Lash and R. Robertson (Eds.), Global high school students based on 2013 curriculum modernities (pp. 25-44). Thousand Oaks, CA: world. cess both as a way of diminishing the foreignness with local content materials. Journal of Language Sage. of the English language and granting smooth ac- Teaching and Research, 6(6), 1240-1249. Doi: Salimi, E. A., & Safarzadeh, M. M. (2019). A model and 6.2. Meeting curriculum requirements cess into the global culture for the learner by hel- 10.17507/jltr.0606.11 questionnaire of language education Hasmiati et al. (2015) state that the existing ping construct a balanced glocal identity. The se- İlter, B. G., & Güzeller, C. O. (2000). Cultural problems glocalisation in Iran. International Journal of English language course materials are far from the ries has sparked new studies into developing glo- of Turkish students while learning English as a Instruction, 12(1), 1639-1652. Doi: 10.29333/ competency target curriculum and they did not calised skills and development of new products to foreign language. Dil Dergisi, 127, 54-63. iji.2019.121104a meet the students’ needs, which was based on the meet that need. We are also aware that this type of Jarvis, P. (2002). Globalisation, citizenship and the Savaskan, I. (2016). Turkey’s place in the rankings of content standard of the school curriculum. The de- venture needs further studies to be verified by the education of adults in contemporary European the English proficiency index. Journal of Teacher velopment of local coursebooks in return could users and to be able to bring disruptive innovation society. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and Education and Educators, 5(2), 192-208. meet the needs of the students and be easily in to the ELT field/market that is too often criticised International Education, 32(1), 5-19. Doi: Retrieved from https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ line with the local curricula. Tan (2003) believes as largely dominated by giant global players. 10.1080/03057920120116490 jtee/issue/43266/525594

64 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 65 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Glocalisation in action: ‘Less is More’ English coursebook series Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Tuncer Can, Sarah Frazier, Colette McManus and Alex Rey

64 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 65 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-67-80 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org

Solak, E., & Bayar, A. (2015). Current challenges in Tomlinson, B. (2013). Developing materials for English language learning in Turkish EFL context. language teaching (2nd ed.). London: Participatory Educational Research, 2(1), Bloomsbury Publishing. 106-115. Doi: 10.17275/per.15.09.2.1 Uztosun, M. S. (2011). A qualitative study into English Original Research Tan, M. (2003). Language corpora for language language teachers’ and students’ beliefs and teachers. Journal of Language and Learning, 1(2), practices in Turkey. The International Journal of 98-105. Research in Teacher Education, 2(2), 16-34. Tomlinson, B. (2003). Humanising the coursebook. In Retrieved from https://ijrte.penpublishing.net/ Managing diversity in the classroom B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for makale/124 by Deborah Swallow language teaching (pp. 162-174). London: West, R., Guven, A., & Parry, J. (2015). The state of Continuum. English in higher education in Turkey: A baseline Deborah Swallow Glasgow Caledonian University London [email protected] Tomlinson, B. (2012). Materials development for study. Manchester, UK: British Council Global Date of submission: 1.02.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 3.06.2020 language learning and teaching. Language English. Recommended citation format: Swallow, D. (2020). Managing diversity in the classroom. Training, Language and Teaching, 45(2), 143-179. Doi: 10.1017/ Widdowson, H. G. (1990). Aspects of language Culture, 4(2), 67-80. Doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 S0261444811000528 teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. In his analysis of the qualities of a good international manager for the EU financed INCA (Intercultural Com- petence Assessment) Project, Professor Michael Byram of Durham University in the UK identified ‘respect for otherness’ as one of six key areas. In his INCA Framework he identified proficiency in this area at three levels of competence, basic, intermediate and full. At the Basic level managers and teachers decide too quickly what is good and bad but develop tolerance and learn gradually to adapt. At the Intermediate level they accept that values, norms and behaviours may be different and accept the difference provided their own cultural assumptions have not been violated. Their motivation is to put others at ease and ultimately avoid causing offence. At the Full level they work to ensure equal treatment in the workplace or classroom and can deal tactfully with any issues raised. This paper explores the issues raised by cultural diversity in the workplace and in the classroom, both in terms of behaviour and the use of language in training, and suggests ideas and strategies that teachers can use to manage diversity positively in the classroom.

KEYWORDS: diversity, intercultural competence, discrimination, political correctness, diversity, inclusion, unconscious bias

1. INTRODUCTION cations Technologies) (Urry, 2000). Consequently, Increasing exponentially this century, people there is increased interaction between people from are mixing to a greater extent than ever before, different cultural backgrounds both ‘face to face’ both internationally through the movement of in the context of one’s work and personal life. people both on business assignments and through The higher education and business training sec- migration, and nationally, through the proliferation tors are experiencing a period of rapid and compe- of multinational teams incorporating people from titive internationalisation. The market for adult different backgrounds. Additionally, we live in a learning and higher education, both at undergra- world where intercultural organisations have be- duate and post-graduate levels, is now truly come more complex (Mahadevan et al., 2011). global, where the choice of study destinations Globalisation has been accompanied by increased spans an enormous range of institutions in any of migration and increased international remote com- the ﬁve continents. Additionally, there is a multi- munication via ICTs (information and Communi- tude of international conferences in every disci-

© Deborah Swallow 2020 66 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 67 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-56-66 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-67-80 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 56-66 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org

KEYWORDS: diversity, intercultural competence, discrimination, political correctness, diversity, inclusion, unconscious bias

© Deborah Swallow 2020 66 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 67 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow pline vying for global participants. The growth of bedded in national, regional or local cultures. This tures have been taught to learn and respond cre- intuitive, although some individuals appear to the major Asian economies has led to greater di- demand has been driven by a number of factors; ates a less stressful classroom and engenders better have innate abilities and to be ‘culturally savvy’. versification in student bodies and business train- the need for more profitable international trade, a learning outcomes. ‘The most ordinary thing in the Others have experiences that make it easier for ing audiences. fascination with other cultures, a desire to create world is to see things through your own eyes. The them to work with cultural diversity. These speci- This paper supports the value of developing di- empathy between peoples and to build bridges of most extra-ordinary thing is to see things through fic competencies need to be acknowledged and versity and intercultural competence in learning understanding recognising the interconnectedness the eyes of others’ (Swallow & Milnes, 2013, p. developed. Unfortunately, many academicians, institutions to better understand, create and ma- of nations in the industrialised world. Consequent- 20). used to collaborating in the international lingua nage productive and enjoyable relationships with ly, educationalists as much as businesspeople are franca of English with the shared vocabulary of an both students, colleagues and other institutions. having to adapt their individual style to operate in 2.2. Diversity and intercultural competence in academic discipline, assume this is enough to gua- Data from a wide range of research in disciplines an international environment. Unfortunately, there higher education and the adult learning sector rantee successful intercultural interactions. How- as diverse as applied linguistics and international is a gap between the aspirations of organisations According to Reid et al. (2009), little is written ever, as the business management literature amply management support intercultural competence in and the abilities of the people who staff them (Reid about cross-cultural differences and the competen- evidences, just because everyone is speaking one the classroom as enhancing learning outcomes of et al., 2009). When confronted with intercultural cies to handle them, derived from the higher edu- language does not ensure shared understanding students. Unfortunately, a major obstacle in using differences, organisations expect their teachers cation sector. What there is tends to be in the do- even at the most basic level. Indeed, educationa- current knowledge and guidance on intercultural and managers to ‘miraculously’ obtain instant mul- mains of linguistics and anthropology, where cul- lists are beginning to find that very fundamental is- competence is the very fact that it is dispersed ti-cultural communication and management skills. tural diversity is seen as a core element in scholar- sues, such as academic autonomy and models of across a large number of very varied disciplines Kavanagh and Kelly (2002) state that the busi- ly research. pedagogy, are emerging as potentially contentious (Reid et al., 2009). Consequently, there is a dispa- ness management literature is full of cases of rela- With significantly increasing levels of interna- lines of division across cultures (Reid et al., 2009). rity between the conceptual models and termino- tionships soured, deals lost and mergers undermi- tional activity in the higher education and adult The function of diversity management is to train logy employed. It is within this context that this ned through a lack of cultural sensitivity (cited in learning sectors, Middlehurst and Woodfield staff to appreciate different approaches based on paper attempts to explore the issues around diver- Reid et al., 2009). Citing a case study of interna- (2007) argue that institutions will need to rely on different cultural backgrounds, to make the work- sity management and to draw together some key tional business practice, Rugman et al. (2006) the establishment of sound, long-term relation- place more inclusive and to avoid or resolve ope- concepts, with the objective of providing know- state: ‘All this proves is that going global is hard ships with counterpart institutions overseas. There- rational problems arising from cultural differences. ledge and practical ideas that will support those in work. Not all of these problems could have been fore, these institutions will need to invest in deve- It is particularly important for teachers and trainers the Higher Education and Business Training sec- foreseen, but a real lack of awareness of cultural loping and improving skills in the complex matter to understand and apply these principles to busi- tors who work with international colleagues and differences did lead to many of the organisation of achieving intercultural competence. ness language, management and culture courses. students. This paper aims to identify the key issues difficulties and people problems with a real impact Additionally, and it can be argued more im- potentially facing educationalists at the ‘coalface’ on the bottom line’ (Rugman et al., 2006, p. 29). portantly, educational institutions have a duty of 3. METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL dealing with colleagues and students and suggests A large body of business management literature care to their foreign students and have a responsi- BACKGROUND ideas and strategies that teachers can use to ma- states the importance of intercultural competence bility to manage their experiences in a more cultu- 3.1. What is diversity and diversity manage- nage diversity positively in the classroom. This stu- in operating effectively across cultures. Outcomes rally sensitive manner. Therefore, it makes sound ment? dy, therefore, has high potential value for a wide of this sensitivity to diversity has been seen in two sense to develop an increased skill in handling in- The primary objective of this article is to draw range of professionals engaged in international distinct ways: ‘in its ability to engender positive tercultural encounters as a core competence of the on published research findings in a variety of aca- and cross-cultural education. However, any in- outcomes (e.g. the reduction of prejudice; the organisation. ‘Our main conclusions identify a demic fields to provide both a sound argument for sights need to be brought together in a way that building of trust; the generation of creativity) and need for cultural sensitivity in the orientation and the need to invest in training intercultural compe- practitioners from any field can access them with- to minimise the potential negative consequences support of students, continued monitoring of stu- tence for those teaching in the higher education out specialist knowledge and in a way that stimu- of mishandling intercultural interaction (low cohe- dents’ needs and expectations throughout their re- and adult learning sectors and, also, to identify lates awareness-raising and encourages reflection sion; high levels of miscommunication; personal lationship with the institution, as well as the need pragmatic ideas of usability in the classroom. It is on current practices and available resources. stress)’ (Reid et al., 2009, p. 9). to consider issues of integration among stu- not intended to be a comprehensive literature re- We are all internationalists now. It is time to dents’ (Middlehurst & Woodfield, 2007, p. 57). view of material on intercultural competence. 2. RATIONALE develop the intercultural skills that will serve us Camerer and Mader (2012) define diversity as 2.1. The value of developing diversity and in- through our working adult life. Taking time to un- 2.3. Embedding intercultural competence in ‘regarding every individual as unique, but at the tercultural competence derstand how others think, feel and behave helps the adult learning and higher education sectors same time recognising differences in e.g. race, na- The global education and business environ- to create a more harmonious and inclusive work- The overwhelming message of the literature is tionality, language and religion as well as gender, ments demand a new skill set with the need for place, increases productivity and empowers global that skills for working across cultures, sectors, na- sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, participants to be aware of various differences em- teams. Understanding how those from other cul- tionalities or even academic disciplines, are not physical abilities and beliefs or ideologies’ (Came-

68 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 69 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow pline vying for global participants. The growth of bedded in national, regional or local cultures. This tures have been taught to learn and respond cre- intuitive, although some individuals appear to the major Asian economies has led to greater di- demand has been driven by a number of factors; ates a less stressful classroom and engenders better have innate abilities and to be ‘culturally savvy’. versification in student bodies and business train- the need for more profitable international trade, a learning outcomes. ‘The most ordinary thing in the Others have experiences that make it easier for ing audiences. fascination with other cultures, a desire to create world is to see things through your own eyes. The them to work with cultural diversity. These speci- This paper supports the value of developing di- empathy between peoples and to build bridges of most extra-ordinary thing is to see things through fic competencies need to be acknowledged and versity and intercultural competence in learning understanding recognising the interconnectedness the eyes of others’ (Swallow & Milnes, 2013, p. developed. Unfortunately, many academicians, institutions to better understand, create and ma- of nations in the industrialised world. Consequent- 20). used to collaborating in the international lingua nage productive and enjoyable relationships with ly, educationalists as much as businesspeople are franca of English with the shared vocabulary of an both students, colleagues and other institutions. having to adapt their individual style to operate in 2.2. Diversity and intercultural competence in academic discipline, assume this is enough to gua- Data from a wide range of research in disciplines an international environment. Unfortunately, there higher education and the adult learning sector rantee successful intercultural interactions. How- as diverse as applied linguistics and international is a gap between the aspirations of organisations According to Reid et al. (2009), little is written ever, as the business management literature amply management support intercultural competence in and the abilities of the people who staff them (Reid about cross-cultural differences and the competen- evidences, just because everyone is speaking one the classroom as enhancing learning outcomes of et al., 2009). When confronted with intercultural cies to handle them, derived from the higher edu- language does not ensure shared understanding students. Unfortunately, a major obstacle in using differences, organisations expect their teachers cation sector. What there is tends to be in the do- even at the most basic level. Indeed, educationa- current knowledge and guidance on intercultural and managers to ‘miraculously’ obtain instant mul- mains of linguistics and anthropology, where cul- lists are beginning to find that very fundamental is- competence is the very fact that it is dispersed ti-cultural communication and management skills. tural diversity is seen as a core element in scholar- sues, such as academic autonomy and models of across a large number of very varied disciplines Kavanagh and Kelly (2002) state that the busi- ly research. pedagogy, are emerging as potentially contentious (Reid et al., 2009). Consequently, there is a dispa- ness management literature is full of cases of rela- With significantly increasing levels of interna- lines of division across cultures (Reid et al., 2009). rity between the conceptual models and termino- tionships soured, deals lost and mergers undermi- tional activity in the higher education and adult The function of diversity management is to train logy employed. It is within this context that this ned through a lack of cultural sensitivity (cited in learning sectors, Middlehurst and Woodfield staff to appreciate different approaches based on paper attempts to explore the issues around diver- Reid et al., 2009). Citing a case study of interna- (2007) argue that institutions will need to rely on different cultural backgrounds, to make the work- sity management and to draw together some key tional business practice, Rugman et al. (2006) the establishment of sound, long-term relation- place more inclusive and to avoid or resolve ope- concepts, with the objective of providing know- state: ‘All this proves is that going global is hard ships with counterpart institutions overseas. There- rational problems arising from cultural differences. ledge and practical ideas that will support those in work. Not all of these problems could have been fore, these institutions will need to invest in deve- It is particularly important for teachers and trainers the Higher Education and Business Training sec- foreseen, but a real lack of awareness of cultural loping and improving skills in the complex matter to understand and apply these principles to busi- tors who work with international colleagues and differences did lead to many of the organisation of achieving intercultural competence. ness language, management and culture courses. students. This paper aims to identify the key issues difficulties and people problems with a real impact Additionally, and it can be argued more im- potentially facing educationalists at the ‘coalface’ on the bottom line’ (Rugman et al., 2006, p. 29). portantly, educational institutions have a duty of 3. METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL dealing with colleagues and students and suggests A large body of business management literature care to their foreign students and have a responsi- BACKGROUND ideas and strategies that teachers can use to ma- states the importance of intercultural competence bility to manage their experiences in a more cultu- 3.1. What is diversity and diversity manage- nage diversity positively in the classroom. This stu- in operating effectively across cultures. Outcomes rally sensitive manner. Therefore, it makes sound ment? dy, therefore, has high potential value for a wide of this sensitivity to diversity has been seen in two sense to develop an increased skill in handling in- The primary objective of this article is to draw range of professionals engaged in international distinct ways: ‘in its ability to engender positive tercultural encounters as a core competence of the on published research findings in a variety of aca- and cross-cultural education. However, any in- outcomes (e.g. the reduction of prejudice; the organisation. ‘Our main conclusions identify a demic fields to provide both a sound argument for sights need to be brought together in a way that building of trust; the generation of creativity) and need for cultural sensitivity in the orientation and the need to invest in training intercultural compe- practitioners from any field can access them with- to minimise the potential negative consequences support of students, continued monitoring of stu- tence for those teaching in the higher education out specialist knowledge and in a way that stimu- of mishandling intercultural interaction (low cohe- dents’ needs and expectations throughout their re- and adult learning sectors and, also, to identify lates awareness-raising and encourages reflection sion; high levels of miscommunication; personal lationship with the institution, as well as the need pragmatic ideas of usability in the classroom. It is on current practices and available resources. stress)’ (Reid et al., 2009, p. 9). to consider issues of integration among stu- not intended to be a comprehensive literature re- We are all internationalists now. It is time to dents’ (Middlehurst & Woodfield, 2007, p. 57). view of material on intercultural competence. 2. RATIONALE develop the intercultural skills that will serve us Camerer and Mader (2012) define diversity as 2.1. The value of developing diversity and in- through our working adult life. Taking time to un- 2.3. Embedding intercultural competence in ‘regarding every individual as unique, but at the tercultural competence derstand how others think, feel and behave helps the adult learning and higher education sectors same time recognising differences in e.g. race, na- The global education and business environ- to create a more harmonious and inclusive work- The overwhelming message of the literature is tionality, language and religion as well as gender, ments demand a new skill set with the need for place, increases productivity and empowers global that skills for working across cultures, sectors, na- sexual orientation, socio-economic status, age, participants to be aware of various differences em- teams. Understanding how those from other cul- tionalities or even academic disciplines, are not physical abilities and beliefs or ideologies’ (Came-

68 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 69 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow rer & Mader, 2012, p.188). Hurn and Tomalin This example shows how harmful stereotyping conscious bias’. Unconscious biases are described The fact that different challenges have been (2013) define diversity management as the policy can be in intercultural interaction. Schneider as social stereotypes about certain groups of peo- identified in the literature concerning when team of promoting equality in society generally and in (2004) defines stereotyping as ‘a positive or nega- ple that individuals form outside their own con- members resort to a shared language evidences the workplace in particular. In practical terms, di- tive set of beliefs held by an individual about the scious awareness. that management should address the consequence versity management is the competent handling of characteristics of a group of people. It varies in its of language diversity. diversity and inclusion, where diversity is the mix accuracy, the degree to which it captures the de- 3.3. Language as a tool of discrimination Another challenge facing diverse teams is poli- and inclusion is making the mix work; with the gree to which the stereotyped group members One of the most important skills highlighted in tical correctness, which raises barriers to develo- aim of producing better cooperation, motivation, possess these traits and the extent to which the set the literature, and one that is emphasised particu- ping constructive, engaged relationships at work. engagement and productivity, and more inclu- of beliefs is shared by others’ (Schneider, 2004, p. larly strongly in the field of applied linguistics and In cultures regulated by political correctness, ac- siveness in international dealings or intercultural 39). He distinguishes between three categories of communication studies, is the skill to communi- cording to Ely et al. (2006), people can feel judged engagements (Swallow & Milnes, 2013). description: essential features (characteristics cate effectively and efficiently in intercultural con- and fear being blamed. They feel inhibited and ac- As Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) state, which objectively represent an individual); identi- texts (Reid et al., 2009, p. 40). Comfort and Frank- tually afraid to address even the most banal issues one of the problems we encounter in intercultural fying features (characteristics which help us identi- lin (2008) emphasise the importance of language directly, consequently resentments build, relation- relations is the management and perception of im- fy people but not always reliably); and ascribed in a diverse team. Following their analysis in one ships fray, and performance suffers. pressions. In asking and answering questions, at- features (what we think of people but are in no international organisation they concluded about a Legal and cultural changes that have taken tending a job interview, or taking part in an online way integral and may be inaccurate). third of the problems encountered by international place over the past 40 years have ushered in an conference call, the impression we try to convey The lesson to be learned is that national stereo- managers were due to language difficulties, a third emphasis on using language to show respect and may be misinterpreted by others. Misinterpretation types must always be questioned as people are a to cultural differences and a third to task comple- consideration for different cultural identities and may involve a negative reaction to language used mix of a variety of cultural influences – national, xity. Henderson (2005) highlights that a major minorities. Principal among these has been lan- and also behaviour, but ultimately any misinter- regional, professional and societal, and personal – challenge for teams composed of speakers of diffe- guage used in gender identity. Making comments pretation is based on pre-judgement. and may be completely different from their sup- rent languages is the building of trust and relation- about women or men which are considered emo- posed national character (Hurn & Tomalin, 2013). ships that are language dependent. His findings in- tionally inappropriate has become increasingly ta- 3.2. Discrimination, stereotyping, prejudice Stereotyping on the basis of nationality is ‘essentia- dicate that language diversity ‘has a significant im- boo. Even the title identifying the difference be- and unconscious bias lism’ as Zhu (2014) describes it, although nationa- pact on socialisation processes and team building, tween a married woman (Mrs) and an unmarried Chryssochoou (2004, p. 36) defines discrimina- lity is a useful shorthand from which you can dig influencing both communication acts and mutual woman (Miss) has been combined in the word Ms tion as ‘the treatment of a person or a group of down to a person’s character and cultural identity perceptions’ (Henderson, 2005, p. 66). He empha- and when writing he, increasingly it is written he people unfairly or differently because of their (Tomalin & Nicks, 2014). Prejudice, essentially sises that the term ‘language diversity’ refers not or she or s/he. In the same way, the use of busi- membership of a particular social group’. Cameron pre-judging, can arise from many factors and may only to the fact that team members speak a variety nessman, chairman and other phrases using the and Mader (2012, p. 189) distinguish, in particu- be based on stereotypes or on personal experience of mother tongues but to the fact that they also word man as a generic term have been altered. lar, gender discrimination as the ‘fixed ways of and received opinion. Schneider (2004, p. 27) de- hear in a variety of different ways. This is because Businessman is now better referred to as business thinking about gender features and how genders fines it as ‘a set of affective reactions we have to- they tend to use different interpretive mechanisms executive, and chairman is better referred to as are supposed to behave and communicate’. Spen- wards people as a result of their category mem- due to their diverse backgrounds. According to chair. cer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) examine the role of berships’. Comparing it with stereotyping, Smith Henderson (2005), compared with cultural diversi- Blatant prejudice and discrimination in the stereotyping as focusing on certain types of evi- and Bond (1998) state that ‘stereotyping is a group ty in international teams, language diversity has re- workplace, previously condoned by society, espe- dence, whilst overlooking other evidence that con- of beliefs about persons who are members of a ceived little attention and is often overlooked, ge- cially towards women and people of colour, are tradicts it. To explain this, they cite the research particular group whereas prejudice can better be nerally being treated as just one ingredient of cul- not acceptable today. Underrepresented groups undertaken by Birkner and Kern (2008) into job in- thought of as an attitude, usually negative, towards ture. are now protected from blatant discrimination by terviews involving West Germans and applicants members of a group’ (Smith & Bond, 1998, p. The capacity to catch and correctly interpret laws. In the workplace these cover hiring practices from what used to be known as East Germany. 184-185). The active result of prejudice is discri- contextual clues or signals is a skill required in in- and promotion, with political correctness having They noted that the applicants, although clearly mination. It must be remembered that one can ternational teams (Gumperz, 2003) since notions reset the standards for civility and respect in peo- able to deal efficiently with conflict in the work- have prejudice against someone but also in favour of competence of what constitutes ‘a good public ple’s day-to-day interactions (Ely et al., 2006). place, showed deference to the West German of someone, and this is normally called bias. speaker, a good conversationalist, a constructive We now refer to speech in English as ‘PC’ (poli- boss, which the West Germans interpreted as lack Everyone holds unconscious beliefs about soci- participant in a meeting, or a good team leader, tically correct, meaning neutral) or ‘non-PC’ (poli- of assertiveness. In this case the applicant’s respect al and identity groups, and these biases stem from differ greatly between individuals of different na- tically incorrect, meaning discriminatory). Non-PC for the boss was interpreted as submissiveness one’s tendency to organise social worlds by cate- tional cultural groups and, therefore, language or politically incorrect language is definitely disap- (Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009). gorising. The term used to describe this trait is ‘un- communities’ (Henderson, 2005, p. 75). proved of in English speaking countries.

70 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 71 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow rer & Mader, 2012, p.188). Hurn and Tomalin This example shows how harmful stereotyping conscious bias’. Unconscious biases are described The fact that different challenges have been (2013) define diversity management as the policy can be in intercultural interaction. Schneider as social stereotypes about certain groups of peo- identified in the literature concerning when team of promoting equality in society generally and in (2004) defines stereotyping as ‘a positive or nega- ple that individuals form outside their own con- members resort to a shared language evidences the workplace in particular. In practical terms, di- tive set of beliefs held by an individual about the scious awareness. that management should address the consequence versity management is the competent handling of characteristics of a group of people. It varies in its of language diversity. diversity and inclusion, where diversity is the mix accuracy, the degree to which it captures the de- 3.3. Language as a tool of discrimination Another challenge facing diverse teams is poli- and inclusion is making the mix work; with the gree to which the stereotyped group members One of the most important skills highlighted in tical correctness, which raises barriers to develo- aim of producing better cooperation, motivation, possess these traits and the extent to which the set the literature, and one that is emphasised particu- ping constructive, engaged relationships at work. engagement and productivity, and more inclu- of beliefs is shared by others’ (Schneider, 2004, p. larly strongly in the field of applied linguistics and In cultures regulated by political correctness, ac- siveness in international dealings or intercultural 39). He distinguishes between three categories of communication studies, is the skill to communi- cording to Ely et al. (2006), people can feel judged engagements (Swallow & Milnes, 2013). description: essential features (characteristics cate effectively and efficiently in intercultural con- and fear being blamed. They feel inhibited and ac- As Spencer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) state, which objectively represent an individual); identi- texts (Reid et al., 2009, p. 40). Comfort and Frank- tually afraid to address even the most banal issues one of the problems we encounter in intercultural fying features (characteristics which help us identi- lin (2008) emphasise the importance of language directly, consequently resentments build, relation- relations is the management and perception of im- fy people but not always reliably); and ascribed in a diverse team. Following their analysis in one ships fray, and performance suffers. pressions. In asking and answering questions, at- features (what we think of people but are in no international organisation they concluded about a Legal and cultural changes that have taken tending a job interview, or taking part in an online way integral and may be inaccurate). third of the problems encountered by international place over the past 40 years have ushered in an conference call, the impression we try to convey The lesson to be learned is that national stereo- managers were due to language difficulties, a third emphasis on using language to show respect and may be misinterpreted by others. Misinterpretation types must always be questioned as people are a to cultural differences and a third to task comple- consideration for different cultural identities and may involve a negative reaction to language used mix of a variety of cultural influences – national, xity. Henderson (2005) highlights that a major minorities. Principal among these has been lan- and also behaviour, but ultimately any misinter- regional, professional and societal, and personal – challenge for teams composed of speakers of diffe- guage used in gender identity. Making comments pretation is based on pre-judgement. and may be completely different from their sup- rent languages is the building of trust and relation- about women or men which are considered emo- posed national character (Hurn & Tomalin, 2013). ships that are language dependent. His findings in- tionally inappropriate has become increasingly ta- 3.2. Discrimination, stereotyping, prejudice Stereotyping on the basis of nationality is ‘essentia- dicate that language diversity ‘has a significant im- boo. Even the title identifying the difference be- and unconscious bias lism’ as Zhu (2014) describes it, although nationa- pact on socialisation processes and team building, tween a married woman (Mrs) and an unmarried Chryssochoou (2004, p. 36) defines discrimina- lity is a useful shorthand from which you can dig influencing both communication acts and mutual woman (Miss) has been combined in the word Ms tion as ‘the treatment of a person or a group of down to a person’s character and cultural identity perceptions’ (Henderson, 2005, p. 66). He empha- and when writing he, increasingly it is written he people unfairly or differently because of their (Tomalin & Nicks, 2014). Prejudice, essentially sises that the term ‘language diversity’ refers not or she or s/he. In the same way, the use of busi- membership of a particular social group’. Cameron pre-judging, can arise from many factors and may only to the fact that team members speak a variety nessman, chairman and other phrases using the and Mader (2012, p. 189) distinguish, in particu- be based on stereotypes or on personal experience of mother tongues but to the fact that they also word man as a generic term have been altered. lar, gender discrimination as the ‘fixed ways of and received opinion. Schneider (2004, p. 27) de- hear in a variety of different ways. This is because Businessman is now better referred to as business thinking about gender features and how genders fines it as ‘a set of affective reactions we have to- they tend to use different interpretive mechanisms executive, and chairman is better referred to as are supposed to behave and communicate’. Spen- wards people as a result of their category mem- due to their diverse backgrounds. According to chair. cer-Oatey and Franklin (2009) examine the role of berships’. Comparing it with stereotyping, Smith Henderson (2005), compared with cultural diversi- Blatant prejudice and discrimination in the stereotyping as focusing on certain types of evi- and Bond (1998) state that ‘stereotyping is a group ty in international teams, language diversity has re- workplace, previously condoned by society, espe- dence, whilst overlooking other evidence that con- of beliefs about persons who are members of a ceived little attention and is often overlooked, ge- cially towards women and people of colour, are tradicts it. To explain this, they cite the research particular group whereas prejudice can better be nerally being treated as just one ingredient of cul- not acceptable today. Underrepresented groups undertaken by Birkner and Kern (2008) into job in- thought of as an attitude, usually negative, towards ture. are now protected from blatant discrimination by terviews involving West Germans and applicants members of a group’ (Smith & Bond, 1998, p. The capacity to catch and correctly interpret laws. In the workplace these cover hiring practices from what used to be known as East Germany. 184-185). The active result of prejudice is discri- contextual clues or signals is a skill required in in- and promotion, with political correctness having They noted that the applicants, although clearly mination. It must be remembered that one can ternational teams (Gumperz, 2003) since notions reset the standards for civility and respect in peo- able to deal efficiently with conflict in the work- have prejudice against someone but also in favour of competence of what constitutes ‘a good public ple’s day-to-day interactions (Ely et al., 2006). place, showed deference to the West German of someone, and this is normally called bias. speaker, a good conversationalist, a constructive We now refer to speech in English as ‘PC’ (poli- boss, which the West Germans interpreted as lack Everyone holds unconscious beliefs about soci- participant in a meeting, or a good team leader, tically correct, meaning neutral) or ‘non-PC’ (poli- of assertiveness. In this case the applicant’s respect al and identity groups, and these biases stem from differ greatly between individuals of different na- tically incorrect, meaning discriminatory). Non-PC for the boss was interpreted as submissiveness one’s tendency to organise social worlds by cate- tional cultural groups and, therefore, language or politically incorrect language is definitely disap- (Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009). gorising. The term used to describe this trait is ‘un- communities’ (Henderson, 2005, p. 75). proved of in English speaking countries.

The focus is not just on language but also beha- ethical business conduct. In either case, organisa- viour, which has been increasingly subject to poli- tional diversity is a matter of maximising the poten- tical correctness. Despite the progress toward tial of human resources and building capacity for greater inclusivity and a better experience at work, education and change’ (Lunheim, 2008, p. 13). political correctness is a double-edged sword. As For EU member states, their working practices Ely et al. (2006) state, the PC rule book can hinder come from the five enshrined principles of the Eu- employees’ ability to develop effective relation- ropean Union: the commitment to democracy; the ships across potentially divisive group differences. commitment to citizens’ and human rights inclu- Companies need to equip workers with skills – not ding the free-flow of EU citizens within the Eu- rules – for building these relationships. ropean Union; the solidarity of the EU; security; One of the dangers in management is the use of and the right to freedom of EU citizens. These va- what Young (2003) describes as negative micro- lues are upheld by national courts, and the Eu- messages. Also known as micro-equities, they ’are ropean Court of Justice and the European Court of a cumulative pattern of subtle, semiconscious, de- Human Rights. valuing messages which discourage and impair In 1999, the EU identified six key areas of di- performance, possibly leading to damaged self-es- versity, infringement of which would be against teem and withdrawal and can erode organisa- the EU law (Treaty of Amsterdam of 1999) and Figure 1. Intercultural competence and capacity building framework in organisations tions’ (Young, 2003, p. 90). subsequently voted into national law by the mem- Effective leadership in culturally diverse con- ber states’ own country parliaments. According to French (2011) writes that diversity management 4.2. At the team level texts needs to engender constructive engagement the legislation, discrimination against people is can incorporate the management of cultural diffe- Adler (1997) identified three stages of progres- of differences where everyone develops a mindset outlawed on the grounds of religion, race, gender, rence but more importantly, it emphasises the sion in a successful diversity management pro- and skills that many currently lack. All this has image, disability and sexual orientation. The conse- sharing of knowledge and experience to be gained gramme: Entry (building trust and cohesion in the plications for education and training in modern quence of this is that many countries have become from a diverse workforce with the aim of securing team), Work (creativity on agreeing aims, organi- languages and management, where students need more litigious and organisations have put into added value for all parties. The principles of multi- sation and action planning) and Action (team con- to understand and know what politically correct place policies and procedures governing the beha- culturalism and the value of embracing diverse vergence and working together in harmony to language/behaviour they should use and what they viour of their employees to safeguard themselves views needs to be accepted not just at corporate achieve targets). She presents the stages in Table 1 should avoid. from being sued. These workplace practices are policy level but throughout the organisation. below. also intended to safeguard the employees in their 3.4. Legal provisions affecting diversity issues undertakings to ensure an inclusive, safe and ac- Table 1 The key relationships in any workplace are be- countable environment. Managing diversity based on the team’s stage of development tween employer and employee and between employees themselves. In the UK, USA and Western 4. CAPACITY BUILDING: DIVERSITY MA- STAGE PROCESS DIVERSITY MAKES THE PROCESS BASED ON Europe this relationship is usually based on NAGEMENT & INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE PROCESS contract, enshrined in laws and directives with the 4.1. The organisational level Entry: Initial team formation Trust building (Developing More difficult Using similarities and objective of stopping employment issues and con- The challenge in any organisation is to build a cohesion) understanding differences troversies that may arise over concerns about the unified society or culture without uniformity Work: problem description Ideation (creating ideas) Easier Using differences abuse of child labour, excessive working hours, (Swallow, 2011). In this regard, diversity must be and analysis lack of security of permanent employees, sexual embraced for employees to feel their organisation harassment and gender, age, race or religion affec- is inclusive. Building intercultural capacity and Action: Decision Making and Consensus building (agreeing More difficult Recognising and creating implementation and acting) similarities ting employment or promotion. competence in an organisation has to be both a As Lunheim (2008) explains, ‘in some count- top-down and bottom-up approach for diversity ries, diverse employment practices, with regard to management to be successful. Engagement and In the third column Adler (1997) assesses the Adler (1997) looks at the difference between effec- gender and ethnicity, are enforced through equal learning has to take place at every level of the or- difficulty involved in each stage in a diverse work- tive and ineffective diversity management. She fo- opportunities legislation, which might include quo- ganisation. force. She ultimately considers the entry and initial cuses on three areas – the task, the stage and con- tas and other forms of affirmative action. In other Swallow (2011) presents this concept in the trust building and action, decision-making and im- ditions – and assesses the differences between ef- settings diversity is not enforced but expected as framework below: plementation to be the most difficult. In Table 2, fectiveness and ineffectiveness.

72 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 73 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow

Table 2 Table 3 Effective and ineffective diversity management Global People Competency Framework Cluster 1: Knowledge and ideas (Spencer-Oatey & Stadler, 2009)

EFFECTIVE INEFFECTIVE INFORMATION – aware of the need to gather information about unfamiliar cultures and interested to do so; GATHERING – uses a range of strategies to gather relevant information, including: seeks out and finds helpful books TASK Innovative Routines and documents, observes behaviour, asks explicit questions, asks ‘cultural informants’. Divergence (earlier) Convergence (later) NEW – open to new ideas; STAGE Differences recognised Differences ignored THINKING – seeks new insights and ways of understanding issues; Members selected for task-related abilities Members selected on basis of ethnicity – challenges conventional thinking; – extends thinking beyond own field of knowledge; CONDITIONS Mutual respect Ethnocentrism – regularly updates and modifies opinions in the light of new information or evidence. Equal power Cultural dominance Super-ordinate goal Individual goals GOAL – interested in other people’s goals and seeks to find out about them; External feedback No feedback (complete autonomy) ORIENTATION – maintains a focus on own goals and does not compromise too easily; – willing to take other people’s goals into account and to balance own and other’s goals when needed.

‘Diversity must be embraced for As Reid et al. (2009) point out, the literature on SYNERGISTIC – shares and surfaces the different perspectives that people have about a problem; intercultural interaction competence in the fields SOLUTIONS – facilitates group members in reconciling and integrating different approaches; employees to feel their organisation is – stimulates creative and synergistic solutions and procedures. inclusive. Building intercultural capacity of applied linguistics, foreign language education, intercultural studies, psychology, and international and competence in an organisation has to business and management focuses predominantly Table 4 be both a top-down and bottom-up on the following aspects: generic competencies for Global People Competency Framework Cluster 2: Communication (Spencer-Oatey & Stadler, 2009) approach for diversity management to be intercultural effectiveness; personality traits and acquired skills; and communication skills. The in- COMMUNICATION – attends to the choice of working language(s); successful. Engagement and learning has MANAGEMENT – chooses modes of communication that suit the particular communicative purpose; ternational business and management literature – establishes suitable communication networks; to take place at every level of the adds professional skills and personality traits to the – establishes and agrees communication protocols, takes steps to deal with communication problems. overall picture. Marx (1999) mentions the import- organisation’ LANGUAGE – motivated to learn and use other languages, and willing to invest time and effort in this; ance of both professional excellence and of self- LEARNING – confident in the ability to pick up and use foreign languages; Looking at her characteristics of effective diver- reliance and independence. Schneider and Bar- – tries out words and expressions in unfamiliar languages. sity management, Adler (1997) stresses the import- soux (2003) mention a related factor, which they LANGUAGE – adopts use of language to the proficiency level of the recipient(s) to maximise comprehensibility; ance of opportunities for innovation through the refer to as ego-strength, the possession of a strong ADJUSTMENT – pays attention to, and adopts where necessary, aspects such as speed, frequency and length of early recognition of difference. She also stresses sense of self. These factors are critical to a person’s pausing, complexity of sentence structure, vocabulary, use of idioms, colloquialisms, dialects. the importance of tailoring tasks to team members’ well-being when in a new cultural environment, ACTIVE LISTENING – listens attentively and signals that listening is taking place; task-related abilities. Above all, she emphasises where resilience will help them cope better with – regularly checks and clarifies the meaning of important words and phrases, to ensure that all the importance of showing mutual respect, focu- change. participants attach the same meaning to them, even when they are well known; sing on the ‘super-ordinate’ goal of the company – notices potential misunderstanding and seeks clarification / negotiates meaning until common understanding is reached. rather than individual agendas and the value of 4.4. The competence framework being open to external feedback and introducing In their landscaping study concerning compe- ATTUNING – adept at observing indirect signals of meaning, such as intonation, eye contact and body language, changes as needed. tencies for effective intercultural interaction in the and at picking up meaning from them; – pro-actively studies indirect signals of meaning, asking about them in order to deepen knowledge at higher education sector, Spencer-Oatey and Stad- a conscious level; 4.3. At the individual level ler (2009) drew up their Global People Competen- – learns to interpret indirect signals appropriately in different cultural and communicative contexts. At the level of the individual, an extensive lite- cy Framework. This framework explains the com- BUILDING OF – discloses and elicits background information that is needed for mutual understanding and rature exists on the competencies required to be petencies that are needed for what they term ‘ef- SHARED meaningful negotiation; effective in intercultural interaction. There appears fective intercultural interaction’ and are grouped KNOWLEDGE AND – structures and highlights information by using discourse markers to ‘label’ language, by using visual to be much agreement on the core competencies into four clusters: knowledge and ideas, communi- MUTUAL TRUST or written aids, and by paying attention to the sequencing of information; – exposes own intentions by explaining not only ‘what’ s/he wants, but also ‘why’ s/he wants it. displayed by a person who is culturally proficient. cation, relationships, personal qualities and dispo- Chief among these are self-awareness, cultural sitions. They detail how the competency can be STYLISTIC – pays attention to the different styles of communication (e.g. formal/informal, expressive/restrained); knowledge, language proficiency, openness, flexi- displayed in behaviour and what problems may FLEXIBILITY – builds a repertoire of styles to suit different purposes, contexts and audiences; – uses different language styles flexibly to suit different purposes, contexts and audiences. bility and communication skills. occur when the competency is not present.

74 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 75 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow

Table 2 Table 3 Effective and ineffective diversity management Global People Competency Framework Cluster 1: Knowledge and ideas (Spencer-Oatey & Stadler, 2009)

Table 5 5. APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM and to speak more slowly and clearly. They also Global People Competency Framework Cluster 3: Relationships (Spencer-Oatey & Stadler, 2009) 5.1. Aims of diversity management training for need to develop the ability to rephrase and multi- the classroom interpret the communications they are receiving – WELCOMING OF – interested in people with different experiences and backgrounds; STRANGERS – pro-active in approaching and meeting new people; Diversity management training for the class- seeing circumstances through the eyes of others. – builds a wide and diverse network of friends and acquaintances. room aims to make teachers and trainers aware of Emphasis should also be placed on the legal is- the different approaches and expectations that sues of discrimination and sexual harassment so RAPPORT BUILDING – shows warmth and friendliness in building relationships; others may have in a learning context compared that teachers can safeguard themselves from being – builds connections on a personal as well as professional basis; – shows care and genuine concern for the other person’s welfare. with their own. Status, power and the due ac- accused of either, and to ensure that students feel knowledgement of authority (hierarchy) are of the both safe and comfortable. An example would be SENSITIVITY TO – pays attention to hierarchy and power relations, and how they may influence behaviour in different SOCIAL / contexts; utmost importance in some societies and contrast that in a one-to-one situation a teacher would not PROFESSIONAL – understands how given role relationships operate in different contexts, and the rights and obligations dramatically with the informal, first-name (equali- arrange to meet alone in a room with a closed CONTEXT associated with them; ty) experience of many US and UK adult learning door; a public place would be more appropriate. – understands how decisions are made in given contexts. establishments. The impact of this difference can INTERPERSONAL – pays attention to people’s personal sensitivities and avoids making them ‘lose face’; have some serious implications on the learning 5.3. Becoming more self-aware of discrimina- ATTENTIVENESS – encourages and builds people up by complimenting them appropriately and ‘giving them face’. outcomes of many students. tion and unconscious bias Swallow and Milnes (2013) highlight the misin- It is always a challenge for people to recognise terpretation across cultures of using/not using ‘ini- their unconscious biases; after all, they are uncon- Table 6 tiative’. Students in equality environments are ex- scious. However, becoming more self-aware and Global People Competency Framework Cluster 4: Communication (Spencer-Oatey & Stadler, 2009) pected to use their initiative and work with a ‘light the willingness to adapt one’s actions are the key touch’ of guidance. However, in hierarchical so- to overcoming discrimination. SPIRIT OF – ready to seek out variety, change and stimulation in his/her life; cieties, teachers in a superior position are obliged One of the most powerful ways the author has ADVENTURE – avoids safe and predictable environments; – pushes self into uncomfortable and ambiguous situations from which s/he can learn. to be fair, caring and strict towards their subordi- found in raising awareness of the issues and to ex- nates and provide them with much guidance and plain the effects of ‘unconscious bias’, attitudes SELF-AWARENESS – conscious that his/her own behaviour may be strange and/or difficult for other to understand or advice. The student in the subordinate position is and beliefs that affect the way people communi- accept; cate and behave is by showing the video ‘A Class – sensitive to how his/her own communication and behaviour is interpreted by others. obliged to be submissive and subservient, to not act on their own accord or ‘think for themselves’. Divided’ (Frontline PBS, 2019). ACCEPTANCE – positively accepts behaviour and ideas that are very different from his/her own; They can expect to rely on the superior for support In 1964 a US teacher conducted an experiment – accepting of people as they are and does not try to change them; – at ease with those who hold different views or values; in all areas of life. This clash of expectations, from in otherness and exclusion with an elementary – looks for the best in other, and forgives any faux pas quickly and easily. the author’s empirical experience, is the single school class, to demonstrate to the children the ef- most important difference to manage for better fects of discrimination. The experiment was filmed FLEXIBILITY – willing to learn a wide range of behaviour and communication patterns; – copies other people’s behaviour / communication in order to fit in or make others feel more learning outcomes in the classroom. and the children’s reactions were recorded. The comfortable; teacher divided the class into two groups: brown – experiments with different ways of behaving and communicating to find those that are most 5.2. Training structure eyes and blue eyes. She used language, behaviour acceptable and most successful; – adopts behaviour and modifies judgements to suit the circumstances. Moran et al. (2011) suggest a diversity training and symbols (the wearing of a cloth collar) to in- programme should consist of the following com- fluence and persuade the children that one group INNER PURPOSE – guided by a well-defined set of values and beliefs; ponents: a general ‘what is’ cultural section; a sec- was superior to the other. It was blatant discrimi- – possesses personal toughness that enables maintenance of a sense of focus in a variety of difficult tion that emphasises mastering cross-cultural com- nation. She reversed the roles so both groups ex- situations; – self-disciplined and self-reliant; munication; a section that teaches cross-cultural perienced being in the ‘up’ and the ‘down’ groups. – can provide a clear sense of direction for self and others. self-awareness; a section that has cultural speci- What were the effects? The ‘down’ group child-

COPING – possesses well-developed methods for dealing with stress, such as uses humour to relieve tension, fics; a section that teaches how to resolve conflict; ren showed they were isolated and displayed de- builds local support networks, manages negative emotions, looks for something good in what is a section on cross-cultural skills; a section that ad- pression and demotivation; consequently, under- happening. dresses specific employee-requested concerns. performing both academically and in sports activi-

RESILIENCE – ready to risk making social mistakes; The author would suggest that a great deal of ties. There was confusion, resentment grew against – not easily embarrassed by social gaffes; emphasis is placed on cross-cultural communica- the ‘up’ group, many of whom were friends of the – has sufficient self-confidence to handle criticism or negative feedback; tion, where teachers are made aware of how to ‘down’ group. The ‘up’ group showed confidence – has optimistic outlook and bounces back quickly after setbacks. use more inclusive language, to use less ‘jargon’ and a willingness to secure their ‘up’ privileges. In-

76 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 77 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow terestingly, when the ‘down’ group became the sonal (intended) or cultural (unintended). Often, of of other cultures (awareness of others and the ment issues in the higher education and adult ‘up’ group, their ability and productivity in class course, it is both. Archer (1986) suggests the steps ability to compare and contrast otherness with va- learning sector and suggested a methodology for surpassed the previous ‘up’ group’s performance. teachers can take in analysing their reaction: (1) rious tools and techniques); action (continuing cu- teaching diversity management programmes. This Such an experiment would be unacceptable in pinpoint the time you felt different; (2) define the riously to learn more; the willingness to adapt and is also transferable to in-company training. There today’s classrooms; however, the use of the video situation (where were you?); (3) list the behaviour be flexible; and the ability to identify and respond is no question that higher education and business is useful in teacher and business training sessions of the person who caused the ‘culture bump’; (4) creatively to cultural challenges and conflicts in will continue to internationalise through the pro- on the importance of inclusiveness. list your behaviour (how did you react?); (5) list ways that both respect and engage the other). cess of globalisation and that as it does so the or- your feelings; (6) list the behaviours you would ganisations involved will become more interna- 5.4. Resolving cultural differences in a diverse normally expect from others in that situation; (7) 6. CONCLUSION tionally accountable. classroom reflect on the underlying value in your culture that This paper makes the case that diversity ma- This paper shows it is not enough just to learn Our assumptions derive from the values and prompts that behavioural expectation. nagement should be a significant ingredient of the principles of intercultural communication, useful beliefs we have about how an organisation should In so doing the teacher moves through three teaching/training syllabus for those in the higher though they are, and politically correct language; work and our behaviours derive from how we stages: from a culturally biased judgement to the education and adult learning sectors. It should also they need to develop intercultural effectiveness as think we can succeed in that workplace. As Swal- comprehension of the other; giving the student the be incorporated in any course teaching business a core competence. Teachers and managers also low and Milne (2013) state, ‘recognising and adap- benefit of the doubt; and finally depersonalising languages, especially Business English. It is espe- need to understand how to manage inclusively a ting to cultural diversity should never involve lo- the issue by recognising it as a cultural difference cially important, in working for international firms, diverse workforce and classroom; show respect for sing contact with your own set of values and beha- rather than personal rudeness or lack of considera- that employees are aware of the linguistic usages students, colleagues and managers; understand viours. What we should aim for is the ability to live tion. and behaviours that may be unacceptable in the that organisations may be held accountable in law with complexity; to live without being judgemental The same process can be used with students, workplace both in relation to company policy and for discrimination; and ensure that they implement – this is right and that is wrong; and to hold that all asking them to identify ‘culture bumps’ in their ex- to national/international law. This paper has con- safeguarding behaviour for both the safety and ways are valid even if they are ‘not mine’ (Swallow perience of working with other nationalities or as tributed to raising awareness of diversity manage- comfort of themselves and their counterparts. & Milnes, 2013, p. 29). foreigners studying in a different country from their Understandably, we see the world through our own. Exchanging ideas in the classroom promotes own eyes and behave accordingly. To create bet- communication, leading to understanding and in- References ter rapport, first you have to understand what len- creases the sense of community and inclusiveness Adler, N. J. (1997). International dimensions of and New Learning Technologies (pp. ses you are using to see through and how they im- in a diverse classroom. organisational behaviour (4th ed.). Cincinnati: 3599-3606). Barcelona: IATED. pact they way you see the world (rather like look- A good way for checking whether a teacher’s or South-Western. Frontline PBS. (2019, January 18). A class divided (full ing through a pair of spectacles). Next, you need trainer’s reaction to classroom behaviour is perso- Archer, C. M. (1986). Culture bump and beyond. In J. film). YouTube. Retrieved from https:// to see how the world looks through others’ specta- nal or based on different cultural behaviour is the M. Valdes (Ed.), Culture bound (pp. 170-178). www.youtube.com/watch?v=1mcCLm_LwpE cles. Then you need to develop the attitude, skills process of mirroring. As Archer (1986) explains, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Gumperz, J. J. (2003). Interactional sociolinguistics: A and behaviour to adapt your communication to mirroring involves exchanging experiences with Birkner, K., & Kern, F. (2008). Impression management personal perspective. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen build bridges of intercultural understanding. Ulti- peers to judge whether the reaction to a situation in intercultural German job interviews. In H. & H. E. Hamilton (Eds.), The handbook of mately, this is what intercultural competence is all is common to others or particular to you. If it is Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally speaking: discourse analysis (pp. 115-228). Oxford: Culture, communication and politeness theory Blackwell. about: awareness, knowledge, attitude and skills, particular to you it is probably personal, whereas if (pp. 241-257). London, Continuum. Henderson, J. K. (2005). Language diversity in because ‘without this intercultural understanding, it is shared by your peers it may well be cultural. Camerer, R., & Mader, J. (2012). Intercultural international management teams. International the MIS factor is at play: MISperception leading to As Archer (1986) comments, the exchange of ‘war competence in Business English. Berlin: Studies of Management & Organization, 35(1), MISinterpretation, causing MISevaluation that cre- stories’ from the classroom may take on a new Cornelsen. 66-82. Doi: 10.1080/00208825.2005.11043722 ates MIStrust’ (Swallow & Milnes, 2013, p. 21). depth and value. Comfort, J., & Franklin, P. (2008). The mindful Hurn, B., & Tomalin, B. (2013). Cross-cultural Archer (1986) describes, in language teaching Ultimately, following the advice above will international manager. York: York Associates. communication: Theory and practice. London: to adults, the ‘culture bump’. The culture bump help you to gain what Swallow and Milnes (2013, Ely, R. J., Meyerson, D. E., & Davidson, M. N. (2006). Palgrave Macmillan. occurs when a student’s behaviour conflicts with p. 22) call the ‘Triple A Rating’. These are the Rethinking political correctness. Harvard Kavanagh, D., & Kelly, S. (2002). Sensemaking, safety, the teacher’s expectations: coming into class late three A’s you need to attain to become culturally Business Review, 84(9), 78. and situated communities in (con) temporary and interrupting the class, persistently promising competent: awareness of your own culture (know- French, E. (2011, July 4-6). Building organizational networks. Journal of Business Research, 55(7), but never delivering assignments, etc. How does ledge about yourself and your core values and capability through a quality assurance program 583-594. Doi: 10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00188-0 the teacher/trainer deal with these ‘culture how these are expressed in attitudes, behaviours within a business school and encouraging Lunheim, R. (2008). Culture in business. Oslo: bumps’? First, decide whether their reaction is per- and communication in the workplace); assessment organizational culture change. In Proceedings of Knowledge Factory. the 3rd International Conference on Education Mahadevan, J., Weißert, S., & Müller, F. (2011). From

78 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 79 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Managing diversity in the classroom Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org by Deborah Swallow terestingly, when the ‘down’ group became the sonal (intended) or cultural (unintended). Often, of of other cultures (awareness of others and the ment issues in the higher education and adult ‘up’ group, their ability and productivity in class course, it is both. Archer (1986) suggests the steps ability to compare and contrast otherness with va- learning sector and suggested a methodology for surpassed the previous ‘up’ group’s performance. teachers can take in analysing their reaction: (1) rious tools and techniques); action (continuing cu- teaching diversity management programmes. This Such an experiment would be unacceptable in pinpoint the time you felt different; (2) define the riously to learn more; the willingness to adapt and is also transferable to in-company training. There today’s classrooms; however, the use of the video situation (where were you?); (3) list the behaviour be flexible; and the ability to identify and respond is no question that higher education and business is useful in teacher and business training sessions of the person who caused the ‘culture bump’; (4) creatively to cultural challenges and conflicts in will continue to internationalise through the pro- on the importance of inclusiveness. list your behaviour (how did you react?); (5) list ways that both respect and engage the other). cess of globalisation and that as it does so the or- your feelings; (6) list the behaviours you would ganisations involved will become more interna- 5.4. Resolving cultural differences in a diverse normally expect from others in that situation; (7) 6. CONCLUSION tionally accountable. classroom reflect on the underlying value in your culture that This paper makes the case that diversity ma- This paper shows it is not enough just to learn Our assumptions derive from the values and prompts that behavioural expectation. nagement should be a significant ingredient of the principles of intercultural communication, useful beliefs we have about how an organisation should In so doing the teacher moves through three teaching/training syllabus for those in the higher though they are, and politically correct language; work and our behaviours derive from how we stages: from a culturally biased judgement to the education and adult learning sectors. It should also they need to develop intercultural effectiveness as think we can succeed in that workplace. As Swal- comprehension of the other; giving the student the be incorporated in any course teaching business a core competence. Teachers and managers also low and Milne (2013) state, ‘recognising and adap- benefit of the doubt; and finally depersonalising languages, especially Business English. It is espe- need to understand how to manage inclusively a ting to cultural diversity should never involve lo- the issue by recognising it as a cultural difference cially important, in working for international firms, diverse workforce and classroom; show respect for sing contact with your own set of values and beha- rather than personal rudeness or lack of considera- that employees are aware of the linguistic usages students, colleagues and managers; understand viours. What we should aim for is the ability to live tion. and behaviours that may be unacceptable in the that organisations may be held accountable in law with complexity; to live without being judgemental The same process can be used with students, workplace both in relation to company policy and for discrimination; and ensure that they implement – this is right and that is wrong; and to hold that all asking them to identify ‘culture bumps’ in their ex- to national/international law. This paper has con- safeguarding behaviour for both the safety and ways are valid even if they are ‘not mine’ (Swallow perience of working with other nationalities or as tributed to raising awareness of diversity manage- comfort of themselves and their counterparts. & Milnes, 2013, p. 29). foreigners studying in a different country from their Understandably, we see the world through our own. Exchanging ideas in the classroom promotes own eyes and behave accordingly. To create bet- communication, leading to understanding and in- References ter rapport, first you have to understand what len- creases the sense of community and inclusiveness Adler, N. J. (1997). International dimensions of and New Learning Technologies (pp. ses you are using to see through and how they im- in a diverse classroom. organisational behaviour (4th ed.). Cincinnati: 3599-3606). Barcelona: IATED. pact they way you see the world (rather like look- A good way for checking whether a teacher’s or South-Western. Frontline PBS. (2019, January 18). A class divided (full ing through a pair of spectacles). Next, you need trainer’s reaction to classroom behaviour is perso- Archer, C. M. (1986). Culture bump and beyond. In J. film). YouTube. Retrieved from https:// to see how the world looks through others’ specta- nal or based on different cultural behaviour is the M. Valdes (Ed.), Culture bound (pp. 170-178). www.youtube.com/watch?v=1mcCLm_LwpE cles. Then you need to develop the attitude, skills process of mirroring. As Archer (1986) explains, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Gumperz, J. J. (2003). Interactional sociolinguistics: A and behaviour to adapt your communication to mirroring involves exchanging experiences with Birkner, K., & Kern, F. (2008). Impression management personal perspective. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen build bridges of intercultural understanding. Ulti- peers to judge whether the reaction to a situation in intercultural German job interviews. In H. & H. E. Hamilton (Eds.), The handbook of mately, this is what intercultural competence is all is common to others or particular to you. If it is Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally speaking: discourse analysis (pp. 115-228). Oxford: Culture, communication and politeness theory Blackwell. about: awareness, knowledge, attitude and skills, particular to you it is probably personal, whereas if (pp. 241-257). London, Continuum. Henderson, J. K. (2005). Language diversity in because ‘without this intercultural understanding, it is shared by your peers it may well be cultural. Camerer, R., & Mader, J. (2012). Intercultural international management teams. International the MIS factor is at play: MISperception leading to As Archer (1986) comments, the exchange of ‘war competence in Business English. Berlin: Studies of Management & Organization, 35(1), MISinterpretation, causing MISevaluation that cre- stories’ from the classroom may take on a new Cornelsen. 66-82. Doi: 10.1080/00208825.2005.11043722 ates MIStrust’ (Swallow & Milnes, 2013, p. 21). depth and value. Comfort, J., & Franklin, P. (2008). The mindful Hurn, B., & Tomalin, B. (2013). Cross-cultural Archer (1986) describes, in language teaching Ultimately, following the advice above will international manager. York: York Associates. communication: Theory and practice. London: to adults, the ‘culture bump’. The culture bump help you to gain what Swallow and Milnes (2013, Ely, R. J., Meyerson, D. E., & Davidson, M. N. (2006). Palgrave Macmillan. occurs when a student’s behaviour conflicts with p. 22) call the ‘Triple A Rating’. These are the Rethinking political correctness. Harvard Kavanagh, D., & Kelly, S. (2002). Sensemaking, safety, the teacher’s expectations: coming into class late three A’s you need to attain to become culturally Business Review, 84(9), 78. and situated communities in (con) temporary and interrupting the class, persistently promising competent: awareness of your own culture (know- French, E. (2011, July 4-6). Building organizational networks. Journal of Business Research, 55(7), but never delivering assignments, etc. How does ledge about yourself and your core values and capability through a quality assurance program 583-594. Doi: 10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00188-0 the teacher/trainer deal with these ‘culture how these are expressed in attitudes, behaviours within a business school and encouraging Lunheim, R. (2008). Culture in business. Oslo: bumps’? First, decide whether their reaction is per- and communication in the workplace); assessment organizational culture change. In Proceedings of Knowledge Factory. the 3rd International Conference on Education Mahadevan, J., Weißert, S., & Müller, F. (2011). From

78 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 79 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-67-80 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4–2-81-83 Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 67-80 rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 81-83 rudn.tlcjournal.org

given cross-cultural difference to a new Schneider, S., & Barsoux, J. L. (2003). Managing across interculture: A Sino-German example. cultures (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Interculture Journal, 10(14), 55-76. Prentice Hall. Marx, E. (1999). Breaking through culture shock. Smith, P., & Bond, M. H. (1998). Social psychology Review London: Nicholas Brealey. across cultures. London: Prentice Hall. Moran, R., Harris, R., & Moran, S. (2011). Managing Spencer-Oatey, H., & Franklin, P. (2009). Intercultural cultural differences (8th ed.). London: Taylor and interaction: A multidisciplinary approach to Francis. Doi: 10.4324/9781856179249 intercultural communication. London: Springer. Bagels, bumf and buses: A day in the life of the English Middlehurst, R., & Woodﬁeld, S. (2007). Responding to Swallow, D. J. (2011). Building cultural competence in the internationalisation agenda: Implications for organisations. Cork: Culturewise Ireland. language (a review) institutional strategy. London: Higher Education Swallow, D. J., & Milnes, E. (2013). The diversity Original work by Simon Horobin published by Oxford University Press 2019 Academy. dashboard. Oxford: Inﬁnite Ideas. Reid, S., Stadler, S., & Spencer-Oatey, H. (2009). The Tomalin, B., & Nicks, M. (2014). World business Reviewed by Maurice Cassidy global people landscaping study: Intercultural cultures: A handbook (3rd ed.). London: effectiveness in global education partnerships. Thorogood Publishing. Maurice Cassidy International House London [email protected] Warwick: University of Warwick. Urry, J. (2000). Sociology beyond societies. London: Date of submission: 15.04.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 2.06.2020 Rugman, A. M., Collinson, S. C., & Hodgetts, R. M. Routledge. Doi: 10.4324/9780203021613 Recommended citation format: Cassidy, M. (2020). Bagels, bumf and buses: A day in the life of the English language (2006). International business. Upper Saddle Young, S. (2003). Micro-equities: The power of small. (a review). Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 81-83. Doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-81-83 River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Workforce Diversity Reader, 1(1), 88-93. Schneider, D. D. (2004). The psychology of Zhu, H. (2014). Exploring intercultural communication. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License stereotyping. London: Guilford Press. London: Routledge. which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

Everybody is interested in where words actually Rather than describe the origin of each word or come from. The science of etymology is an im- phrase in alphabetical order, as most etymologists portant discipline in applied linguistics, and the do, Horobin chooses to contextualise them in a etymology of words and phrases in English has discussion about habits. Thus, the word bagels in been the subject of many popular applied linguis- the title is part of typical continental breakfast tics books by David Crystal and others. foods. It’s a Yiddish word but derives from an old In Bagels, Bumf and Buses Simon Horobin, Pro- English word for a metal arm-ring. In the same fessor of English Language and Literature at Oxford way focaccia (a popular Italian bread) meaning University, has taken an interesting and unusual ‘bread baked in the hearth’ and derived from the approach. Latin word focus referring to the centre of the He focuses on words we use every day without home where the household deity was worshipped even thinking about where they come from or and the cooking done. Horobin goes on to say that what they originally meant, and then organises focus entered English in the 17th century as a geo- them according to the progress of a typical day, metrical term referring to a point equidistant from hence the subtitle, A day in the life of the English any other point in a curve. Only later did the word language. come to mean any centre of interest. Staying with So, what does this day look like? The book is di- Italian breads, the book describes how ciabatta vided into ﬁve parts: Starting the Day, Work, Eat- comes from a dialect word for an old shoe with a ing and Drinking, Sport and Leisure, and Evening. worn-down heel. This loosely describes the shape Each part is divided into be-tween two and six of the bread, emphatically not its taste! Probably, chapters, making seventeen in all. There is an in- the most famous continental breads are the French dex of the words and phrases explained and an in- baguettes and croissants. Baguette (meaning lite- dex of people associated with many of the words rally ‘a small rod’) is also Latin from baculum – ‘a and phrases. staff’. Incidentally, adds Horobin, the loan word

© Maurice Cassidy 2020 80 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 81 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-81-83 Bagels, bumf and buses: A day in the life of the English language (a review) Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 81-83 rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by Simon Horobin, reviewed by Maurice Cassidy from French, imbecile, referring to a person criti- ries under Danish rule. The Bluetooth symbol Australia and New Zealand and named after her cised for doing something stupid, also comes from ‘The longest of the book’s five parts, combines the two runic symbols that make up Ha- following her tour there in 1926. For chess players baculum in the sense of ‘without a staff’, i.e. some- Work, contains six chapters, five of them rald’s name. The word spam, used to refer to un- Horobin also refers to the Kotov syndrome, named one physically frail. Croissant, as most of us know, devoted to different professions, the law, wanted files, refers to a type of tinned meat and after the Russian chess grandmaster Alexander Ko- comes from Latin crescens referring to the moon, meme. It was coined by the geneticist Richard tov and meaning ‘a long and hard thought-out meaning ‘waxing’ or ‘growing’. Horobin doesn’t politics, the church, health services and Dawkins to describe a caption spread widely strategy, which turns out to be a disaster’. mention that croissant also has a German origin in parenting and school. On the way the through social media and derives from the ancient How can Bagels, Bumf and Buses support the the word kipferl, a popular bread baked in Austria book covers language used by Greek mimema meaning ‘what is imitated’. When languages researcher and teacher of English? The and introduced to France in the 19th century. a meme goes viral, the term comes from the Latin book gives the origin of over 2,000 words and But what about bread itself? Obviously, there is a electricians, firefighters, plumbers and word virus coined to describe a poisonous liquid phrases and shows how they are used in the con- link to brot in German and the word does have an farmers’ referring to snake’s venom. So even new coinages text of everyday life. Therefore, they can provide old English origin, probably originating in Latin can have their roots in the languages of the past the basis of reading texts offering an interesting in- frustrum meaning ‘piece’, ‘fragment’ or ‘morsel’. ference. Parking the bus means ‘to place all your and the study of etymology helps us discover sight into how the English language is used in dif- But the word loaf (as in a loaf of bread), is even players in defence to stop an attack by the other them. ferent daily contexts. In language and cultural stu- more interesting. Old English used the word hlaf, team’, apparently a popular tactic employed the There aren’t many Russian etymological referen- dy, the book shows how terms are related to daily and in Anglo-Saxon England the hlaford was ‘the international football manager, Jose Mourinho. ces in the book, although the word bistro, a life in Britain and are used in practice, as well as guardian of the bread’ (i.e. the lord of the manor) The second word in the title is, bumf, usually re- French word to describe a small restaurant and bar explaining where they came from and, in many and the hlafdige was the ‘breadkneader’ (i.e. the fers to unnecessary publicity or reading matter. serving simple meals, is alleged to have come cases, how their use has changed over time. For lady of the manor). Bread and loaf then became This might include old household bills, correspon- from Russian soldiers occupying Paris in the 19th intermediate and advanced students studying Eng- the basis of a large number of idioms to do with dence you’ve read and haven’t thrown away, of- century and demanding quick meals, shouting lish as it is used in everyday contexts, the book wealth and privilege, such as use your loaf mean- fice files and other unnecessary paper. Bumf is an ‘bistro!’ meaning ‘quickly!’ Horobin doesn’t men- can illustrate the cultural background. It can also ing ‘think before you do something stupid’; know abbreviation of the word bum-fodder, a 19th cen- tion that in his book but he does mention pavlova, be used as a quiz (give students a word and en- which side your bread is buttered on meaning tury description of toilet paper. The word bum its- the delicious dessert named after the famous Rus- courage them to find its origin). All in all, an inte- ‘know where your interests lie’; and to have your elf is an English word term dating from the 14th sian ballerina Anna Pavlova. In fact, although the resting and entertaining way to motivate students bread buttered on both sides meaning ‘to be able century meaning ‘buttocks’ or ‘a drunk person’ name is Russian the dish itself was invented in to explore language through etymology. to profit from all sides of a situation, often to the and a German word bummer meaning ‘a high-spi- disadvantage of others’. rited irresponsible person’. A bummer in modern So, well-breakfasted we are now ready for work. British colloquial English describes a really bad ex- How do we get there? We go by bus, the third perience. Hence the derogatory associations of word in the book’s title. Bus is short for omnibus, bumf to described useless paperwork. which comes from France. It was first used by a The longest of the book’s five parts, Work, con- French transport company run by a man called tains six chapters, five of them devoted to different Omnes, who ran buses between the town of Nan- professions, the law, politics, the church, health tes and a nearby lido. His slogan was omnes omni- services and parenting and school. On the way the bus meaning ‘omnes for all’. The Latin word omni- book covers language used by electricians, fire- bus is the plural dative and ablative case in of om- fighters, plumbers and farmers. The sixth chapter is nes (all). So omnibus can translate as ‘to all’ or ‘by about the office. The word office comes from the all’. Anyway, the world transited into English and Latin officium referring to an act of service and became the shortened form, bus. comprising two words – opus (‘work’) and facere Interestingly enough, the English word bus has (‘to do’). also spawned a number of idioms, such as you It’s interesting to follow the origin of many words wait and wait and no bus comes, then three come now commonly used internationally in social meat once alluding to the situation where things tend dia. The word Bluetooth, for example, used to de- to happen all at the same time, and you missed the scribe wireless communication technology, comes bus (also, you missed the boat) which means ‘you from the name given to King Harald I of Denmark missed the opportunity’. Bus also has a sporting re- (c.910-985 CE) who united Scandinavian territo-

82 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 83 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-81-83 Bagels, bumf and buses: A day in the life of the English language (a review) Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 81-83 rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by Simon Horobin, reviewed by Maurice Cassidy from French, imbecile, referring to a person criti- ries under Danish rule. The Bluetooth symbol Australia and New Zealand and named after her cised for doing something stupid, also comes from ‘The longest of the book’s five parts, combines the two runic symbols that make up Ha- following her tour there in 1926. For chess players baculum in the sense of ‘without a staff’, i.e. some- Work, contains six chapters, five of them rald’s name. The word spam, used to refer to un- Horobin also refers to the Kotov syndrome, named one physically frail. Croissant, as most of us know, devoted to different professions, the law, wanted files, refers to a type of tinned meat and after the Russian chess grandmaster Alexander Ko- comes from Latin crescens referring to the moon, meme. It was coined by the geneticist Richard tov and meaning ‘a long and hard thought-out meaning ‘waxing’ or ‘growing’. Horobin doesn’t politics, the church, health services and Dawkins to describe a caption spread widely strategy, which turns out to be a disaster’. mention that croissant also has a German origin in parenting and school. On the way the through social media and derives from the ancient How can Bagels, Bumf and Buses support the the word kipferl, a popular bread baked in Austria book covers language used by Greek mimema meaning ‘what is imitated’. When languages researcher and teacher of English? The and introduced to France in the 19th century. a meme goes viral, the term comes from the Latin book gives the origin of over 2,000 words and But what about bread itself? Obviously, there is a electricians, firefighters, plumbers and word virus coined to describe a poisonous liquid phrases and shows how they are used in the con- link to brot in German and the word does have an farmers’ referring to snake’s venom. So even new coinages text of everyday life. Therefore, they can provide old English origin, probably originating in Latin can have their roots in the languages of the past the basis of reading texts offering an interesting in- frustrum meaning ‘piece’, ‘fragment’ or ‘morsel’. ference. Parking the bus means ‘to place all your and the study of etymology helps us discover sight into how the English language is used in dif- But the word loaf (as in a loaf of bread), is even players in defence to stop an attack by the other them. ferent daily contexts. In language and cultural stu- more interesting. Old English used the word hlaf, team’, apparently a popular tactic employed the There aren’t many Russian etymological referen- dy, the book shows how terms are related to daily and in Anglo-Saxon England the hlaford was ‘the international football manager, Jose Mourinho. ces in the book, although the word bistro, a life in Britain and are used in practice, as well as guardian of the bread’ (i.e. the lord of the manor) The second word in the title is, bumf, usually re- French word to describe a small restaurant and bar explaining where they came from and, in many and the hlafdige was the ‘breadkneader’ (i.e. the fers to unnecessary publicity or reading matter. serving simple meals, is alleged to have come cases, how their use has changed over time. For lady of the manor). Bread and loaf then became This might include old household bills, correspon- from Russian soldiers occupying Paris in the 19th intermediate and advanced students studying Eng- the basis of a large number of idioms to do with dence you’ve read and haven’t thrown away, of- century and demanding quick meals, shouting lish as it is used in everyday contexts, the book wealth and privilege, such as use your loaf mean- fice files and other unnecessary paper. Bumf is an ‘bistro!’ meaning ‘quickly!’ Horobin doesn’t men- can illustrate the cultural background. It can also ing ‘think before you do something stupid’; know abbreviation of the word bum-fodder, a 19th cen- tion that in his book but he does mention pavlova, be used as a quiz (give students a word and en- which side your bread is buttered on meaning tury description of toilet paper. The word bum its- the delicious dessert named after the famous Rus- courage them to find its origin). All in all, an inte- ‘know where your interests lie’; and to have your elf is an English word term dating from the 14th sian ballerina Anna Pavlova. In fact, although the resting and entertaining way to motivate students bread buttered on both sides meaning ‘to be able century meaning ‘buttocks’ or ‘a drunk person’ name is Russian the dish itself was invented in to explore language through etymology. to profit from all sides of a situation, often to the and a German word bummer meaning ‘a high-spi- disadvantage of others’. rited irresponsible person’. A bummer in modern So, well-breakfasted we are now ready for work. British colloquial English describes a really bad ex- How do we get there? We go by bus, the third perience. Hence the derogatory associations of word in the book’s title. Bus is short for omnibus, bumf to described useless paperwork. which comes from France. It was first used by a The longest of the book’s five parts, Work, con- French transport company run by a man called tains six chapters, five of them devoted to different Omnes, who ran buses between the town of Nan- professions, the law, politics, the church, health tes and a nearby lido. His slogan was omnes omni- services and parenting and school. On the way the bus meaning ‘omnes for all’. The Latin word omni- book covers language used by electricians, fire- bus is the plural dative and ablative case in of om- fighters, plumbers and farmers. The sixth chapter is nes (all). So omnibus can translate as ‘to all’ or ‘by about the office. The word office comes from the all’. Anyway, the world transited into English and Latin officium referring to an act of service and became the shortened form, bus. comprising two words – opus (‘work’) and facere Interestingly enough, the English word bus has (‘to do’). also spawned a number of idioms, such as you It’s interesting to follow the origin of many words wait and wait and no bus comes, then three come now commonly used internationally in social meat once alluding to the situation where things tend dia. The word Bluetooth, for example, used to de- to happen all at the same time, and you missed the scribe wireless communication technology, comes bus (also, you missed the boat) which means ‘you from the name given to King Harald I of Denmark missed the opportunity’. Bus also has a sporting re- (c.910-985 CE) who united Scandinavian territo-

82 Training, Language and Culture rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 83 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-84-86 Language unlimited: The science behind our most creative power (a review) Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 84-86 rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by David Adger , reviewed by Barry Tomalin

do we learn it? We have already seen how Adger describes structures in the brain that look for order ‘Adger cites research to show that in the things we hear around us as very young profoundly deaf children born to hearing Review children, a brain facility that Chomsky described parents who do not know sign language as universal grammar. Adger also discusses an alternative theory of language acquisition developed develop their own language of Language unlimited: The science behind our most by the constructionists. Constructionists argue that communication, known as homesign. young children that young children instinctively Homesigning, just like spoken language, creative power (a review) search for order in what they hear using two key skills, chunking and analogy. A chunk is a way of has a communicative structure, and Original work by David Adger published by Oxford University Press 2019 grouping items that are in your memory. The more homesigners create signs from their minds Reviewed by Barry Tomalin you experience it the stronger the chunk. So, repe- and from what they see and touch’ tition is essential to the process of chunking. Ana- Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London [email protected] logy, on the other hand, is the process of recognis- structure, and homesigners create signs from their Date of submission: 11.03.2020 | Date of acceptance for publication: 22.05.2020 ing similarities between chunks and in the process minds and from what they see and touch. Citing Recommended citation format: Tomalin, B. (2020). Language unlimited: The science behind our most creative power building a syntax of acceptable formulations. Con- research by Goldin-Meadow in Chicago and Havi- (a review). Training, Language and Culture, 4(2), 84-86. Doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-84-86 structionists believe that the process of chunking land in Mexico Adger shows how deaf children and analogy is not limited to language but actually find their own ways of communicating with their This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License operates as part of our general mental processes. parents and those around them using their own which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is Adger contends that although chunking and analo- homesigning language. Most amazingly, in Ni- properly cited (CC BY 4.0) gy are useful concepts they fail to represent the full caragua’s capital Managua, under a policy known depth and variety of language. as ISN (Idioma de senas de Nicaragua) a school Admired by no less a luminary as Noam Broadly speaking, Adger supports the key ideas For Adger the key understanding of how lan- brought together children and teenagers who were Chomsky and by Gretchen McCulloch, author of of Noam Chomsky writing in the 1950s about uni- guage knowledge and ability evolves is the con- deaf and who had developed their own systems of Because Internet, Language Unlimited comes high- versal grammar. Using numerous examples of re- cept of ‘Merge’, put forward by Chomsky in the homesign with their families. These children lear- ly recommended. The author, David Adger, is Pro- search into child language acquisition he demon- early 1990s. Chomsky has argued that ‘Merge’ un- ned how to understand each other’s homesigning fessor of Linguistics at Queen Mary University in strates how children in their first years of life are derlies the syntax of all human languages. ‘Merge’ and went as far as converging on a linguistic sys- London, President of the Linguistics Association of able to pick up language and have an internal allows us to take similar words and structures and tem usable by everyone – a common language, in Great Britain and a language inventor. Yes, he in- brain function that enables them to search for and combine them to produce correct sentences. fact, – and all this while learning to lip read from vented the monsters’ language used in an ITV (UK structure the language they hear from their parents Chomsky’s assertion was that ‘Merge’ combined specialist teachers. Independent Television) series Beowulf. and those around them. This skill which Chomsky with language-specific knowledge that children One of the fascinating features of Adger’s ana- Language Unlimited, subtitled, The Science Be- defined as universal grammar is based in brain learn could capture the syntax of all human lan- lysis is his use of examples from non-human users hind Our Most Creative Power explores the hu- functions located in the Inferior Frontal Gyrus. Re- guages. In an article published in 2002 Chomsky of language and their ability to recognise language man but also animals’ experience of understan- search in the US by David Poeppel showed how argued that the concept of ‘Merge’ is what distin- patterns. He cites the example of Kanzi, a Bonobo ding and using language. The aim of the book is to the brain has what Adger describes as a kind of guishes human from animal communication. As chimpanzee born and brought up in Georgia, explore where human language creativity comes pulse, called brain rhythms, which can sense lan- he commented, ‘Merge’, is what allows creativity USA. Kanzi, unlike Matata, the mother who adop- from and what is its scope and its limits. Based on guage structure as well as bodily functions such as in communication. It is how we use language in ted him, was an excellent communicator, reques- insights into neuroscience, linguistics and psycho- breathing. This justifies the linguist Otto Jesper- order to produce new phrases and sentences but ting food or toys or going somewhere. Kanzi used logy, the book has ten chapters with notes, ac- sen’s observation that children can interpret from in a recognised syntactic structure. pictures on a board devised by researchers and knowledgements and an index. Written in a very words and sentences heard and understood and What about sign language, the gestures made called lexigrams to communicate his needs. The readable style the book uses examples from multi- construct their own sentences. In other words, by deaf children and adults to communicate? Ad- lead researcher, Susan Savage-Rumbaugh, argued ple languages and means of communication to there exists a notion of structure that guides us ger cites research to show that profoundly deaf that experiments showed Kanzi’s experiences with show how the acquisition of language is a basic when we form and understand sentences. children born to hearing parents who do not know language were to some extent comparable with process in the brain (universal grammar) and is in- How then do children convert what they hear sign language develop their own language of com- humans although other researchers have contested terpreted in different ways and at different levels around them into syntax, the grammatical struc- munication, known as homesign. Homesigning, this. However, there is evidence that animals can by different species and by different types of user. ture of words and phrases in a language, and how just like spoken language, has a communicative recognise words as discrete items. Experiments

© Barry Tomalin 2020 84 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License rudn.tlcjournal.org Training, Language and Culture 85 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2-84-86 Language unlimited: The science behind our most creative power (a review) Volume 4 Issue 2, 2020, pp. 84-86 rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by David Adger , reviewed by Barry Tomalin

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‘Adger also explores the importance of into a particular radio station, the computer programme analyses the sound waves of the request what he calls Botlang – the language of and segments it into words to give the answer, or artificial intelligence – a subject he began say it doesn’t understand the question in seconds. News & Events studying as part of his BA degree at This is known as hard AI (Artificial Intelligence). It doesn’t try to understand how humans speak. It Edinburgh University in Scotland in the just looks up huge data sets drawn from the Inter- 1980s. He examines research into how net and gives you the answer. The problem is that ment of all actors involved – language teachers, computer programmes like Alexa, Siri and although the answers to fairly routine questions ICC News subject teachers, teacher educators, as well as are regularly and rather impressively answered, AI Google Assistant manage to understand by Barry Tomalin head teachers – and embraces all fields of educa- doesn’t have syntax – it can select sentences but tion – learning, teaching, schools and education what you say, most of the time at any rate, can’t create them. That is why more unusual re- ICC Board Member systems. and give you a voiced answer’ quests can leave it lost – the answer isn’t in the da- At a time when schools are cautiously re- tabase. As Adger concludes, AI has a sense of Annual Conference 16th-18th October opening across Europe, we are convinced that the with chinchillas showed how they reacted to parti- structure but it isn’t a human sense. It sees visible (COVID-19 permitting) EOL tools and resources can help develop and cular sounds and Adger refers to birds and also sequences and reproduces them. Humans sense During this year ICC-Languages has strength- strengthen quality language education, which ce- rats who can distinguish words by their stress pat- invisible structures and create sentences. ened its relationship with our colleagues in the Eu- lebrates linguistic and cultural diversity and is so tern although not where words fit in a speech In summary, a useful and quite challenging ropean Commission for Foreign Languages (ECML) essential today to ensure intercultural dialogue, stream. book for linguists and students of linguistics, fasci- and its Deputy Executive Director, Susanna Sli- linguistic and cultural diversity and social cohe- In his research Adger also explores the import- natingly written and using research from around vensky, has kindly accepted our invitation as key- sion in our societies. ance of what he calls Botlang – the language of ar- the world to show how different language groups, note speaker in our forthcoming annual confe- tificial intelligence – a subject he began studying people with different types of speech impairment rence this year, taking place in Belgrade, capital of as part of his BA degree at Edinburgh University in and animals all search for meaning and how to Serbia, from October 16th to 18th (COVID-19 and EUROLTA News Scotland in the 1980s. He examines research into communicate it in their own way. He agrees with lockdown permitting). how computer programmes like Alexa, Siri and Chomsky that the search for meaning and the way The conference programme also features plena- by Myriam Fischer Callus Google Assistant manage to understand what you to communicate it is ‘hardwired’ into the brain – ry presentations by Tamara Djordjevic, Language EUROLTA Coordinator say, most of the time at any rate, and give you a what he calls a universal grammar. Above all he Policy Officer of the TEMPUS Foundation of Ser- voiced answer. How do they do it? The answer is asserts the value of Chomsky’s concept of ‘Merge’. bia, Marijana Prodanovic and Michael Carrier. EUROLTA Expands in Europe and Beyond the use of big data called treebanks. Treebanks are There is, he argues, one human language and we There will also be parallel workshops on methodo- The ICC EUROLTA teacher training programme the stores of hundreds and thousands of bits of all speak dialects of it. We use language differently logy, business English and culture and online has continued to expand. In Germany the iOR lan- voice data obtained from human interactions on but the building blocks are ultumately the same. learning. A great opportunity to meet and learn guage school founded in Freiburg in 2004 and the Internet. For example, when you ask Alexa to ‘Merge’, therefore, is universal to humanity. ‘Mer- from international professionals. specialising in the teaching of German as a foreign give you an alarm call for 8.30 in the morning or ge’, he agrees with Chomsky, underlies the syntax language is offering a EUROLTA Certificate course to play you the music of a particular singer or tune of all human languages. ECML New Publication in its subsidiary school in Loerrach. IOR is one of The European Centre for Modern Languages the largest schools in the Freiberg area and accom- (ECML) of the Council of Europe has announced modates 500 students daily. the completion in English, French and German of The Hessen Volkshochschulverband (the um- its EOL resource website Learning Environments brella organisation of all adult education centres in Where Modern Languages Flourish, an output of Hessen, Germany) handed over their EUROLTA li- the ECML programme Languages at the Heart of cence to one of its schools, VHS Hanau. Eleven Learning (2016-2019). participants have recently completed a EUROLTA This website offers a wide range of tools to course and a new class will start in August. create whole-school learning environments where Across the Atlantic in the twin-island state of languages are at the very heart of learning and Trinidad and Tobago the JSM Language and Inno- teaching. This holistic approach supports and vation Centre is keen to run EUROLTA courses to strengthens cooperation and professional develop- train teachers to support families emigrating from

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Venezuela because of the problems there. JSM of- also spoke about the university’s operation during fers a wide range of customised language courses, the pandemic, including the most challenging is- cultural events and language immersion trips. sues faced by the staff and administration, the new They are also an accredited Exam Centre for SIELE projects and what prompted the ultimate decision (servicio Internacional de Evaluacion de la Lengua to initiate a digital version of the entire faculty. Espanola) administered by the Cervantes Institute in Spain. 90 Donors for the ‘Follow Me!’ Campaign In Cairo, Egypt, the House of Knowledge and June 10, RUDN University ran the Follow me! the Teacher Training Academy hope to offer EU- #I’mAResponsibleDonor campaign on the thres- ROLTA to student teachers in Egypt with the possi- hold of World Donor Day. A total of 90 donors vi- bility of extending the training to Jordan. The sited the mobile blood drawing points, among school, founded in 2016, offers a wide range of them RUDN University Rector Oleg Yastrebov, language classes and is an accredited exam centre Vice-Rector Sergei Bazavluk, and Dean of the Fa- for IELTS, TOEFL, Goethe and DELF (Diplome culty of Philology Viktor Barabash. The campaign d’Anglais en Language Francaise). will extend up until June 20, and additional mo- TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE bile blood drawing points will open on the basis of volunteer and coworking centres. RUDN University Published by QS World University Rankings 2021 Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education The QS agency has presented the QS World Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) News University Rankings 2021. RUDN University has by Elena Malyuga 17923, GSP117198, Moscow, Russia, 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str. gone up by 66 positions and ranked 326. This [email protected] Editor-in-Chief TLC year, the university showcased its progress for all rudn.tlcjournal.org the indicators, most notably for Academic Reputa- Russian Universities Are Gearing Up for Dis- tion (up by 138 points) and Employer Reputation Corporate contributor tance Work (up by 112 points compared to last year results). This summer prospective students can apply The world currently houses over 25.000 higher International Language Association (ICC) & through a special online platform and supply the educational institutions, and the top thousand are ICC Press, International Certiﬁcate Conference – The International Language Association originals later on their ﬁrst year of study. There is rated in the QS ranking. In 2021, 28 Russian uni- Postfach 10 12 28 D – 44712 Bochum, Germany no need to fear closed borders: the digital faculty versities were included in the QS World University Yorckstr. 58 D – 44789 Bochum, Germany provides an opportunity for foreign citizens to en- Rankings 2021. The QS World University Rank- [email protected] rol at RUDN University without leaving their ings, compiled by QS Quacquarelli Symonds, a icc-languages.eu/tlcjournal country. global research and advisory centre, includes the ‘RUDN University decided not to depend on top 1.000 universities in the world. QS uses six in- opening borders and to give our foreign applicants dicators to compile the ranking — academic repu- the opportunity to start their studies at home, be- tation, employer reputation, citation index, fore arriving in Moscow. We divided the entire student-teacher ratio, international staff, and the programme of the preparatory faculty into seven- share of foreign students. teen modules. They all will be available for independent study online, and a foreigner will need to Winners of RUDN University International go through nine of them. Lectures will be held for Scholarship virtual groups in real time. Regular native speaker RUDN University is proud to congratulate 25 interaction will be provided as a communication students who won the RUDN University Interna- exercise. Special tutors will help promptly resolve tional Scholarship programme. The winners will all organisational issues,’ – explained President of receive a lump sum payment of 41.500 roubles RUDN University Vladimir Filippov. Mr Filippov per person.

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88 Training, Language and Culture June 2020 ISSN 2520-2073 (Print) ISSN 2521-442X (Online) Volume 4 Issue 2 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2020-4-2 The quarterly journal published by Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)