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4-1992
The Psychological Typologies and Leadership Behaviors of First- Line Supervisors in a Large Automotive Company
James Joseph Conlen Western Michigan University
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Recommended Citation Conlen, James Joseph, "The Psychological Typologies and Leadership Behaviors of First-Line Supervisors in a Large Automotive Company" (1992). Dissertations. 1939. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/1939
This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGIES AND LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS OF FIRST-LINE SUPERVISORS IN A LARGE AUTOMOTIVE COMPANY
by
James Joseph Conlen
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillm ent of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education Department of Educational Leadership
Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan April 1992
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGIES AND LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS OF FIRST-LINE SUPERVISORS IN A LARGE AUTOMOTIVE COMPANY
James Joseph Conlen, Ed.D.
Western Michigan University, 1992
The purpose of this study was to examine the psychological
typologies and leadership behaviors related to participative manage
ment of firs t-lin e supervisors in a plant of a large automotive com
pany. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI, Myers & McCaulley,
1985) was used as a measure of psychological typologies. The Group
Environment Scale (GES, Moos, 1974) was used as a measure of leader
ship behaviors. The population was 113 firs t-lin e supervisors;
complete data were obtained for 76 supervisors (67%).
Hypotheses were formulated upon the expectation that GES mean
scores would d iffer depending upon MBTI personality type. Twelve
directional hypotheses were investigated using four MBTI functions--
sensing with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition
with feeling (NF), and intuition with thinking (NT)—as the inde
pendent variable; mean GES scores on the relationship dimension,
personal growth dimension, and system maintenance and system change
dimension were dependent variables.
The functions of the MBTI from this group of supervisors were
compared to the GES dimensions using chi square and a one-way analy
sis of variance (ANOVA). Demographic data were also compared to the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. MBTI and GES using a two-way analysis of variance, and no findings
were significant (£ = .01).
The firs t-lin e supervisors in this study were similar to other
comparable populations for which normative data on the MBTI are
available. The only major exception was the low number of NFs,
which represented 2.5% of the population rather than the expected
range of from 8% to 18%.
The mean scores for supervisors on the GES were comparable to
the normative data available on this instrument. Supervisors in this
population, based upon their perception of their leadership behav
iors, were very similar to other leaders of groups.
The findings of this study do not support the existence of a
meaningful relationship between personality type and participative
leader behaviors. Despite these findings this relationship may
merit further investigation. A flaw in this study was the lack of
an adequate number of NFs to permit statistical analysis. Future
studies should control for this omission.
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The psychological typologies and leadership behaviors of first-line supervisors in a large automotive company
Conlen, James Joseph, Ed.D.
Western Michigan University, 1992
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DEDICATION
To my children: Michael, Kathryn, John, and Matthew.
James Joseph Conlen
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ...... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii
CHAPTER
I. THE PROBLEM ...... 1
Introduction ...... 1
Need for the Study ...... 2
Purpose of the Study ...... 4
Delimitations ...... 5
Theoretical Framework ...... 6
Basic Assumptions ...... 6
Definitions ...... 7
Specific Hypotheses ...... 9
Statement of Procedures ...... 11
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...... 13
Organizational Leadership Theory ...... 13
Classical Organization Theory ...... 13
The Human Relations Movement, 1935-1950 ...... 14
The Organizational Behavior Movement, 1950-1975 .. 16
Human Resources Management, 1975-Present ...... 17
Participative Decision Making ...... 18
Concerns Regarding Participative Decision Making ...... 20
Participative Decision Making Within the Company ...... 20
ii
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CHAPTER
First-Line Supervisory Position ...... 23
Jungian Typology ...... 26
Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion ...... 27
Perceptive Functions: Sensing (S) and Intuition (N) ...... 27
Judging Functions: Thinking (T) and Feeling (F) ...... 28
Dominant and Auxiliary Functions ...... 29
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ...... 29
History of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ...... 30
The Combination of Perception and Judgment ...... 33
Extraversion and Introversion (El) ...... 36
Validity of the MBTI ...... 37
R eliability of the MBTI ...... 38
Concerns for the MBTI ...... 40
Group Environment Scale ...... 40
Validity of the Group Environment Scale ...... 43
R eliability of the Group Environment Scale ...... 44
Group Environment Scale Concerns ...... 45
Using the GES to Measure Participative Leader Behaviors ...... 45
Relationship Dimension ...... 48
Personal Growth Dimension ...... 49
System Change Dimension ...... 50
n i
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CHAPTER
I I I . PROCEDURES ...... 53
Study Design ...... 53
Research Instruments ...... 53
General Research Procedures ...... 55
Pilot Study ...... 55
Sampling Subjects ...... 56
Data Collection Procedures ...... 57
Data Interpretation ...... 60
Development of Hypotheses ...... 62
Sensing With Thinking (ST) ...... 62
Sensing With Feeling (SF) ...... 64
Intuition With Feeling (NF) ...... 65
Intuition With Thinking (NT) ...... 67
IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ...... 69
Introduction ...... 69
Description of the Population and Instruments ...... 70
Presentation of Data ...... 74
Findings ...... 75
Summary ...... 80
V. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 81
Discussion ...... 82
Conclusions ...... 86
Recommendations ...... 87
IV
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Future Research ...... 87
APPENDICES ...... 90
A. Comparison of Instruments Measuring Personality Type and Organizational and Interpersonal Congruence ...... 91
B. Letters to Participants, Consent Forms, Personal Data Questionnaire, Script of Group Meetings, Outline of Group Meetings, and Follow-up Correspondence ...... 97
C. Confirmation Letter From Human Subjects Institutional Review Board and Permission Letters From Consulting Psychologist Press ...... 105
D. The Location of the 16 Preferences and Contributions Made by Each Preference to Each Type ...... 109
E. MBTI Type Tables for Population and Comparison to Similar Groups ...... 112
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 118
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES
1. Contributions Made by Each Preference to Each Type ...... 32
2. The Combinations of Perception and Judgment ...... 34
3. First-Line Supervisors' Results in Two Studies ...... 39
4. GES Subscales and Dimension Descriptions ...... 41
5. Using the GES to Measure Participative Management ...... 52
6. Analysis of Demographic Data From the MBTI, GES, and PDQ .. 71
7. Comparison of Study Distribution of MBTI Types Against General Population Expectations ...... 73
8. Number of Supervisors Categorized ST, SF, NF, and NT Scoring High or Low on the Relationship Dimension ...... 76
9. Number of Supervisors Categorized ST, SF, NF, and NT Scoring High or Low on the Personal Growth Dimension ...... 76
10. Number of Supervisors Categorized ST, SF, NF, and NT Scoring High or Low on the System Maintenance and System Change Dimension ...... 77
11. Comparison of MBTI Functions ST, SF, NF, and NT and GES Relationship Dimension Using ANOVA ...... 77
12. Comparison of MBTI Functions ST, SF, NF, and NT and GES Personal Growth Dimension Using ANOVA ...... 78
13. Comparison of MBTI Functions ST, SF, NF, and NT and GES System Maintenance and System Change Dimension Using ANOVA ...... 78
VI
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES
1. Standard Type Table Format ...... 31
2 . GES Dimensions, Subscales, and Questions for Each Subscale ...... 42
3. Data Gathering Chart ...... 58
4. Chi Square and One-Way Analysis of Variance of MBTI Functions and GES Dimensions ...... 61
vn
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Participative management is a form of leadership behavior en
couraged by many large industrial corporations. The movement from
an autocratic to a more participative leadership is being driven by
demands placed upon the company, the union, and the work force
caused by increased competition, the need for quality and productiv
ity improvements, and new technology. Based upon the premise that
the environment of a work group has an impact upon the people within
the group (C. I. Barnard, 1938; Moos, 1974), the corporation being
studied in this research is making an effort to increase work moti
vation through participation in the decision-making process.
Large industrial corporations are requiring supervisors to
change from autocratic leaders to participative leaders, and tensions
and d iffic u ltie s exist in making this change. One of the clearest
examples of these difficulties is the relationship of first-line
supervisors to the people above and below them (Klein, 1988). While
firs t-lin e supervisors are seen as an integral force in implementing
this new participative leadership, they are the group least con
sulted when planning for the change (Roethlisberger, 1965). The
desired change in behavior on the part of firs t-lin e supervisors is
more than an operational rearrangement. Organizations need to
1
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understand that a behavioral change, for instance, from an auto
cratic to a participative set of behaviors, involves the super
visor's personality, attitudes, and values, and that such change is
a function of an individual's personality related primarily to moti
vation and the environment (C. I. Barnard, 1938; Lewin, 1935).
Need for the Study
Do certain personality types have more success in creating par
ticipative leadership environments? First-lin e supervisory work has
generally been performed by individuals, the majority of whom were
of sensing thinking (ST) types (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). If the
new role of the supervisor is to be the leader of a participative
type work group, rather than an orders-from-the-top-down work group,
then more intuitive feeling (NF) type behaviors are needed, since
NFs are generally the most participative leaders (Myers & Myers,
1980).
The corporation in this research has set up a participative
environment which attempts to maximize particular behaviors,, based
on the premise that the social environment of a work group has an
impact upon the individuals within it (C. I. Barnard, 1938; Lewin,
1935; Moos, 1974). L ittle , if any, research has been done on the
f i t between the personality type of firs t-lin e supervisors and the
behaviors needed by them to successfully implement participative
leadership. The plant in this study is a part of a large industrial
corporation which manufactures engines. The population was 113
firs t-lin e supervisors who directly supervised hourly employees.
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Seventy-six supervisors completed all aspects of the study.
There are three constructs associated with participative leader
behaviors: membership in a work group, group autonomy in making
decisions, and goal setting by the group (Hinckley, 1985; Kanter,
1983; Sashkin, 1982). These constructs are comparable to the three
dimensions of the Group Environment Scale (GES) as described by Moos
(1974): membership in the work group (relationship dimension),
group autonomy (personal growth dimension), and participation in
goal setting (system maintenance and system change dimension). (See
Chapter I I , page 48.) Thus, based upon the accepted definition of
the GES subscales, each of the three dimensions relates to the con
cept of participative leader behaviors associated with each of the
constructs: membership within the work group, group autonomy, or
group goal setting (see Chapter I I ) . The developer. Moos (1990),
supported the interpretation of this instrument as a measure of
participative leader behaviors. Moos (1990) stated: "By conceptu
alizing participative management as involving the three dimensions
of the GES measured by the subscales, the GES measures participative
leader behaviors."
The results from this study should be generalizable to other
populations of supervisors and task oriented leaders. They may also
provide a model for studying other plants or work groups. This
information may be helpful to the company in planning for future
training programs, planning for implementation of the participative
change process, and may be helpful in selecting personnel for teams
to implement the desired change.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Purpose of the Study
According to normal type development concepts, each person has
a preferred way of taking in information (perception): either sens
ing (S) or intuition (N), and a preferred mode of decision making
(judgment), either thinking (T) or feeling (F) (Jung, 1923/1971).
Collectively these four mental processes are referred to as the
"functions." The concept of psychological type, developed by Jung
and refined by Myers and Briggs, connotes a dynamic rather than a
static condition (McCaulley, 1981). With the proper reinforcement
each psychological type develops increasing skill and satisfaction
governed primarily by using the preferred function. An inability to
use the preferred function results in a primitive or undifferenti
ated personality (Jung, 1923/1971). Many destructive conflicts
arise when an individual who prefers one set of functions is regu
larly using opposite kinds of perception and judgment. This con
f lic t can extend to a job when the worker's natural preference for
perception and judgment is thwarted (Myers & Myers, 1980).
The confusion about and lack of support for participative man
agement by supervisors may be caused in part by the assumption that
participative leader behaviors require a different combination of
personality functions than some supervisors prefer to exhibit. When
these supervisors use a combination of the perception and judgment
functions other than their preferred choice, conflicts may result.
This conflict in the use of preferred functions may cause serious
problems for such supervisors (Myers & Myers, 1980).
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The conceptual hypothesis of this study is that there is a
relationship between personality type and leadership behaviors re
lated to participative management. This study examined a set of
research questions regarding this relationship. These questions
were formulated into 12 hypotheses, as stated in the specific hy
potheses section, describing the relationship between the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI, Myers & McCaulley, 1985) types and the
GES scores of auto plant supervisors.
Del imitations
The following limitations of this study need to be kept in
mind: First, the size of the sample used was 76 (67%) from a total
population of 113 (all the firs t-lin e supervisors in one automotive
p lant).
Second, all participants were volunteers, rather than randomly
identified. Volunteers are different from nonvolunteers, which may
compromise the interpretation and generalizabi1ity of results (Isaac
& Michael, 1985).
Third, as with all correlational studies, there is no expecta
tion nor interpretation of causation to be made.
Fourth, this study is limited to studying the relationship
between personality type and participative leadership behaviors.
There is no intent to study outcomes, such as productivity, quality,
p ro fita b ility , or attendance.
Fifth, some intervening variables, such as layoffs, overtime,
plant closings, and retirements, could not be controlled for and may
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. have influenced the firs t-lin e supervisors' responses on the MBTI
and GES by creating negative feelings or influences.
Sixth, each of the instruments, the MBTI and the GES, is self-
reporting and contains some measurement error. Neither instrument
is representative of an exacting science; and as a consequence, only
results significant at the .01 level were considered.
Theoretical Framework
Basic Assumptions
In order to understand the basis upon which this study was
undertaken, the following assumptions must be kept in mind: First,
participative leadership encourages supportive relationships, group
decision making, and high performance goals (Likert, 1967), which
may help groups in complying with and implementing the decisions
made by the group (Lewin, 1948).
Second, differences in personality make some individuals fit
better in groups that require responsibility for and active involve
ment in the decision-making process (Vroom, 1964). Productive
organizations are cooperative and dependent upon developing shared
goals between the organization and the people in the organization
(C. I. Barnard, 1938).
Third, the GES (Moos, 1974) was chosen as a measure of leader
ship behaviors related to participative management because the
descriptions of the 10 subscales closely approximate the constructs
of leader behavior as related to the definition of participative
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. management described by Hinckley (1985), Kanter (1983), and Sashkin
(1984). The GES was chosen because this instrument has acceptable
re lia b ility and was the best one of those reviewed on several com
parisons (see Appendix A).
Fourth, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one of the
most, widely used indicators of personality type and is a valid and
reliable measure of this variable (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), The
study of personality preference is d iffic u lt and very expensive, yet
organizations are increasingly interested in personality type as
evidenced by the increased use of personality instruments in busi
ness and industry (Moore, 1987).
Definitions
The following terms are essential to understanding this re
search and are thus defined:
Psychological typologies are those as originally identified in
1923 by Jung (1923/1971). Jung theorized that random variations in
behavior caused by certain basic differences in mental functioning
are orderly and consistent (Myers, 1962a). For purposes of this
study these typologies are operationalized by the four functions of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):
1. Sensing with thinking (ST).
2. Sensing with feeling (SF).
3. Intuition with feeling (NF).
4. Intuition with thinking (NT).
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Participation leadership behaviors are those leadership behav
iors through which all participants involved in a work situation or
product decision have equal opportunity to provide information and
input into the decision (Hinckley, 1985; Kanter, 1983; Likert, 1967;
McGregor, 1960; Sashkin, 1982). For purposes of this study these
behaviors are operationalized by the three dimensions from the Group
Environment Scale (GES, Moos, 1986).
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was developed by Myers and
Briggs in the 1940s (Myers, 1962b) as a method to identify Jungian
typology. The test identifies 16 typologies grouped by 4 functions:
1. Sensing with thinking (ST).
2. Sensing with feeling (SF).
3. Intuition with feeling (NF).
4. Intuition with thinking (NT).
The MBTI is a paper and pencil instrument that utilizes multi
ple choice responses. (See Chapter I I , pages 30 and 31.)
Group Environment Scale (GES) is one of nine social climate
scales developed by Moos (1974). The scale is composed of 10 sub
scales that measure the social environmental characteristics or
behaviors of task oriented groups (Moos, 1974). These subscales are
grouped by three dimensions:
1. The relationship dimension.
2. The personal growth dimension.
3. The system maintenance dimension.
The GES is a paper and pencil instrument that utilizes a true-
false response format. (See Chapter I I , page 41.)
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Personal Data Questionnaire (PDQ) was developed to gather demo
graphic information. This form is located in Appendix B.
Specific Hypotheses
As stated earlier the conceptual hypothesis is that there is a
relationship between the personality type functions, as identified
by the MBTI, and participation leadership behaviors, as identified
by the GES. The general study hypotheses were:
1. There is a difference between the MBTI functions sensing
with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition with feel
ing (NF), and intuition with thinking (NT) and the mean score on the
relationship dimension of the GES.
2. There is a difference between the MBTI functions sensing
with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition with fe e l
ing (NF), and intuition with thinking (NT) and the mean score on the
personal growth dimension of the GES.
3. There is a difference between the MBTI functions sensing
with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition with feel
ing (NF), and intuition with thinking (NT) and the mean score on the
system maintenance and system change dimension of the GES.
To determine whether there were differences between the four
MBTI functions and the GES dimension, chi-square (x^) and analysis
of variance (ANOVA) tests were used.
1. STs, SFs, NFs, and NTs were compared to the mean score on
the relationship dimension of the GES.
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2. STs, SFs, NFs, and NTs were compared to the mean score on
the personal growth dimension of the GES.
3. STs, SFs, NFs, and NTs were compared to the mean score on
the system maintenance and system change dimension of the GES.
The relationships between MBTI and GES scores were further ana
lyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The specific expecta
tions regarding the hypotheses were:
1. Those individuals classified as sensing with thinking (ST)
on the MBTI would have a low score on the relationship dimension of
the GES.
2. Those individuals classified as sensing with thinking (ST)
on the MBTI would have a low score on the personal growth dimension
of the GES.
3. Those individuals classified as sensing with thinking (ST)
on the MBTI would have a low score on the system maintenance and
system change dimension of the GES.
4. Those individuals classified as sensing with feeling (SF)
on the MBTI would have a high score on the relationship dimension of
the GES.
5. Those individuals classified as sensing with feeling (SF)
on the MBTI would have a high score on the personal growth dimension
of the GES.
6. Those individuals classified as sensing with feeling (SF)
on the MBTI would have a low score on the system maintenance and
system change dimension of the GES.
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7. Those individuals classified as intuitive with feeling
(NF) on the MBTI would have a high score on the relationship dimen
sion of the GES.
8. Those individuals classified as intuitive with feeling
(NF) on the MBTI would have a high score on the personal growth di
mension of the GES.
9. Those individuals classified as intuitive with feeling
(NF) on the MBTI would have a high score on the system maintenance
and system change dimension of the GES.
10. Those individuals classified as intuitive with thinking
(NT) on the MBTI would have a low score on the relationship dimen
sion of the GES.
11. Those individuals classified as intuitive with thinking
(NT) on the MBTI would have a low score on the personal growth di
mension of the GES.
12. Those individuals classified as intuitive with thinking
(NT) on the MBTI would have a high score on the system maintenance
and system change dimension of the GES.
All expectations regarding the hypotheses are stated in direc
tional terms. A complete discussion of the rationale supporting
these linkages is included in Chapter I I I .
Statement of Procedures
The study was conducted with firs t-lin e supervisors from an
engine plant of a large automotive corporation. All participants
were administered the MBTI, PDQ, and the GES. The total population
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was 113 supervisors, of whom 76 participated in all aspects of the
study. Results of these instruments were analyzed using the chi-
square and analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistics. Each of the
three general hypotheses was tested separately, with conclusions and
recommendations identified. The directional hypotheses are also
reported on in Chapter IV.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship
between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the participative
management behaviors of firs t-lin e supervisors as measured by the
Group Environment Scale (GES), In this chapter a review of related
literature is presented. The chapter is divided into the following:
(a) organizational leadership theory, (b) participative decision
making, (c) firs t-lin e supervisory position, (d) Jungian typology,
(e) the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and (f) the Group Environment
Scale.
Organizational Leadership Theory
Organizational theory is divided into four segments (Owens,
1987). They are: (1) classical organizational leadership theory
movement (1910-1935), (2) human relations movement (1935-1950), (3)
organizational behavior movement (1950-1975), and (4) human resources
management (1975-1987).
Classical Organization Theory
Classical management theorists dominated the early 1900s and
proposed theories such as scientific management (Taylor, 1911) of
bureaucratic organization (Weber, 1947) and administrative management
13
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(Fayol, 1929; Urwick, 1940). These theorists favored achieving or
ganization efficiency by dividing tasks into specialized roles, de
vising explicit work rules, and establishing a hierarchy with many
controls that ensured compliance with rules and procedures. The
following set of organizing principles demonstrate the general view
point of classical theorists (Wexley & Yukl, 1984): (a) labor
divided into functional areas, (b) clearly defined jobs, (c) clear
chain of command, (d) unity of direction, (e) managers have narrow
span of control, and (f) manager has authority to fu lfill responsi
b ility .
Classical theories proved to be successful because there was an
abundance of workers and the system provided an excellent opportunity
for workers to exchange one valued thing for another (Burns, 1978).
The strategy was to decrease the discretion of low level jobs while
increasing the control of a small number of supervisors (Immerwahr &
Yankelovich, 1984).
The Human Relations Movement, 1935-1950
Organization theories relating to the human relations movement
began with Hawthorne's (cited in McGregor, 1960) studies done at
Westinghouse in the 1920s and 1930s, These studies were formulated
in response to the classical theories. The movement stressed real
concern for the mental health and welfare of people. The human rela
tions movement encouraged management to involve workers in planning,
organizing, and controlling their own work.
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Informal work groups within organizations influence the behavior
of individuals (Homans, 1950). When the groups identified with the
goals of management, productivity increased. When the groups decided
that their own goals were in opposition to those of management, pro
ductivity remained low or possibly decreased even further (Mayo,
1933). Satisfaction for group members within a work group is not
solely the consequence of economic reward and/or physical comfort.
Satisfaction is improved by a cohesive and emotionally supportive
work group (Mayo, 1933). Groups within an organization are the car
riers of values and beliefs, and workers seek to meet their need for
a ffilia tio n and esteem through these groups. Because people value
their memberships in work groups, such groups have a powerful affect
upon behavior (Schachter, 1959). Schachter found that people seek
a ffilia tio n because they wish to have their beliefs confirmed. Peo
ple with similar beliefs tend to seek each other out. This need for
a ffilia tio n is especially strong if a value or need has been shat
tered or denied.
Likert (1967) based his System 1-4 theory upon survey research
conducted during the 1950s to discover what causes managers to be
effective or ineffective. He concluded that effective and ineffec
tive managers demonstrated marked difference and behavior patterns in
leadership, communication, decision making, goal setting, and con
tro l. Leaders who used behavior patterns designed to develop co
hesive groups with high performance goals were most effective.
Application of the principles of the classical organization
theorists lead to a System 1 or 2 organization. Application of the
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human relations organizational principles lead to a System 3 or 4
organization. Research showed that the most effective organizations
were System 4 (Likert, 1967). Under the concepts of the human rela
tions movement organizations exercise control through the socializa
tion of participants to the values of the organization (Owens, 1987).
The Organizational Behavior Movement, 1950-1975
The field of research was broadened to define and explain the
role of the organizational behaviorist as a part of the human rela
tions movement (Owens, 1987). The organizational behavior movement
developed because of the work of several prominent theorists who were
concerned with the behavior of the total organization. This movement
was grounded in the laboratory method developed through sensitivity
training and T-groups (Wexley & Yukl, 1984).
Several contributions made by organizational theorists enhanced
the understanding of the total organization. C. I. Barnard (1938)
illustrated the importance of the leader understanding the relation
ship between the formal and informal organizational structure.
Another work (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939) examined the interac
tion between the formal organizational structure and the informal
social structure represented by the relationship between workers.
Simon (1947) emphasized the importance of the administrator under
standing human behavior in the making of a decision. The emphasis
shifted from s tric tly humanistic theories to a more intense study of
the behavioral concepts that influenced work motivation.
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Behavioral change within groups is a function of a person's
personality related primarily to motivation or needs and the situa
tion or environment surrounding the person (Lewin, 1935). According
to Lewin, the environment is a field force that pushes and pulls on
the person and the situation. If the needs of the person are known
and the situation valence either positive or negative is known, be
havior can be predicted. Change, according to Lewin, is much easier
to direct at the group level than at an individual level.
All organizations are characterized by their culture, which is a
powerful tool in creating effective organizations (Owens, 1987).
Efficient organizations provide individuals with incentives to join
and maintain membership within a group. Effective organizations link
the successful use of participation to the fulfillm ent of organiza
tional purpose (C. I. Barnard, 1938).
The research on participative leadership and decision making has
had an impact on the organizational development within our society.
Lewin's (1935) research on change is the building block for change
within groups. His ideas on change have had a greater impact on
organization development, both direct and indirect, than any other
person's (Burke, 1982). Lewin was interested in studying autocratic
versus democratic behaviors within groups (Marrow, 1969) and his work
led to the use of survey research to study change within groups.
Human Resources Management, 1975-Present
This movement has the middle-range theories of Weick (cited in
Owens, 1987) as its base. The movement emerges from a broad range of
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research from both business and Industry as well as from the educa
tion fie ld . While no single explanation has been devised to explain
organizational behavior, uncertainty and change have emerged as the
fundamental problems facing organizations (Thompson, 1967).
Successful organizations learn to accept change that goes with
uncertainty. Thompson (1967) envisioned organizations as having a
"technical core" where the actual work of the organization is per
formed. The technical core of the business is the main product or
service provided by the organization. In addition, the work force is
interdependent and organized into boundary spanning units whose main
goal is to protect and influence the external environment of the
technical core.
Organizations that strive to change behavior or attitude of
individuals without changing the same behavior in the group may
cause the group to impose sanctions upon the individual (Lewin,
1951). This person may be alienated from the group or to ta lly re
jected by the group (Homans, 1950; Schachter, 1959).
Participative Decision Making
Participative decision making is a method for making decisions.
This method stresses the importance of all participants involved in a
work situation or product decision, to have equal a b ility to provide
information and input into that decision (Kanter, 1983). Participa
tive management involves all members of the work group in planning
and control of their own activities (Sashkin, 1982). Participation
is a process that is interactive, and true participation requires
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that individuals join in with others to form a group in pooling their
knowledge to reach conclusions (Hinckley, 1985). To achieve the best
decisions, both McGregor (1960) and Likert (1967) suggested similar
ideas: the principles of supportive relationships, group decision
making, and high performance goals. These constructs are all in
volved with the successful use of participative management.
The use of participation can increase the commitment of the sub
ordinate to achieve goals and to successfully implement group deci
sions (Lewin, 1948). This approach can also be used to encourage
compliance within groups (Homans, 1950; Schachter, 1959). When a
person is allowed to participate in determining a goal, he or she is
more lik e ly to create his or her own forces toward accomplishing the
goal than where the goal is determined and imposed by others. Gener
ally, when goals are imposed upon a person, the one who imposed the
goals must exert continuous influence; otherwise other forces not
associated with goal accomplished will influence the behavior (Lewin,
1948).
A review of 110 studies from 1969 to 1980 indicated that in 90%
of the cases specific challenging goals led to higher performance
(Locke et a l., 1981). Studies done by Coch and French (1948) and
Jewell and Reitz (1981) support the belief that people will accept
decisions more readily that they helped to make rather than those
imposed upon them. This factor helps to explain the generally posi
tive consequences of participative decision making.
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Concerns Regarding Participative Decision Making
The determination of a single best leadership type for a person
or situation is not possible. As a rule those organizations that
perform routine work may fare better with a classical approach to
decision making. Those organizations that must respond to uncer
tainty and change can effectively use the concepts of participation
in the decision-making process (Owens, 1987).
One of the major components of work motivation is distinguishing
between the motivation to simply participate in a decision and the
motivation to perform effectively in making decisions as a part of a
team (C. I. Barnard, 1938; Vroom, 1964). Barnard theorized that
productive organizations are cooperative systems that are able to
develop a congruence between the organization and the individual.
Barnard advocated that individuals develop cooperative, participative
skills through education and socialization. These skills are termed
empowerment and are knowledge based (Kelley, 1988).
Furthermore, personality differences among people make some f i t
better than others in groups requiring responsibility and active
involvement in groups that participate in decisions (Vroom, 1964).
This fact is c ritical to the hypothesis being tested.
Participative Decision Making Within the Company
A movement towards participative management in the subject com
pany began during the mid 1940s and was initiated by the president
and chairman of the company. As far back as the 1920s, he advocated
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making decisions through committee. These committees would be com
prised of individuals with a vested interest in the decision. Sev
eral examples are cited in his autobiography, one being the decision
to create a finance committee and another being the establishment of
a purchasing committee. Each of these committees would coordinate
the policies concerning the decision making for their respective
department. The president also established the company's employee
research section which initiated research on employee attitudes.
This development would later become known as the Quality of Work Life
(QWL) movement.
Quality of Work Life Movement Within the Subject Company
The actual QWL movement within the subject company was initiated
by the president to change the relationship between the company and
all employees. He developed a working relationship with Rensis
Likert from the University of Michigan's Institute for Social
Research, and Likert was instrumental in the preliminary planning for
the QWL movement. The original purpose of the QWL effort was to
enhance the work life of all employees and to drive decision making
down to the lowest level (Senior Executive, 1989).
In the early 1970s the company o ffic ia lly agreed with the union
to the concepts inherent in a more participative culture. The
union's and the company's quality of work life program is one of the
earliest industrial efforts to change the culture of an organization.
As early as the late 1960s, a top o ffic ia l of the union, who was head
of the union's department assigned to the subject company, began to
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have meetings to prepare workers to become equal partners with the
company in the decision-making process.
The ideas generated in the QWL movement led to the concept of
jointness within the union and the company. In 1986 this relation
ship was cemented with the joint opening of the Human Resource Center
(HRC). This center jo in tly administers programs for all union repre
sented company workers.
Since the HRC is a negotiated issue, there are no guaranteed
provisions for management participation in programs that are de
veloped at the center. Consequently, union members have had far
greater exposure to and training in the theoretical constructs of
participative decision making and have developed a knowledge base to
shift the balance of power from the supervisor to the worker (Senior
Executive, 1989).
The 1973 agreement shifted the emphasis of the QWL movement from
all employees, including supervisors, and focused the efforts of the
QWL movement on the hourly work force. This decision created uncer
tainty for all mid-level managers and specifically for first-line
supervisors, since they react daily with the hourly work force.
While there is a recognition of the needs of the firs t-lin e super
visors in relation to using participative management, l it t l e has been
done to correct the inequity (Senior Executive, 1989).
Group Efforts at Participative Management
During the spring and summer of 1986 the senior staff of one of
the car groups met to discuss what participative management means to
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the group and how to best practice this concept. The concepts and
model chosen were a normative theory (Vroom & Yetton, 1973). Leaders
will choose a leadership behavior based upon the followers' ab ility
and willingness to participate in the decision. Leaders will develop
a wide range of leader behaviors from autocratic to participative and
will chose the best one based upon the situation (Mersey & Blanchard,
1982; Vroom & Yetton, 1973). As a consequence of the meeting the
senior staff adopted the following mission statement relating to
participative management, quality of work life , and strategic manage
ment.
The . . . group has recognized that it must manage its business strategically if it is to remain competitive in the long run. A key element in accomplishing this is to develop a participative style of management which strength ens the . . . group's ab ility to reach its goals by tapping the total human resource and, as a result, improves its quality, productivity, and quality of work life.
The above statement is based on a fundamental belief that when people are working toward a clear direction, are involved in the process, and are experiencing success, the goals of both the business and the employee are achieved. This, in turn, encourages a higher quality of participative management.
In essence, the route to effective management is strategy coupled with appropriate involvement of people who create and integrate new ideas into successful business ventures. (Confidential Memo, Subject Company, 1986, un numbered pages)
First-Line Supervisory Position
The need for fir s t line supervisors developed in response to the
classical theorists' need to control the production line (Immerwahr &
Yankelovich, 1984). The job of the firs t-lin e supervisors at the
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subject company was to supervise the people on the line and they
developed into the technical experts that kept the line running.
The responsibilities of firs t-lin e supervisors in this specific
setting were studied by Hennig and Jardim (1978). While they re
ported that each plant had its own priorities, climate, and style,
they identified eight general responsibilities that were common
across the many different plants: (1) enough people to start the
line going, (2) training the people on the line, (3) making sure the
people on the line can do the job, (4) supplying the necessary tools
and materials, (5) monitor the quality level, (6) control costs, (7)
control grievances, and (8) making sure their section is not respon
sible for stopping the line.
The job of the firs t-lin e supervisor has always been a d iffic u lt
one. This d iffic u lty is compounded today by the changes that are
taking place in the relationship between the hourly worker and the
firs t-lin e supervisor (Senior Executive, 1989). Prior to the devel
opment of the QWL, the firs t-lin e supervisors knew their role--
closely supervise the line. As the QWL movement expanded, the fir s t-
line supervisory role changed. The role became less day-to-day close
supervision of the assembly line and moved towards the idea of the
supervisor becoming the "linking pin" between higher management and
the hourly worker (Likert, 1967).
In 1941 a group of firs t-lin e supervisors at a large automotive
corporation formed an association called the Foreman's Association of
America (FAA). The purpose of the FAA was to improve pay and job
security while increasing the status of firs t-lin e supervisors
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(Schlesinger & Klein, 1987). Prior to 1947 private sector managers,
including firs t-lin e supervisors, had the right to bargain collec
tively with their employer. Due to concerns with managers bargaining
for themselves, the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 under the National Labor
Relations Act (NLRA, cited in Schlesinger & Klein, 1987) eliminated
management's obligation to bargain with managers.
Work in America Institute (1989) noted that while employee in
volvement programs continue to expand, very few have adequately
addressed the role of the supervisors. While supervisors believe
that the QWL movement, participation, or employee involvement is good
for the company (72%) and good for the employee (60%), less than a
third (31%) view participation as beneficial to supervisors (Klein,
1984). Supervisors, in general, were more dissatisfied with partic
ipative systems than were employees above or below them (Walton &
Schlesinger, 1979).
Supervisors were expected to push their duties down to the work
team and disappear (Walton & Schlesinger, 1979). Technology has also
threatened the firs t-lin e supervisor (Hall, 1986). While many
threats exist, the position responsibility continues to exist and
thrive even though the t it l e may have changed (Klein, 1985;
Schlesinger, 1982). While the position continues to exist, the span
of control has changed. From 1940 to 1970 the worker-to-supervisor
ratio decreased and beginning in the late 1970s and continuing into
the 1980s the trend reversed its e lf (Edwards, 1979). Companies began
to cut workers and managers to remain competitive (Klein, 1985). The
decrease in the managerial work force due to competitive factors has
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been accelerated by participative programs and by new technologies
(H ill & Kerr, 1984; H ill, Kerr, & Broedling, 1986).
Supervisors have been le ft out of the decision-making process
and view participation as a threat (Senior Executive, 1989). Some
explanations have surfaced for nonsupport by supervisors of p artic i
pative systems: (a) Supervisors are told to participate; (b) the
problem of upper management being paternalistic; and (c) the ques
tion, Is participation voluntary for supervisors? (Kanter, 1983).
Jungian Typology
The type theories of Jung were developed in the 1920s to explain
human personality. Jung fir s t published the theory of psychological
type in 1921. In 1923, the studies were translated from German into
English by Baynes. Jung theorized that random variations in behavior
caused by certain basic differences in mental functioning are orderly
and consistent (Myers, 1962a). Jung (1923/1971) identified a number
of typologies that described a person's basic psychological pro
cesses. These processes or differences merge into patterns that
determine an individual personality type. Type theory is based upon
the theory that all people use four basic mental functions which are
represented by the letter S for sensing, N for intuition, T for
thinking, and F for feeling. Type theory stands as one of Jung's
most important contributions (Brawer & Spiegelman, 1964; McCaulley,
1978; Richek & Brown, 1968). A person has a preference and definite
attitude when using each function (Jung, 1923/1971). The individual
personality grows from specializing in preferred traits associated
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with type. All individuals develop a preference for type. Type is
not static but dynamic and allows for continued growth and develop
ment throughout life (McCaulley, 1977).
Attitudes: Extraversion and Introversion
Jung described two different but complementary attitudes toward
the outer world, extraversion and introversion. All humans share
these two attitudes and use both, but each person prefers one over
the other. Extraverts (E) choose people as a source of energy and
need to socialize. Extraverts charge up by being with people. In
troverts (I) prefer solitude and receive energy from being alone.
Introverts charge their batteries with quiet time. Extraverts (E)
are motivated by the outside world and make up about 65% of the popu
lation. Introverts ( I) focus their perception and judgment upon the
inner world of ideas and constitute 35% of the population (Keirsey &
Bates, 1984).
Perceptive Functions: Sensing (S) and Intuition (N)
Sensing and intuition are the two dichotomous modes of percep
tion. Perception involves all the ways of becoming aware of the
environment (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). In the perceptive function
sensing (S) is the term used for perceiving the observable with the
use of the five senses. In this mode the person is primarily inter
ested in the present, immediate experience. Sensing people are de
scribed as realists who tie facts together in a systematic fashion
and test each new fact for relevance. Sensing individuals have acute
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powers of observation, are orientated toward the present, and have
great memory for details. Intuition (N) is the term used for the
perceiving of possibilities, relationships, and meanings by the use
of insight. Jung (1923/1971) characterized this phenomenon on per
ception by way of the unconscious, that is, intuition can best be
described as a "hunch" and permits individuals to perceive events or
relationships beyond what is visible to their senses. The intuitive
pursues possibilities and is an imaginative and creative person.
Jung stated "the certainty of intuition rests equally on a definite
state of psychic 'alertness' of whose origin the subject is uncon
scious" (p. 453).
Judging Functions: Thinking (I) and Feeling (F)
Judgment involves all the ways of coming to conclusions about
what has been perceived (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). Jung (1923/1971)
termed the opposite ways of deciding what to do about what you have
perceived as thinking (T) or feeling (F). When using T logical,
impersonal decisions w ill be reached based upon cause and effect.
When using F a person uses their values or group values to make deci
sions .
While the importance of the judgment and perception functions
are clearly stated throughout much of Jung's work, the team of Myers
and Briggs made them exp licit. The development of the JP index along
with the El index clarify which of the two preferred functions is
dominant and which is auxiliary.
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Dominant and Auxiliary Functions
The theory of type holds that the four mental processes, S, N,
I , and F, are used regularly yet one process becomes better de
veloped. This function becomes the dominant function. The dominant
function provides consistency to the personality and the auxiliary
provides balance. The idea of a dominant process controlling the
other process and shaping the personality was empirically noted by
Jung and, along with extraversion-introversion preference, became the
basis of his work on psychological types (Myers, 1962a).
Myers (1962a) stressed that the auxiliary function must be d if
ferent, but not opposed to the dominant function. If the dominant
function is a perceptive function then the judgment function must be
the auxiliary, or balancing, function. Furthermore, each type uses
the dominant function in their preferred attitude. Introverts typi
cally hide their dominant function and show their auxiliary function.
Extraverts show their dominant function since they operate in the
outer world.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The purpose of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is to
measure the personality type and theoretical constructs of Jung
(Myers, 1962a). There are four separate indices: extraversion or
introversion (El), sensing or intuition (SN), thinking or feeling
(TF), and judging or perception (JP), which under Jungian theory form
an individual's personality. The purpose of the MBTI is to determine
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the direction and strength that each individual professes on the
four indices. The four indices are designed to determine a pre
ferred choice between opposites. Further, the choice on each of the
indices is independent of the choice on any of the other three in
dices. As a consequence, 16 possible types may form from the four
indices. The typology is represented by a four-letter code forming
the preferences (e.g ., ENFJ or ISTP, see Figure 1) and postulates
specific relationships among the processes and attitudes. For each
type, one process is the dominant and one is the auxiliary. Each
person uses this process with a specific attitude, either extraver
sion (E) or introversion ( I) . Each preference makes a specific
contribution to type (see Table 1).
History of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The MBTI is a self-administered, self-reporting paper and pen
c il instrument developed by Katherine Briggs and her daughter,
Isabel Myers. As early as 1915, Briggs began her study of individ
ual differences through the use of biographies. When she read
Jung's work and found that his views were similar to her own, yet
far more complete, she began an intense investigation of Jungian
typology. From 1923 to the start of World War I I , Briggs taught the
theory to her daughter, Isabel Briggs-Myers. Briggs and Myers con
tinued to study Jung's work and observed the behavior of people in
relation to type theory. Many of their early subjects were family
members and friends of the family. When the United States entered
World War I I , Myers increased her efforts to develop an indicator in
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THE LOCATION OF THE 15 PREFERENCE TYPES ON THE TYPE TABLE
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTI
ISTP ISFP INF P INTP
ESTP ESFP ENFP E MTP
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ
EXTRAVERSION-INTROVERSION SENSING-INTUITION 1 E
THINKIN6-FEELING JUDGMENT-PERCEPTION
T F T
Figure 1. Standard Type Table Format.
Source: From Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Figure 4.1. p. 31) bv I. B. Myers and M. H. McCaulley, 1985, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Reproduced by special permission of the publisher. Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., Palo Alto, CA. Further reproduction is prohibited without the publisher's consent.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32
Table 1
Contributions Made by Each Preference to Each Type
Sensing Typos Intuitive Types With Thinking Wrth Feeling Wrth Feeling Wrth Thinking
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ I 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibilities f T Logic and analysis F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis J Organization J Organization J Organization J Organization I
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP I 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration I S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibilities T Logic and analysis F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis
P Adaptability P Adaptability P Adaptability P Adaptability
«} ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP I E Breadth of interests E Breadth of Interests E Breadth of interests E Breadth of interests S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilitiss N Grasp of possibilities I T Logic and analysis F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis P Adaptability P Adaptability P Adaptability P Adaptabinty I ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ I E Breadth of interests E Breadth of Interests E Breadth of interests E Breadth of Interests S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibilities I T Logic and analysis F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis J Organization J Organization J Organization J Organization
Note: From Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Table 4.1, p. 32} by I. B. Myers and M. H. McCaulley, 1985, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Reproduced by special permission of the publisher. Consult ing Psychologists Press, Inc., Palo Alto, CA. Further reproduction is prohibited without the publisher's consent.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33
anticipation of helping the war effort by carefully matching indi
viduals to jobs. This instrument would become known as the MBTI.
From 1942 until 1962, when Form F was published by Educational
Testing Service (ETS), the only purpose of the instrument was re
search. During the development period, Myers tested each item on
larger and larger samples. Acceptance of the instrument was slow,
because of the attitude of psychological professionals and the nov
elty of the instrument's concepts regarding personality testing.
Further complicating the acceptance of their ideas was the fact that
neither had formal education or training in the field of psychology.
From 1962 to 1975 research continued and in 1975 Consulting Psycho
logical Press (CPP) began publishing the MBTI. Also in 1975 the
Center for Application of Personality Type (CAPT) was formed to pro
vide MBTI users with educational and research data.
The Combination of Perception and Judgment
While each individual expresses a preference for sensing and
intuition, this choice is independent of their choice between think
ing and feeling. Both types of judgment are combined separately
with each type of perception, and thus four combinations are possi
ble: (1) sensing thinking (ST) types, (2) sensing feeling (SF)
types, (3) intuitive thinking (NT) types, and (4) intuitive feeling
(NF) types (see Table 2).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 CD ■ D O Q. C S Q.
■ D CD Table 2
cn C/) The Combinations of Perception and Judgment
ST SF NF NT CD 8 People who prefer Sensing and Sensing and Intuition and Intuition and thinking feeling feeling thinking
Focus attention CD on Facts Facts Possibilities Possibilities
And handle these Impersonal Personal warmth Personal warmth Impersonal 3.3" CD with analysis analysis
CD ■D Thus they tend Practical and Sympathetic and Enthusiastic and Logical and O Q. to become matter-of-fact friendly insightful ingenious C a o And find scope Technical skills Practical help Understanding and Theoretical and 3 with facts and and services for communication ■D for their technical devel O abilities in objects people with people opments
CD Q. Note. From Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Table 4.3, p. 35) by I. B. Myers and M. H. McCaulley, 1985, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Reproduced by special permission of the publisher. Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc., Palo Alto, CA. Further reproduction is prohibited without the publisher's consent. ■ D CD
C/Î C/)
w -P» 35
Sensing Plus Thinking (ST)
According to Myers (1962a), sensing types with thinking make
their decisions based upon their ab ility to think and decide what
they perceive using their five senses. This type prefers factual
information and a decision is based solely upon a logical process of
cause and effect. STs prefer careers that demand an ab ility to use
impersonal analysis and oftentimes are thought of as cold, imperson
al, and "hard hearted." STs are more likely to choose careers that
value impersonal analysis, such as police work, supervision, farm
ing, and financial.
Sensing Plus Feeling (SF)
According to Myers (1962a), SF persons also rely upon their
senses for perception but tend to use feeling to make decisions.
These decisions are made with a high degree of consideration for
people. SFs tend to be friendly and relate well to people. Gener
ally they choose occupations that have a lot of personal warmth,
such as, teaching, social work, health care, and child care.
Intuition Plus Feeling (NF)
As reported by Myers (1962a), intuitive types with feeling do
not make decisions based upon their senses or facts. They prefer to
make decisions based upon possibilities and make these decisions with
personal warmth. NFs have great success in communicating with and
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understanding people. NFs frequently choose careers in theology,
health fields, journalism, and teaching.
Intuition Plus Thinking (NT)
According to Myers (1962a), the intuitive with thinking (NT)
focuses on the possibilities inherent in a particular situation. Yet
due to the thinking function, they tend to make decisions not based
upon people and personal warmth, but upon an impersonal analysis of
fact. This combination of intuition plus thinking leads to a logical
and oftentimes creative or ingenious person. NTs tend to choose
careers as research scientist, lawyers, inventors, and managers.
Extraversion and Introversion (El)
Jung's (1923/1971) theory states two fundamental attitudes,
extraversion or introversion. This attitude determines how people
relate to the outer world. Individuals who prefer extraversion are
characterized as action orientated, impulsive towards new events,
sociable, communicate easily, and possess an awareness of the envi
ronment. Introverts have the following characteristics: thoughtful,
contemplative about new ideas, desire c la rity of ideas, and appear
removed from the outside world. Each person has a definite prefer
ence for El but can relate and use the other function when appropri
ate. Extraverts choose to work in the outer world of people and in
action orientated situations, yet they can work in the world of ideas
when necessary. An introvert works best in the world of ideas, yet
a well-developed introvert is capable of relating to the world of
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extraversion when needed (Myers, 1962a). This decision determines a
person's attitude or preference for the El index.
Validity of the MBTI
The purpose of the MBTI is to measure the constructs of Jungian
typology. The MBTI Manual (Myers, 1962a) summarizes the findings
from the MBTI and other instruments. One similar instrument, the
Gray-Wheelwright or Jungian Type Survey (JTS) was developed by two
other Jungian researchers who independently arrived at basically the
same conclusion as Myers. While the samples differed in the methods
for computing internal consistency scores, there was a high correc
tion for attenuation coefficient between the MBTI and the Gray-
Wheelright (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). The correlation between the
MBTI and JTS indicates the instruments measure the same constructs
and supports the construct validity of the MBTI. In comparing the
JTS to the MBTI the following correlations were identified:
.79 El, .58 SN, and .60 TF. All correlations were significant at
the .001 level. The JTS does not have a scale that corresponds to
the MBTI JP index. The correlations between the MBTI and the JTS
are moderately high and sta tis tic a lly significant (Devito, 1985).
Another method used to validate the MBTI compared a self-
assessment by participants to descriptions of the different types as
described by Myers. Agreement with the Myers descriptions may be the
best measure of the success of the MBTI (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
Validity of the MBTI is increased by allowing respondents to
eliminate items that they cannot express a strong preference for.
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Type is more accurately predicted when individuals answer items with
certainty (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
R eliability of the MBTI
The re lia b ility for the MBTI is consistent with other personal
ity tests and the r e lia b ility remains stable even when some items are
omitted (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). Data on the MBTI's re lia b ility
include both internal consistency and the test-retest measure on
separate scales and typologies. Using the Spearman Brown prophecy
formula, Myers reported split half scores of between .70 and .94 for
El, SN, and JP, and a much lower score of .44 on the TF index. The
lower scores on the TF index are attributable to the slow develop
ment of the judgment index (Myers, 1962a). The re lia b ility for MBTI
type categories using Guttman's Lower Bound R eliability Estimate
were in the .40 to .50 range (Strieker & Ross, 1963).
In summarizing retest data with intervals of 7 weeks to 14
months, Devito (1985) reviewed test-retest studies done by Carskadon
(1979); Carlyn (1977); Levy, Murphy, and Carlson (1972); and
Strieker and Ross (1963). He found reliability coefficients ranging
from .48 after 14 months to .87 after 7 weeks. The TF scale remains
the least stable (Myers, 1962a). Howes and Carskadon (1979) admin
istered the MBTI and the 16 Personality Factor (16PF) to a group of
psychology students. The findings indicated an elevation or lower
ing of the mood of the students yet the mood changes did not affect
test-retest data on the MBTI. In general, the stronger the prefer
ence for a MBTI category the greater the chance the participant will
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select the type category again.
In a study of 118 psychology students (Carskadon, 1982) con
cluded that a far greater number of students than expected reported
the correct description of type as their number one choice and re
futed previous research (Howes & Carskadon, 1979) that a significant
number of subjects would change type after an interval.
Two studies of firs t-lin e supervisors reviewed and reported by
Myers and McCaulley (1985) indicated that supervisors would be p ri
marily STs and SFs (see Table 3). These findings generally support
the belief that the great majority of fir s t-lin e supervisors will
not be NFs, which tend to be the naturally democratic leaders that
function most easily in a participative environment (Keirsey &
Bates, 1984).
Table 3
First-Line Supervisors' Results in Two Studies
Factory and site Administrators, Subscale supervisors managers, and supervisors (ii = 52) (n = 3,678)
ST 48.08 39.40
SF 36.54 18.57
NF 7.69 17.54
NT 7.69 24.50
Note. Data taken from Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Brigqs Type Indicator (pp. 253-261) by I. B. Myers and M. McCaulley, 1985, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40
Concerns for the MBTI
The MBTI has been criticized for a number of reasons. Behavior
validation of typological constructs must be encouraged (Carlson &
Levy, 1973). Greater effort must be made in replicating validity
studies that relate in a logical fashion to the dimensions that the
instrument proposes to measure (Devito, 1985). Type preference may
be reported incorrectly if the person has difficulty in selecting
between their preference and their parents', or the person is under
going a growth period in MBTI functions that allows different func
tions to surface (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
Group Environment Scale
The Group Environment Scale (GES) is one of nine social climate
scales. The purpose of the social climate scales, developed by Moos
(1974), is to measure the perception of relationships within organi
zations. Each of the nine instruments measures a different group
environment. The nine instruments all investigate three dimensions:
the relationship dimension, the personal growth or goal orientation
dimension, and the system maintenance and system change dimension
(Moos, 1974). (See Table 4 and Figure 2.)
The social climate scales are easily hand scored. Each instru
ment typically takes 15 to 20 minutes to administer and can be given
to a group or an individual. The GES has three forms and each one
measures a different aspect of a group setting. The real form
(Form R) measures actual group settings, the ideal form (Form I)
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Table 4
GES Subscales and Dimension Descriptions
Subscale Relationship dimensions
1. Cohesion The degree of members' involvement and com mitment to the group and the concern and friendship they show for one another.
2. . Leader Support The degree of help, concern, and friendship shown by the leader for the members.
3. Expressiveness The extent to which freedom of action and expression of feelings are encouraged.
Personal growth dimensions
4. Independence The extent to which the group encourages independent action and expression among members.
5. Task Orientation The degree of emphasis on practical, con crete, and "down-to-earth" tasks and on decision making and training.
6. Self-Discovery The extent to which the group encourages members' revelations and discussions of personal information.
7. Anger and The degree to which the group tolerates and Aggression encourages open expression of negative feel ings and inter member disagreement.
System maintenance and system change dimensions
a. Order and The degree of formality and structure of the Organization group and the explicitness of group rules and sanctions.
9. Leader Control The extent to which the tasks of directing the group, making decisions, and enforcing rules are assigned to the leader.
10. Innovation The extent to which the group facilitates diversity and change in its own functions and activities.
Note. From Group Environment Scale (2nd éd., p. 2) by R. H. Moos, 1986, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42
Relation Dimension Personal Growth Dimension System Maintenance & System Change Dimensions
Sub scales Cohesion Independence Order & Organization Leader Support Task Orientation Leader Control Expressiveness Self Discovery Innovation Anger & Aggression
Cohesion Independence Order & 1,11,21,31,41 4,14,24,34,44 Organization 51,61,71,81 54,64,74,84 8,18,28,38,48 58.68,78,88
Leader Support Task Orientation Leader Control 2,12,22,32,42 5,15,25,35,45 9,19,29,39,49 52,62,72,82 55,65,75,85 59,69,79,89
Expressiveness Self Discovery Innovation 3,13,23,33,43 6,16,26,36,46 10,20,30,40,50 53,63,73,83 56,66,76,86 60,70,80,90
Anger & Aggression 7,17,27,37,47 57,67,77,87
27 items make 36 items make 27 items make up relationship up personal up system dimension growth dimension maintenance and system change dimension
Figure 2. GES Dimensions, Subscales, and Questions for Each Sub scale.
Source: Compiled from data from Group Environment Scale (2nd ed., p. 2) by R. H. Moos, 1986, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psy chologists Press.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43
measures participants' reaction to perceived ideal group settings,
and the expectations form (Form E) evaluates participants' expecta
tions about a new group. Form R was used since this group was an
actual task oriented group.
The instrument has 90 true or false items (T&F) that are scored
on 10 dimensions which form three subscales. Form R items are
printed in booklets that are reusable with a separate answer sheet.
Table 4, taken from the GES Manual, describes the 10 subscales.
Validity of the Group Environment Scale
The GES was developed with items from previously developed so
cial climate scales. Other items were developed from structured
interviews and from observations of both members and leaders in
groups. Each item selected for inclusion had to relate to one of
the three dimensions as defined in Table 4. The original form (Form
A) was administered to people in 30 groups. These groups came from
a variety of settings to ensure that the GES could be applied to
more than one type of group. Items selected correlated more highly
with their own subscale. The subscales had low to moderate inter
correlations and each item (and each subscale) discriminated among
group settings (Moos, 1986). In the final draft 90 items met these
conditions.
Normative data had been gathered on members from 148 groups and
with 112 leaders. There were 56 task orientated groups, 57 social
recreational groups, and 35 psychotherapy and mutual support groups.
There was very lit t l e difference between the perceptions of members
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and leaders (Moos, 1986). In general, the difference among the
three types of groups was consistent with expectations about the
nature of groups and contributes to the construct validity of the
GES Form R (Moos, 1986).
While Moos (1986) pointed to the construct validity of the GES,
the adequacy of the data on validation for the instrument is limited.
Greater confidence in the validity of the scale would be enhanced by
relating GES scores to members' and leaders' behavior using some form
of observation or ethnographic system (Illback, 1985).
R eliability of the Group Environment Scale
Data provided using Cronbach's alphas indicate that the internal
consistency of the GES to be reliable. Scores ranged from .65 to .87
specifically on each scale. In a similar study the scores ranged
from .62 to .86 on all 10 subscales (Moos, 1986). Test-retest corre
lations using scores from a 1 month to a 24 month interval range
from .65 to .87 (Nezu, 1989). Another study (Illback, 1985) using
coefficient alpha with a sample of 245 determined subscale values
ranging from .62 to .86 with the average in the mid .70s. The sub
scales with a sample size of 63 and using test-retest method have a
reliability coefficient after a 1 month interval of from .65 to .87
(Illback, 1985). Profile sta b ility studies showed coefficients of
.92 at 4 months, .91 at 8 months, .84 at 12 months, and .78 at 24
months (B r ill, 1979; Duncan & B r ill, 1977; Menard, cited in Moos,
1986).
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Group Environment Scale Concerns
In addition to the concerns regarding the lack of research find
ings to support the valid ity of the GES, several other factors indi
cate using caution when interpreting the results of the GES. The
lack of sampling information describing the groups used, the concern
for aggregating all groups studied into one category to draw conclu
sions, and the lack of information on the reading level of the GES
suggest using restraint in applying the results (Nezu, 1989). While
other instruments were reviewed, the GES was selected due to the
acceptable re lia b ility and the fact that no other instrument, similar
in nature, had any better validity.
The GES is firm ly grounded in theory and research. Yet given
the lack of validity data and the constraints on the a b ility to
generalize the findings, caution is urged.
Using the GES to Measure Participative Leader Behaviors
Participative leader behavior is a very complex issue. The
best method to study participative leader behaviors would be through
some form of direct observation of leader behavior over a long
period of time. This form of ethnographic observation, while pro
viding the best validity and reliability, was not possible. Leader
behavior as well as member behavior within groups has a definite
impact upon the people within the work group (C. I. Barnard, 1938;
Lewin, 1935; Moos, 1973). Several instruments were investigated
(see Appendix A) that measured the behavior of members within
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groups. The GES was selected because this Instrument had the best
r e lia b ility , the cost was acceptable, and it had been used previous
ly with task oriented group leaders such as supervisors.
A review of the literature and the accepted operational defini
tion of participative management identify three constructs associ
ated with participative leader behaviors and participative manage
ment (Hinckley, 1985; Kanter, 1983; Sashkin, 1982). The constructs
accepted as the operational definition of participative management
are: membership in the work group, group autonomy in making deci
sions, and group goal setting. These constructs are supported by
the following definitions.
There is the assumption that in general the three dimensions of
the GES relate to the respective concept of participative leader
behavior, membership in the work group, group autonomy in decision
making, and goal setting by the group. There is no statistical cer
tainty that each of the questions asked within the three dimensions
of the GES relate to the respective concept of leader behavior. It
is logical though given the nature of the questions asked that in
general they do measure what they purport to measure.
Participative management involves all members of the work group
in planning and control of their own activities (Sashkin, 1982).
Participation is the involvement of individuals with a work team
that has joint responsibility for setting goals, such as a product,
which might be a plan, a decision, a solution to a problem in the
work area, or possibly the output of the work area its e lf (Kanter,
1983). Participation is a process that is interactive and true
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participation requires that individuals join in with others to form
a group in pooling their knowledge to reach conclusions (Hinckley,
1985).
The GES is comprised of 10 subscales. Each subscale is made up
of nine true (T) or false (F) responses. The 10 subscales join
together to form three dimensions with Subscales 1-3 forming the
relationship dimension; Subscales 4-7 forming the personal growth
dimension, and Subscales 8-10 forming the system maintenance and
system change dimension. The GES measures the social-environmental
characteristics of task-oriented groups. Form R of the GES which
was used in this study measures people's actual perception of a
member or a leader's behavior in a group setting (Moos, 1986). The
instrument is administered to members and leaders within groups and
asks members and leaders to evaluate behavior of a target group to
which they belong.
Items in each subscale were determined through inter item cor
relation such that items within a subscale have higher correlation
among themselves than with items in other subscales (Moos, 1974).
Scores on the subscales can range from 0 to 9.
In this study an assumption was made that the GES dimensions
were an accurate operational definition of participative leader
behavior. The operational definition (Hinckley, 1985; Kanter, 1983;
Sashkin, 1982) identifies three general concepts of participative
groups: (1) membership in the work group, (2) group autonomy in
decision making, and (3) group goal setting. The 10 subscales are
combined into three dimensions and each dimension and each item had
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to identify an aspect of a group setting that related to:
1. Interpersonal relationship or relationship dimension, that
is, such as cohesion of the work group which represents the con
struct membership in the work group.
2. Personal growth dimension, that is, independence or auton
omy in making decisions which represents the construct of group
autonomy in making decisions.
3. System maintenance and system change dimension, that is,
leader control or who sets the goals for the group which represents
the construct of goal setting for the group.
Relationship Dimension
The construct, membership in the work group, is related to the
relationship dimension of the GES. This dimension consists of three
subscales, each of which consists of nine items which get at the
type of relations and behaviors that group members have with one
another. This construct, membership in the work group (Hinckley,
1985; Kanter, 1983; Likert, 1967; Sashkin, 1982) is rooted in the
work done at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant (Roethlisberger &
Dickson, 1939). The research determined that improvements in per
formance were a result of the participation of all workers from the
group in making decisions that affected their work area. As a con
sequence of this effort the workers in the group formed a strong,
cohesive work team (Katz & Kahn, 1966). Also, research has indicat
ed that workers want to have membership in and belong to their work
group and these informal work group influences the behavior of
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individuals either positively or negatively (Homans, 1950). For in
stance, are the group members' relationships characterized by cohe
sion and unity (Question 1), belongingness (Question 21), frie n d li
ness (Questions 31 and 42), and openness and trust between group
members (Questions 3 and 63) or by the opposite types of behavior?
This dimension, which is comprised of the subscales cohesion, leader
support, and expressiveness describes the way group members, includ
ing the leader, get along and is assumed to be considered a measure
of the construct membership in the work group as defined by Hinckley
(1985), Kanter (1983), and Sashkin (1982). See Table 4 and Figure 2
for a complete description of the subscales that comprise the rela
tionship dimension.
Personal Growth Dimension
The construct of autonomy in group decision making is related
to the personal growth dimension of the GES. This dimension con
sists of four subscales, each of which is made up of nine items.
The four subscales associated with the personal growth dimension are
independence, task orientation, self-discovery, and anger and ag
gression. The relevance of the construct of group autonomy
(Hinckley, 1985; Kanter, 1983; Likert, 1967; Sashkin, 1982) in deci
sion making is grounded in the research done on group change (Lewin,
1935). Lewin found that change is much easier to direct at the
group level than with individuals, and he used survey research to
study autocratic versus democratic behaviors within groups. For
team members of work groups that depend upon each other in
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performing their daily activities the group method of decision mak
ing makes the most sense (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939; Sashkin,
1982). In a wide variety of work arrangements, participation in the
making of decisions by the group has positive benefits (C. I.
Barnard, 1938; Lewin, 1967; Lowin, 1968). For instance, are members
of the work team encouraged to be a part of the decision-making
process (Questions 9 and 14), the group makes decisions (Question
35), members are expected to take leadership in the group question
(Question 44), members need the group's approval of the decision
before carrying out the decision (Question 64), and the group helps
a member learn new skills (Question 85)? For a complete description
of the four subscales see Table 4 and Figure 2.
System Change Dimension
The construct of goal setting is related to system change di
mension of the GES. This dimension consists of three subscales and
each scale has nine items. The three subscales associated with the
system change dimension are order and organization, leader control,
and innovation. The importance of the construct group participation
in goal setting is grounded in research done on change (Lewin,
1948). In research done in both laboratory and organizational set
tings, participation in goal setting has proven to generate greater
acceptance of the goal and better performance in achieving the goal
(Coch & French, 1948; Latham & Yukl, 1975; Locke et a l., 1981). As
an example, are the activities of the group carefully planned
(Question 8), and does the leader te ll members what to do or do the
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members participate in setting the group's goals (Question 19)? For
a complete description of the three subscales, see Table 4 and Fig
ure 2. Table 5 demonstrates the use of the GES to measure partici
pative management.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 73 CD ■ D O Q. C g Q.
■ D CD Table 5 (/) Using the GES to Measure Participative Management 3o'
Construct of participative Authors supporting the 8 GES subscale GES dimension management construct
(O' Cohesion Relationship Belonging to a work group Barnard, 1938; Homans, 1950; Leader support dimension Hinckley, 1985; Kanter, 1983; Expressiveness Katz & Kahn, 1966; Likert, 1967; Moos, 1974, 1986, 1990; Roethlisberger & Dickson, 3. 3 " 1939; Sashkin, 1982 CD
CD Independence Personal Autonomy, or the extent Barnard, 1938; Kanter, 1983; ■ D O Task orientation growth to which the group is Lewin, 1935; Likert, 1967; Q. C Self-discovery dimension encouraged to be self- Lowin, 1968; Moos, 1974, a o Anger and aggression sufficient and make its 1986, 1990; Roethlisberger & 3 own decisions about how Dickson, 1939; Sashkin, 1982 ■D O to do its work
Order and organization System Goal setting by group—the Coch 6 French, 1948; Latham & CD Q. Leader control maintenance extent the group is Yukl, 1975; Likert, 1967; Innovation and system allowed to set its own Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, change goals 1981 dimension ■ D CD
C/) C/)
cn ro CHAPTER I I I
PROCEDURES
Study Design
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship
between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI, Myers & McCaulley,
1985) scores and the leadership behavior of firs t-lin e supervisors in
a large industrial corporation. One hundred and thirteen supervisors
were contacted and asked to volunteer, of whom 76 completed all as
pects of the survey. The supervisors' MBTI type functions were com
pared to their scores on the three dimensions of the Group Environ
mental Scale (GES, Moos, 1974). Within the chapter the following
areas are reviewed: the study design, the research instruments, the
general research procedures, the subject population, the method used
to gather the data, and the procedures used to interpret the data.
Research Instruments
The three instruments used for data collection were the Group
Environment Scale (GES) Form R, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI) Form G, and a Personal Data Questionnaire (PDQ). The MBTI and
the GES are routinely used in similar settings and neither instrument
is categorized as a high risk instrument. Both instruments are clas
sified by Consulting Psychologists Press (CPP) under the code of
ethics as Level B instruments. They are not included in the
53
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54
appendices but are available from CPP. CPP would not give permission
to include the MBTI and the GES in the appendices. The PDQ was de
veloped for the population being studied and is included in Appendix
B. While the GES and MBTI are reviewed more thoroughly in Chapter
I I , technical data are presented in this chapter.
Both the GES and the MBTI are easy to administer and can be
given in a group setting or individually. While the instruments can
be self-administered, the instruments are ideally suited for use in a
group setting. To minimize differences in the test situation, a
group setting was used in this study.
The MBTI has no time lim it and instructions are provided on the
cover. Reading the directions and test implementation generally took
20 to 30 minutes. The instruments were hand-scored by the researcher
within one day of the testing day. If the participant had no prefer
ence, an item was le ft blank. If too many items are left blank the
test score is not a reliable measure of personality type (Myers &
McCaulley, 1985). The results were returned and feedback given to
the supervisors within 2 weeks of the test date.
The GES has no time lim it, and instructions are provided on the
cover. Test taking and the reading of the directions took between 20
and 30 minutes. The GES was hand scored by the researcher within one
day of the testing day. On this instrument all questions are an
swered true or false and each question must be answered even i f the
participant must guess at the answer (Moos, 1986).
The GES reports 10 subscales organized into three domains that
measure characteristics of task oriented groups. The three domains
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are the relationship dimension, the personal growth or goal orienta
tion dimension, and the system maintenance and system change dimen
sion (see Table 4 and Figure 2). GES scores are determined by count
ing the responses in each column and entering as a raw score. These
scores are converted to a standard score using the scoring booklet.
The test results were returned and feedback given to the supervisors
within 2 weeks of the test date.
General Research Procedures
The study relied upon data from a potential lis t of 113 super
visors. All firs t-lin e supervisors of hourly employees were asked to
volunteer. Each supervisor was asked to f i l l out the MBTI, the GES,
and a Personal Data Questionnaire.
Before the study could proceed, the organization needed to give
its approval. The fa c ility 's production manager agreed to a meeting
to discuss the project. During the meeting the following topics were
covered: the amount of time each supervisor would be away from his
or her job, the possible benefits to the site and to the supervisor,
and the fact that supervisors would agree to voluntarily participate.
After consultation with the rest of the upper management team, per
mission was granted to proceed. Before the actual study was com
pleted, a pilot study was done.
Pilot Study
Each of five superintendents was asked to select three volun
teers to participate in a pilot study. In the pilot study, 14 of the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56
15 fir s t-lin e supervisors were administered the MBTI Form G, the GES
Form R, and the PDQ. After the researcher explained the research
study and reiterated the volunteer status of the participants, the
PDQ was administered to the supervisors. The explanation and admin
istration of the PDQ took 15 minutes; test instructions and implemen
tation of the MBTI took 90 minutes. After a 10-minute break all
participants were given the GES. This took less than 30 minutes to
administer.
The instruments were hand scored by the researcher. The pilot
study was done to help formulate the correct procedures for complet
ing the data gathering and to anticipate problems that the p artici
pants might express.
Sampling Subjects
The population of subjects in the study were non-UAW members who
were all firs t-lin e supervisors of hourly employees employed in a
single engine plant of a large worldwide industrial corporation lo
cated in the Midwest. The supervisors were identified by using the
salaried personnel lis t as of January 1, 1990. Due to the small
number of supervisors available (113), each person was asked to par
ticipate. Sixty-seven percent completed the study.
All 113 supervisors were contacted through the plant mail and
asked to voluntarily participate. If the supervisor agreed to par
ticipate and did not make the scheduled testing session, a follow-up
call was made to rearrange a testing session. A total sample of 76
supervisors comprised the final study sample.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57
Individual names of the subjects were not identified and no
information was given to their supervisors. The identity of the
company, the plant, and the supervisors remain anonymous.
Data Collection Procedures
Three different data collection procedures were considered in
relation to administering the MBTI and the GES to the participants
(see Figure 3). Under Method A, the MBTI or GES was administered
firs t in all testing sessions. With Method B, the GES and MBTI were
rotated with the GES being given firs t to Groups 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9
and the MBTI being given fir s t to Groups 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10. Under
Method C the instruments would be rotated as they were in Method B,
but there would be a 2-week break between the administering of the
MBTI and GES. Method B was selected for the following reasons: This
method was superior to Method A since Method B controlled better for
the phenomenon known as response set, which may affect items in the
last half of a test or series of tests differently than the items in
the fir s t half of the procedure (Isaac & Michael, 1985). Method B
was chosen over Method C because of the d iffic u lty in scheduling the
groups away from their workplace for more than one day and the length
of time in between testing sessions could cause a poor return rate.
In the final analysis, there were 10 groups of 5-18 partici
pants. Each supervisor was notified by plant mail that several test
ing sessions would be available during their shift and they had been
scheduled to attend at a specific time and place. If they could not
attend at the scheduled time, they were to select a back-up time
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Group
1 2 3 4 5 6
GES GES GES GES GES GES Method A MBTI MBTI MBTI MBTI MBTI MBTI
GES MBTI GES MBTI GES MBTI Method B MBTI GES MBTI GES MBTI GES
MBTI GES MBTI GES MBTI GES
Method C (2 week break between)
GES MBTI GES MBTI GES MBTI
Figure 3. Data Gathering Chart.
during their regular work hours and attend that session. Each group
was read the same statement about the purpose and methodology of the
study (see Appendix B).
The testing room was quiet, well l i t , comfortable, and removed
from interruptions. The testing administrator gave each group an
overview of the entire project. As a part of the explanation the
participants were reminded that they were volunteering to partici
pate. After supervisors agreed to participate, they fille d out the
PDQ and the consent form. When this task was completed, the testing
administrator read the directions for the GES or MBTI carefully out
loud, while participants followed in their manual. Groups 1, 3, and
5 took the GES fir s t and the MBTI second. Groups 2, 4, and 6
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reversed the process. This method was employed to control for re
sponse set. After the fir s t instrument was completed, a 10-minute
break was given. When the break was finished, the directions for the
other instrument were read aloud and the participants followed the
directions in the booklet. All questions were answered and the sec
ond instrument was administered.
Groups were small enough so that the test administrator could
move about the room assisting with the testing when necessary. While
taking the GES, clarification was given regarding word meaning (Moos,
1974), but with the MBTI only word pronunciations were permitted.
The testing administrator may not interpret words (Hartzler & Myers,
1984).
For confidentiality, each participant in the study was assigned
a number. All of the material fille d out by the participants, the
PDQ, the GES, the MBTI, and the consent form, were placed in a folder
with that number on it . After each testing session, the materials
were hand scored using scoring grids provided by Consulting Psycholo
gists Press (CPP). The scoring of instruments by the researcher was
completed within 24 hours of test completion. The testing situation
was closely monitored by the researcher and all instruments were
completed. Two supervisors showed up for testing but did not f i l l
out any forms. They were not counted in the data collection. No
instruments were voided. At the conclusion of the data gathering,
all scores were transferred onto a master sheet.
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Data Interpretation
The MBTI forces a participant into choosing between dichotomous
opposites. This creates a nominal discrete dichotomy, which is a
variable indicating the presence or absence of a characteristic
(Hinkle, Wiersma, & Jurs, 1979). The MBTI functions ST, SF, NT, and
NF, or independent variables, were compared to the dependent vari
ables, the three subscales of the GES. The MBTI scores are not ex
pressed with a standard score and are not representative of a normal
population sample. MBTI data were reported as either possessing a
function or not having that function.
The raw scores on the 10 GES dimensions can be converted to a
standard score and assess three domains. In order to compare GES
dimensions to MBTI functions a decision was made to accept the fact
that a participant either had or did not have a subscale characteris
tic . This decision was determined by the participant's score in
relation to the normative mean score on that particular subscale. A
score above the mean indicates the participant had a high amount of
that characteristic, while a score at the mean or below the mean
indicates a low amount of that characteristic.
The GES subscales indicate characteristics of an ordinal nature
and the MBTI scores are reported as a nominal discrete dichotomy.
Using the perceptive and the judgment function from the MBTI as the
independent variable, each supervisor had a two letter typology com
pared to the three dimensions of the GES. The GES measures three
underlying dimensions in all groups: (1) the relationship dimension.
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(2) the personal growth or goal orientation dimension, and (3) the
system maintenance and system change dimension.
The four possible typologies from the perceptive and judgment
functions of the MBTI and the three underlying dimension scores of
the GES were placed in a matrix (see Figure 4) creating 12 cells
which were used to report correlation coefficients between MBTI sub
scales ST, SF, NF, NT, and the GES relationship dimension, personal
growth, and the system maintenance and system change dimension. The
data were analyzed using chi square and a one-way analysis of vari
ance (ANOVA) with a 3 x 4 format (see Figure 4). A two-way analysis
of variance was done to compare demographic variables to MBTI type
and GES dimensions.
GES subscale scores
Personal System maintenance Relationship growth and system change dimension dimension dimension
1-3 4-7 8-10 M ST B SF T NF I NT
Figure 4. Format for Chi Square and One-Way Analysis of Variance of MBTI Functions and GES Dimensions.
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Development of Hypotheses
No research studies were located that had investigated the rela
tionship between MBTI type and GES dimensions. However, there are
either theoretical perspectives or research findings that permit the
development of directional hypotheses. The 12 hypotheses related to
this group of supervisors are stated in directional terms based upon
the fact that the Group Environment Scale (GES) was developed to
measure the behavior of individuals within groups (Moos, 1974). In
addition, the MBTI was developed to determine Jungian personality
type (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). The expectation was that between 39%
and 48% of supervisors would be STs, between 18% and 36% would be
SFs, between 8% and 18% would be NFs, and between 8% and 24% would be
NTs. For a complete description of these data, see Table 3. After
MBTI type was determined, a respondent's mean score on the GES was
compared to his or her MBTI type score from the columns.
Sensing With Thinking (ST)
In general, STs use their five senses for purposes of perception
and thinking for making judgments about what they perceive. Type
theory indicates that they are matter of fact, practical, and imper
sonal when making decisions (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). For a de
scription of the STs' tra its see Table 2.
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Hypothesis 1
STs value Impersonal analysis of facts and show l it t l e concern
for individuals when making decisions (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). A
respondent scoring high on the relationship dimension would be ex
pected to value a harmonious relationship within the group (Moos,
1986). Given these theorized characteristics, an ST will score low
on the relationship dimension.
Hypothesis 2
STs focus on facts rather than on sharing personal information
(Myers & McCaulley, 1985). A respondent scoring high on the personal
growth dimension would value independent action, group decision mak
ing, and open discussion of members' feelings (Moos, 1986). Given
these theorized characteristics, an ST will score low on the personal
growth dimension.
Hypothesis 3
The STs value a logical, established method for solving problems
and do not value innovation or change within the work group (Myers,
1980). A person scoring high on the system change dimension would be
expected to tolerate much diversity and change in the group's activi
ties (Moos, 1986). Given these theorized characteristics, an ST will
score low on the system change dimension. For a complete description
of the subscales of this dimension see Table 4.
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Sensing With Feeling (SF)
In general an SF relies upon sensing for purposes of perception
but uses feeling for purposes of judgment. Type theory suggests that
SFs are subjective and display warmth and sympathy for people when
making decisions. SFs tend to be friendly and are more interested in
facts regarding people than facts associated with machines or things
(Myers & McCaulley, 1985). For a description of the SF tra its see
Table 2.
Hypothesis 4
SFs display warmth and sympathy for people when making deci
sions. The SF values harmonious and cohesive relationships and is
concerned about how decisions w ill affect others in the group (Myers
& McCaulley, 1985). A person scoring high on the relationship dimen
sion values involvement and cohesiveness within the group (Moos,
1974). Given these theorized characteristics, an SF will score high
on the relationship dimension.
Hypothesis 5
An SF values personal warmth and provides practical help and
service for the group (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). A person scoring
high on the personal growth dimension values autonomy in allowing the
group to make decisions (Moos, 1974). Given these theorized charac
teristics, an SF w ill have a high score on the personal growth dimen
sion.
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Hypothesis 5
SFs use facts and value the use of their five senses when making
decisions. They want precise information (Myers & Myers, 1980). A
person scoring high on the system change dimension will be able to
tolerate diversity and change in the setting of goals within the
group (Moos, 1986). Given these theorized characteristics, an SF
w ill score low on the system change dimension.
Intuition With Feeling (NF)
In general, NFs prefer to use their intuition (N) over their
sensing for the purpose of perception. These individuals use their
feelings to make decisions about what they have seen. NFs are usu
ally interested in developing communication within the group and are
enthusiastic and warm individuals (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). They
are generally considered excellent leaders in group settings (Keirsey
& Bates, 1984). For a description of NF tra its see Table 2.
Hypothesis 7
NFs value a strong cohesive and harmonious relationship between
the leader and the group members, and they encourage all members to
express their viewpoint (Keirsey & Bates, 1984). A person who scores
high on the relationship dimension values cohesive and supportive
relationships between group members (Moos, 1974). Given these theo
rized characteristics, an NF will have a high score on the relation
ship dimension.
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Hypothesis 8
The NF leader encourages independent action by members to con
tribute their knowledge and personal information, and allows for
disagreement among members (Keirsey & Bates, 1984). The NF, espe
c ia lly the ENFJ, is considered the naturally democratic leader. A
person who scores high on the personal growth dimension values allow
ing the group members to be self-sufficient and autonomous in making
group decisions (Moos, 1974). Given these theorized characteristics,
an NF will have a high score on the personal growth dimension.
Hypothesis 9
An NF's best chance for success involves the unfolding of possi
b ilitie s , especially in setting goals for people. NFs are normally
comfortable with change (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). A person who
scores high on the system change dimension values the ab ility to
change (Moos, 1974). This dimension of the GES is characterized by
change within the group and NFs are normally comfortable with change
because they are regularly seeking possibilities in new situations.
An NF is concerned about the complexities of communication and is
enthusiastic and insightful about group change (Myers & McCaulley,
1985). Given these theorized characteristics, an NF will score high
on the system change dimension.
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Intuition With Thinking (NT)
In general, NTs focus on possibilities and find the best use of
their abilities in theoretical and technical types of developments
(Myers & McCaulley, 1985). NTs use their intuition (N) to perceive
what is occurring and their thinking (T) to decide what they will do
about what they have perceived.
Hypothesis 10
NTs value an impersonal attitude in analyzing the facts and
relate well to theoretical and technical developments. NTs do not
place a high value on the feelings of group members when making deci
sions (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). A person who scores high on the
relationship dimension values cohesive and harmonious relations among
group members (Moos, 1974). Given these theorized characteristics,
an NT will have a low score on the relationship dimension.
Hypothesis 11
NTs value practical, concrete facts and impersonal analysis of
the facts (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). A person who scores high on the
personal growth dimension values allowing the group to be self-
sufficient or autonomous in decision making (Moos, 1974). Given
these theorized characteristics, an NT w ill have a low score on the
personal growth dimension.
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Hypothesis 12
NTs value logical processes and are normally skilled at seeing
the possibilities in a given situation. They do well when there is a
clear set of rules for the group to follow (Myers & Myers, 1980). A
person who scores high on the system change dimension values the
ab ility to change with some degree of formal group rules and sanc
tions (Moos, 1986). Given these theorized characteristics, the NT
will have a high score on the system change dimension.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship
between Jungian typology as determined by the functions on the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI, Myers & McCaulley, 1985) and the partic
ipative management behaviors of a population of fir s t-lin e supervi
sors as determined by the Group Environment Scale (GES, Moos, 1974).
This chapter includes information and data relating the study find
ings to the hypotheses. Following are the general study hypotheses
tested:
1. There is a difference between the MBTI functions sensing
with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition with feeling
(NF), and intuition with thinking (NT) and the mean score on the
relationship dimension of the GES.
2. There is be a difference between the MBTI functions sensing
with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition with feeling
(NF), and intuition with thinking (NT) and the mean score on the
personal growth dimension of the GES.
3. There is a difference between the MBTI functions sensing
with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling (SF), intuition with feeling
(NF), and intuition with thinking (NT) and the mean score of the
system maintenance and system change dimension of the GES.
69
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There were also some expectations regarding the direction each
hypothesis would follow.
This chapter is divided into an introduction, a description of
the population and instruments, presentation of the data, findings
for each hypothesis, and a summary.
Description of the Population and Instruments
Seventy-six fir s t-lin e supervisors from an engine plant of a
large worldwide automotive corporation were tested in groups ranging
in size from 5 to 18 respondents. Leadership behavior was determined
by analysis of scores on the three dimensions of the GES. There are
10 subscales of the GES, which are organized into three dimensions, a
relationship dimension, a personal growth dimension, and a system
maintenance dimension. Participants in the study were considered
high or low on each dimension depending on whether the score on that
dimension was higher or lower than the mean for that dimension.
Supervisors were defined as persons who directly supervise an
hourly person. The total population as of January 1, 1990, was 126.
Before the data were collected, 13 supervisors were transferred to
other plants or were no longer supervising hourly employees. Two
supervisors refused to f i l l out any part of the survey and 35 were
unable to attend due to work pressures or vacation. An effort was
made to reschedule anyone who missed the scheduled time.
All respondents completed a Personal Data Questionnaire (PDQ),
which provided some specific demographic data used for analysis. A
copy of the PDQ is in Appendix B. The data in Table 6 describe more
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fu lly the characteristics of this sample. Ninety-seven percent of
those surveyed were males and 89% were white. The average age was 47
years and the average educational level of a supervisor was roughly a
sophomore in college. The average length of company service was 25.7
years, and nearly all respondents (98%) had some prior experience as
an hourly employee.
Table 6
Analysis of Demographic Data From the MBTI, GES, and PDQ
Number/X Percentage
Male 74 97%
Female 2 3%
Length of company service Ave. 25.7 yrs.
Length of service as supervisor Ave. 14.5 yrs.
Length of service as supervisor in department Ave. 7.8 yrs.
Race: Black 6 8%
Hispanic 2 3%
White 68 89%
Highest grade completed Ave. 13.5 yrs. of school
Age 47 yrs.
The MBTI classifies respondents using a four letter code which
depicts one of 16 types. Each classification is determined by a
forced choice dichotomy. The sample, _n = 76, had a far greater
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number of introverts (I) than was expected (see Table 7). In the
general population a normal expectation is that 25% of the population
will be introverts (Myers, 1962a). In studies of supervisors re
viewed by Myers and McCaulley (1985), introverts comprised 46% of the
population ji = 52 and 44% of the population ji = 3,678. Fifty-six
percent of the supervisors in this study were introverts (see Table
7).
The number of sensing (S) and intuitive (N) individuals was con
sistent with a prior study of supervisors, = 52, and somewhat high
er than a sample of administrators, managers, and supervisors £ =
3,678. The number of sensing individuals in the study was 6% higher
than estimates for sensing types in the general population.
The population studied was 97% males and 60% of the males in the
general population are expected to be thinking (T) types, while 65%
of the females in the general population are expected to be feeling
(F) types (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). Seventy-eight percent of the
sample were thinking types.
In the population studied 75% were judging (J) types, which is
somewhat higher than the two groups of supervisors reported by Myers
and McCaulley (1985). (See Table 7.) In the general population
about 55% of the respondents will be judging types (Myers &
McCaulley, 1985). In the two groups, ji = 52, 67% were J and 33% were
P, while the group of supervisors, = 3,678, 68% were J and 32% were
P.
Information about MBTI types is most frequently presented in a
format called a "type table." Type tables, specifically the
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Table 7
Comparison of Study Distribution of MBTI Types Against General Population Expectations
Administrators, managers, and First-lin e firs t-lin e Sample Percentage supervisors supervi sors Function (n = 76)3 in general {n = 52)C (n = 3,678)d population estimate^ % JI % n %
E 34 44 75 28 54 2,060 56
I 42 56 25 24 46 1,618 44
S 62 81 75 44 85 2,133 58
N 14 19 25 8 15 1,545 42
T 60 78 27 56 2,354 64 Males 60 Females 35
F 16 22 25 46 1,324 36 Males 40 Females 65
J 57 75 55 35 67 2,501 68
P 19 25 45 17 33 1,177 32
^Population sample this study (ji = 76). *^Estimates from general population (Myers, 1962a). ^First-line supervisors reported by Myers and McCaulley, 1985 (ji = 52). ^Administrators, managers, and super visors reported by Myers and McCaulley, 1985 (n = 3,678).
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normative tables, provide base data for comparison against other
populations (Macdaid, McCaulley, & Kainz, 1986). (See Appendix E.)
Presentation of Data
The data were analyzed using a number of statistics including
chi square, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and a two-way
analysis of variance.
Several analyses of variance were done to determine if such
variables as age, experience, or educational level had any relation
ship to participants' MBTI scores and whether these demographic var
iables were related to the three GES dimensions (see Table 6). No
significant findings were detected.
The function scores on the MBTI were determined by administering
the MBTI Form G. In this study scores were determined by hand scor
ing the instruments, using stencils provided by Consulting Psycholo
gists Press (CPP). The mean score on the relationship dimension of
the GES Form R was determined from the sum of the cohesion, leader
support, and expressiveness subscales of the instrument. The mean
score on the personal growth dimension was determined from the sum of
the independence, task orientation, self-discovery, and anger and
aggression subscales. The mean score on the system maintenance di
mension was determined from the sum of the order and organization,
leader control, and innovation subscales.
Based upon normative data from the GES, those respondents at or
below the mean were low on that dimension. If the score was above
the mean, they were considered high on that dimension. The decision
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to use the mean score on the GES was made due to the small population
size (jn = 76), I f the group was normally distributed, about 50% of
each MBTI type would be high and 50% would be low on any GES dimen
sion. This technique was employed in hopes of detecting s ta tis tic a l
ly significant differences between GES mean dimension scores of the
supervisors and the normative data available on the instrument.
Findings
The numbers of each MBTI type with high or low scores on the
three GES dimensions are reported in Tables 8, 9, and 10. There were
only two NFs in the population sampled, and they do not appear in the
table nor are they included in the statistical tests. Using chi
square, the relationship between MBTI personality type and GES dimen
sion scores is reported. None of the differences was statistically
significant (see Tables 8, 9, and 10).
The same data for MBTI types and GES dimension scores were
analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Again, no significant
findings were discovered. See Tables 11, 12, and 13 for ANOVA re
sults.
The expectation for Hypothesis 1 was that an ST would be low on
the relationship dimension. There were 48 STs and only 17 were low
on this dimension and their mean score was not in the expected direc
tion. The chi-square value for the hypothesis was 2.13 (2 degrees of
freedom) and was not significant (£ = .46). Also see Tables 11, 12,
and 13 for ANOVA results which indicate similar findings.
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Table 8
Number of Supervisors Categorized ST, SF, NF, and NT Scoring High or Low on the Relationship Dimension
Frequency of MBTI function type
ST SF NF NT
Relationship dimension Low 17 8 0 5 score category High 31 6 0 7
Note. x^(relationship dimension) = 2.13, ^ = 2, £ = .3447 NS. NFs (£ = 2) not computed for ANOVA or chi square (x^).
Table 9
Number of Supervisors Categorized ST, SF, NF, and NT Scoring High or Low on the Personal Growth Dimension
Frequency of MBTI function type
ST SF NF NT
Personal growth dimension Low 24 10 0 6 score category High 24 4 0 6
Note. x^(personal growth dimension) = 1.60, = 2, £ = .46, NS. NFs (£ = 2) not computed for ANOVA or chi square (x )•
The expectation for Hypothesis 2 was that an ST would be low on
the personal growth dimension. There were 48 STs and 24 were low and
24 were high. The mean score was not in the expected direction. The
chi-square value for the hypothesis was 1.60 (2 degrees of freedom)
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Table 10
Number of Supervisors Categorized ST, SF, NF, and NT Scoring High or Low on the System Maintenance and System Change Dimension
Frequency of MBTI function type
ST SF NF NT
System maintenance dimension Low 29 7 0 5 score category High 19 7 0 7
Note. x^(System maintenance and system change dimension) = 2.8, ^ = 2, £ = .25, NS. NFs (£ = 2) not computed for ANOVA or chi square (x^).
Table 11
Comparison of MBTI Functions ST, SF, NF, and NT and GES Relationship Dimension Using ANOVA
Sum of Mean £ F Source ^ squares squares ratio prob.
Between groups 3 8.9103 2.9701 0.9976 .3990
Within groups 72 214.3704 2.9774
Total 75 223.2807
and was not significant (£ = .46). See Table 12 for ANOVA results
which indicate similar findings.
The expectation for Hypothesis 3 was that an ST would have a low
score on the system maintenance and system change dimension. There
were 29 STs low on this dimension and 19 STs high on this dimension.
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Table 12
Comparison of MBTI Functions ST, SF, NF, and NT and GES Personal Growth Dimension Using ANOVA
Sum of Mean £ Source squares squares ratio prob.
Between groups 3 1.7224 0.5741 0.4528 .7161
Within groups 72 91.2999 1.2681
Total 75 93.0222
Table 13
Comparison of MBTI Functions ST, SF, NF, and NT and GES System Maintenance and System Change Dimension Using ANOVA
Sum of Mean £ £ Source squares squares ratio prob.
Between groups 3 9.2591 3.0864 1.6460 .1863
Within groups 72 135.0026 1.8750
Total 75 144.2617
Even though the relationship was in the expected direction, the rela
tionship was not significant. The chi-square value for this hypothe
sis was 2.8 (2 degrees of freedom) and was not significant (£ = .25).
Also, see Table 13 for ANOVA results which indicate similar findings.
The expectation for Hypothesis 4 was that an SF would have a
high score on the relationship dimension. There were 14 SFs, of whom
8 were low and 6 were high. The relationship was not in the expected
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direction. The chi-square value for the hypothesis was 2.13 (2 de
grees of freedom) and was not significant (£ = .46). See Table 11
for ANOVA results which indicate similar findings.
The expectation for Hypothesis 5 was that an SF would have a
high score on the personal growth dimension. Only 4 out of 14 were
high on this dimension and the scores were not in the expected direc
tion. The value of chi square for the hypothesis was 1,60 (2 degrees
of freedom) and was not significant (£ = .46). See Table 13 for
ANOVA results which indicate similar findings.
The expectation for Hypothesis 6 was that an SF would have a low
score on the system maintenance dimension. The 14 respondents did
not report scores in the expected direction, 7 were high and 7 were
low. The chi-square value for the hypothesis was 2.8 (2 degrees of
freedom) and was not significant (£ = .25). See Table 12 for ANOVA
results which indicate similar findings.
The results of Hypotheses 7, 8, and 9 are not reported due to
the small number (£ = 2) that reported the NF type. A recommendation
is made in Chapter V regarding this concern.
The expectation for Hypothesis 10 was that an NT would score low
on the relationship dimension. Of the 12 NT respondents, 5 reported
low scores. The results were not in the expected direction. The
chi-square value for the hypothesis was 2.13 (2 degrees of freedom)
and was not significant (£ = .34). See Table 11 for ANOVA results
which indicate similar findings.
The expectation for Hypothesis 11 was that an NT would have a
low score on the personal growth dimension. Of the 12 respondents, 6
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were low and 6 were high. The results were not in the expected di
rection. The chi-square value for the hypothesis was 1.60 (2 degrees
of freedom) and was not significant (£ = .46). See Table 13 for
ANOVA results which indicate similar findings.
The expectation for Hypothesis 12 was that an NT would have a
high score on system maintenance dimension. Of the 12 respondents, 7
were high and in the expected direction. The chi-square value for
the hypothesis was 2.8 (2 degrees of freedom) and was not significant
(^ = .25). See Table 12 for ANOVA results which indicate similar
findings.
Summary
All study hypotheses were rejected. There was not a s ta tis ti
cally significant difference between the four MBTI personality type
functions and the dimensions of the GES. The conclusions from the
data analysis and recommendations are presented in Chapter V.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This study was conducted to determine the relationship between
Jung's psychological type as determined by the functions of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI, Myers & McCaulley, 1985) and the
leadership behaviors of a group of supervisors. The Group Environ
ment Scale (GES, Moos, 1974) was used as a measure of leader behav
iors in the work group. The primary objective of the study was to
determine the personality type that would be most able to use and to
encourage others to use participative leader behaviors. A secondary
objective was to use this information to help supervisors better
understand the changes by developing a training program to learn the
necessary participative behaviors and to have the company use the
information in selecting and developing more effective teams. These
secondary objectives would help both the supervisor and the company
better understand the changes that were occurring. This chapter
contains a discussion regarding the findings and recommendations.
There were no significant relationships between MBTI person
a lity functions sensing with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling
(SF), intuition with feeling (NF), and intuition with thinking (NT)
and the three dimensions of the GES at the .01 level. The hypotheses
were rejected. Personality type determined by the MBTI functions did
81
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not have any significant relationship to leadership behavior deter
mined by the GES dimension.
Discussion
Overall there is no support for any of the hypotheses. There
are several explanations or interpretations of the findings. It is
possible that due to measurement error the tests did not measure the
intended characteristics and behaviors. Given the cautions taken in
selecting the instruments and conducting the data gathering, this
explanation is unlikely. Several other reasons may have contributed
to the findings.
1. No one has attempted to determine the relationship of MBTI
personality functions and the three dimensions of the GES as a meas
ure of participative leader behaviors. This study was an effort to
do so. The MBTI has been widely used as a means for improving commu
nications, teamwork, and leadership (McCaulley, 1981) and the GES
measures the characteristics of task oriented groups such as a work
group or team with a firs t-lin e supervisor (Moos, 1986). While there
is nothing wrong with the instruments, there is the possibility that
these two instruments do not relate to each other in any meaningful
way.
2. During the data collection, some intervening factors may
have influenced the participants' responses, especially on the GES.
A number of significant events took place at the time of the study.
These included: (a) the transfer of a very popular plant manager,
(b) a great many supervisors le ft the company due to a reduction in
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personnel, (c) the transfer of many firs t-lin e supervisors to other
fa c ilitie s , (d) the closing of several other plants on the site, (e)
extensive overtime demands on the remaining supervisors, and (f) an
announcement was made that the plant being studied was scheduled to
close in 1992.
In this study there was a real possibility that the type of
leadership behavior employed by the firs t-lin e supervisor was deter
mined more by their need to survive the environmental factors rather
than by expressing their true preference in making decisions. This
factor may have had a far greater influence on the results than could
be controlled for in the tests or by the testing procedure.
3. While correct testing procedures were followed when adminis
tering the instruments, the results may be flawed. All participants
in the study were volunteers and the possibility exists that volun
teers are different from nonvolunteers (Isaac & Michael, 1985).
Another problem was the small sample (ji = 76). In general, the
larger the sample the smaller the sampling error (Isaac & Michael,
1985).
4. The fourth factor which may have influenced the results are
the tests themselves. While the MBTI has accepted validity and r e li
a b ility , no psychological instrument can always accurately predict
personality type (Myers, 1962b). There are factors which may affect
the results on the MBTI; they are: (a) measurement error, (b) stages
of type development of the supervisors taking the tests, and (c)
environmental factor that interferes with the person expressing true
preferences (Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 84
There is the possibility that measurement error played some part
in the fact that no relationship was found between MBTI functions and
GES dimensions. The population sampled, however, was fa irly repre
sentative of other groups of supervisors who have taken the GES and
the MBTI with the exception that there was a far greater number of
introverts ( I) than was expected from a review of the number i f in
troverts in the general population and other groups of supervisors
(Myers & McCaulley, 1985).
Type development is a dynamic concept, not static. Given the
age and educational level of the work force, it is reasonable to
assume that this group is representative of normal type development.
Of real concern in this study were the environmental factors
which changed dramatically in the late 1980s. Several plants located
on the site were closed, many supervisors le ft the company or were
outplaced to other fa c ilitie s within the company, and extensive over
time for the remaining supervisors was common.
The remaining supervisors who responded were a homogeneous group
in many respects. The great majority had worked on the line (98%),
they were predominantly white males (89%), with 26 years of seniori
ty, and more than half were STs (63%). The respondents in all lik e
lihood were excellent at supervising a small area but were uncomfort
able accepting the many changes and challenges that participative
leadership brought.
There was a distinct possibility that the environmental factors
had a marked influence on the results. There is no information
available on the impact these factors had on the GES, but it must be
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 85
assumed that these factors influenced the responses in a negative
fashion since the purpose of the instrument is to measure the social
and environmental conditions of groups (Moos, 1986). These super
visors were under tremendous pressure and stress to survive the envi
ronment .
5, The fifth factor which may have influenced the results was
the low number of NFs. The NF personality type was reported in only
2 of the 76 cases. In general, assembly line work in plants, includ
ing supervisory work, demands ST type behaviors. Yet there was the
expectation that enough of each of the four types would be identified
for statistical analysis. The low number of NFs did not allow for
any statistical comparison between NFs and the other three person
a lity types in relation to their scores on the three GES dimensions.
In reviewing literature for this study, there was an expectation that
the sample of 113 supervisors would generate from 10 to 22 super
visors in the NF category. Not only were the NFs low in absolute
terms but to other groups that were logically assumed to be similar.
This expectation was based upon studies reviewed by Myers and
McCaulley (1985) (see Table 1). The lack of NFs generates several
possible explanations:
1. During the early 1980s, many younger supervisors, both male
and female, were recruited from the m ilitary and colleges. They were
hired through company sponsored assessment centers; and when business
conditions worsened in the late 1980s, they were the firs t to leave.
Many took the buy-out, some returned to school or to the m ilitary,
and many were outplaced. There is the possibility that some of these
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 86
supervisors were NFs. There were well over 100 supervisors who le ft.
2. NFs are not rewarded by the system and quickly leave to seek
other types of work in the organization,
3. The system does not allow NFs in because the work demands ST
type behavior. This could indicate that the management system in the
plant studied has not changed to become more participative, yet this
conclusion is very speculative and not supported by statistical data.
Conclusions
The environment in which the research was conducted was ex
tremely uncertain. All the subjects were confronting job loss, an
uncertain economic situation, and an almost certain closing of the
plant. Although each person voluntarily agreed to participate in the
research, the environment may have prevented them from reporting
their true preferences for personality type; and in particular, the
environment could have prevented them from accurately assessing and
reporting their own leadership behaviors. The supervisors may have
reported preferences for the MBTI and GES which seemed "safe" to
them. In some instances one alternative is more acceptable socially
within the group than is another alternative, and this is referred to
as the social desirability response set (Isaac & Michael, 1985).
There are very limited data about the interaction between the
MBTI and the GES. Both of these instruments have been found to be
reliable measures of behavior but were possibly not robust enough to
overcome the environment.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 87
From the 3 general study hypotheses, 12 directional hypotheses
were developed. These hypotheses were developed in order to predict
from a theoretical and assumptive basis the expected results when
comparing an ST to an SF to an NF to an NT on the relationship dimen
sion, personal growth dimension, and system maintenance and system
change dimension of the GES. The curious fact is that data from 10
of the 12 directional hypotheses suggest a trend away from the
direction predicted. At this point there is no statistical evidence
of any relationship between the MBTI functions and the GES dimen
sions.
Recommendations
This study determined that there were no significant statistical
relationships between the four MBTI types and the three dimensions of
the GES. One of the purposes of this research was to generate
greater awareness and understanding of the role of psychological type
and the supervisors' a b ility to perform their job using a more par
ticipative approach. In spite of preparing a careful research design
based upon a clear strategy, sound logic, and conducting the field
work in a responsible manner, the hypotheses were not supported.
There are several lessons to be learned.
Future Research
Researchers must pay careful attention to the environment to
insure that participants can objectively respond to the questions on
each of the instruments. From the time the study was conceived to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 88
the data collection phase, many environmental factors had worsened
and the following recommendations should be considered for future
research.
1. There is a need for more research on the relationship
between the MBTI and the GES. The MBTI has acceptable re lia b ility
and validity and this instrument has a vast body of statistical data
to support its use as a measure of Jungian personality type. The GES
has had acceptable re lia b ility , yet there is no certainty that the
GES is a valid indicator of participative leadership behaviors. A
simple procedure to measure the construct validity of the GES would
be to compare it with other tests that purport to measure participa
tive leadership. Greater confidence in the validity of the GES is a
necessity.
2. There is a need to develop an instrument that helps to iden
t if y the behaviors needed by participative managers. Very l it t l e
information has been made available on the study of leader behaviors.
Some form of ethnographic observation would be helpful in identifying
appropriate behaviors or constructs. Possibly a good start would be
to better identify the major constructs of participative leaders'
behaviors and then to do observations of leaders who are perceived as
participative.
3. There is a need to continue to study the theory of leader
ship, especially the relationship of leaders and followers in deter
mining what makes for a successful participative decision-making team
(Burns, 1985). This statement suggests that leadership is a struc
ture of action that engages both leaders and followers to varying
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 89
degrees of activity in order to solve problems. Is participation in
decision making by the whole team (leader and followers) the best way
to get the desired results?
4. In order to test the conceptual hypotheses of a relationship
between personality type and leadership behavior, an additional study
is recommended. With so few NFs, no statistical comparisons were
possible. There was an assumption that NFs would be the most partic
ipative leaders, especially ENFJs (Keirsey & Bates, 1984). Another
study could duplicate this study but with a larger number of supervi
sors. After type had been determined, an equal number of supervisors
(30-40) who prefer sensing with thinking (ST), sensing with feeling
(SF), intuition with feeling (NF), or intuition with thinking (NT)
would be randomly selected and given the GES. This method would
allow for a full statistical comparison between personality on the
MBTI function types and leadership behavior as determined by GES
dimension.
5. I f a replication study is to be undertaken, some considera
tion should be given to using the same instruments in an industry
that is less troubled. This study could be done in the computer
industry, in a plant setting other than automotive, or in the service
industry such as in a hospital setting.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDICES
90
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix A
Comparison of Instruments Measuring Personality Type and Organizational and Interpersonal Congruence
91
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ■DCD O Q. C g Q.
■D CD COMPARISON OF PERSONALITY INSTRUMENTS TITLE MBTI CPI SLIP EPPS 16PF MMPI C/) C/) AUTHOR(S) I.B. MYERS/ HARRISON/ J, SINGER/ A.L EDWARDS R.B. CATTELL STARKE/HATHAWAY/ K.C. BRIGGS GOUGH M. LOOMIS MCKINLEY PUBLISHER CPP CPP CPP THE PSYCHO INSTITUTE FOR UNIVERSITY LOGICAL CORP. PERSONALITY/ CD ABILITY TEST. 8 COST-TEST 25 - $8.25 25 - $20.00 25-$12.50 25-$21.00 25 - $22.00 10-$9.85 ANSWER SHEET 50-$17.50 50 - $7.50 50 - $20.00 50 - $20.00 50-S I 0.00 25 - $5.95 REPORT 50 - $8.00 5 0 - $8.00 25 - $23.00 N/A N/A 25 - $5.95 USE NORMAL LEADERSHIP LEADER ASSESS COGNI COUNSELING/ COUNSELING/ PERSONALITY PERSONALITY STYLE SELECTION TIVE STYLE RESEARCH RESEARCH ASSESSMENT TIME 20-30 MIN. (L-M) AVE. 45 MIN. (M) 30-40 MIN. (M) 45 MIN. (M) 45-60 MIN. (H) 60 MIN. + (H) RELIABILITY MODERATE MODERATE N/A MODERATE MODERATE MODERATE 3. THEORETICAL/ THEORETICAL EMPIRICAL THEORETICAL THEORETICAL THEORETICAL EMPIRICAL 3 " CD EMPIRICAL READING LEVEL 7TH GRADE 8TH GRADE N/A HIGH SCHOOL+ 7TH GRADE AVE. 6TH GRADE "OCD AGE 12 + 14+ HIGH SCHOOL + 16 + 16 + 18+ O SCORING SERVICE YY N/A Y Y Y Q. C LATEST REVISION 1977 1987 1984 1953 1986 1989 a Y o TRAINING REG. ? Y N/A Y Y Y 3 CONSTRUCT "O IvALIDITIES Y Y Y Y o Y Y Y = Yes CD Q. N = No N/A « Not Available
Low = 0 -2 0 Min. ■ D Moderate = 2 0 -4 0 Min. CD High = 4 0 - 6 0 Min.
C/) C/)
VO ro ■o I I
% PERSONALITY INSTRUMENTS REPORTED RELIABILITY SCORES INSTRUMENT PUBLISHER RANGE AVERAGE TYPE OF RELIABILITY Ç2C/) REPORTED . 3o' CPI CPP .78 TO .93 (1) MEDIAN CORRELATIONS FROM .88 ABBREV. FORM ON STANDARD SCALES FROM 8 DATA BANK
c 5 ' EPPS HARCOURT .40 TO .90 BRACE & ON 53 SCALES N/A HOMOGENEITY 3 JANOVICH (2) COEFFICIENTS . CD
C p. MBTI CPP .70 TO .94 ON N/A SPLIT-HALF REL OF El. SN&JP INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
CD .44 FOR TF (3) SPEARMAN/BROWN PROPHECY -o O FORMULA/GUTTMAN LOWER- cÛ. BOUND REL. a o 3 MMPI NCS .83 TO .87 .83 FOR TEST-RETEST ■o (PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL o SAMPLE) (5) INTROVERSION (NORMAL SAMPLE) CD Û. (4)
O 16 PF IPAT .45 TO .93 MEDIAN TEST-RETEST c ON FORMS A&B .81 ■o CD .67 TO .86 MEDIAN TEST-RETEST ON FORMS C&D .78 (6) (/) o' SUP CPP N/A N/A N/A 3
CO CO SOURCES OF RELIABiLITIES UBXT PAGE CD "O O Q. C g Q.
■D Comparison of Instruments Measuring Organizational and Interpersonal Congruence CD
O)C/) T itle GES(b) ERI(8) FIRO-B POM(a) WES o" 3 Author(s) R. H. Moos/ G. E. McKech W. Schultz J. Hall R. Moos 0 B. Humphrey (NIC) 3 CD Publisher CPP CPP CPP Teleometrics CPP 8 International Cost—Test 2 5 -5 9 .0 0 25—$10.50 2 5 -$ 7 .0 0 Ea.—$4.50 25—$9.00 3" Answer Sheet 50—$6.00 50—$25.00 25—$12.00 N/A 50—$6.00 Report 50—$4.00 50—$25.00 N/A N/A 50—$4.00 1 3 Use Establish Measures Measures Surveys the Establish CD person and physical and human impressions person and environment psychological relationships and reactions environment congruence environment congruence 3. 3 " CD Time 15-20 min. Ave. 30 min. 30-40 min. N/A 15-20 min. (M) (M) (M) CD No lim it No lim it No lim it No lim it ■D O Q. Reliability C Average N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A a O 3 Theoretical/ Theoretical Empirical Theoretical "D Empirical Theoretical Theoretical O Reading level N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
CD Age Different scale Adults High school + N/A D ifferent Q. per group scale per group
Scoring service Y YY N/A Y ■D CD Latest revision 1986 N/A 1987 1984 1974
Training req.î N N/A N N/A N if)C/) Construct validities Y N/A N/A N/A N/A
Low = 0-20 min. Moderate = 20-40 min. High = 40 + min. N/A = not available. 7D ■DCD O Q. C g Q.
■D CD ORGANIZATIONAL & INTERPERSONAL INSTRUMENTS REPORTED RELIABILITY SCORES C/) C/) INSTRUMENT PUBLISHER RANGE AVERAGE TYPE OF RELIABILITY FIROB CPP .70 ALL scales N/A TEST-RETEST (7) ERI CPP N/A N/A N/A 8 GROUP CPP .65 -.87 (8) N/A ci' CRONBACH'S ENVIRONMENT .62 -.86 (9) .70 TEST-RETEST SCALE (GES) RELIABLITIES 3 CD COEFFICIENT ALPHA WORK CPP .69 —.86 N/A TEST-RETEST ENVIRONMENT .69-.83 (1 MO.) 3. 1 TO 12 MONTHS 3 " CD SCALE (WES) .51 -.63 (12 MO.) (10) CD ■D PERSONAL OPINION TELEOMETRICS N/A N/A N/A O Q. MATRIX (POM) INTERNATIONAL C a NOTE: MODERATE DEGREE OF SUBSCALE INTERCORRELATION ON GES BETWEEN "EXPRESSIVENESS' SUBSCALE O 3 .51 TO 'INNOVATION/ AUTHORS CLAIM THESE ACCOUNT FOR 10% OF THE SUBSCALE VARIANCE. ■D O
CD Q.
O C "O CD
C/) o' 3
cnVO 96
Sources of R e liab ility Data
1. Walsh, J. A. (1972). Review in 7th Mental Measurements Year book. 0. K. Buros (Ed.).
2. Goldberg, L. R. (1985). Review in 9th Mental Measurements Yearbook. J. V. Mitchell (Ed.).
3. Myers, I. S., & McCaulley, M. H. (1985). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Manual.
4. Strieker, L. J., & Ross, J. (1963). Psychological Reports, Vol. 14, 623-643.
5. Hathaway, S. R., & McKinley, J. C. (1943). Minnesota Multi- Phasic Inventory Manual (Reviewed 1970).
6. Zuckerman, M. (1985). Review in 8th Mental Measurements Year book. J. V. Mitchell (Ed.).
7. Bloxom, B. (1972). Review in 7th Mental Measurements Yearbook. 0. K. Buros (Ed.).
8. Nezu, A. M. (1989). Review in 10th Mental Measurements Year book. J. C. Conaley & J. J. Kramer (Eds.).
9. Illback, R. J. (1985). Review in 9th Mental Measurements Year book. J. V. Mitchell (Ed.).
10. Konungo, R. N. (1985). Review in 9th Mental Measurements Year book. J. V. Mitchell (Ed.).
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix B
Letters to Participants, Consent Forms, Personal Data Questionnaire, Script of Group Meetings, Outline of Group Meetings, and Follow-up Correspondence
97
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 98
Date: December 18, 1989
Subject: STUDY OF FIRST LINE SUPERVISORS
To: All Superintendents
Per our conversation of 12/13/89, I am confirming a meeting on 1/3/90 at 7:30 a.m. in the Manufacturing Conference Room. Each of you is to select three first line supervisors to participate in the pilot study. The meeting is expected to last between 2 and 1/2 and 3 hours.
Would you please give a copy of this memo to each supervisor you select. There is no preparation needed on their part and they do not need to bring anything. If you have any questions, please contact the Personnel Office at 7-0573.
Jim Conlen
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 99
May 15, 1990
Dear Supervisor:
I am writing to ask for your voluntary participation in my dissertation research. As many of you know, I am studying first line supervisors personality type and their management behaviors. I will be using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to determine type and the Group Environment Scale to assess management behaviors in a work group. I am contacting all first line supervisors of hourly employes in your plant to complete the MBTI, the GES and a short informational survey. This data will be kept in strict confidence with no individual results being identified. If you wish, I will personally provide feedback on the instruments to you.
The MBTI is a proven measure that indicates a preferred type for an individual. There are not "good" or "bad" types. All types are valuable and make a unique contribution to a work group. The MBTI is one of the most widely used instruments of its kind and can provide information regarding training needs, teamwork and communication within organizations. The purpose of the GES is to measure the climate of a work group and has been in use since the 1970's.
You have been scheduled to attend an informational and data collection meeting on ______;______At the meeting you will be given an explanation of the project, of the instruments and how the information will be used. The meeting will take place in the Plant 9 Training Area (Conference Room 1) on the mezzanine.
I look forward to your assistance with my data collection. All participants will meet in groups of 25-30 people. Each instrument will be thoroughly explained and you will have an opportunity to ask questions when the explanation is completed. A follow-up session will be scheduled for anyone who wishes more information about personality type.
Sincerely,
James J. Conlen Graduate Student Western Michigan University Home Phone (313) 625-7445 Work Phone (313) 377-6567
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 100
♦PLEASE COMPLETE BEFORE TAKING THE MYER-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI) AND THE GROUP ENVIRONMENT SCALE (GES) CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN MBTI & GES RESEARCH
If you have decided to voluntarily participate in the MBTI and GES research please indicate your preference for results by placing an "X" by the appropriate option below:
OPTION 1______I wish to participate purely on a research basis and do not desire feedback on my individual results. I understand that a copy of the final report will be made available for review.
OPTION 2______I would like to obtain feedback on my individual results. I also understand that the researcher will contact me to arrange a mutually convenient time and place to review results and provide in terpretation. A trained colleague may be asked to assist when necessary. If you have selected the first option please complete all data on the answer sheets but exclude your name to retain anonymity.
If you have selected the second option please fill in your name on both answer sheet and complete the information that follows on this form:
I (print name)______request feedback on my individual scores and I also understand that this data will be kept strictly confidential.
(signature)______(date)______
(phone)______
If you have any questions please contact me on (313) 625-7445 or (313) 377-6567. Thank you for your assistance.
James J. Conlen
...... 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 101
PARTICIPANT SURVEY
PERSONAL DATA QUESTIONNAIRE
INSTRUCTIONS : Place an (x ) next to the item that best describes your response to each question. In order to correctly score the MTBI it is necessary to know the participants sex. (Previous studies indicate that men and women respond differently on parts of the MTBI).
Your Name______Superintendent______Dept. #______
Length of company service ______as of Jan. 1, 1990. Please indicate in years
Length of company service as a first-line supervisor____ Please indicate in years
Male______Female______
Racial background; (Check one only)
Black White
Hispanic Asian_
American Indian Other
Are you a member of any Foreman's or Manager's Associa tion? Yes___^ No____
Only group results will be published. Individuals will not be indentified. If you wish to have feedback on the results from the MTBI and the GES make sure that you place your name on the score sheets. I will be happy to meet you to discuss your results. The meeting will be confidential and only you will know your individual scores.
If you have any questions, please contact me at work (313) 377-6567. Thank you for your cooperation regarding the above.
James Conlen
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 102
Script of Group Meeting
INTRODUCE MYSELF- NAME 2 min. Model Introduction CURRENTPOSITION For Participants LENGTH OF COMPANY SERVICE HOBBIES WELCOME and thank you for attendance 3-5 min. -bathrooms, and refreshments - Read Following statement : This statement wii be read to all groups so that each group will have the same knowledge of the study. I know that you have been encouraged by your' immediate supervisor to attend this session today and I want to thank you for your presence. I want you to know that your participation in the data gathering for my research project on First line supervisor is critical to the success of the project and is totally voluntary. If you choose not to participate,do not fill out any of the forms, no one will be given that information. If you fill out the forms and the instruments and later decide not to participate simply call me at (313) 377-6557 and tell me to delete your data by the number from my data bank.' If you have any questions, please don’ t hesitate to call me. As many of you know, I am studying first line supervisors personality type and their management behaviors. I will be using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to determine type and the Group Environment Scale to assess management behaviors in a work group.I am contacting all first line supervisors of hourly employees in your plant to complete the MBTI, the GES and a short informational survey. This data will be kept in strict confidence with no individuai results being identified. If you wish, I will personally provide feedback on the instruments to you. The MBTI is a proven measure that indicates a preferred type for an individual. There are no "good" or "bad" types. All types are valuable and make a unique contribution to a work group. The MBTI is one of the most widely used instruments of its kind and can provide information regarding training needs, teamwork and communication within organizations. The purpose of the GES is to measure the climate of a work group and has been in use since the 1970's.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 103
I look forward to your assistance with my data collection. All participants will meet in groups of 25-30 people. Each instrument will be thoroughly explained and you will have an opportunity to ask questions when the explanation is completed. A follow-up session will be scheduled for anyone who wishes more information about personality type. ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS 3-5 min.
INTRODUCTION OF PARTICIPANTS NAME : DEPARTMENT: LENGTH OF COMPANY SERVICE: HOBBIES SPECIAL INTEREST:
EXPLANATION OF PROJECT -3 instrument, MBTI., GES, PDQ -Consent Form MBTI, GES 5 min
DESCRIPTION OF MBTI 40 MIN -answer questions, fill out answer sheet BREAK 10 MINS
DESCRIPTION OF GES -answer questions fill out answer 40 min
*Group I, III, and V will take the MBTI first. *Group II and IV will take the GES first
COMMENTS AND QUESTION
ARRANGE FOLLOW-UP SESSION
THANKS
JAMES CONLEN
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 104
July 5, 1990
TO: All Survey Participants FROM: Jim Conlen RE: Follow-up Session on MBTI & GES
I want to personally thank you for taking time from your busy schedule to participate in my data collection. ] have met with 76 supervisors who participated fully in my survey and I want to schedule a time to meet with all of you to discuss your results. The follow-up session will take about 1 1/2 hours and I will schedule enough sessions to make it convenient for each one of you to attend. I encourage you to attend one of the following sessions:
(D ays) Wed - 7-11-90 8:30 Plant 9 mezs Conf Room (D ays) Wed - 7-11-90 10:30 Plant 55 Conference Room (D ays) Wed - 7-11-90 12:30 Plant 18 Conference Room (After) Thurs 7-12-90 3:30 Plant 55 Conference Room (After) Thurs 7-12-90 5:00 Plant 55 Conference Room (After) Thurs 7-12-90 7:00 Plant 18 Conference Room If you are unable to attend one of these sessions, please contact me at (313) 377-6567 and I will make arrange ments to meet with you at another time.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix C
Confirmation Letter From Human Subjects Institutional Review Board and Permission Letters From Consulting Psychologist Press
105
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 106
Hy->an Subjects Insv:.- onal Review Board Kalamazoo. kSchigan 49T^
Western Michigan University
Dste: February 12,1990
To: James Joseph Conlen
From: Mary Anne Buwta, Chair G^jL/w-c^iCs-
This letter v lll serve as confirnntion that your research protocol, "Relationship of Myers Briggs Functions end First Line Supervisory Behavior’ , has been approved under the exempt category of revicv by the KSIRB. The conditions and duration of this approval are s(*cified in the Policies of Western Michi^n University. You may nov h ^ n to implement the research as described in the approval application.
You must seek reapproval for any changes in this design. You must also «ek reapproval if the project extends beyond tte ter mi ration date.
The Board wishes (^u success in tte pursuit of your research goals,
xc: C. Kelley, Educational Leadership
HSIRB Project Number 89-11-14
Approval Termination______February 12.1991
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC
5803 EAST BAYSHORE ROAD PALO ALTO, CA 94303 (415) 969-8901
riam es Conlen Cus.omer#------10 R o b ertso n C ourt Purchase order * Clarkston, MI 48016 Product»______
Quantity L J Price ___
In response to your request of F ebruary 6,______1991 permission is hereby granted to you to (Date) include Figure 4-1 (page 31), Table 4-1 (page 32), and Table 4.3 (page 35) from the Manual for the MBTI in your dissertation entitled "The Psychological Typologies and Leadership Behaviors of First-Time Supervisors in a Large Automotive Company." These tables and figure may remain in your dissertation for microfilming and individual copies may be supplied upon demand. This permission reflects the title change of your dissertation. Permission is granted for this project only. for E research ONLY □ commercial use □ clinical use subject to the following restrictions:
(a) Any material used must contain the following credit lines: ! ; "Reproduced bv spiecial permission of the Publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press. Inc.. Palo Alto. CA ' 9 4 3 0 3
from Manual: A Guide to th e Development and nf Use rhp Mvprg-Rrigpg Type Indicator by Isabel Briggs Mvers & Marv H. McCaullev 1 985______
Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publlshei^s consent."
lb) None of the materials may bo sold or used for purposes other than those mentioned above.
(c) One copy of any matenal reproduced will be sent to the Publisher to indicate that the appropriate crcdtt line has been used.
Id) Payment of a reproduction fee of fe e w______aived
le) James Conlen______agreels) to assign all right, title, and interest in translations. versions, and/or modifications or this instrument to CPP or as directed bv CPP
CONSULTING PSVCHOLOCISTS-PRESS. INC.
Date 7 F eb ru ary 1991 Permissions Decpnmem
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC.
3803 EAST BAYSHORE ROAD PALO ALTO, CA 94303 (415) 969-8901
I ~~1 Customer # ____
l o T b S t s o n C ourt Purchase order « Clarkston, MI 48016 Product#------Quannty______I I Price ______
In response to your request of F ebruary 6______, 1991 permtssion ts hereby granted to you to (Date) Include the Croup Environment Scale subscalc and dimension descriptions (from pg. 2)from the GES manual in your dissertation entitled "The Psychological Typologies and Leadership Behaviors of First-Time Supervisors in a Large Automotive Company." These descriptions may remain in you dissertation for microfilming and individual copies may be distributed upon demand. This permission . reflects the title change of your dissertation. Permission is granted for this project only. for Q research ONLY □ commercial use □ clinical use subject to the following restrictions:
(a) Any material used must contain the following credit lines:
"Reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press. Inc., ' I Palo Alto, CA 9 4 303 ' ‘
from Group Environment Scale Manual
by R udolf H. Moos and B a r r ie Humphrey______'S 1 986______
I Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher's consent." |
(b) None of the materials may be sold or used for purposes other than those mentioned above.
(c) One copy of any material reproduced v/ill be sent to the Publisher to indicate that the appropnate credit line has been used.
(d) Payment of a reproduction fee of foe w aived
(e) James Conlen______agreeis) to assign all right, title, and interest in translations. versions, and/or modifications of this instrument to CPP or as directed bv CPP.
LTINC PSYCHOLQClffPS-PRESS, INC.
By \ V Date 7 F eb ru ary 1991 Jill^P toy ^ Permissions Deparfm^
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Appendix D
The Location of the 16 Preferences and Contributions Made by Each Preference to Each Type
109
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 110
THE LOCATION OF THE 15 PREFERENCE TYPES ON THE TYPE TABLE
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
ISTP iSFP INFP INTP
ESTP ESFP EN F P ENTP
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ
EXTRAVERSION-INTROVERSION SENSING-INTUITION 1 E
THINKIIIG-FEEUNG JUDGMENT-PERCEPTION
T FT
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I l l
Contributions Made by Each Preference to Each Type
Sensing Types Intuitive Types WItti Thinking With Fooling With Feeling With Thinking
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ WTJ
1 Depth ol concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibilrtles
T Logic and analysla F Wamith and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis
J Organization J Organization J Organization J Organization 1
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP
1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration 1 Depth of concentration I S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibllltlos T L ^ ic and analysis F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis
£ P Adaptability P Adaptability P Adaptability P Adaptability
ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP E Breadth of Interests E Breadth of Interests E Breadth of Interests E Breadth of Interests
S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibilities
T Logic and analysis F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T Logic and analysis IP Adaptability P Adaptability P AdaptabllHy P Adaptability a§ ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ
& E Breadth of interests E Breadth of interests E Breadth of Interests E Breadth of interests S Reliance on facts S Reliance on facts N Grasp of possibilities N Grasp of possibilities
T Logic and analyais F Warmth and sympathy F Warmth and sympathy T logic and analysis
J Organization J Organization J Organization J Organization
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MBTI Type Tables for Population and Comparison to Similar Groups
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Source of data Group MBTI Type Table tabulated: Center for Applications of Psychological Type 1st Line Supervisors CES Legend: % = percent of total choosing this group who fall into this type. (null) I = Self-selection index: 76 Ratio of percent of type in group to % in sample. SENSING types INTUITIVE types N %I with with with with THINKING FEELING FEELING THINKING E 34 44.74 0.90 ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ U I 42 55.26 1.10 DI S 62 81.58 1.12 N= 23 N= 5 N= 0 N” 2 GN N 14 18.42 0.68 %= 30.26 %= 6.58 %» 0.00 %» 2.63 IT T 60 78.95 1.06 1= 1.15 1= 1.19 1° 0.00 1= 0.47 N R F 16 21.05 0.83 G 0 J 57 75.00 0.96 P 19 25.00 1.15 ISTP ISFP 2 INFP INTP P E IJ 30 39.47 1.01 E R IP 12 15.79 1.42 N= 5 N= 5 N= 1 N= 1 RT EP 7 9.21 0.86 %= 6.58 %= 6.58 %= 1.32 %= 1.32 C S EJ 27 35.53 0.91 1= 1.38 1= 3.44 1= 0.86 1= 0.46 E ST 48 63.16 1.12 P SF 14 18.42 1.12 T NF 2 2.63 0.29 ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP I E NT 12 15.79 0.88 VX SJ 47- 61.84 1.00 N= 3 N= 2 N= 1 N= 1 ET SP 15 19.74 1.75 «= 3.95 %= 2.63 %= 1.32 %= 1.32 S R NP 4 5.26 0.50 1= 1.47 1= 1.38 1= 0.38 1= 0.49 A NJ 10 13.16 0.80 J V TJ 50 65.79 1.07 ------U E TP 10 13.16 1.01 ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ D R FP 9 11.84 1.35 GT FJ 7 9.21 0.55 N= 17 N= 2 N= 0 N= 8 I S IN 4 5.26 0.46 %= 22.37 %= 2.63 S= 0.00 ft= 10.53 N EN 10 13.16 0.85 1= 0.98 1= 0.37 1= 0.00 1= 1.53 G IS 38 50.00 1.29 ES 24 31.58 0.92
Note concerning symbols following the selection ratios: " implies significance at the .05 level, i.e.. Chi-square >3.8; # implies significance at the .01 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 6.6; * implies significance at the .001 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 10.8. _ (underscore) indicates Fisher's exact probability used instead Chi-square. Base population used in calculating selection ratios: Public Managers Base total N = 523. Sample and base are independent. * * * * Calculated values of Chi-square or Fisher's exact probability * * * * Type table order E 0.7090 IJ 0.0061 SJ 0.0002 IN 0.1139 0.5075 0.7893 0.4041 0.4086 I 0.7090 IP 1.4201 SP 4.3819 EN 0.2795 S 2.5224 EP 0.1580 NP 0.2142 IS 3.5756 0.5697 0.0311 1.0000 0.5087 N 2.5224 EJ 0.3768 NJ 0.5323 ES 0.2380 T 0.6805 ST 1.1685 TJ 0.5025 0.7101 1.0000 0.4928 0.7065 F 0.6805 SF 0.1866 TP 0.0014 J 0.3940 NF 0.0707 FP 0.7386 0.0056 0.2105 0.2381 1.2939 P 0.3940 NT 0.2173 FJ 2.7646
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Source of data Group MBTI Type Table tabulated: Center for Applications of Psychological Type 1st Line Supervisors GES Legend: % «■ percent of total choosing this group who fall into this type. (null) I “ SeIf-selection index: 76 Ratio of percent of type in group to S in sample. SENSING types INTUITIVE types N %I with with with with THINKING FEELING FEELING THINKING E 34 44.74 0.80 ISTJ * ISFJ INFJ INTJ U I 42 55.26 1.25 D I S 62 81.58 1.41 * N= 23 N= 5 N= 0 N= 2 G N N 14 18.42 0.44 * %= 30.26 %= 6.58 0.00 %» 2.63 IT T 60 78.95 1.24 * 1= 1.91 1= 1.08 1= 0.00 1= 0.49 NR F 16 21.05 0.58 « G 0 J 57 75.00 1.10 P 19 25.00 0.79 ISTP ISFP INFP INTP P E IJ 30 39.47 1.31 E R IP 12 15.79 1.11 N= 5 N= 5 N= 1 N= 1 RT EP 7 9.21 0.53 «= 6.58 %= 6.58 %= 1.32 %= 1.32 CS EJ 27 35.53 0.93 1= 2.16 1= 2.35 1= 0.31 I- 0.32 E ST 48 63.16 1.60 * P SF 14 18.42 0.99 — ------T NF 2 2.63 0.15 * ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP IE NT 12 15.79 0.64 V X SJ 47 61.84 1.34 » N= 3 N= 2 N= 1 N= 1 ET SP 15 19.74 1.66 " %= 3.95 %= 2.63 %= 1.32 %= 1.32 S R NP 4 5.26 0.27 1 1= 1.34 1= 0.86 1= 0.20 1= 0.27 A NJ 10 13.16 0.59 JV TJ 50 65.79 1.34 « ------U E TP 10 13.16 0.88 ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ D R FP 9 11.84 0.71 GT FJ 7 9.21 0.47 N= 17 N= 2 N= 0 N= 8 I S IN 4 5.26 0.32 %= 22.37 %= 2.63 %= 0.00 %= 10.53 N EN 10 13.16 0.51 TT 1= 1.28 1= 0.40 1= 0.00 1= 1.04 G IS 38 50.00 1.80 * ES 24 31.58 1.05
Note concerning symbols following the selection ratios: " implies significance at the .05 level, i.e.. Chi-square >3.8; # implies significance at the .01 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 6.6; * implies significance at the .001 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 10.8. _ (underscore) indicates Fisher's exact probability used instead Chi-square. Base population used in calculating selection ratios: Administrators, Managers and Supervisors Base total N = 3678. Sample and base are independent. * * * * Calculated values of Chi-square or Fisher's exact probability * * * * Type table order E 3.6483 IJ 3.1196 SJ 7.4075 IN 0.0108 11.3672 1.0000 0.1773 0.3280 I 3.6483 IP 0.1556 SP 4.3769 EN 6.1013 S 17.0942 EP 3.4827 NP 0.0019 IS 18.0224 0.0867 0.0662 0.2607 0.2662 N 17.0942 EJ 0.2536 NJ 3.6280 ES 0.0747 T 7.3418 ST 17.5353 TJ 8.4581 0.7273 1.0000 0.0900 0.1825 F 7.3418 SF 0.0011 TP 0.1892 J 1.4895 NF 0.0007 FP 1.2289 1.1968 0.2366 0.0745 0.0121 P 1.4895 NT 3.0674 FJ 5.0587
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Source of data Group MBTI Type Table tabulated: Center for Applications of Psychological Type 1st Line Supervisors GES Legend: » = percent of total choosing this group who fall into this type. (null) I “ Self-selection index: N « 76 Ratio of percent of type in group to % in sample. SENSING types INTUITIVE types N% I with with with with THINKING FEELING FEELING THINKING E 34 44.74 0.94 ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ U I 42 55.26 1.06 D I S 62 81.58 1.13 N= 23 N= 5 N= 0 N= 2 G N N 14 18.42 0.67 30.26 %= 6.58 %« 0.00 »= 2.63 I T T 60 78.95 1.24 " I" 1.38 1= 0.63 1= 0.00 1= 0.92 N R F 16 21.05 0.58 " G 0 J 57 75.00 1.08 V P 19 25.00 0.82 ISTP ISFP INFP INTP P E IJ 30 39.47 1.06 E R IP 12 15.79 1.04 N» 5 N= 5 N° 1 N= 1 R T EP 7 9.21 0.60 %- 6.58 6.58 %= 1.32 %«= 1.32 C S EJ 27 35.53 1.10 1= 1.38 I» 3.45 1= 0.20 1= 0.69 E ST 48 63.16 1.23 P SF 14 18.42 0.88 NF 2 2.63 0.17 » ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP I E NT 12 15.79 1.28 V X SJ 47 61.84 1.10 N= 3 N= 2 N= 1 N= 1 E T SP 15 19.74 1.22 «= 3.95 %= 2.63 %= 1.32 «= 1.32 S R NP 4 5.26 0.37 1= 0.69 1= 0.69 1= 0.35 1= 0.69 A NJ 10 13.16 0.99 J V TJ 50 65.79 1.33 " ------——------U E TP 10 13.16 0.92 ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ D R FP 9 11.84 0.73 G T FJ 7 9.21 0.46 " N= 17 N= 2 ■N= 0 N= 8 I S IN 4 5.26 0.39 %= 22.37 %= 2.63 %= 0.00 %= 10.53 N EN 10 13.16 0.92 1= 1.17 1= 0.55 1= 0.00 1= 1.84 G IS 38 50.00 1.28 ES 24 31.58 0.95
Note concerning symbols following the selection ratios: " implies significance at the .05 level, i.e.. Chi-square >3.8; # implies significance at the .01 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 6.6; * implies significance at the .001 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 10.8. _ (underscore) indicates Fisher's exact probability used instead Chi-square. Base population used in calculating selection ratios: Police Supervisors Base total N = 105. Sample and base are independent.
* * * * Calculated values of Chi-square or Fisher's exact probability * * * * Type table order E 0 .1 4 7 3 IJ 0.1015 SJ 0.5803 IN 0 .0 8 3 2 1.6249 0.4341 0 .5 1 0 1 1 .0 0 0 0 I 0.1473 IP 0.0103 SP 0 .3 8 1 0 EN 0 .0 4 7 1 s 2 .0 5 9 3 EP 1 .4 4 4 0 NP 0 .0 8 3 2 IS 2 .1 5 0 2 0 .7 4 4 3 0 .1 3 2 5 0.1413 1.0000 N 2 .0 5 9 3 EJ 0 .1 9 5 2 NJ 0 .0 0 1 2 ES 0 .0 6 1 8 T 4 .8 2 6 3 ST 2 .4 6 6 0 TJ 4 .7 4 2 4 0 .7 3 6 1 0.7066 0.4004 1 .0 0 0 0 F 4.8263 SF 0.1773 TP 0 .0 4 7 1 J 0 .6 5 3 3 NF 0 .0 0 5 0 FP 0 .6 7 7 7 0.2990 0.7007 0 .2 6 5 2 1 .4 3 0 5 P 0.6533 NT 0.4303 FJ 3 .9 2 4 9
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Source o f data Group MBTI Type Table tabulated: Center for Applications of Psychological Type 1st Line Supervisors GES Legend: % « percent of total choosing this group who fall into this type. (null) I = Self-selection index: N = 76 Ratio of percent of type in group to % in sample. SENSING types INTUITIVE types N«I with with with with THINKING FEELING FEELING THINKING J E 34 44.74 0.83 ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ U I 42 55.26 1.20 D I S 62 81.58 0.96 N= 23 N= 5 N= 0 N= 2 G N N 14 18.42 1.20 %= 30.26 «= 6.58 %= 0.00 %= 2.63 I T T 60 78.95 • 1.42 # 1= 1.75 I" 0.57 1= 0.00 1= 1.37 N R F 16 21.05 0.48 « G 0 J 57 75.00 1.11 P 19 25.00 0.76 ISTP ISFP INFP INTP P E IJ 30 39.47 1.28 E R IP 12 15.79 1.03 N= 5 N= 5 N= 1 N= 1 R T EP 7 9.21 0.53 6.58 %= 6.58 S= 1.32 %= 1.32 C S EJ 27 35.53 0.97 1= 3.42 1= 1.71 I» 0.34 1= 0.23 E ST 48 63.16 1.31 P SF 14 18.42 0.50 " NF 2 2.63 0.34 ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP I E NT 12 15.79 2.05 V X SJ 47 61.84 0.95 N= 3 N= 2 N= 1 N= 1 E T SP 15 19.74 1.03 %= 3.95 %= 2.63 %= 1.32 %■= 1.32 S R NP 4 5.26 0.39 1= 1.03 1= 0.27 1= 0.34 1= 0.00 A NJ 10 13.16 6.84 " J V TJ 50 65.79 1.49 TT U Cj TP 10 13.16 1.14 ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ 2 D R FP 9 11.84 0.56 G T FJ 7 9.21 0.40 " N= 17 N= 2 N= 0 N= 8 I S IN 4 5.26 0.46 %= 22.37 %= 2.63 %= 0.00 10.53 N EN 10 13.16 3.42 1= 0.89 1= 0.23 1= 0.00 1= 0.00 G IS 38 50.00 1.44 ES 24 31.58 0.63 "
Note concerning symbols following the selection ratios: " implies significance at the .05 level, i.e., Chi-square >3.8; # implies significance at the .01 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 6.6; * implies significance at the .001 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 10.8. _ (underscore) indicates Fisher's exact probability used instead Chi-square. Base population used in calculating selection ratios: Factory and Site Supervisors Base total N = 52. Sample and base are independent.
* * * * Calculated values of Chi-square or Fisher's exact probability * * * * Type table order E 1.0258 IJ 1.0161 SJ 0.1668 IN 0.3144 2.7638 0.3520 10000.00 1.0000 I 1.0258 IP 0.0038 SP 0.0050 EN 0.1209 S 0.2000 EP 1.8508 NP 0.1199 IS 2.9695 0.3999 0.7000 0.5659 0.3031 N 0.2000 EJ 0.0137 NJ 0.0493 ES 4.4014 T 7.8294 ST 2.8655 TJ 5.8558 1.0000 0.1193 0.5659 1.0000 F 7.8294 SF 5.2964 TP 0.0740 J 0.9038 NF 0.2227 FP 2.0306 0.1192 0.0614 10000.00 0.0208 P 0.9038 NT 0.2761 FJ 4.6965
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Source of data Group MBTI Type Table tabulated: Center for Applications of Psychological Type 1st Line Supervisors GES Legend: % « percent of total choosing this group who fall into this type. (null) I “ SeIf-selection index: 76 Ratio of percent of type in group to % in sample. SENSING types INTUITIVE types N« I with with with with THINKING FEELING FEELING THINKING J E 34 44.74 0.95 ISTJ ISFJ INFJ. INTJ 2 U I 42 55.26 1.05 D I S 62 81.58 1.09 N= 23 N= 5 N= 0 N= 2 G N N 14 18.42 0.73 «= 30.26 %•= 6.58 %» 0.00 2.63 I T T 60 78.95 1.01 I» 1.20 1= 1.50 1= 0.00 I» 0.22 N R F 16 21.05 0.96 G 0 J 57 75.00 0.99 V P 19 25.00 1.03 ISTP ISFP INFP INTP P E IJ 30 39.47 0.95 E R IP 12 15.79 1.44 N= 5 N= 5 N«= 1 N= 1 R T EP 7 9.21 0.70 6.58 %= 6.58 %= 1.32 %» 1.32 C S EJ 27 35.53 1.04 1= 1.50 1= 2.00 1= 0.60 I» 1.20 E ST 48 63.16 1.06 P SF 14 18.42 1.20 ------NF 2 2.63 0.40 ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP I E NT 12 15.79 0.85 V X SJ 47 61.84 1.00 N= 3 N= 2 N= 1 N= 1 E T SP 15 19.74 1.50 %= 3.95 %= 2.63 »= 1.32 1.32 S R NP 4 5.26 0.48 1= 0.72 1= 0.00 1= 0.40 I» 0.30 A NJ 10 13.16 0.92 J V TJ 50 65.79 1.05 ------Ü E TP 10 13.16 0.86 ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ 2 D R FP 9 11.84 1.35 G T FJ 7 9.21 0.70 N= 17 N= 2 N= 0 N= 8 I S IN 4 5.26 0.34 %= 22.37 %= 2.63 ft= 0.00 %» 10.53 N EN 10 13.16 1.33 1= 0.93 1= 0.34 1= 0.00 1= 9.58 G IS 38 50.00 1.34 ES 24 31.58 0.85
Note concerning symbols following the selection ratios: " implies significance at the .05 level, i.e.. Chi-square >3.8; # implies significance at the .01 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 6.6; * implies significance at the .001 level, i.e.. Chi-square > 10.8. _ (underscore) indicates Fisher's exact probability used instead Chi-square. Base population used in calculating selection ratios: Security Managers Base total N = 91. Sample and base are independent. * * * * Calculated values of Chi-square or Fisher's exact probability * * * * Type table order E 0.1055 IJ 0.0895 SJ 0.0016 IN 0.0450 0.5164 0.7331 10000.00 0.0388 I 0.1055 IP 0.8343 SP 1.3109 EN 0,4386 S 1.1279 EP 0.6494 NP 0.2634 IS 2.6967 0.7331 0.4707 1.0000 1.0000 N 1.1279 EJ 0.0390 NJ 0.0444 ES 0.6111 T 0.0210 ST 0.2538 TJ 0.1787 0.7291 0.2056 0.6266 0.3777 F 0.0210 SF 0.2736 TP 0.1669 J 0.0152 NF 0.2934 FP 0.4216 0.0756 0.1839 1.0000 0.0118 P 0.0152 NT 0.2413 FJ 0.6494
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