Journal of Criminal and Volume 53 Article 4 Issue 3 September

Fall 1962 Continuities in the Study of Delinquent Types John W. Kinch

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Recommended Citation John W. Kinch, Continuities in the Study of Delinquent Types, 53 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 323 (1962)

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology by an authorized editor of Northwestern University School of Law Scholarly Commons. CONTINUITIES IN THE STUDY OF DELINQUENT TYPES

JOHN W. KINCH*

The author is Assistant Professor of in San Francisco State College. He previously served on the faculty of the University of Washington, where he obtained his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees. The great interest shown by criminologists in the study of typologies in recent years is evidenced by the number of articles on the subject published in this Journalalone. In the following paper, Professor Kinch analyzes the of previous typological analyses of juvenile delinquents and points out the need for a synthesis of typological theory. He proposes a method by which these previous studies can be collated and compared and outlines the factors which must be explored in order to develop a syste- matic typological theory of juvenile delinquency.-EDIoTR.

One prominent theme in delinquency study in have been assembled, the paper will suggest some the past decade has been the daim that delin- of the considerations which are involved in any quency consists of a number of fundamentally attempt to develop a systematic and inclusive different types of , and that no single typological theory of delinquency. This paper is explanation can satisfactorily deal with all of this not a statement of such a theory, but instead varied behavior. This view comes from a variety represents some of the groundwork which precedes of sources-sociologists, psychiatrists, social systematic theory. The paper does suggest some of workers, and others. Yet, even with the sizeable the concepts which could be fruitfully applied in a store of speculative and literature that typological theory. has accumulated in recent years, very few attempts Some sophisticated and provocative work is now have been made to take this typological orientation going on in the area of typological theory. Cohen 2 3 are further than a briefly-articulated viewpoint. and Short,' Cloward and Ohlin, and others of gang General arguments have been advanced that presently involved in clarifying the nature delinquency is comprised of types, without speci- delinquency. In fact, this work is particularly in other fying the nature of these types. Or, in some noticeable by contrast to the inactivity both instances, cryptic, anecdotal, and ambiguous areas of etiological analysis, in the case of subcultural typological schemes have been suggested. juvenile and adult offenders. However, not exhaust the Perhaps the stage is set for some advances in analysis of gang delinquency does One of the typological analysis. This paper is an attempt to full range of problems of explanation. is to show that point some directions for typological theory. The purposes of the present discussion cry out paper does two things. First, it sets out a specific there are other forms of delinquency which by means of which the typologies which have for explanation. collated. The appeared in the literature can be A LOGIC FOR COLLATING EXISTING TYPOLOGiES purpose in this section is to determine the extent It is not uncommon today for writers in the field to which the diverse typological statements in the of delinquency to talk in terms of a few outstanding existing literature overlap-to what extent do of delinquents. These types when exam- different observers appear to be talking about "types" ined in detail seem to be defined as dusters of many similar delinquent behavior patterns? This section different attributes. There are at least fifteen represents the first stage of mature typological of typological statements in the literature analysis, in which the range of behavior patterns instances types has been ad- be accounted for in a typological theory is in which a set of delinquent to 4 indicated. vanced. In a number of these the defining attri- After the existing typologies of delinquency I E.g., Cohen & Short, Research in Delinquent Sub- * The author is especially obligated to Don C. Gib- cultures, 14 J. SOCIAL IssUEs 20 (1958). helpful suggestions pervade the entire 2 CLOWARD & OHLIN, DELINQUENCY AND OPPOR- bons, whose TUNITY (1960). paper. I am also indebted to Clarence C. Schrag, as a Generating Milieu Stanton Wheeler, Peter G. Garabedian, and Walter 3 Miller, Lower-Class Culture on an earlier of Gang Delinquency, 14 J. SOCIAL Issuxs 5 (1958). Gerson for reading and commenting 4 6. draft of this paper. See infra, note JOHN W. KINCH [Vol. 53

butes of the types are not specifically indicated. TABLE I Also, the underlying theories, usually implicit, on BASIS FOR A CLASSIFICATION OF which these are based are not dear. As a result, DELINQUENT TYPOLOGIES collation of these typologies might initially appear to be either impossible, or if possible, of dubious Re ference Groups . Name of Type Larger Delnquent However, it may be that these fifteen typologies Groups are less diverse than first appearances might sug- gest. It is the contention of this author that these L Pro-social delinquent ...... + - classifications share at least one defining attribute II.Anti-social delinquent ...... + Ill. A-social delinquent ...... in common. Examination of these typologies sug- gests that one element used to differentiate + indicates orientation towards the reference groups. delinquents into types has to do with the offender's - indicates lack of orientation towards the refer- orientation to the larger society and to delinquent ence groups. groups as major reference groups. For example, one category of delinquent types consists of those of the larger society, but use delinquent groups as delinquents who have attenuated loyalty to the their reference groups; and "a-social delinquents," norms of the larger society, but who are oriented who fail to use either kind of reference group as a to delinquent peers. The types in this category are source of their values and attitudes. labeled variously as, for example, the subcultural deviant, pseudo-social boyj, and the gang delin- Consistency in the Literature quent. Systematically, the variations of delinquent Examination of the literature reveals the possi- patterns defined in these terms are indicated in bility of classifying most of the typologies ac- 5 Table I. This should not be thought of as a cording to the scheme in Table I. In light of the typology in itself, but rather a means by which the variant theoretical frameworks used in these existing typologies can be classified. studies it is rather surprising to find the number of In applying this classification, two questions are reports that can be successfully classified. One is concerned. First, to what extent are the delin- impressed with the number of independent studies quents involved in a delinquent group, i.e., do they which seem to be dealing with the same or very adhere to the norms which can be identified as similar typologies. Table I16 presents the classifica- delinquent? Second, are the delinquents relatively 4 Following are the references to the citations in integrated members of the larger society, i.e., do Table II: ABRAHAimEN, WHO ARE - Gumyn? (1952); they identify with "middle class" conventional Argow, A Proposed Functional Classifiation of Criminal Behavior, 4 J. CmmNAL PSYcHOPATHOLOGY 687 (1943); values? There are three categories of delinquents BLOcK & FLYNN, DEL NQuENcY: TE JuvENILE Or- that result from this classification scheme: "pro- FENDER IN AMERICA TODAY (1956); EDEISToN, THE social delinquents," who identify with the larger EARuEST STAGE OF DELINQUENCY (1952); Esman, Diagnostic Categories of Delinquency, 1 NPPA J. 113 society; "anti-social delinquents," who fail to (1955); FRIEDLANDER, TaE PSYcO-ANALyICAL A- identify with the relevant parts of the value system PROACH TO JuvENILE DELINQUENCY (1947); Gibbons & Garrity, The Sociology of Delinquent Behavior (un- 6The scheme utilizes two assumptions that are open published manuscript); Hirschberg, The Socialized to attack. First, it is assumed that the who Delinquent, 6 NERvOUS Cnnm 447 (1947); (Richard L. uses one kind of reference group is excluded from using Jenkins has published his work with several authors, the other kind. This assumption can be defended only and the next six references all pertain to his contribu- when it is understood that the scheme refers to the tions) JENEINS, BREAmING PATTERNS OF DEFEAT relevant parts of the value system-those parts (1954); HEwrrr & JENEms, FUNDA NTAL PArIERS within which the delinquent norms contradict the norms OF MALADJUSTMENT (1936); Jenkins & Glickman, of the larger society. At this point it becomes a matter Patternsof PersonalityOrganization Among Ddinquents, of definition-an important matter, but outside the 6 NERvous CH= 329 (1947), and Common Syndromes scope of this paper. in Child Psychiatry, 16 Ame. J. ORTnOPSYCHIATRY 244 The second assumption that deserves consideration (1946); Jenkins & Hewitt, Types of Personality Struc- is the contention that what might appear to be a tures Encountered in Child Guidance Clinics, 14 Am. J. continuous variable-use of a reference group-can be ORTHOPSYCATRY 84 (1944); Lorr & Jenkins, Pat- meaningfully dichotomized. It could be argued that all terns of Maladjustment in Children, 51 J. CLINICAL delinquents use both kinds of reference groups to some 16 (1953); Mueller, An Objective Ap- extent and that the concern is with the degree to which proach to a Behavioral Classification of Juvenile either kind is used. The justification here is a pragmatic elinquents (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Depart- one in that the use of the dichotomy provides a tech- ment of Psychology, University of Washington, 1959); nique for handling this variable which proves worth- REDL & WINEMAN, CIMDREN WHO HATE (1951); while and at the same time does not violate any notion Reiss, Social Correlates of of about the nature of reference groups. Delinquency, 17 Am. SOCIOLOGICAL Rav. 710 (1952); 19621 CONTINUITIES IN STUDY OF DELINQUENT TYPES

TABLE II SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGIES op DELINQUENTS AS FOUND IN THE LITERATURE

Authors I Type I Type I Type M

Present discussion ...... Pro-social Anti-social A-social Abraharnsen ...... Situational accidental Associational offenders Genuine psychopath offenders Argow ...... Situationally provoked Associated learning syn- Compensatory syndrome syndrome drome Bloch and Flynn ...... Cultural deviant Unsocialized aggressive; act- ing out neurotic Edelstin ...... Benign delinquency Anti-social behavior based Character defect; psycho- on environmental prob- pathic and infantile lems Esman ...... Adolescent crisis delin- Dyssocial delinquent Anti-social delinquent quent Friedlander ...... Puberty offender True criminal Anti-social character; ag- gressive; psychopathic youth Gibbons and Garrity ..... Casual delinquent Gang offender Aggressive delinquent A. Predatory theft B. Aggressive street gang C. Urban Negro Hirschberg ...... Socialized delinquent Unsocialized aggressive Jenkins ...... Socialized delinquent Unsocialized aggressive de- linquent Mueller ...... *...... Accidental delinquent Socialized delinquent Unsocialized aggressive de- A. "Good" controls linquent B. "Bad" controls Red[ and Wineman ...... Genuine delinquent super- Severe impulse disturbances; ego disturbance disturbances in aggres- sion Reiss ...... Relatively integrated Relatively defective super- Weak ego; highly aggressive ego control Tappan ...... Acute criminal (acci- Normal or chronic de- Psychopathic delinquent dental) linquent Topping ...... Pseudo-social boy Aggressive delinquent Weinberg ...... Subcultural deviant "True" psychopath tion of the types from the various studies con- The summary table points out similarities found sidered utilizing the scheme presented in Table I. in the studies of delinquent types when a classifica- Note that types II and III appear in almost all the tion scheme is used. Agreement such as this sug- studies, with type I not infrequently reported. gests the possibility that the various authors are dealing with real types, which exhibit basically TAPPAN, JUVENIIE DELINQUENCY (1949); Topping, Case Studies of Aggressive Delinquents, 11 Am. J. ORTHo- similar patterns of behavior within themselves and PsYcHiATRY 485 (1941), and Treatment of the Pseudo- are fundamentally different from each other. Social Boy, 13 Amr. J. ORTHOPSYCHrATRY 353 (1943); WEINBERG, SOCIETY AND PERSONALITY DISORDERS Further it suggests that one dimension, or defining (1952). factor, that can be helpful in understanding types The studies presented in Table II all deal with two of delinquents may have to do with reference or more types. There are a great number of studies dealing with only one type or sub-type which are not groups. This, of course, is only one in a cluster of classified here. Although these are too numerous to different attributes which go into defining the list, the following provide some of the better examples: Bandura & Walters, Dependency Conflicts in Aggressive specific type. As other factors are added to the Delinquents, 14 J. SOCIAL IssUEs 52 (1958); Cohen & scheme the final analysis will define a number of Short, supra note 1; Miller, supra note 3; CLOWARD & types under each of the three categories mentioned OHLIN, op. cit. supra note 2; and Wattenberg & Balis- tried, Gang Membership and Juvenile Misconduct, 15 here. Later, this paper will suggest other attributes Am. SOCIOLOGICAL REv. 744 (1950). which might be useful in a typology; however, at JOHN W. KINCH [Vol. 53 this point the idea of reference groups is particu- (1) The theory should clearly specify the char- larly useful in pointing out the consistency found acteristics of the delinquent types. The theory in the literature. should distinguish between those factors used in There are some important implications of this defining the type and the correlates of those fac- agreement on types. There would seem to be little tors, i.e., the truth claims that may be made about justification for testing hypotheses to the effect the types. that delinquency is not homogeneous. This has (2) The theory should describe the etiological been shown. Research could legitimately start process or processes involved within each type. It with the assumption that types do exist and go on should specify the causal factors that lead to the from there. Attempts to do this have met with behavior that classifies the delinquent into one some degree of success. Mueller showed that type or another. delinquent types varied in their responses to (3) A good theory will indicate the processes various kinds of treatment assignments, some types which explain the relationship between types. It is successfully responding to one kind of treatment, a mistake to assume that the typological approach while others successfully responded to other necessarily requires a separate theory for each type. 7 assignments. The present author's work dealing If at all possible the theory should use the same with the -concepts of delinquents indicated the concepts to explain each type, the difference be- possibility of building upon the available knowl- tween types being explained in terms of different edge on delinquent types to develop a better relationships between the same concepts. understanding of the within each type.s Stated in an overly simplified manner: the The eventual growth of our knowledge in this theory must specify .he factors which define the area will rely on the development of a meaningful types, it must indicate the causal factors, and if theory based on the available information which possible it should indicate the way in which these can be used to guide further research. Jenkins' factors interrelate1 work in this area is encouraging. 9 The presentation Definitional Factors of Gibbons and Garrity in a yet unpublished text- book on delinquency shows even more promise One of the present concerns in theory building from a sociological standpoint.10 The present paper should be a clarification of the defining attributes suggests a possible foundation upon which a typo- of delinquent types. At this point it is very im- logical theory might be based. portant that a clear distinction be made between what Zetterberg calls "propositions that are PROBLEMS FOR THEORY AND RESEARCH definitions and propositions that are hypotheses."'1 We contend that the existence of types has been The definitions of the types must not be confused established, but where does this lead us? Do we with the truth claims made about them. By know explicitly what the defining attributes are? keeping these two aspects of theory straight it is Do we know what causes these varying patterns of possible to empirical hypotheses concerning behavior? Simply because we have a scheme to the relationship between the types and descriptive classify the various types studied so far does not characteristics of various kinds.1 The following indicate that we have isolated either a cause or a hypothesis provides an example: "Pro-social defining factor. delinquents, as defined by their orientation towards A good typological theory of delinquency, as the larger society as a reference group, are likely well as fulfilling the criteria that apply to any to come from middle-class homes and conceive of scientific theory, should in addition fulfill the themselves as non-delinquents." Accumulation of following criteria: knowledge in this manner may provide informa- tion for clarifying the definitions used 7 Mueller, An Objective Approach to a Behavioral and for Classification of Juvenile Delinquents (unpublished 11In this discussion of typological theory the author Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, Uni- was influenced by the work of Gibbons and Garrity in versity of Washington, 1959). their text book, supra note 10, and in their article 8 Kinch, Certain Social-Psychological Aspects of Definition and Analysis of Certain Criminal Types, 53 Types of Juvenile Delinquents (unpublished Ph.D. J. Cni.L., C. & P.S. 27 (1962). dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of 12Zetterberg, On Axiomatic Theories in Sociology, Washington, 1959). in LAzAR'Fxr & ROSENBERG, THE LANGUAGE OF 9 JENKiNs, BREAEING PATTERNS or DEFEAT (1954). SocrAL REsEAECH (1955). 10Gibbons & Garrity, The Sociology of Delinquent 13 Reiss, Social Correlates of Psychological Types of Behavior (unpublished manuscript). Delinquency, 17 Am. SOCIOLOGiCAL REv. 710 (1952). 19621 CONTINUITIES IN STUDY OF DELINQUENT TI'P'S developing more precise definitions. That is, if the class as a negative reference group by working 4 above hypothesis is confirmed, it may be well to class boys add the factor, non-delinquent self-concept, to the (2) Family background-There is a good deal definition, thereby making it more precise. of evidence that suggests that the kinds of treat- At present it is possible to suggest some con- ment, training, and attitudes that the child finds cepts that might be involved in this aspect of a in the home play important roles in the types of typological theory of delinquency; however it is behavior he will exhibit in later life. For example, beyond the scope of this paper to attempt to sug- Jenkins emphasized the importance of parental gest how these factors are involved. Present social rejection in explaining his aggressive (a-social) 1 psychological approaches to delinquency seem to delinquents. 5 indicate that the following concepts would be (3) Role definitions--The concept of role may involved in a complete definition of delinquent play a particularly important part in a theory types: which attempts to explain what types are ob- a. Offense patterns-The type of behavior that served. The expectations of society for the individ- brings the delinquent to the attention of the ual, the kinds of behavior expect of the law enforcement agencies ought to be con- individual, may contribute to the formation of sidered. types. b. Self-concept-Variations in the way the This list of concepts is far too general to have delinquents see themselves may have a bear- much significance in itself. No real attempt is made ing on the type of delinquent they are. to suggest how these concepts contribute to the c. Reference groups-The reference groups the formation of delinquent types. Various authors delinquents are oriented towards may be have gone much further in dealing with the con- helpful in classifying their behavior. cepts individually. It is merely suggested here that The literature makes it dear that these three a meaningful analysis of types is likely to involve variables are interrelated, but it is the conten- some of these ideas. tion here that they are distinct enough so that each will make a significant contribution to a InterrelationsWithin and Between Types definition of delinquent types. The causal factors mentioned above must answer two questions in order for the typological Causal Factors theory to be complete. First, they must indicate the etiological processes which are involved within The search for etiological factors is dependent on each type. What factors lead to a particular pat- the definitional considerations above; however, it tern of behavior? At the same time these factors need not wait for the final answer in order to get should explain why it is some individuals end up in started. As mentioned earlier a significant amount one category while others seem to fit different of work is now going on in the area of gang delin- types. Most of the etiological work that is now quency (the anti-social delinquents). Particular going on in the area of delinquent types is con- need for etiological research and theory construc- cerned with explaining the processes involved in tion covering the total range of delinquent types becoming a particular type of delinquent. There seems quite apparent. seems to be a need for some consideration of the The present store of knowledge suggests some very basic question of why we find types of concepts that seem to have a bearing on the causes delinquents at all. This paper has suggested that of delinquency. The list submitted here may prove there is some rather conclusive evidence that suggestive, but in no way should be taken as delinquents do not just differ from one another in conclusive: degree, but in addition they vary in kind. Why? A (1) Social class-Class differences are likely to good typological theory must satisfactorily handle prove discriminating factors, not only between this question. delinquents and non-delinquents, but also between The three areas of concern which have been the types of delinquents. Class conflict has been discussed above by no means exhaust the problems that are involved in the development suggested as an important aspect of this variable. of a typo- For example, Cohen's explanation of the gang 14CoHEN, DELINQUENT Boys: THE CuLTURE OF THE GANG (1955). delinquent can be seen as the use of the middle 15 JENKINS, op. cit. supra note 9. JOHN W. KINCH [Vol. 53 logical theory of delinquency. There are problems knowledge on the subject. By presenting a scheme relating to prevention and treatment that could for summarizing the present information and by be considered. There are problems relating to suggesting areas where further understanding is specific research techniques. The list of problems needed, the hope is that new research will be could go on almost indefinitely. The problems that stimulated in what seems to be a fruitful approach seem central in importance at the present state of to juvenile delinquency. With the confidence that knowledge were chosen for consideration. certain types do exist in reality it seems most SUMMAY useful at present to move on in search of answers This discussion of delinquent types was designed to some of the more crucial questions suggested to show certain consistencies in the present store of in this paper.