‘Where Is Your “F”?’: , Communication and Identity Formation in a Multinational Corporation

Sigrid Damman

ABSTRACT: The article is based on multi-sited fi eldwork in a multinational corporation, where psychological tests were used extensively to facilitate communication and human resource development. The analysis indicates that the eff ects were more than intended. Their application may be considered as a form of audit that was both individualizing and totalizing. While socio-cultural negotiations reached a level with new common reference points, att ention was diverted away from important aspects of the socio-cultural context. were quick to struggle and assert themselves through the categories of the tests, but at the same time the room for diverse, indepen- dent articulations of identity at work seemed to be diminishing. In other words, the application of the tests may have opened some discursive fi elds, but narrowed others, thus contributing to a form of generifi cation (Errington and Gewertz 2001) and entifi ca- tion (Zubiri 1984) of work identities. These give reason to question and continue exploring the eff ects of psychological typologies in corporate sett ings.

KEYWORDS: audit, communication, HRM and psychological testing, management, orga- nizational culture, work identity

Introduction In this article, I will look into the use of psychological tests in one particular business Some form of personnel testing is almost uni- corporation and discuss some of its eff ects on versal in industry (cf. Iversen et al. 1999; AMA internal communication and identity construc- Survey 2001; Frieswick 2004). The internation- tion. Basically, I will approach the practice sur- alization of and movement of larger rounding the testing as a form of audit, where numbers of international managers have also individuals are accounted for and made vis- led to an increase in cross-cultural assessments ible to each other in previously unprecedented (Sparrow 1999). According to their advocates ways. Refl ecting along this line, I see the use (cf. Ringstad and Ødegård 1999; Northouse of psychological tests as introducing a partic- 2004), the tests may facilitate a positive devel- ular set of ‘structures of common diff erence’ opment of work relationships, and identify (Wilk 1995). By conceptualizing fl uid social in- leadership and communication preferences in fl uences and reactions in terms of more stable a way that may enhance productivity. But how traits and distinctions, the use of the tests in- do the tests function in particular cases? What volved a process of entifi cation (Zubiri 1984) or do we actually know about the practices that ‘solidifi cation’ of identities that helped actors evolve around their use? structure their experiences in a certain way.

Anthropology in Action, 19, 1 (2012): 47–59 © Berghahn Books and the Association for in Action doi:10.3167/aia.2012.190106 AiA | Sigrid Damman

However, the tests were also associated with or for obtaining quantitative (numeric) a form of social control, in that att ention was information from the behaviour sample. drawn away from complex socio-cultural ne- gotiations and onto therapies. In so Like audit, psychological testing may be seen doing, the practice surrounding the tests could as a form of monitoring or account giving. In also be seen as ‘dividing’ (Foucault 1991), in a both cases, information is extracted and sorted vein similar to that which others (Shore and in a rigorous way, and subsequently used to Wright 2000) have proposed for other forms of express an independent, seemingly neutral audit. Finally, the test machinery not only con- opinion on the study object. Although it is not strued diff erences in rather uniform ways, but spelled out, both techniques also have an eval- along ultimately numeric scales. This raises uative aspect, in so far as objects are presented certain questions regarding the conceptualiza- in terms of standardized concepts and scales tion and evaluation of individual and cultural that make them commensurable. uniqueness in contemporary work sett ings. To As forms of social action, psychological what extent is diversity highlighted and main- testing and audit have even more in common. tained through psychological testing? Are par- According to Flint (1988) audit is demanded ticular identities cherished and developed on when agents expose principals to ‘moral haz- their own terms, or do we see a gradual ards’ by potentially acting against their inter- ‘unitisation’ (Larsen 2005) of ? ests, and to ‘information asymmetries’ because they know more than the principals. Thus, audit may be seen as a risk reduction practice, Psychological Testing as a Form of Audit which benefi ts the principal by inhibiting the -reducing actions by agents (Power 1997: Basically, audit can be defi ned as an indepen- 5). This might also be said about the use of dent examination of, and expression of opin- psychological tests, whose aim is to predict be- ion on, the fi nancial statements of an economic haviour and, within a corporate sett ing, to en- body (Power 1997). Since the 1980s, however, sure that human resources are managed in a the word ‘audit’ has been used in a great vari- way that optimises the interests of the fi rm. ety of contexts. According to Shore and Wright Ultimately, it has been claimed, audit can (2000), the essence of its many usages today is be understood as a political technology: a sup- a public inspection of some kind. Power (1997: posed ‘-empowerment’ is resting on the 5) fi nds that the most general conceptual in- simultaneous imposition of external control gredients of audit are: independence from the and internalization of new norms (Shore and matt er being audited; technical work in the Wright 2000). As we shall see below, this again form of evidence gathering and examination of is a perspective that might be fruitful when it documentation; the expression of a view based comes to corporate use of psychological tests. on this evidence; and a clearly defi ned object It is important, though, to distinguish between of the audit process. A psychological test, on the normative and operational elements of both the other hand, is commonly defi ned as a mea- practices. As Power (1997) notes, any practice surement instrument with three key character- may be characterized as having both program- istics (Murphy and Davidshofer 1991): matic and technological elements. The former refers to the level of ideas and concepts that 1. It makes a sample of behaviour. shape its mission. The technological elements, 2. The sample is obtained under standard- on the other hand, are the operational bedrock ized conditions. of tasks, routines and methods whereby the 3. There are established rules for scoring practice is materialized. 48 | Psychological Testing, Communication and Identity Formation in a Multinational Corporation | AiA

For Power, this distinction mainly serves to establish a shared corporate culture that they explain the pervasiveness of audit as an idea, wanted to see incorporated by all Auto man- but I am concerned with it for another reason: agers and employees. A ‘rational-analytic’ ap- as technology, the psychological testing in the proach to management, discipline and respect studied corporation had a social impact that were key elements in the value base the man- in some respects was diff erent from or went agement had defi ned. However, there had also beyond its mission. It seemed to function, in been recent eff orts to develop a ‘soft er’ side, Latour’s (1991) sense, as an ‘actant’ of its own. where interpersonal care and tolerance was Considering this background, I wonder if Shore emphasized. and Wright’s perspective on audit as an instru- I followed Auto Ltd mainly over fi ve years, ment of government is a litt le too narrow. As from 2001 to 2005. My engagement with the we shall see below, its technology, including corporation was part of a multidisciplinary language and concepts, may constitute reality project, based on participant observa- in a more active sense than the word ‘instru- tion and 180 qualitative interviews with em- ment’ implies. ployees and managers at production sites in six diff erent countries. One thing about Auto Ltd that struck me from an early stage was the The Corporation in Question great emphasis placed on psychological tests. In particular, the management expressed a The corporation whose practice I will discuss strong belief in one personality test – the Myers- is a medium-sized supplier to the car industry. Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The test itself Auto Ltd, as I shall call it here, is a Norwegian- was widely applied, and the terms and lett ers owned multinational with production in 12 dif- representing key dimensions in the Myers- ferent countries. The organization has expanded Briggs inventory were frequently used, both rapidly in recent years, and has seen a shift by managers and employees. Sometimes they from a fairly stable and culturally homogenous seemed to be taken for granted. At other times, stock of workers to a more fl uctuating and het- they formed part of joking remarks, such as erogeneous staff . Much of the production at ‘why don’t you get a bit more introvert?’ if Auto Ltd consists of minute assembly work, somebody was dominating, or – as in the title where the speed and competence of individual of this article – ‘where is your “F” (for feeling) workers is a critical production factor. As more …?’, when someone was not very empathetic. generally in the automotive business, the just- I wondered what this did to processes of in-time principle and international dispersion communication and identity construction in of production chains means that coordination Auto Ltd, or what it might say about the prac- is of paramount importance. At the same time, tice evolving around the use of MBTI and work situations are constantly changing: pro- other tests in the corporation. In what follows, duction processes are shift ed between units in I will explore this question, by discussing more diff erent countries and modifi ed to meet cus- empirical material and subsequently relating tomer requirements. There are regular orga- it more closely to the audit concept outlined nizational changes to keep the administration above. as lean and eff ective as possible and managers are oft en transferred between sites. Against this background, the central man- Psychological Testing at Auto Ltd agement was much concerned with integration and communication. Inspired by Japanistic MBTI was brought to Auto Ltd in 1992 when production ideologies,1 they were working to a newly hired manager started applying it

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within the unit he was heading. By 1996, the At the time of the study, all managers and same leader was appointed as a human re- supervisors were supposed to take the MBTI source manager for the whole corporation. at least once. Unless anybody objected, the One of the fi rst things he did was introduce results were used in interactive management Myers-Briggs on a grander scale. According to training. Test results were also used as a basis his statement, this was important to help em- for individual coaching, and there was the op- ployees increase their understanding of them- tion that one might retake the test and get a selves and others. The reason why he landed profi le that refl ected one’s ‘true’ self to a greater on MBTI rather than other instruments was, extent. in part, pragmatic: the former was a system he The terminology and perspective behind was familiar with and had been authorized to the inventory was further presented and re- administer earlier in his career. peated in higher-level training courses, and in Still, a more important reason was that other seminars and meetings, where the suc- Myers-Briggs was considered one of the most cess of the corporation was related to ‘gett ing ‘solid’ alternatives: MBTI is the most commonly the right people on the bus’ and using them used personality assessment in contemporary optimally through a ‘strong’ company culture. business life (Frieswick 2004). It also presents Because the authorization explicitly discour- itself as scientifi c and objective, as opposed to ages it, Myers-Briggs was not used directly for tests where results are determined via the sub- recruitment and selection. Still, the inventory jective interpretations of a . Even was used indirectly for these purposes as well. if the theories underlying MBTI are hardly ‘I keep thinking it,’ one recruitment offi cer scientifi c in a strict sense,2 the test purports to said, referring both to his manner of classify- render personality measurable and gives the ing candidates and that he was concerned not impression that social interaction can be ana- to let a personal match or mismatch infl uence lyzed in a context-independent way. decision-making. When distribution of team MBTI takes the form of a writt en exercise, roles and promotions were concerned, the supposedly normalized when it comes to infl u- situation was more or less the same: tests were ences from gender, education, class and culture. infl uential as the source of most of the concepts Through multiple-choice questions, a ’s and classifi cations that framed evaluations. inclinations and preferences are measured ‘It [Myers-Briggs] is part of our language,’ along four basic scales with opposite poles: one of the managers explained, and ‘always on the table’. According to the human resource • extroversion/introversion manager, the terminology associated with the • sensate/intuitive MBTI had been ‘used almost to the point of • thinking/feeling exaggeration’. At the same time, the manage- • judging/perceiving ment had made it a point to be open about the tests and their use. Tenopyr (1981) suggests A combination of these characteristics is used that a common problem in corporate use of to classify the person as one out of sixteen psychological tests is that they are adminis- possible personality ‘types’, denoted by four tered without having an impact on major per- lett ers. For example, a person may be defi ned sonnel decisions or any other use value that is as an INTJ – someone who is introvert and visible to employees. In this case, however, the intuitive, thinking and judging. The various human resource management kept stressing types are described in detail in a vast array of the extent to which they relied on the results. materials from the test-producer and a related This degree of transparency made the work ‘team role questionnaire’ is available as well.3 of the human resource department recogniz- 50 | Psychological Testing, Communication and Identity Formation in a Multinational Corporation | AiA able and concrete. Importantly, it also reso- critical operation and because her unit was in nated with a more general trend in quality a country associated with higher ‘F’s’ than that management: according to the international of the central management. Generally, I was standard ISO9000, any organizational practice told, ‘a manager in our company must be ana- should and must be characterized by diff erent, lytical, and in possession of a certain “drive”.’ clearly demarcated processes, where actions With time, the use of Myers-Briggs was sup- are managed, documented and controlled in plemented with other tests, fi rst and foremost accordance with measurable aims (Furusten with the so-called Insights Discovery System.4 1998). The transparent use of Myers-Briggs This has similarities with MBTI, in that it too could, in other words, help legitimize the time is based on Jung’s classifi cations. However, and money spent on human resource manage- colour, rather than lett er combinations, is used ment both internally and vis-à-vis external to denote diff erent personality types. Accord- agents. ing to the management at Auto Ltd, Insights The Myers-Briggs profi les of individual top is simpler to use than MBTI. Unlike the latt er, managers were widely known and referred to, it is also promoted as a recruitment tool, thus both in public and in more informal sett ings. promising assistance to the human resource Unless they explicitly objected to it, those of department in some of their most critical others, too, were discussed openly. The idea decisions. was that this brought out diversity and would In addition to Insights, a ‘cultural assess- make the system more acceptable to employ- ment’ test from Richard Lewis Communica- ees. However, it could also seem to foster pre- tions was also introduced. Here, a person’s conceived ideas as to who one’s colleagues values and beliefs are measured along a stan- were and what behaviour patt erns they pos- dard scale and subsequently held up against a sessed. Thus, it did seem to encourage some profi le deemed ‘typical’ for his or her national forms of action and communication at the ex- culture.5 This test was mainly used in seminars pense of others. Sometimes this would benefi t on intercultural communication. the corporation. In other situations it would According to the central management, these seem to hinder development. Less room was tests were all ‘living things’ within the corpo- left for spontaneity and openness in social situ- ration. Some even saw the tests, and Myers- ations and individuals were rendered open to Briggs in particular, as the reason why there scrutiny from others in ways that might not were eff orts to create a ‘soft er’ culture within always suit their interests. Auto Ltd: having a language to discuss them Judging from the company’s internal dis- through was considered to make human issues course, it was also clear that some ‘types’ were more apparent and to render their role in the considered as more apt leaders than others. development of the company more visible than The top managers were all presented as per- before. This broadening of perspective was re- sonalities with a strong extrovert and think- fl ected in the corporate ideology: towards the ing orientation. A ‘rational-analytic’ form of end of our study period, the pillar of rational- leadership was a stated aim. If you were a analytical leadership was complemented with ‘typical’ manager at Auto Ltd, or aspired to a ‘humanistic’ one, emphasizing respect and be, you should be high on rational-analytical interpersonal care and thus lending more characteristics, and low on ‘F’. At the time of value to the relational orientation associated the study, a female with a high F-score was in- with the previously mentioned ‘F’. cluded in a local management team. However, On the other hand, the tests seemed to this was presented as an ‘experiment’, permis- generate a discourse where both individuals sible because the person was not to lead any and ‘cultures’ were increasingly understood in

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terms of abstractly defi ned traits. As we shall started with a discussion on the form the feed- see below, this had some problematic aspects. back should take. One participant suggested that each message should be ‘sharp and short’, whereas others stressed the need to tread care- Downstream Effects: Opening and fully to avoid misunderstanding and hard Closure of Discursive Fields feelings. The form the group landed on was centred on the categories from Myers-Briggs. Most employees I discussed the matt er with Apparently, these categories served as some were positive about the use of psychological kind of a compromise, in that they were fairly tests. Quite a number stressed that they were pointed, but at the same time considered neu- sceptical at the outset but discovered that the tral and objective. test results fi tt ed their own re- As the session proceeded, all participants markably well. Many also said they found the seemed to strive for balanced responses. Still, classifi cations useful in teamwork, as a means associated with much ‘F’, in that they to understand and bring out the best in their were seen as sensitive, fl exible and easy to co-workers. relate to, were commended for these qualities, On the other hand, some associated the tests but strongly advised to get more task-oriented, with an undesirable degree of ‘psychologiza- tough and structured. Those seen to possess tion’ that made Auto Ltd ‘too soft ’. In their the latt er qualities were hardly encouraged to eyes, they were ‘mostly empty, high-sounding make a complete change of orientation. The phrases’, similar to ‘horoscopes and other stuff feedback seemed strongly geared towards the from women’s magazines’. Others openly re- stated ideal in the corporation, and less con- sented being ‘pigeon-holed’, claiming it would cerned with realizing individual potentials. be bett er if personnel development was in the At the same time, I saw a marked contrast hands of local leaders and more closely inte- between the focused, enthusiastic and almost grated with practical tasks. competitive atmosphere in the feedback ses- Still, even people who were against the tests sions and the att itude that seemed to prevail used their terminology to describe themselves outside them. Here, the same people tended and others. One sceptical unit leader also said to joke about the whole feedback exercise and he had a useful learning experience during to tease each other about the characteristics management training, when others signalled att ributed to them. In a similar vein, serious that he tended to be dominant and insensitive. att ention to the internal course leader was Since then, he tried hard to develop ‘some combined with elements of resistance, such more F’. Another person, who got extremely as telling smiles, demonstrative sighs and ‘tired of this personality stuff ’, clearly leaned yawning. In one case, a participant was actu- on his classifi cation as an extrovert. He com- ally scolded by the leader for such behaviours. mended a colleague for combining the same These contradictions were fi rst and foremost trait with task-orientation and a strong ele- associated with the discussion around ‘F’, ment of ‘T’ for thinking, but also saw this as which both functioned as the key element in the reason why cooperation problems tended the joking and occasioned most visible uneasi- to follow in his wake. ness during the studied courses. Sitt ing in on internal feedback sessions, I In my eyes, this indicates that the manage- found that the language associated with the ment development eff orts built around MBTI MBTI was strongly present: in more than half and the other mentioned tests, and in particu- of the responses given, elements of this ter- lar the ‘F’, were problematic. The desire for ‘F’, minology were used. In one case, the session symbolized through a recently created ‘hu- 52 | Psychological Testing, Communication and Identity Formation in a Multinational Corporation | AiA manistic’ pillar in Auto Ltd’s ideology, did to wegian colleagues. This occasioned a great some extent run counter to the practice known deal of laughing and fun making between the to employees, where managers were to be ‘ruthless’ Norwegians and the ‘soft er’ Swedes: task-oriented and rational rather than focused so much so that the participants were told on interpersonal relations. As we have seen, to stop it later in the day, since some found the latt er dichotomy was deeply ingrained in it off ensive. Against the backdrop of a long- the perspective of the central management and established and historically grounded play brought forward through the Myers-Briggs on cultural biases between Norwegians and inventory. This presented aspiring managers Swedes, plus the fact that the Swedish organi- with a paradox that could not easily be resolved: zation was brought into Auto Ltd through an they were explicitly encouraged to present and aggressive acquisition just a few years prior to develop their ‘soft er’ side, but at the same time the studied event, the cultural classifi cations discouraged from doing so, both in practice seemed to objectify pre-constructed diff er- and through other statements from the leaders ences in a way that made the joking hit a litt le of the corporation. too close to home. Most participants stated that the feedback The use of Myers-Briggs and other psy- sessions were a valuable experience. However, chological inventories also seemed to have much as they encouraged refl ection, the tests adverse eff ects on communication. The com- also tended to reduce complex and fl uid social mon language introduced tended to privilege diff erences to a set of stable traits. This at times a certain perspective, where positions and pri- fed stereotyping and social tensions. During orities were explained more in terms of innate an internal management course, the course dispositions and less in terms of socio-cultural leader commended two French speakers for conditions. For example, a confl ict in a group their communicative abilities and high scores discussion on fi nancial calculations was seen on ‘F’. This was soon picked up in informal in- in retrospect as a ‘clash’ between a very strong, teraction, where other participants jokingly ex- extrovert person and others who were more pressed their ‘envy’ of these qualities. Initially, introverted. Even if the task was clear and this all happened in a good-natured manner. the solution reached was less than optimal, However, over drinks aft er hours more aggres- the confl ict was not addressed in terms of the sive comments on the ‘F’, French courtesy and specifi c arguments or interpersonal dynamics att ractiveness to women appeared. Thus, the that came about in the group, but was rather kind of diff erence that was produced through seen as a case where the introverted members the psychological classifi cation also made for should have made their point more clearly. expression of less constructive categorizations. In a similar vein, there were cases where Similar observations were made during a arguments from local managers in diff erent culture-sensitization seminar, when partici- countries were seen as expressive of diverging pants from diff erent countries were presented cultural values and therefore dismissed, be- with their ‘cultural classifi cations’ based on fore their logical and empirical validity could Richard Lewis’s self-assessment tests. Most be assessed. During the set-up of a factory in Norwegian participants came out as ‘blue’ or Poland, the local management insisted that linear-active persons, characterized as cold, foremen would be needed in an early phase to factual, decisive planners, whereas the Swed- meet local expectations and provide necessary ish scores leaned slightly more to the ‘yellow’ supervision to new and inexperienced produc- side – that is, the Swedes were classifi ed as tion workers. These arguments were initially more reactive, or more amiable, accommodat- rejected and regarded as expressions of a ing and compromise-seeking than their Nor- ‘bureaucratic’ Polish culture. However, sub-

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sequent developments showed that the intro- the same typologies and made comparable duction of autonomous teams was premature along the same scales. Indeed, one manager and in the end the central management let the presented this as an explicit aim: ‘I think we local leaders have their way. Soon thereaft er, will continue using MBTI … it has become a the productivity and quality within the Polish conceptual apparatus many of our employ- unit improved greatly. ees are familiar with … and we want to mea- Personal and cultural traits were also taken sure, within diff erent groups and departments, to explain organizational problems. In a case of what types the diff erent people are’ (emphasis production transfer from Sweden to the Polish mine). All the tests we have discussed purport factory, inadequate follow-up from the Swed- to do this in a de-contextualised way, and the ish unit was seen as expressive of indecisive- latt er, according to Marilyn Strathern (1999), is ness and consensus-seeking on the side of the the very essence of audit. Swedes. Allegedly because of the latt er traits, This seemed to have a homogenizing ef- nobody was ready to take responsibility and fect: a great number of employees made the action on his own. The frustration of the Polish language of Myers-Briggs their own. In so do- manager, on the other hand, was seen in terms ing, they also came to conceptualize complex of his Myers-Briggs profi le, which was very ex- and fl uid social infl uences in terms of more trovert, analytic and concerned with detail, but stable traits and distinctions. Zubiri’s concept less strong on empathy and diplomatic skills, of entifi cation (Zubiri 1984) highlights how or lacking in the famous ‘F’. Closer analysis processual phenomena may ‘solidify’ this way, did, however, indicate that the problem was involving some degree of objectifi cation and more structural. Amongst other things, it had reifi cation, without necessarily moving from to do with the fact that the two units were abstract to concrete or leaving the subjective competing for contracts and resources, and realm entirely. In Tord Larsen’s (2010) view, that no one specifi cally had been appointed as processes of entifi cation are evident in many a coordinator on the Swedish side. areas of social life, not the least when it comes Thus, the instruments introduced with to generation of new identities and disorders. Myers-Briggs and other tests in Auto Ltd might In his words, processes of entifi cation are pro- have opened a new discursive fi eld to the em- cesses whereby ‘something inchoate congeals ployees, but they did also impose certain limits into a thing (Latin: ens), a unit, a category with when it came to communication and identity discernible boundaries’ (2010: 231). Such a construction. Complex behaviour patt erns and tendency was quite apparent and important self-presentations were reduced to abstract in the studied case. The employees became traits employed by diff erent social interests. more similar in outlook, representing and Likewise, broad socio-cultural processes were evaluating selves and others with a focus on at times understood and evaluated mainly as the same criteria. On the other hand, the same encounters between diff erent cultural and per- framework was a means for the construction sonality types, with the eff ect that other impor- of cultural diff erences and individual unique- tant infl uences were kept out of sight. ness. To some extent, it also seemed to inform individual ‘techniques of self’ – the intentional and voluntary actions whereby employees and Commensurability, Control and Change managers sought to transform themselves, so that their lives came to carry certain aes- As we have seen, the tests in Auto Ltd off ered thetic values and meet certain stylistic criteria a shared framework that made people com- (Foucault 1978: 74). A young trainee gave the mensurable – all were classifi ed in terms of following statement: 54 | Psychological Testing, Communication and Identity Formation in a Multinational Corporation | AiA

There is a strong focus on individual develop- discipline to desire: how docile bodies are ment, and this is part of the reason why Auto increasingly shaped through normative and Ltd appealed to me … personally, I fi nd the psychological measures, rather than overt management courses very useful in that respect disciplining structures. In their perspective, … From an early stage you get more conscious about your . But of course, you employees and managers increasingly create are also infl uenced or molded [sic] by those who themselves and realise their desires through run the courses – they off er some kind of an an- discipline. This is precisely what we saw in swer book … Auto Ltd. Through the apparatus associated There were, in other words, indications that with the psychological tests, individuals were a shift was taking place, from local, embedded made to discipline themselves, by striving structures of self-refl ection to ‘global’, dis- to develop the qualities upheld as most pro- embedded (Giddens 1991) ones. In this proc- ductive by the corporate management, and ess homogenization and diff erentiation were by encouraging a similar orientation in their intrinsically connected: via the practice sur- workmates. This, in turn, might be related to rounding the psychological tests, employees at the increasing emphasis on audit in Western Auto Ltd worked on themselves and their rela- , where a growing number of indi- tions, developing new social distinctions and viduals and organizations fi nd themselves experiences of individuality. Yet, they tended subject to new and more intensive accounting to do so via the same conceptual frameworks, requirements (Power 1997). and, as we have seen, these frameworks seemed As with other forms of audit (Shore and to infl uence their room for thought and action. Wright 2000), the use of psychological tests in There was an increasing acceptance of uniform Auto Ltd might be seen as a ‘dividing prac- criteria, or what Wilk (1995) calls ‘structures of tice’ (Foucault 1991). By making it possible to common diff erence’. measure diff erences, determine levels, and fi x People and cultures became diff erent in specialities, the use of the tests produced indi- new ways, but not just in any way since, in viduality. At the same time it was a totalizing Wilk’s words, structures of common diff erence practice, in the sense that diff erences were ‘celebrate particular kinds of diversity while made useful by being fi tt ed one to another. submerging, defl ating or suppressing others’ Processes of identity and self-production did, (1995: 118). There is an epistemological obscu- in other words, become available as an arena rity about audit, it is claimed, which can also for instrumental action. be att ributed to the tests used in Auto Ltd: as What the practice evolving around the tests we have seen, they were presented as objective did, in some of the cases I have touched upon, and ‘scientifi c’, but had their basis in posi- is recast ‘political’ or socio-cultural problems in tioned interpretations of social life. Likewise, a psychological idiom. In a form of therapeutic the tests might appear as neutral verifi cation at control (Tucker 1999), att ention was directed fi rst sight, but their use clearly had an evalu- away from organizational challenges and onto ative element: employees were made ‘visible’ individual therapies, so that criticism was de- along selected and specifi c lines, and more fl ected. Indeed, this aspect was acknowledged or less explicitly ranked against ideals in the by some of the managers, who saw a danger in company culture. that the practice surrounding the tests might This way, the application of psychological make for too much similarity. In the words personality tests might be associated with a of one person: ‘the drawback is that we may form of indirect control. McKinlay and Taylor become too much alike … “green” leaders all (1998) and others have shown how the em- the way … suits me fi ne, ‘cause I am “green” phasis in corporate control is shift ing from myself, but I wonder how I’d see it if I were

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diff erent, or posted in a country where people function almost as ‘stupid’ natural objects tend to be diff erent … This thing, diversity, is which can be manipulated for instrumental important in a global company.’6 purposes in and technology. Predict- ability and docility are not only prerequisites for social technologies; they also result from Tests as Actors in Translation? them (cf. Foucault 1980), so that in a socio- technologically advanced , individuals The above is not to say the tests simply func- develop responsiveness to social control. tioned as clever, complex means of control. At The tests at Auto Ltd seemed to work this this point it is important to separate between way primarily because they involved objectifi - programme and technology (Power 1997). The cation or ‘imaginative embodiment of human programme or ‘mission’ of the management realities in terms of a theoretical discourse’ in the studied case was to manage human re- (Handler 1984: 56). Fluid individual and cul- sources as well as possible. Thus, there was an tural diff erences were removed from their par- implicit control theme. Yet, to some extent the ticular contexts and frozen or locked onto the technology, in other words the operational as- abstract standard scales in the psychological pects, or actual practice developing around the inventories applied. In ontological terms, this tests, was taking its own course in the hands process may well be seen as one of entifi cation of diff erent actors: as we have seen, there were (Zubiri 1984, cited in Fowler 1998), in the sense traces of ‘decoupling’ (ibid.), where employees that socio-cultural conditions which were basi- distanced themselves and signalled that ‘psy- cally in being or in the making rather than ap- chologization’ was ineff ective and useless on pearing in a steady form, increasingly came to their part. There were also traces of ‘coloniza- be seen as entities with their own existence. It tion’ (ibid.), in that the conceptual apparatus also involved some form of reifi cation, in that associated with the tests seemed to aff ect com- lived actions and communication events were munication in ways the management of Auto transformed into quantifi able variables. Fur- Ltd did not foresee. They aided communica- ther, they were ordered in the course of the so- tion in some respects, but also limited it, by cial confrontations that characterize Auto Ltd diverting att ention away from social complexi- as a rapidly expanding multinational corpora- ties and onto psychological abstractions. tion. Here, new meanings were created, while As I have already argued, the tests, as with some remained and some changed – as we saw other forms of audit, seemed to function as in the case of the above-mentioned ‘F’. agents of change in the name of ideals such Errington and Gewertz (2001) coined the as total quality management, where audit is term ‘generifi cation’ to throw light on the form the key element. This suggests there is a close of objectifi cation that takes place in engage- relationship between these measures and the ments with structures of common diff erence. so-called ‘audit explosion’ (ibid.). Like other In their words, the process that ensues is one forms of audit, the studied tests work because where particularities become either translated organizations literally have been made audit- into the general or into a general example of able. This is in line with Apel’s (cited in Frisby the particular. This also seemed to be charac- 1976, without complete reference) argument teristic of the translations that surrounded the that social technologies, in management and psychological tests in Auto Ltd. Individual elsewhere, work best not when individuals uniqueness, as we have seen, tended to be pre- articulate goals and norms on the basis of in- sented in the terms from the relevant invento- formed discussion and critique, but when they ries, either as an example of a particular type

56 | Psychological Testing, Communication and Identity Formation in a Multinational Corporation | AiA or combination of traits, or as a non-typical Final Remarks combination, defi ned along the same general lines. In all, the use of the tests seemed to bring forth A key point for Errington and Gewertz a process of entifi cation (Zubiri 1984, cited in (ibid.) is that this process is political and as- Fowler 1998), where fl uid and processual socio- sociated with new lines and forms of mobili- cultural conditions increasingly came to be seen zation. As we have seen, these observations as entities with their own existence. As indi- too are relevant in our case. With the tests at cated above, this process was multifaceted, with Auto Ltd, identities increasingly seemed to objectifi cation, reifi cation, instrumentalization be subject to instrumental manipulation. It is and commodifi cation as important aspects. For important to note, however, that this did not this reason, it seemed to exert a considerable necessarily imply homogenization or diff er- infl uence in the social life of the corporation. entiation, as in Errington and Gewertz’s case Still, it did not necessarily imply that individ- from Melanesian ethno-politics. It seemed, ual and cultural diff erences one-sidedly were rather, that instrumentalization generated new brought under the control of privileged ac- translations, such as when the call for ‘F’ not tors. It also formed a ground for further socio- only added value to the ‘feeling’ dimension, cultural translations, where individuals and but lent word to new distinctions between cultural collectives struggled to assert them- French and other employees. selves and realize their values. These downstream translations were also This, I have tried to show, was related to infl uenced by structures of common diff er- the that the tests themselves were ence as a hegemonic order, but did not neces- important actors, tending to work beyond sarily take their direction from them. Subjects the stated programme of the management. were objectifi ed and subject to manipulation. In Auto Ltd, the prevalence of comments However, employees at Auto Ltd also worked such as ‘where is your “F”?’ suggested how actively in these processes, to sell their compe- Myers-Briggs and other tests off ered a new tence and develop a good name within the cor- idiom people both found useful and resisted. poration. Due to these creative acts, it seemed, Nevertheless, it was also indicative of how the individual and cultural diff erences were only practice surrounding the tests tended to lead partly subdued under management instrumen- communication away from the particularities talism and partly emerging in new forms. of social encounters and into a more abstract, At the same time, they were increasingly en- psychological language game. As we have rolled in capitalist relations. As we have seen, seen, this might be fruitful in many ways. they came to function as elements of human However, it might also pose a limitation in a capital in an internal market, where the supply multinational corporation, where diversity and of types and traits presented by the employees close att ention to socio-cultural negotiations met up against the demand they co-produced are considered critical to organizational devel- together with the management, their tests and opment and competitive strength. Against this other infl uences. One may, in other words, background, the studied case gives reason to suggest that the practice surrounding the tests question and continue exploring the eff ects of at Auto Ltd was also associated with a form psychological type or trait assessments in an of commodifi cation (Marx and Engels 1998), increasingly global working life. where relationships relatively untainted by the market are gradually drawn into commercial Sigrid Damman is a social anthropologist and relationships of buying and selling. Research Scientist at SINTEF Technology and

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Society. She is also affi liated to the Department of Flint, D. (1988), Philosophy and Principles of Auditing at the Norwegian University (London: Macmillan). of Science and Technology, as a Research Fellow. Frieswick, K. (2004), ‘Casting to Type: More Com- panies are Using Personality Tests to Assess Most of her research has been on management and Job Candidates and Develop New Hires’, CFO: organization in international contexts, focused Magazine for Senior Financial Executives, July, re- on institutional frameworks and the opportuni- trieved Jan 21, 2005, from htt p://www.cfo.com/ ties and limitations they pose when it comes to article.cfm/3014807. practice, learning and cooperation. Currently, her Frisby, D. (1976), ‘Introduction’, in The Positivist main projects are on sustainable enterprise de- Dispute in German , (ed.) T. W. Adorno, H. Albert, R. Dahrendorf, J. Habermas, H. Pilot velopment, industrial networks and institutional and K. R. Popper (London: Heinemann). frameworks surrounding local content in the oil Foucault, M. (1978), The of Sexuality, vol. 1 and gas sector. E-mail: [email protected] (London: Penguin). ——— (1980), Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972–1977, ed. C. Gordon (Brighton: Harvester). Notes ——— (1991), ‘Governmentality’, in The Foucault Eff ect: Studies in Governmentality, (ed.) 1. By Japanistic production ideologies I mean a G. Burchell, G. et al. (London: Harvester range of production systems and theories that Wheatsheaf), pp. 87-104. claim an association with Japan’s industrial suc- Fowler, T. B. (1998), ‘Xavier Zubiri’s Critique of cess and form part of a tradition that has followed Classical Philosophy’, The Xavier Zubiri Review in the wake of Ohno’s (1988) ‘lean production’. 1: 67–73. 2. It is mainly based on ’s notion of psy- Furusten, S. (1998), ‘Kunskap och standard’, in chological types, which stems from his personal Standardisering, (ed.) N. Brunsson and B. Jacobs- observations of life and lacks foundation in sta- son (Stockholm: Nerenius & Santérus), pp. 33– tistical or experimental studies. 52. 3. See htt p://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/tt /t-articl/ Giddens, A. (1991), Modernity and Self-identity: Self mb-simpl.htm. and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: 4. See htt p://www.insightsworld.com for the devel- Polity). opers’ own presentation of the system. Handler, R. (1984), ‘On Sociocultural Discontinu- 5. A more detailed presentation of the test and re- ity: Nationalism and Cultural Objectifi cation in lated tools can be found at htt p://www.cultureac Quebec’, Current Anthropology 25, no. 1: 55–71. tive.com/info/index.lasso?-Token.i=&-Token.s= Iversen, O. I., Ihlebæk, C. and Nilsen, D. Ø. (1999), 6. A ‘green’ person in the Insights scheme is some- Best i test ‘99: rett person på rett plass? (Lysaker: one who is in control of his emotions, reads in- Norwegian Institute of Human Resource Man- structions, takes carefully considered decisions, agement (NIPA)). and makes use of critical thinking to create prac- Larsen, T. (2005), ‘On the notions of unitization tical solutions. and entifi cation’, paper presented at the Inter- national workshop ‘Globalization, identity and standardization’ at NTNU, Trondheim, March 11–12. References ——— (2010), ‘Acts of Entifi cation. The Emergence of Thinghood in Social life’. In: Human as AMA Survey (2001), ‘Skills Testing and Psycho- Capacity. Beyond Discourse and Classifi cation, (ed.) logical Measurement’, retrieved Jan 15, 2005, N. Rapport (Oxford: Berghahn), pp. 229–266. from htt p://www.amanet.org./research/ Latour, B. (1991), ‘Technology is Society made archive_2001_1999.htm. Durable’, in A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Errington, F. and Gewertz, D. (2001), ‘On the Power, Technology and Domination, (ed.) J. Generifi cation of Culture: From Blow Fish to (London: Routledge), pp.103–131. Melanesian’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1998), The Communist Institute 7: 509–525. Manifesto (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

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McKinlay, A. and Taylor, P. (1998), ‘Through the Manager: Creating the Seamless Organisation, (ed.) Looking Glass: Foucault and the Politics of P. Joynt and B. Morton (London: Institute of Production’, in Foucault, Management and Orga- Personnel and Development), pp. 87–114. nization Theory: From Panopticon to Technologies of Strathern, M. (1999), Property, Substance and Ef- Self, (ed.) A. McKinlay and K. Starkey (London: fect: Anthropological Essays on Persons and Things Sage), pp. 173–190. (London: Athlone Press). Murphy, K. R. and Davidshofer, C. O. (1991), ——— (2000), ‘Introduction: New Accountabili- Psychological Testing: Principles and Applications ties’, in Audit Cultures, (ed.) M. Strathern (Lon- (Englewood Cliff s: Prentice Hall). don: Routledge). Northouse, P. G. (2004), Leadership. Theory and Prac- Tenopyr, M. L. (1981), ‘The Realities of Em- tice, 3rd edition (Thousand Oaks: Sage). ployment Testing’, American Psychologist 36, Power, M. (1997), The Audit Explosion: Rituals of 1120–1127. Verifi cation (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Tucker, J. (1999), The Therapeutic Corporation (New Ringstad, H. E. and Ødegård, T. (1999), Jungs ty- York: Oxford University Press). pepsykologi og Myers-Briggs Type Indikator – en Wilk, R. (1995), ‘Learning to Be Local in Belize: praktisk innføring (Bergen: Optimas). Global Systems of Common Diff erence’, in Shore, B. and Wright, S. (2000), ‘Coercive Account- Worlds Apart: Modernity through the Prism of the ability: The Rise of Audit Culture in Higher Local, (ed.) D. Miller (London: Routledge), pp. Education’, in Audit Cultures, (ed.) M. Strathern 110–133. (London: Routledge), pp. 57–88. Zubiri, X. (1984), El hombre y Dios, trans. J. Re- Sparrow, P. (1999), ‘International Recruitment, dondo (Madrid: Alianza Editorial/Sociedad de Selection and Assessment’, in The Global HR Estudios y Publicaciones).

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